Perspectives on Orchid Conservation in Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden: Recommendations Based on a SWOT Analysis

THAI JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2 (Special Issue): 1-13. 2010. SPECIAL LECTURE วารสารพฤกษศาสตรไทย 2 (ฉบับพิเศษ): 1-13. 2553.

Perspectives on orchid conservation in Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden: recommendations based on a SWOT analysis

HENRIK Æ. PEDERSEN*

Botanical Garden & Museum, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Gothersgade 130, DK-1123 Copenhagen K, Denmark

ABSTRACT. Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden (QSBG) offers eminent conditions for growing native Thai orchid species and for contributing to the conservation of these species, both ex situ and in the wild. Based on a SWOT analysis, it is suggested that a more strategically structured organization of orchid-related activities in the garden may greatly facilitate QSBG’s development into a science-based orchid conservation centre for Thailand and adjoining areas. Specifi cally, it is recommended that the activities should be combined into three basic components: (1) A “diversity collection” accommodating an immense number of native Thai orchid species – and serving the purposes of ex situ conservation and of PR, teaching and structural/taxonomic research that may directly or indirectly support in situ conservation; (2) a “propagation centre” for experimental ex situ research in germination, mycorrhiza and inbreeding vs outbreeding depression, and for propagating shifting priority species for reintroduction or reinforcement programmes; (3) a “fi eld research unit” responsible for mapping ecological requirements of species that are high-profi le candidates for reintroduction or reinforcement projects, and for providing molecular data for pinpointing genetically depleted populations that could benefi t particularly from reinforcement. Additionally, it is emphasized that collaboration between QSBG and other scientifi c institutions should be further developed for the benefi t of everyone involved – and for the benefi t of orchid conservation.

KEYWORDS: Biodiversity, Orchidaceae, propagation, reinforcement, reintroduction

INTRODUCTION rich Thai orchid ﬂ ora has suffered seriously from habitat loss, as demonstrated by the Due to its situation in a phytogeographic decreasing forest cover of the country transition zone, Thailand accommodates a (Collins et al., 1991; Stibig et al., 2004), and highly diverse orchid ﬂ ora (c. 1,200 species), many orchid species are now included in the especially if compared with neighbouring Thai redlist of plants (Santisuk et al., 2006). regions of a similar size. Unfortunately, the The critical situation of many species is

*Corresponding author: [email protected] 2 Henrik Æ. Pedersen

accentuated by illegal collecting for METHODS commercial purposes. This is particularly SWOT analysis is a useful tool for important for showy species belonging to evaluating the strengths (S), weaknesses (W), widely cultivated genera such as Vanda (e.g. opportunities (O) and threats (T) for various Seidenfaden, 1988: 197) and Paphiopedilum situations in business, institutions and (e.g. Cribb, 1998), see also Figs. 1–2. organizations, not least when it comes to Against this background, it is hardly identifying areas for development. As a fi rst surprising that native Thai orchids have been step, the desired objective (end state) is one of the focal groups of Queen Sirikit defi ned. Subsequently, the “strengths” can Botanic Garden (QSBG) ever since this be identifi ed as attributes of the concerned institution was founded, and that the present institution (or organization etc.) that are director explicitly aims at developing QSBG useful in order to achieve the objective; into a science-based orchid conservation “weaknesses” can be identifi ed as attributes centre. of the institution that are harmful in order to It is not only in Thailand that the need achieving the objective; “opportunities” can for orchid conservation has been realized in be identified as external factors that are the later years. On the global scene, orchids helpful in order to achieving the objective; are probably the only plant family that has and “threats” can be identifi ed as external been nearly as successful as mammals and factors that may damage the objective. Based birds in catching attention in a conservation on the SWOT analysis, strong avenues of context – and several books have recently development may be created by matching been devoted to the field of orchid strengths and opportunities. Furthermore, conservation worldwide (e.g. Pritchard, weaknesses or threats may be converted into 1989; Hágsater & Dumont, 1996; Koopowitz, strengths and opportunities; alternatively, 2001; Dixon et al., 2003). In a recent paper they should be minimized or avoided. entitled “Perspectives on orchid conservation Having defi ned the objective as “QSBG in botanic gardens”, Swartz & Dixon (2009) developed into a science-based orchid demonstrated to which extent orchid conservation centre for Thailand and conservation in botanic gardens in general adjoining areas”, A SWOT analysis was could – and should – be intimately integrated prepared, based on my experience from more with scientifi c research. In the present paper than a decade of close collaboration with I will apply a SWOT analysis and the QSBG. Collaboration has mainly happened principles of Swartz & Dixon (2009) for as joint in situ orchid studies, combined with exploring the perspectives on orchid examination of plant material in the nurseries conservation in QSBG. Does it seem possible and the herbarium. During these activities I to develop QSBG into a science-based orchid have thoroughly discussed diverse aspects conservation centre for Thailand and of QSBG’s organization and engagement in adjoining areas – and how can such a orchid conservation with a wide selection of development be promoted? Perspectives on orchid conservation in Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden 3 staff, especially scientists and leaders. The logistic basis is excellent, too, with Furthermore, I have participated in the plenty of nursery space and exhibition areas, organization of two international conferences combined with for example herbarium and a workshop at QSBG, and I was deeply magazines and laboratories for ex situ involved in the planning and organization of germination experiments as well as other the DANCED/DANIDA-funded project physiological studies. “Capacity Building in the Field of Both with regard to the number of Biodiversity, Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden” species and the number of individual plants, (1999-2005). As part of the latter project I QSBG has a remarkably large collection of also taught an orchid course at QSBG, and I live orchids collected in the wild; arguably was the supervisor for a PhD student from it is one of the largest living orchid collections QSBG studying orchids. In August 2009 I in Asia. In this context it should be noted that was offi cially appointed external research species composition of the collections in the consultant at QSBG with the special task to satellite gardens is highly complementary to help develop and promote QSBG as a centre the composition of the collection at QSBG’s for orchid research and orchid conservation. main campus. Following this, my interest in orchid-related administration and organization of this The scientifi c staff of QSBG includes institution naturally increased even further several individuals who are more or less – soon leading to the SWOT analysis and engaged in (often conservation-related) recommendations presented below. orchid research. Together, these dedicated staff members represent competences in a RESULTS wide selection of research areas in orchidology – including, for example, The SWOT analysis is briefl y outlined systematics, phylogeny, population biology, in Table 1, and the various issues of the four germination, mycorrhiza, pollination and overall categories (viz. strengths, weaknesses, conservation genetics. Furthermore, both the opportunities and threats) are elaborated present director and her predecessor have below. demonstrated a clear wish to include orchid Strengths conservation among the primary focal points of QSBG. The geographic and topographic In the fi eld of orchidology, QSBG has situation of QSBG is a perfect setting – both established research collaborations with a for cultivating tropical orchids and for number of Thai universities (that typically linking the ex situ conservation activities offer complementary laboratory facilities), in the garden to in situ research and mainly in the northern part of the country. reintroduction activities in the wild. These Furthermore, QSBG staff is thoroughly features are even more pronounced if also engaged in preparation of the orchid account QSBG’s satellite gardens in other parts of for the multilateral Flora of Thailand project Thailand are taken into account. 4 Henrik Æ. Pedersen as well as in studies of orchid ecology in on display at QSBG, little is being done to collaboration with researchers from provide the public visitors with relevant Copenhagen, Montpellier, Zürich, Tokyo etc. information on the various species. As the visitors are hardly being taught seminal QSBG hosts the secretariate of the knowledge of orchid-related biodiversity, Native Thai Orchid Network (NTON). With QSBG does not fully utilize its immense presently c. 85 members, NTON is potentially public contact for raising public awareness a powerful facility to help strengthen of orchid conservation. Indeed, botanical collaboration in orchid conservation between gardens like QSBG have great opportunities QSBG and other (primarily Thai) scientifi c for contributing to public education in an institutions (Pedersen et al., 2009). orchid conservation context (Light et al., Weaknesses 2003).

Activities regarding orchid conservation in Scientifi c institutions may be granted QSBG appear somewhat dispersed. CITES registration numbers by the national Furthermore, they suffer from lack of CITES authorities, so that scientifi c exchange coordination, especially in relation to of material of species covered by the activities performed by various Thai convention can be exempted from the universities. standard procedures established for regulating international trade in these species. QSBG No system of unique identifiers is does not yet have a CITES registration consistently applied to the living orchid number. This means that, currently, no orchid collection in QSBG. Therefore, it is often material (living or preserved) can be impossible to trace the provenance of exchanged, not even on loan, with foreign individual plants – a circumstance that collaboration partners without formal import severely limits the scientific basis for and export permits being issued on each conservation activities (Kell & Maxted, single occasion. 2003). QSBG offers a splendid settting for In comparison with the vast orchid teaching student courses on orchid-related collections at QSBG, the availability of biodiversity and conservation. Indeed, relevant scientifi c literature (both as hardcopy botanical gardens like QSBG have great and electronically) is remarkably low for the opportunities for contributing to education staff studying and developing the collections. and capacity building in an orchid Indeed, this problem should be of major conservation context (Light et al., 2003). concern in connection with the ability of staff Courses at QSBG could well include both members to continuously keep their activities in the collections and laboratories knowledge up-to-date. of QSBG and fi eld activities in nearby nature Despite a high number of native Thai reserves – but no such courses are taught on orchids (including threatened species) being a routine basis. Perspectives on orchid conservation in Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden 5

Opportunities increasing frequency by which new orchid fi eld guides are being published (Pedersen et Internationally there is a long tradition al., 2009). This is an eminent background for for botanical gardens to share living material further developing orchid conservation of rare and threatened orchid species (e.g. activities in QSBG which has a vast yearly Stewart, 1992: 133). The size of nurseries number of visitors. and existing orchid collections in QSBG would clearly allow for expanding the Threats international collaboration of the garden to include exchange of live orchid material – or Reduction in staff and funding is to join/initiate multilateral conservation naturally a threat towards any progressive programmes on orchids. development of QSBG as a centre for orchid research and orchid conservation. Apart from No internationally important orchid intensifying already existing weaknesses conservation centre already exists in Thailand (such as scarcity of available literature, or immediately adjoining areas, and no other limited scientific information to public scientifi c institution in the same region can visitors and the lacking registration of offer similarly wide-ranging, comprehensive collections at individual level), reduction in and extensive facilities and abilities for staff and funding also has the potential to establishing such a centre. harm the capacity for research, orchid care and international collaboration etc. As indicated above, the orchid fl ora of Thailand is remarkably species-rich. In recent years, the environmental Furthermore, as many orchid species have political focus has started changing from their northern, eastern, southern or western direct conservation of biodiversity (including range boundary in the corresponding part of orchids) to issues such as global warming Thailand, QSBG has direct access to various and other environmental threats to public fl oristic elements that are only marginally health and the well-being of humanity. represented in Thailand. Clearly, this development must be expected to gradually remove previous funding Last, but not least, there is a massive possibilities and political support for orchid public admiration of orchids – both globally conservation in QSBG and elsewhere. in general and in Thailand in particular (Kamemoto & Sagarik, 1975; Thammasiri, 2005). The admiration of orchids is often DISCUSSION accompanied by an interest in their intriguing Following the SWOT analysis, the task adaptations, and there is a steadily growing remains to evaluate how identified public realization of the need for orchid weaknesses and threats can be avoided, conservation. Furthermore, the public minimized or even converted into strengths interest of orchids in Thailand is currently and opportunities – and how strengths and growing, as demonstrated by the distinctly opportunities can be matched to create 6 Henrik Æ. Pedersen promising avenues for development, planning that more clearly recognizes the eventually leading to achievement of the different purposes. More precisely, I would objective: QSBG developed into an orchid recommend a structure consisting of three conservation centre for Thailand and basic components, viz. a “diversity adjoining areas. In general, externally collection”, a “propagation centre” and a governed reductions in funding and change “fi eld research unit”. It is clear that the three of political focus are diffi cult to infl uence by components will interact in various ways QSBG. However, to which extent these (Fig. 2), for which reason their activities threats will harm the above objective (rather should be closely coordinated. However, as than other parts of QSBG) depends heavily the components basically serve different on the internal priorities made by the purposes (see below) I think that QSBG’s management of QSBG. Apart from the lack overall contribution to orchid conservation of a CITES registration number (for the issue will benefi t from a tripartite structure. of which the QSBG management should It is an important feature of all three lobby intensively), all other identified components that they would greatly benefi t weaknesses can be converted into strengths from expanded collaboration with other by the QSBG management, given the scientifi c institutions in Thailand and abroad. necessary attention, funding and time. The Apart from strengthening research, identifi ed opportunies together represent a collaboration with universities would offer splendid setting, and there are several ways opportunities for teaching orchid-related in which strengths and opportunities can be biodiversity and conservation at QSBG matched to create promising avenues for (including fi eld activities in nearby nature development. reserves) – either as special orchid courses As demonstrated by the SWOT analysis, or incorporated into more widely defi ned the orchid-related facilities and activities at courses on tropical biodiversity and QSBG already today include a wide range conservation. of what could possibly be done in a science- Especially with regard to collaboration based conservation context – in line with the within Thailand I would like to emphasize principles of Swartz & Dixon (2009). There the existence of the so-called Native Thai is a multitude of species which are partly on Orchid Network. This formal network of display; there are high-capacity propagation about 85 professional orchidologists is a and nursery facilities, and several staff major resource for stimulating and members are engaged in studying and coordinating joint research projects in orchid reintroducing orchids into the wild. However, conservation in Thailand (Pedersen et al., since these facilities and activities serve 2009). QSBG accommodates the secretariat different purposes that only overlap to a and therefore has a unique opportunity to limited extent, I do believe that QSBG’s invite relevant network members for joint contribution to orchid conservation would projects. benefi t from an organizational structure and Perspectives on orchid conservation in Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden 7

International exchange of plant material is also a very important tool for education could take place on a continuous basis and for raising public awareness of (supporting the overall development of the conservation (Light et al., 2003). orchid collections both at QSBG and It is clear that in a collection where it is botanical gardens abroad) as well as on not only attempted to reach a high level of special occasions – for example as a means taxonomic diversity, but also comprenhensive to increase the genetic diversity among plants intraspeciﬁ c genetic diversity, it is extremely to be included in a specific propagation important that all individual plants are programme. However, the Thai authorities numbered and databased together with all eventually issuing a CITES registration such data that also accompany herbarium number for QSBG is an essential prerequisite specimens. Obviously, it is equally important of establishing such exchange collaborations that this necessity is clearly communicated between QSBG and botanical gardens and explained to all members of the staff, not abroad. least to the gardeners responsible for the The diversity collection day-to-day care of the plants.

The primary task of the “diversity In order for QSBG to develop into an collection” would be to accommodate as orchid conservation centre of not only many native Thai orchid species as possible. national but also international importance, In principle, just one or two individuals of establishment of online access to the database each species would be suffi cient for solving is strongly recommended. Apart from this primary task. However, the “diversity helping to promote QSBG on the international collection” should not only focus on scene, this would also support conservation- taxonomic diversity, but also on intraspecifi c related research through transparency and genetic diversity. Thus, a secondary purpose collaboration (cf. Kell & Maxted, 2003; would be to have as many species as possible Lughadha & Miller, 2009). represented by different provenances. For For public relations purposes it is example, Dendrobium secundum should not naturally a basic condition that the public only be represented by a plant from the visitors to QSBG are admitted into the neighbourhood of Chiang Mai – but also by “diversity collection”, but it is also important a few plants originating from northeastern, to remember that the fascinating stories eastern, southeastern and peninsular must be told. If QSBG does not display Thailand. boards with information on the different The diversity collection serves a number species – or, alternatively, provide such of different purposes. Two important information electronically one way or purposes are to provide a gene bank for ex another – the visitors will see nothing but situ conservation and a study collection for beautiful orchids that they might like to buy taxonomists and other scientists (de Vogel et and grow themselves. On the other hand, here al., 1999). However, the “diversity collection” QSBG really has a chance to enlighten the 8 Henrik Æ. Pedersen public and to let the visitors into a fascinating Collaboration with universities offering and vulnerable world of adaptation, supplementary facilities should be expanded symbiosis, mimicry, extremes and deception. – partly in order to make the studies more Admittedly, there is not a long tradition for complete, partly to involve more researchers botanical gardens to do so comprehensibly and students in orchid conservation studies. – but this also means that the way is open for Luckily, this should not be too diffi cult, due QSBG to take a lead to already existing research collaborations between QSBG and several university The propagation centre institutes that offer facilities and competences In the “propagation centre”, activities for scanning electron microscopy (SEM), should be focused on shifting priority DNA analysis, pollinator identifi cation etc. species, and they should mainly be performed A particularly recommended option would in preparation of specifi c reintroduction or be to initiate collaboration with existing in reinforcement programmes. However, the vitro germplasm collections of native Thai actual translocation of plants into the wild orchid species. should preferably be done by members of the In connection with the propagation fi eld team (see below), as these people will centre, selection of the priority species to be have the maximum hands-on ecological included in the various programmes is clearly knowledge of the species concerned. a task of fundamental importance. First of It is important that mass propagation of all, a gross selection should be made among selected species is not being done without those species that are in particular need of proper scientific considerations and conservation efforts. Subsequently, the gross preparations. For example, seed provenances selection should be narrowed in by selecting for propagation should be chosen following those species that would be expected to screening of geographic patterns of genetic benefit the most from reintroduction or diversity as well as tests for inbreeding vs reinforcement. Finally, the ultimate choice outbreeding depression. The material for of priority species should be made by closely such screenings and tests can be harvested considering the practical opportunities for from natural populations – or partly from the performing specific reintroduction or “diversity collection”, provided that the reinforcement programmes. Wheras the species in question is represented by different fi nal appointment of priority species from provenances in that collection. Another the gross selection of candidates relies relevant ex situ research activity would be heavily on specifi c evaluations and on local the testing of mycorrhizal specifi city. conditions that change over time, the selection of the gross pool itself should be It should be emphasized that laboratory governed by more general criteria. research in the propagation centre should not be limited to aspects that can be studied by In principle, the most obvious starting equipment already at hand at QSBG. point of all would be to focus primarily on Perspectives on orchid conservation in Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden 9 species that are classifi ed as threatened on The fi eld research unit the global scale. However, the offi cial global Also in the “fi eld research unit”, it would redlist on IUCN’s homepage includes be natural to focus activities on shifting remarkably few orchids. Indeed, in its present priority species. The activities should shape it is useless for pinpointing potential include empirical studies of natural priority species for orchid conservation populations as well as projects dealing with programmes in Thailand. reintroduction or reinforcement. Obviously, A much better approach would be to the priority species should mainly be address orchid species classifi ed as nationally identical with those addressed by the threatened in Thailand. The current Thai “propagation centre”. redlist of plants (Santisuk et al., 2006) Reinforcement and reintroduction includes a total of 173 nationally rare or projects should involve the local community threatened orchid species that would all – partly to raise public awareness of benefi t from being included in a conservation conservation, partly to offer the local programme (Fig. 2). Still, it should be community a sustainable way of utilizing remembered that a high share of these species local orchid species. Furthermore, any also occur elsewhere in tropical Asia – and reinforcement or reintroduction programme sometimes with larger and more numerous should be followed by several years of populations than in Thailand. monitoring – to evaluate the success of the Probably the best approach to making project and to help explaining possible the gross selection of candidates for failures (Menges, 2008). conservation programmes would be to focus A wide range of topics are relevant to primarily on species endemic to Thailand or address by fi eld studies in preparation for its border regions, as these species will all reintroduction or reinforcement (e.g. become extinct globally, if they are not Hagemann, 1996; Watthana & Pedersen, secured in their narrow ranges. In a paper on 2008). Relevant topics include, for instance, endemism in the orchid fl ora of Thailand observations of pollination biology and fruit (Pedersen, 2005), I distinguished between set patterns, in situ germination experiments, national, regional and local endemics – a demographic inventories, studies of series characterized by decreasing geographic mycorrhizal specificity, mapping of range. At the same time it seems obvious to substrate diversity and studies of genetic generally expect a positive correlation variation within as well as between between the degree of endemism and the risk populations. The latter can be decisive for of extinction. Therefore, it might be a good which conservation strategy is the more idea to primarily focus on the approximately appropriate (Ackerman, 2001), and they can 90 local endemics (Fig. 3). help pinpointing genetically depleted populations where reinforcement projects could be especially benefi cial. 10 Henrik Æ. Pedersen

It is important to note that fi eld studies tripartite organization outlined above would should not be limited to collection of such greatly facilitate such integrated conservation data and samples that can be analyzed by programmes. At the same time, however, scientifi c competence and equipment already QSBG should expand its national and present at QSBG. Joint research projects with international networking, inter alia by universities offering, for example, actively promoting itself as a serious player. entomological competence and facilities This could be done on the QSBG homepage, such as SEM and DNA laboratories should through increased production of scientifi c be further developed – partly in order to make publications and by active participation in the autecological surveys more complete, (and organization of) international orchid partly to involve more researchers and conservation conferences. Given the students in orchid conservation studies. necessary attention, funding and dedication, I have no doubt that QSBG can achieve the Perspectives objective of becoming a science-based orchid In order for QSBG to develop into a conservation centre for Thailand and science-based (cf. Swarts & Dixon, 2009) adjoining areas in the foreseeable future. orchid conservation centre of international Furthermore, the recommended expansion importance, comprehensive and thoughtfully of collaboration with other scientific set-up projects like the “Blue Vanda Project” instutions in Thailand would strongly support (Fig. 2) is the way to go. Based on the SWOT conservation-related orchid research at those analysis, I believe that establishment of the institutions as well.

FIGURE 1. Paphiopedilum thaianum Iamwir. seems endemic to a small area in Phang Nga, peninsular Thailand. Following its description in 2006, virtually all adult individuals have been ripped off by unscrupulous illegal collectors, and the species is now on the brink of extinction in the wild. Photo by H.Æ. Pedersen. Perspectives on orchid conservation in Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden 11

FIGURE 2. Vanda coerulea Griff. ex Lindl. has suffered an alarming decline due to habitat destruction and collecting for commercial purposes, and it is now red-listed as “endangered” in Thailand. One of the few populations left is found in the vicinity of Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden (QSBG), and for the last few years it has been the object of an integrated research and conservation project headed by Santi Watthana from QSBG. The “Blue Vanda Project” includes: (A) field studies of the natural growth and germination environment etc.; (B) a propagation programme; (C) reinforcement of the natural population by introduction of artificially propagated plants; (D) extensive cooperation with the local community; (E) efﬁ cient utilization of the media, including television, for communicating the purposes and activities to the public. Photo by H.Æ. Pedersen.

FIGURE 3. Paphiopedilum sukhakulii Schoser & Senghas is only known from Phu Luang in Loei, northeastern Thailand. The population has been heavily depleted by illegal collecting, but the local environment is very well preserved. This is one obvious example of a natural population that should be reinforced by artiﬁ cially propagated individuals before it is too late. Photo by H.Æ. Pedersen. 12 Henrik Æ. Pedersen

TABLE 1. SWOT analysis of QSBG as a science-based orchid conservation centre for Thailand and adjoining areas. The content under each main category is elaborated in the text.

Strengths Weaknesses Geographic and topographic situation • Relevant activities dispersed and largely • Logistics uncoordinated • Large collection of live orchids • Collection data for individual plants often • Staff includes skilled orchidologists lacking • Established national and international • Limited availability of scientiﬁ c literature research collaborations • Limited scientiﬁ c information to visitors • Hosting the secretariat of the Native Thai • No CITES registration number Orchid Network • No standard courses on orchid-related biodiversity and conservation are taught

Opportunities Threats • International conservation programmes • Reduction in staff and exchange of plant material • Reduction in funding • No direct competitors in the region • Environmental political focus changing from conservation of biodiversity to • Species-rich orchid ﬂ ora in Thailand climatic and other issues • Public admiration and fascination of orchids

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES

I wish to thank past and present leaders Ackerman, J.D. 2001. Evolutionary potential in and staff of QSBG for numerous discussions orchids: patterns and strategies for conserva- during more than 10 years of fruitful tion. In: Orchid conservation: proceed- collaboration, and for outstanding hospitality ings. W.E. Higgins & B.W. Walsh (Eds.), during my visits. Santi Watthana and pp. 23–29. Selby Botanical Gardens Press, Sawitree Sasirat deserve special thanks for Sarasota. readily supplying speciﬁ c information that I Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. & Whitmore, T.C. 1991. The conservation atlas of tropical requested while writing this paper. Last, but forests. Asia and the Paciﬁ c. Macmillan certainly not least, I cordially thank QSBG’s Press Ltd, London & Basingstoke. present director, Kongkanda Chayamarit, for Cribb, P. 1998. The genus Paphiopedilum. 2nd having involved me in the development of ed. Natural History Publications (Borneo), QSBG as an orchid conservation centre and Kota Kinabalu & Royal Botanic Gardens, for critically reading the manuscript. Kew. Perspectives on orchid conservation in Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden 13

Dixon, K.W., Kell, S.P., Barrett, R.L. & Cribb, Pritchard, H.W. (Ed.) 1989. Modern methods in P.J. (Eds.) 2003. Orchid conservation. orchid conservation: the role of physiol- Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota ogy, ecology and management. Cambridge Kinabalu. University Press, Cambridge. Hagemann, I. 1996. Biosubsistence – a powerful Santisuk, T., Chayamarit, K., Pooma, R. & Sud- aid to rare plant conservation? Bocconea 5: dee, S. 2006. Thailand red data: plants. 129–136. Ofﬁ ce of Natural Resources and Environ- Hágsater, E. & Dumont, V. (Eds.) 1996. Status mental Policy and Planning, Bangkok. and conservation action plan. Orchids. Seidenfaden, G. 1988. Orchid genera in Thailand IUCN, Gland & Cambridge. XIV. Fifty-nine vandoid genera. Opera Kamemoto, H. & Sagarik, R. 1975. Beautiful Botanica 95: 1–398. Thai orchid species. The Orchid Society of Stewart, J. (Ed.) 1992. Orchids at Kew. HSMO, Thailand, Bangkok. London. Kell, S.P. & Maxted, N. 2003. Orchid conserva- Stibig, H.-J., Archard, F. & Fritz, S. 2004. A new tion data: management, access and use. In: forest cover map of continental Southeast Orchid conservation. K.W. Dixon, S.P. Asia derived from spot-vegetation satellite Kell, R.L. Barrett & P.J. Cribb (Eds.), pp. imagery. Applied Vegetation Science 7: 329–346. Natural History Publications 153–162. (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu. Swartz, N.D. & Dixon, K.W. 2009. Perspectives Koopowitz, H. 2001. Orchids and their conser- on orchid conservation in botanic gardens. vation. Batsford, London. Trends in Plant Science 14: 590–598. Light, M.H.S., Kell, S.P. & Wyse Jackson, P.S. Thammasiri, K. 2005. Thai orchid production for 2003. The role of education and training in the world markets. In: Proceedings of the orchid conservation: an overview and 18th World Orchid Conference, March critique. In: Orchid conservation. K.W. 11-20, 2005, Dijon – France. A. Raynal- Dixon, S.P. Kell, R.L. Barrett & P.J. Cribb Roques & A. Roguenant (Eds.), pp. 490-497. (Eds.), pp. 357–382. Natural History Pub- Naturalia Publications, Turriers. lications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu. de Vogel, E.F., Schuiteman, A., Felëus, N. & Lughadha, E.N. & Miller, C. 2009. Accelerating Vogel, A. 1999. Hortus Botanicus, Leiden. global access to plant diversity information. Catalogue part 1, 1998: Orchidaceae. Trends in Plant Science 14: 622–628. Universiteit Leiden, Leiden. Menges, E.S. 2008. Restoration demography and Watthana, S. & Pedersen, H.Æ. 2008. Phorophyte genetics of plants: when is a translocation diversity, substrate requirements and succesful? Australian Journal of Botany fruit set in Dendrobium scabrilingue 56: 187–196. Lindl. (Asparagales: Orchidaceae): basic Pedersen, H.Æ. 2005. Endemism in the orchid observations for re-introduction experi- ﬂ ora of Thailand. OASIS, suppl. 4: 2-9. ments. Natural History Journal of Pedersen, H.Æ., Watthana, S. & Srimuang, K. Chulalongkorn University 8: 135–142. 2009. Gunnar Seidenfaden and his heritage: developments in the diversity and organization of Thai orchid studies. Thai Forest Bulletin (Botany), special issue: 156–168.