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Modern and

A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Trevor R. Getz University

Heather Streets-Salter Washington State University

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Getz, Trevor R. Modern imperialism and colonialism : a global perspective / Trevor R. Getz, Heather Streets-Salter.—1st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-321-42409-9 ISBN-10: 0-321-42409-3 1. Imperialism—. 2. History, Modern. I. Streets-Salter, Heather. II. Title. D208.G48 2011 325'.3—dc22 2010010005

10987654321

ISBN 10: 0-321-42409-3 ISBN 13: 978-0-321-42409-9 A01_GETZ4099_01_SE_FM.QXD 5/26/10 3:22 PM Page iii

CONTENTS

Maps vii Preface viii Introduction 1 Why Define? 1 1 Imperialism 6 Colonialism 9 Global and Modern 12 Questions 15

PART ITHE RISE OF EARLY MODERN , C. 1350–1650 16

Chapter 1 Empire: The Emergence of Early Modern States and Empires in Eurasia and 16 The Emergence of the Early Modern State System 17 A Gunpowder Revolution? 24 Sectoral Alliances 28 The Search for Legitimacy 31 Sub-Saharan African Empires? 33 Conclusion 37 • Questions 37 Chapter 2 Imperialism and Colonialism: Imperial Interaction and Nascent Colonialism in Early Modern Eurasia and 38 Models of Early Modern Colonialism 39 Themes in Early Modern Colonialism 47 The Economic Underpinnings of Early Modern Integration 48 Imperial Interaction and Grand Alliances 49 The Portuguese Estado da India 52 Conclusion 56 • Questions 56 Chapter 3 Imperialism: Intersecting Empires in the Americas 57 Iberian Motivations for Exploration, Trade, and Conquest 59 The First Iberian Colonies in the Americas 61 63 The Columbian Exchange 66 Iberian Empires in the New World 69 Questions 76

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iv Contents

PART II ATLANTIC AND ASIAN EMPIRES IN A GLOBAL AGE, C. 1600–1830 77

Chapter 4 Colonialism: Competition for Empire and the Rise of the Slave/Plantation Complex 77 Competition for Empire 79 New Europeans in the Americas—English, French, and Dutch Colonial Efforts 81 The Sugar Revolution 86 Sugar, Slavery, and Transatlantic Societies 90 Questions 98 Chapter 5 Empire: Empire, Identity, and the Making of New Societies in the Atlantic World 99 The Role of Identity in History 100 New Societies, New Peoples in the Americas 102 New Societies, New Peoples in Africa and 108 The Process of Identity Formation 110 Questions 117 Chapter 6 Imperialism and Colonialism: Asian Land Empires in a Global Age 118 Continuity and Change from the Mid-Seventeenth Century 121 Opportunities and Challenges 124 Imperial Strategies and Colonial Modes of Rule 129 Questioning Imperial Decline 132 Questions 136

PART III INFORMAL EMPIRES? C. 1810–1880 137

Chapter 7 Empire: Revolutions in the Atlantic World 137 The Seven Years’ War and Its Consequences 139 The War of American Independence and Its Legacies 146 The French Revolutionary Wars and the French Caribbean 149 The and the Spanish and Portuguese Americas 154 Atlantic Rebellions and Global Wars in 158 Conclusion 159 • Questions 160 Chapter 8 Imperialism: The and the Era of Informal Imperialism 161 —Anti-Imperialist or Imperialist? 164 Industry and Empire 165 A01_GETZ4099_01_SE_FM.QXD 5/26/10 3:22 PM Page v

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Cultures of Informal Imperialism 168 Informal Imperialism in Action 170 Formal Expansion in the Era of Informal Imperialism 179 Conclusion 186 • Questions 187 Chapter 9 Colonialism: Change, Response, and Resistance in the Colonies 188 Modes of Governance 190 Common Themes in Nineteenth-Century Colonialism 192 Resistance to the Imposition and Effects of Colonial Rule 206 Conclusion 209 • Questions 210

PART IV THE NEW IMPERIALISM, C. 1870–1930 211

Chapter 10 Imperialism: The New Imperialism and the Scramble for Colonies 211 What Was the New Imperialism? 213 Why Did the New Imperialism Happen? 217 The Annexation of Burma, 1885 222 The Struggle for the Upper Valley: The Race for Fashoda from British, French, and African Perspectives, 1896–1899 224 Japanese Policy Formation and the Invasion of , 1874–1910 226 Public Opinion in the United States and the Invasion of Haiti, 1915 228 Conclusion 229 • Questions 229 Chapter 11 Colonialism: Colonial Subjects and the Pacification of Colonies in the Era of the New Imperialism 230 The Pacification of and the Gold Coast 231 Imposing Colonial Authority and Sovereignty 233 Problematizing Collaboration 236 Problematizing Resistance 240 Re-evaluating the Pacification of the Gold Coast and Indochina 242 Conclusion 246 • Questions 247 Chapter 12 Empire: The Sinews of the New Imperialism 248 Commodities 249 Migration 253 Missionism 256 War and Military Power 259 Gender, Sexuality, and Race 264 Conclusion 268 • Questions 269 A01_GETZ4099_01_SE_FM.QXD 5/26/10 3:22 PM Page vi

vi Contents

PART VTHE RISE AND FALL OF HIGH IMPERIALISM, C. 1890–1975 270

Chapter 13 Imperialism and Colonialism: Imperial Projects and Colonial Petitions in the High Imperial Era 270 The Colonizers’ Model of the World 271 Hierarchy and Colonial Projects in the Era of High Imperialism 274 The Proconsular State and the Realities of Colonial Rule 278 Strategies of Colonial Subjects: Negotiation, Accommodation, and Petition 279 Conclusion 283 • Questions 284 Chapter 14 Empire: Imperial World Wars and the Slow March toward 285 Imperial Ambitions and the First 287 The Colonial Experience and the First World War 291 The Armenian Genocide as a Colonial Event 295 Imperial Ambitions and the Second World War 296 The Colonial Experience and the Second World War 297 The Holocaust as a Colonial Event 299 The Aftermath of the Second World War and Political Decolonization 300 Conclusion 304 • Questions 305 Chapter 15 Imperialism and Colonialism: Nationalism and Independence 306 The Challenge Facing Anti-Colonial Movements and the Search for Unifying Ideologies 307 The Development of Emancipatory Nationalism 309 Organizing Resistance Among the People 312 The Diffusion of Emancipatory Nationalism: A Global Perspective 313 Pan-Movements 315 Settlers and Settler Nationalism 318 The Messy Reality of the Road to Independence 320 Conclusion 322 • Questions 323

PART VI THE WORLD WE LIVE IN, C. 1948 TO TODAY 324 Chapter 16 Imperialism and Colonialism: A Post-Colonial World? 324 Cold War Imperialism? 325 Economic Neo-Imperialism? 334 Cultural Imperialism and Postcolonialism 338 The Persistence of Empire? 341

Glossary 343 Index 347 A01_GETZ4099_01_SE_FM.QXD 5/26/10 3:22 PM Page vii

MAPS

Early Modern Empires of Eurasia and North Africa, c. 1550 Empires of the Americas and Early Spanish Settlements, c. 1519 European Overseas Empires in the Atlantic, c. 1750 Asian Empires, c. 1700 Territorial Exchanges in the Americas Resulting from the Seven Years’War, 1756–1763 Industrial Centers of the World and the as an Industrial Network, c. 1850 The New Imperialism and the Expansion of Colonial Holdings, c. 1866–1914 The First World War on a Global Scale: Belligerent Empires Global Political Decolonization, 1945–1997 Cold War Alliances, c. 1960

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PREFACE

WHY STUDY IMPERIALISM? In the wake of the September 11, 2001 A PERSPECTIVE FROM THE attacks on the United Stated by al Qaeda terrorists, UNITED STATES IN 2010 American imperialism became once again a lead- ing theme of both popular and scholarly debate. In We have lived through, or are living through, an age a search for the motives behind such a terrible of American empire, or so we’re told. As early as operation, some commentators put the blame on the 1820s, the United States began to understand American foreign policy.3 The architect of the itself as the pre-eminent power on the American attack himself, Osama bin Laden, who described landmass, a status that was represented partly by American operatives abroad as crusaders, wrote the linguistic mapping of the proper adjective that “What America is tasting now, is something “American” to decribe solely U.S. projects. In insignificant compared to what we have tasted for 1941, as the industry and military of the United scores of years. Our nation [the Islamic world] has States geared up for the Second World War, pub- been tasting this humiliation and this degradation lisher Henry Luce predicted an “American century” for more than 80 years. Its sons are killed, its in which the formal European empires would crum- blood is shed, its sanctuaries are attacked, and no- ble before the onslaught of the financial, cultural, one hears and no-one heeds. . . . When the sword and corporate imperialism of the United States.1 comes down [on America], after 80 years, Certainly some of Luce’s forecasts proved correct. hypocrisy rears its ugly head.”4 In the post-war period, and especially since the col- The administration of President George W. lapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States Bush responded to the 9/11 attacks with a vigor- has become the world’s pre-eminent military ous and global campaign that culminated in the power, the only nation-state truly able to exert its invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq. In preparing the will around the globe through a network of client- American and global public for these campaigns, states and semi-permanent bases on every conti- the administration avidly sought to avoid any nent. On the other hand, American hegemony has imputation that they were seeking to build an never been unchallenged, and has almost always American empire. The elected officials, bureau- been carried out in cooperation or through negotia- crats, and generals involved in planning the oper- tion with other states. In the decade of the 1990s, ations scrupulously avoided the public use of there were many charges of American imperialism terminology that smacked of imperialism, consis- in Latin America, Asia, and the Middle East, but tently stating as their objectives the of rarely did U.S. involvement in these regions take global stability and the protection of America’s the form of large-scale military intervention or the borders.5 The President himself explicitly avowed formal occupation of overseas territories.2 3 For early coverage of this debate, see Walter Lafeber, “The Post September 11 Debate Over Empire, Globalization, and 1 An excellent evaluation of the extent of limitations of the Fragmentation,” Political Science Quarterly, 117 (2002), “American century” is David Reynolds, “American 1–17; and Benjamin Ross, “In Search of Root Causes,” Globalism: Mass, Motion, and the Multiplier Effect,” in Dissent, 49 (2002), 40–43. Globalization in World History, edited by A.G. Hopkins 4 Text of Osama bin Laden’s statement of October 7, 2001. (London: Pimlico, 2002). Translation supplied by the Associated Press. 2 See, for example, Subcommondante Marcos, “The Fourth 5 Kevin Baker, “The Fear in Ideas: American Imperialism, World War,” In Motion Magazine, November 11, 2001. Embraced,” New York Times Magazine, December 9, 2001, 53.

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that the United States “has no empire to extend” multicultural creed: Western civilization is unex- and no “territorial ambitions.”6 Rather it was the ceptional in comparison with other cultures, and administration’s critics who introduced the termi- history must be the story of an ecumenical, global nology of empire. Among the first were politicians, shared brotherhood.”11 Yet President Barack like British Liberal Democrat party leader Charles Obama has not managed to unravel the sinews of Kennedy, who denounced what he called the Bush foreign entanglement that critics call imperialism, administration’s new American imperialism.7 and even in the midst of a domestic recession Soon, a flood of influential scholars, pundits, and U.S. troops are based or involved in conflicts government leaders worldwide were railing around the world. against American “imperial ambitions” or “impe- The passions ignited by the debate over rial delusions.”8 In response, supporters of the war American empire, both at home and abroad, do in Iraq began to appropriate the vocabulary of not merely reflect current U.S. foreign policy. empire, defending the notion of an American Instead, they arise from a world shaped by the col- empire rather than arguing that it did not exist. lective memories of centuries of imperialism and Policy analyst Max Boot wrote in May 2003: “If colonialism. Formal empires may no longer cover we want Iraq to avoid becoming a Somalia on the globe to the extent they once did, but their steroids, we’d better get used to U.S. troops being after-effects are all around us. This is nowhere deployed there for years, possibly decades, to more obvious than in the relationship between the come. If that raises hackles about American impe- secular/Christian-majority states of the United rialism, so be it. We’re going to be called an empire States and (along with Jewish-majority whatever we do. We might as well be a successful Israel) on the one hand and the Muslim-majority empire.”9 Meanwhile Niall Ferguson, the centrist states of Asia and North Africa on the other. Their scholar of the British Empire, warned Americans relationship today is complex, in large part to shake off their imperial denial: “deny it who because the history of that relationship is messy will, empire is as much a reality today as it was and multifaceted. Islamic and Christian empires of throughout the 300 years when Britain ruled, and the medieval and early modern eras co-existed made, the modern world.”10 both peacefully and fractiously, as crusaders and The defeat of the Republican party in 2008 as traders. Africans, Europeans, and Asians of ushered in the prospect of a less unilateral and both religions were for centuries not only enslaved aggressive foreign policy, and proponents of a to labor in each other’s colonial fields and to fight bellicose U.S. foreign policy like Victor Davis in each other’s imperial armies, but also often Hanson at the conservative Hoover Institute experienced tolerance and even welcome in states bemoaned “the omnipotent influence of Obama’s that thrived on religious diversity. For a time, the great Muslim empires ruled over millions of Christian subjects, and some Muslim-majority 6 Michael Ignatieff, “America’s Empire is an Empire Lite,” New York Times, January 10, 2003. states still do. However, in the last two centuries 7 Andrew Woodcock and Jane Merrick, “Kennedy Warns of much of the Islamic world came to be formally ‘Imperialism’ over Bid to Oust Saddam,” Press Association, ruled by or informally subject to vast maritime September 23, 2002. 8 G. John Ikenberry, “America’s Imperial Ambition,” Foreign empires based in Europe. In the context of these Affairs, September/October 2002; Eric Hobsbawm, shared imperial experiences, modern notions of “America’s Imperial Delusion,” Guardian, June 15, 2003; race and class and contemporary structures of Noam Chomsky, Imperial Ambitions: Conversations on the Post 9–11 World (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2005); and expansion and oppression with global significance Igor Gedilaghine, “Iranian FM blasts US ‘Imperialism’ as He Visits Russia,” Agence Presse, April 4, 2002. 9 Max Boot, “American Imperialism? No Need to Run Away 11 Victor Davis Hanson, “Just Make Stuff Up,” National from Label,” USA Today, May 5, 2003. Review Online, June 12, 2009, http://article.nationalreview. 10 Niall Ferguson, “America: An Empire in Denial,” Chronicle com/print/?q=OTAyNzFjMmMwOWJjYmFmMTA2ODdjOD of Higher Education, 49 (March 28, 2003), B7. ZmZmQ0MWE1Mzg= A01_GETZ4099_01_SE_FM.QXD 5/26/10 3:22 PM Page x

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were formed.12 The events of 9/11 and the U.S. their political, economic, military, and social links invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan cannot be and exchanged ideas, human populations, plant understood outside of these experiences. and animal species, and technology. This is not to But it is not merely the events of 9/11 and suggest that empire created an even, equal the occupation of Iraq that have an imperial past. exchange between societies; by definition, it did No part of the world was untouched by empires not. Nevertheless, for better or for worse, these over the past half-millennium, and very little of great empires have been among the most impor- importance that happens today can be divorced tant institutions in shaping modern history. from an imperial context. Conflicts in Ireland, This textbook addresses modern imperial- Israel–Palestine, the Balkans, and elsewhere are ism and colonialism from a truly global and holis- rooted in the legacies of empire. It was as subjects tic perspective. From the formation of centralized of modern empires that the world’s populations gunpowder empires in Eurasia and parts of Africa re-arranged themselves. The movements of to the demise of the bi-polar Cold War world, this Africans to the Americas, Europeans to , book investigates our evolving understanding of and Asians to the Caribbean were often com- the origins, nature, mechanisms, and demise of pelled or facilitated by imperial technologies and modern empires. As well as evaluating empires as policies. Less obviously, imperialism also con- structures, it explores the doctrines, ideologies, strained the movements of peoples, as when East and practices of imperialism and colonial rule. Asians were excluded from Australasia and North This approach is relatively novel. Conventionally, America. Stretching across continents, these texts that deal with these topics either focus on a empires helped to shape the movement of not single empire or component of empire, such as a only humans but also species of plants, animals, colony or metropole, or investigate imperialism and pests. These organisms were carried across across several empires but for a tightly defined seas and land to new places, along with lan- period. Almost all of modern imperial- guages, religions, and cultures. Diplomacy, com- ism begin in Europe, and few contextualize merce, and war between empires shaped global European empires within global imperial net- boundaries. Moreover, imperialism served as the works and systems. Many are comparative, but foster parent of both globalization and national- none so far has managed to tell the story of mod- ism in the modern era. As with any parent and its ern empires from a truly integrated perspective. children, the relationship between these three In this era of increasing globalization, such trends has not always been a smooth one, but it is approaches are increasingly inadequate. not possible to understand them separately. The purpose of this book is to explore imperialism and colonialism: an inter-related ACKNOWLEDGMENTS series of trends that have embraced much of the Heather would like to thank her colleagues at human experience in the last half-millennium. Washington State University and in the World The building of modern empires—once treated as History Association for supporting and encourag- the ascendancy of one part of the world over the ing her to look at the world’s past through a wide- others—was in fact a shared, global experience angle lens. She would also like to thank Trevor for that tied together the world’s regions as never inviting her to join this project, and for his before. Under the rule or influence of great inter- patience and support throughout its writing. Her continental empires, diverse populations expanded students who have taken her Global Imperialism class since 1999 also deserve thanks, as their ques- tions and insights have deeply informed this book. 12 A peace-maker’s view on this can be found in Imam Feisal Finally, she wishes to thank her family and friends Abdul Rauf, What’s Right with Is What’s Right with America: A New Vision for Muslims and the West (San for their continued love, support, and fellowship. Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 2004), 1–9. She especially thanks her husband, Steven Salter, A01_GETZ4099_01_SE_FM.QXD 5/26/10 3:22 PM Page xi

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for leaving Kuala Lumpur on a Monday instead of Both authors would particularly like to a Friday. The consequences of such an act have thank the editorial staff at Pearson, and especially made all the difference in her life. Rob DeGeorge. Finally, we extend our apprecia- Trevor would like to extend his thanks to tion to the following reviewers for their insights colleagues at San Francisco State University and suggestions: Heather J. Abdelnur, Blackburn and throughout the Bay Area, especially Chris College; Gayle K. Brunelle, State Chekuri, John Corbally, Richard Hoffman, and University, Fullerton; John Corbally, Menlo Ugo Nwokeji. He also extends his apologies to College; Corrie Decker, University of California, students in his Modern European Imperialism and Davis; Stephen Englehart, California State courses who have been guinea Polytechnic University; Benjamin Grob-Fitzgibbon, pigs in the development of this project. He University of Arkansas; Thomas D. Hall, Depauw expresses his gratitude to Heather for transform- University; John McNeill, Georgetown University; ing so readily from a critical reviewer to a con- Mark Ruff, Saint Louis University; Peter Stamatov, tributing partner early in the process of proposing Yale University; Theodore R. Weeks, Southern this book. Last but not least, he thanks his family Illinois University; Kenneth Wilburn, East Carolina and friends for their support and wishes Bafana University; and Louise B. Williams, Central Bafana good luck in the FIFA World Cup. Connecticut State University. A01_GETZ4099_01_SE_FM.QXD 5/26/10 3:22 PM Page xii