Notes

Introduction: The Artful Anti-Colonialist

1. Marika Sherwood interview with Don Bateman, 30 January, 1990. Notes in possession of Marika Sherwood. 2. to Nancy Cunard, undated. Nancy Cunard Papers, Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, University of Texas at Austin, box 17, folder 10. 3. Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); Christopher Lee, Making a World After Empire: The Bandung Moment And Its Political Afterlives (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2010); Michael Adas, ‘Contested Hegemonies: The Great War and the Afro-Asian Assault on the Civilizing Mission Ideology’, Journal of World History 15, no. 1 (2004), pp. 31–63. 4. Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005), p 147. 5. The literature here is too numerous to cite in its entirety, indicative of the flurry of important work done since the late 1990s. For relevant recent examples that mention Padmore, see, for example, Penny Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997); Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012); Kate Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters between Black and Red, 1922–1963 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002). For specific research into Padmore’s Comintern period and interwar politics, see Susan Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich: Race and Political Culture in 1930s Britain (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009); Brent Hayes Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003); Minkah Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom: Radical Black Internationalism from Harlem to London (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); S. Ani Mukherji, ‘The Anticolonial Imagination: The Exilic Productions of American Radicalism in Interwar Moscow’. PhD dissertation, Brown University, 2010. 6. The analysis of individual lives – in particular those with limited surviving documentary sources – as a means of better understanding the colonial and postcolonial period is an increasingly popular method for historians. Key examples of this include Linda Colley, The Ordeal of Elizabeth Marsh: How a Remarkable Woman Cross Seas and Empires to Become a Part of World History (London: Harper Perennial, 2008); Giacomo Macola, Liberal Nationalism in Central Africa: A Biography of Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010). For useful insights into thinking through the practice of these methodologies, the advantages and dangers, see Lara Putnam,

201 202 Notes

‘To Study the Fragments/Whole: Microhistory and the Atlantic World’, Journal of Social History 39, no. 3 (2006), pp. 615–630; Matthew Pratt Guterl, ‘Comment: The Futures of Transnational History’, American Historical Review 118, no. 1 (February 2013), pp. 130–139. 7. Kevin Grant, Philippa Levine, and Frank Trentmann, eds. Beyond Sovereignty: Britain, Empire and Transnationalism, c. 1880–1950 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), p 17. They claim that ‘the seeds of transnationalism are imperial, rather than post-colonial.’ 8. Philippa Levine, The British Empire: Sunrise to Sunset (Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2007), p ix. 9. The literature on each side of this debate is considerable. For the most influ- ential work arguing against the relevance of the Empire to metropolitan opinion, see Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society and Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonization, 1918–1968 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). For arguments that modern Britain was a product of the processes of empire, see, for example, John Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, 1880–1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984); Mackenzie, ‘The Persistence of Empire in Metropolitan Culture’, in The New Imperial Histories Reader, ed. S. Howe (London: Routledge, 2010); Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Oxford: Polity, 2002); Bill Schwarz, Memories of Empire, vol. 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). For a useful summary of this debate, see Stuart Ward, ‘Introduction’, in British Culture and the End of Empire, ed. S. Ward (Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 2001), pp. 1–20. 10. See especially Catherine Hall and Sonya Rose, eds., At Home with the Empire: Metropolitan Culture and the Imperial World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 30–31. 11. Stephen Howe, Anti-Colonialism in British Politics: The Left and the End of Empire, 1918–1964 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), pp. 1–2. 12. Howe, Anti-colonialism in British Politics, p 89. 13. For histories of the meaning of ‘imperialism’ and ‘empire’, see P.J. Marshall, ‘1870–1918: The Empire Under Threat’, in The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, ed. P.J. Marshall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 52–68; Ryan M. Irwin, Historicizing the African Moment: A (Very) Long View, unpublished conference paper, ‘Negotiating Independence: New Directions in the History of Decolonization and the Cold War’. Trinity College, Cambridge, 3–4 May 2013. 14. Joanna Lewis, ‘The British Empire and World History: Welfare Imperialism and “Soft” Power in the Rise and Fall of Colonial Rule’, in Colonialism and Welfare: Social Policy and the British Imperial Legacy, eds James Midgley and David Piachaud (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2011), pp. 17–35. 15. For recent work on the constructed image of Britain’s benevolent empire, see Marc Matera, ‘An Empire of Development: Africa and the Caribbean in “God’s Chillun”.’ Twentieth Century British History 23, no. 1 (2012), pp. 12–37. For the underlying conservatism in colonial rule that contradicted its civiliz- ing mission, see Anne Phillips, The Enigma of Colonialism: British Policy in West Africa (London: Currey, 1989). Notes 203

16. Quoted in William Roger Louis, Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006), p 979. 17. Padmore, ‘The British Empire Is the Worst Racket Yet Invented by Man’, New Leader, 15 December 1939. 18. Andrew Thompson argues this point with regard to counter-insurgency operations both before and after World War II. Andrew Thompson, ‘Introduction’, in Britain’s Experience of Empire in the Twentieth Century, ed. A. Thompson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), p 17. 19. For a review of the debate on violence, see Robert Aldrich and Stuart Ward, ‘Ends of Empire: Decolonizing the Nation in British and French Historiography’, in Nationalising the Past, eds Stefan Berger and Chris Lorenz (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 270–279; Joanna Lewis, ‘Nasty, Brutish and in Shorts? British Colonial Rule, Violence and the Historians of Mau Mau’, The Roundtable: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 96: 389 (2007), pp. 201–223. 20. Quoted in Richard Davis, ‘Perspectives on the End of the British Empire: The Historiographical Debate’, Cercles 28 (2013), p 17. 21. Richard Gott, Britain’s Empire: Resistance, Repression, Revolt (London: Verso, 2011). 22. Gerald Home, Black and Red: W. E. B. DuBois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1986); Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press,1996); Penny Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997); Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); James Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and African, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). 23. Jason Parker, Brother’s Keeper: The United States, Race, and Empire in the British Caribbean, 1937–1962 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Ryan Irwin, Gordian Knot: Apartheid and the Unmaking of the Liberal World Order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). 24. Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995); Barbara Bush, Imperialism, Race, and Resistance (London: Routledge, 1999); Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper, Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010); Damon Salesa, ‘Race’, in The Ashgate Research Companion to Modern Imperial Histories, eds John Marriott and Philippa Levine (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), pp. 429–448. 25. John Marriott, ‘Modernity’, in The Ashgate Research Companion to Modern Imperial Histories, eds P. Levine and J. Marriott (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), p 586. 26. For debate about whether race should be integrated into focused studies on empire or treated separately, see the discussion regarding Sarah Stockwell’s 204 Notes

2008 edited collection of essays, The British Empire: Themes and Perspectives. John Marriott, review of ‘The British Empire: Themes and Perspectives’, Reviews in History (review no. 747), URL: http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/ review/747. 27. Ronald Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonization, 1918–1968 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 38–41. 28. Salesa, ‘Race’, p 438. 29. See, for example, the arguments made in Lara Putnam, ‘Provincializing Harlem: The “Negro Metropolis” as Northern Frontier of an Interconnected Greater Caribbean’ Modernism/modernity 20, no. 3 (2013), pp. 469–484. Stuart Hall has encouraged scholarship that has worked over the past two decades to be more specific about the differences as well as the similarities of the black experience. See Hall, ‘What is This “Black” in Black Popular Culture?’ quoted in Michelle Ann Stephens, ‘What is this Black in Black Diaspora?’ Small Axe 13, no. 2 (June 2009), pp. 26–38. 30. For discussion of tradition as contentious, and of the productive capacity of black/radical/tradition, see D. Scott, ‘On the Very Idea of a Black Radical Tradition’, Small Axe 40 (March 2013), pp. 1–6. 31. Harvey Neptune, Caliban and the Yankees: Trinidad and the United States Occupation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), p 32. 32. Cedric Robinson, Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition (London: Zed, 1983), p 313; Anthony Bogues, Black Heretics, Black Prophets: Radical Political Intellectuals (London: Routledge, 2003), p 13. 33. Frank Guridy, ‘From Solidarity to Cross-Fertilization: Afro-Cuban/African American Interaction during the 1930s and 1940s’, Radical History Review 87 (Fall 2003), p 24. 34. W.E.B. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn. Quoted in Shamoon Zamir, Dark Voices: W.E.B. Du Bois and American Thought, 1888–1903 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p 2. 35. For more on this generation in the British West Indies, see H. Neptune, Caliban and the Yankees (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), p 19. 36. Bogues, Black Heretics, p 48. 37. Sam Morris, ‘My Tribute to the Late George Padmore’, Accra Evening News, 3 October 1959. Marika Sherwood argues that Padmore’s kitchen table ‘should have become a museum exhibit’ on the basis of Wright’s claim that ‘almost all the present day leaders of Black Africa’ sat around it. Marika Sherwood, ‘George Padmore and : A Tentative Outline of Their Relationship’, in Fitzroy Baptiste and Rupert Lewis, George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary (Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 2009), p 164. 38. Anthony Bogues, ‘C.L.R. James, Pan-Africanism and the Black Radical Tradition’, Critical Arts 25, no. 4 (December 2011), p 494. 39. Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom, p 197; W.M. Warren, ‘Introduction to the Second Edition’ in George Padmore, Africa and World Peace (London: Frank Cass, 1972), p xi. 40. Interview by the author with Selma James, 10 April 2014. 41. Bogues, Black Heretics, Black Prophets, p 7; A. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci, ed. and transl. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971), pp. 5–23. Notes 205

42. K. King, ‘Introduction’, in R. Makonnen, Pan-Africanism from Within (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), p xv. 43. R.D.G. Kelley, ‘“But a Local Phase of a World Problem”: Black History’s Global Vision, 1883–1950’, Journal of American History 86, no. 3 (1999), pp. 1045–1077; p 1047. 44. Christopher J. Lee, ‘Decolonization of a Special Type: Rethinking Cold War History in Southern Africa’, Kronos: Southern African Histories 37, no. 1 (2011), p 7. For African American examples, see Plummer, Rising Wind; Sterling Johnson, Black Globalism: The International Politics of a Non-state Nation (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). 45. Kevin Grant, Philippa Levine, and Frank Trentmann, eds, Introduction to Beyond Sovereignty: Britain, Empire and Transnationalism, c. 1880–1950 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), pp. 2–3. 46. The similarities between Norman Manley’s strategy in Jamaica and that of Padmore’s bears further exploration. See A. Bogues, ‘Politics, Nation and Postcolony: Caribbean Inflections’, Small Axe 6, no. 1 (2002), p 5. 47. Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism, p 3. The question of how historians should approach transnational and, often by extension, global histories, has been the subject of sustained debate over the last decade. For two essays that bracket this decade and, among other things, address in different ways the issue of temporality as a tool for containing this kind of study, see, for example, Prasenjit Duara, ‘Transnationalism and the Challenge to National Histories’, in Rethinking American History in a Global Age, ed. Thomas Bender (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002), pp. 25–46; Guterl, ‘AHR Forum Comment’, pp. 130–139. 48. See Frederick Cooper’s insistence that we must not ‘leapfrog’ over the lega- cies of the late colonial period and the ways that changes in this era shaped the years that followed. Cooper, Colonialism in Question, p 17. Christopher Lee also takes up this point in his edited volume on Bandung and its after- lives. Lee, Introduction to Making a World after Empire, p 9. Also David Scott, Conscripts of Modernity (Durham: Duke University Press), p 41. 49. Achille Mbembe, ‘The Power of the Archive and its Limits’, in Refiguring the Archive, eds Carolyn Hamilton et al. (Cape Town: David Philip, 2002), p 20. For one of the most important analyses of archives and power, see Michel- Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1995). See also Antoinette Burton, ed. Archive Stories: Facts, Fictions, and the Writing of History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005). I would like to thank Caroline Elkins for suggesting Mbembe’s work, and for encouraging me to think through the implications of my use of archives and what the archive or its absence says about my subject. 50. The fact that Padmore’s personal papers do not survive may be a result of the destruction of documents which took place in Ghana after Nkrumah’s fall from grace in 1966, but it may also point to Padmore’s active lifestyle his constant forward motion and tidy practice. 51. This should not preclude, and indeed I hope encourages, further scholar- ship on the reciprocal influences between, especially the United States, the Caribbean, and Padmore’s organizing. 52. Stuart Hall and Les Back, ‘At Home and Not At Home: Stuart Hall in Conversation with Les Back’, Cultural Studies 23, no. 4 (2000), p 674. 206 Notes

1 Origins: ‘The Most Completely Political Negro’

1. Letter Padmore to Moscow. Russian State Archive of Social and Political History (RGASPI): 534/3/895, item 1–3. 7 March 1933. 2. Peter Abrahams to Richard Wright, 23 October 1946. Richard Wright Papers, Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, box 93, folder 1161. 3. For the former argument, see Thompson, ‘George Padmore: Reconciling Two Phases of Contradictions’, in George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary, ed. F. Baptiste and R. Lewis, (Kingston: Ian Randle, 2009), p 134. For the latter see John Callahan, ‘The Communists and the Colonies’, in Opening the Books: Essays on the Social and Cultural History of the British Communist Party, ed. Geoff Andrews et al. (London: Pluto Press, 1995), p 17. Eric Hobsbawm places Padmore, James, and Arthur Lewis in the same category, as ‘Caribbean Marxists’ who rejected the Soviet Union. Eric Hobsbawm, ‘Epilogue’, in Opening the Books, pp. 252–253. In agreement, see Bill Schwarz, West Indian Intellectuals (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), p 138. 4. Brent Hayes Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 2003), p 245; Susan Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p 80. 5. D. Zizwe Poe, Kwame Nkrumah’s Contribution to Pan-Africanism (London: Routledge, 2003), p 53. Poe states that for Padmore, ‘Marxist ideology provided a useful paradigm with which to understand colonialism and imperialism’. 6. Anthony Bogues, ‘C.L.R. James and George Padmore: The Ties that Bind’, in George Padmore: Pan Africa Revolutionary, ed. F. Baptiste and R. Lewis (Kingston: Ian Randle, 2009), p 185. 7. George Lamming, Coming, Coming Home: Conversations II (St Martin: House of Nehesi Publishers, 1995), p ix. 8. For a critique of some of the traditional class assumptions about cosmo- politanism, and of how Black cosmopolitanism revises the understanding of cosmopolitanism, see I.K. Nwankwo, Black Cosmopolitanism (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press), p 12. 9. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 28 June 1954. Wright Papers/103/1522. 10. C.L.R. James, Typed manuscript of the memoirs of George Padmore. University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. C.L.R. James Collection, box 17, folder 347. 11. ‘Death of Mr Hubert Nurse’, undated. University of the West Indies, St Augustine, George Padmore Collection, vol. 2. 12. S. Cudjoe, Beyond Boundaries: The Intellectual Tradition of Trinidad and Tobago in the Nineteenth Century (Wellesley: Calaloux Publications, 2003), p 366. 13. C.L.R. James, ‘The Old World and the New’, and ‘Presence of Blacks in the Caribbean and its Impact on Culture’, in At the Rendezvous of Victory (London: Allison and Busby, 1984), pp. 202–217; pp. 218–235. 14. J. Hooker, (London: Collings, 1975), p 3. 15. G. Padmore, ‘Bankruptcy of Negro Leadership’, Negro Worker 1, no. 12 (December 1931), pp. 4–7. 16. R.A. Hill, Introduction to The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, volume XI, The Caribbean Diaspora, 1910–1920, pp. lxxvi–lxxxviii. Notes 207

17. Lara Putnam, ‘Provincializing Harlem: The “Negro Metropolis” as Northern Frontier of an Interconnected Greater Caribbean’, Modernism/modernity 20, no. 3 (2013), pp. 469–484. 18. I.K. Nwankwo, ‘The Nineteenth-Century Roots of Postcolonial Caribbean Discourse’, Small Axe 15, no. 2 (July 2011), p 187. 19. As British defense of its imperial interests in the Far East heated up in 1942, Padmore observed that officials on the ground had often been trained in colonial administration in Africa, and that the Governor of Hong Kong was the brother of the Governor of Trinidad. In 1945 he noted that Sir Charles Dundas, former governor of the Bahamas, was the one who signed the offi- cial report on the rioting in Buganda. In 1947 he pointed out that it was not just colonial officials who shared the empire but also military commanders. 20. Nwankwo, ‘The Nineteenth-Century Roots of Postcolonial Caribbean Discourse’, p 187. 21. M.A. Stephens, Black Empire (Durham: Duke University Press), p 8. 22. B. Brereton, Race Relations in Colonial Trinidad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p 79. Also S.D. Ryan, Race and Nationalism in Trinidad and Tobago (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1972), p 23. 23. Eric Williams, Inward Hunger (London: Deutsch, 1969), p 22. He noted that ‘instead of the school helping to obliterate the differences of race, religion and nationality inherent in the demographic structure of Trinidad, it helped to accentuate them.’ 24. S. Cudjoe, Beyond Boundaries, p 365. 25. Faith Smith, Creole Recitations (Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2002), p 26. 26. Here Anthony Bogues’s argument about Toussaint Louverture’s political leadership is important. Bogues highlights Louverture’s role as the ‘father’ of the population who can make decisions for the people. Anthony Bogues, ‘Reflections on the Radical Caribbean Intellectual Tradition’ (paper given at the Institute for the Study of the Americas, 19 June 2013). 27. Padmore, ‘Bankruptcy of Negro Leadership’, Negro Worker 1, no. 12 (December 1931), p 6. 28. Rhonda Cobham, ‘Only His Hat Is Left: John Jacob Thomas, Eric Roach, and the Nationalist Dilemma’, Small Axe 15, no. 2 (July 2011), pp. 176–177. 29. Lara Putnam, Radical Moves: Caribbean Migrants and the Politics of Race in the Jazz Age (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), pp. 123–152. 30. For a detailed account of the race and class dimensions of events in 1919, see K. Singh, Race and Class Struggles in a Colonial State: Trinidad 1917–1945 ( Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1994), pp. 14–40. 31. A.S. Rush, Bonds of Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p 9. 32. George Lamming, Pleasures of Exile (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1992), p 155. 33. For the most important treatment of the development of Caribbean radi- calism in the United States, see Winston James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth Century America (New York: Verso, 1998). 34. R.A. Hill, The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, volume 11, The Caribbean Diaspora (Durham: Duke University Press, 2011), p lxii. 208 Notes

35. K. King, ‘African Students in Negro American Colleges: Notes on the Good African’, Phylon 31, no. 1 (1970), pp. 16–30. Jason Parker, ‘“Made-in-America Revolutions”? The “Black University” and the Decolonization of the Black Atlantic’, Journal of American History 96: 3 (December 2009), pp. 727–750. 36. K. Gaines, American Africans in Ghana (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press), p 33. 37. M. Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press), pp. 45–67. 38. For black radical politics and the communist movement in this era, see also M. Solomon, The Cry was Unity: Communists and African-Americans, 1917–1936 (Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1998); H. Haywood, A Black Communist in the Freedom Struggle (Chicago, IL: Liberator Press, 1978); M. Stevens, ‘The Early Political History of Wilfred A. Domingo’, in Caribbean Political Organising, ed. Rupert Lewis (Kingston: Ian Randle, 2012), pp. 118–141; Joyce Moore Turner, Caribbean Crusaders and the Harlem Renaissance (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2005); J. Moore Turner, ‘Richard B. Moore and the Caribbean “Awaymen” Network’, Journal of Caribbean History 46, no. 1 (2012), pp. 61–94. 39. Roy S. Wynn, ‘Straw Ballot Taken by Howard Students’, The Hilltop, no date. Padmore Papers/UWI, vol 1. 40. ‘Minutes of the First Meeting, Re-organized Negro Committee (National)’, 14 August 1928. Files of the CPUSA in the Comintern Archives, 1919–1943, microfilm, Library of Congress, Washington D.C., reel 104, delo 1366. 41. ‘Workers Center Gala Opening is Celebrated Here’, undated; ‘Sending Labor Jury to Charlotte Trial: Picket Two “Jim Crow” Hotels’, Daily Worker 2 September 1929. Padmore Papers/UWI, vol. 1. 42. ‘Minutes of Meeting of the National Negro Committee’, 7 September 1928. CPUSA Papers/Tamiment, reel 104, delo 1366. 43. Letter Otto Huiswood to James Ford, 14 November 1929. CPUSA Papers (LOC), reel 130, delo 1685–1689. For early copies of Padmore’s work for the Negro Worker, see RGASPI 495/155/92, items 7–23. 44. ‘Minutes of the Meeting of the Negro Section of the Eastern Secretariat’, 8 January 1930. RGASPI 495/155/83, item 19–21. 45. For the Communist International in this period, and its work with Africa and the ‘Negro Question’, see: , ‘Pan-Africanism and Communism: The Comintern, the “Negro Question” and the First International Conference of Negro Workers, Hamburg 1930’, African and Black Diaspora 1, no. 2 (2008), pp. 237–255; Adi, ‘Communism and Black Liberation’ in From Toussaint to Tupac, ed. Michael O. West et al. (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), pp. 155–179; Solomon, The Cry Was Unity; Callahan, ‘The Communists and the Colonies’; Edward T. Wilson, Russia and Black Africa (London: Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1976). 46. Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom, pp. 169–170. 47. S. Ani Mukherji, ‘“Like Another Planet to the Darker Americans”: Black Cultural Work in 1930s Moscow’, in Africa in Europe, eds. Eve Rosenhaft and Robbie Aitken (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2013), pp. 120–141; Kate Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002). 48. For KUTV and African nationalists, see Woodford McLellan, ‘Africans and Black Americans in the Comintern Schools, 1925–34’, International Journal of Notes 209

African Historical Studies 26, no. 2 (1993), pp. 371–390; McClellan, ‘Black Hajj to “Red Mecca”: African and Afro-Americans at KUTV, 1935–1938’ in Africa in Russia, Russia in Africa, ed. M. Matusevich (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2007), pp. 61–84; S. Ani Mukherji, ‘The Anticolonial Imagination: The Exilic Productions of American Radicalism in Interwar Moscow’. PhD dissertation, Brown University, 2010; Holger Weiss, ‘Kweku Bankole Awoonor Renner, Anglophone West African Intellectuals and the Comintern Connection: A Tentative Outline – Part 2’, Comintern Working Paper CoWoPa 10/2007 (2007), and ‘The Road to Hamburg and Beyond: African American Agency and the Making of a Radical African Atlantic, 1922–1930 – Part 2’, Comintern Working Paper CoWoPa 17/2009. 49. See H. Haywood, Black Bolshevik (Chicago, IL: Liberator Press, 1978), pp. 237–239. For Haywood’s thesis, see also C. Robinson, Black Marxism (London: Zed Books, 1984), p 300. For Padmore’s work on South Africa when he arrived in Moscow see RGASPI 534/6/25 and 495/155/83. 50. H.H. Kendal, British Guaiana to Editor, Negro Worker, undated. RGASPI 534/3/755, item 21–23. 51. William Brown to George Padmore, 28 August 1932. RGASPI 534/3/756, item 80–82. 52. C. Harold, The Rise and Fall of the Garvey Movement in the Urban (London: Routledge, 2007), p 5. 53. See RGASPI 534/7/74 and 534/3/756 for Padmore’s meticulous correspon- dence with organizations across the United States and the West Indies. These items provide substance to the general claims to Padmore’s extensive contacts while with the ITUCNW. 54. Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom, p 176. 55. Padmore to Everett L. Beone, 1 April 1932. RGASPI 534/3/755, item 1–2. 56. Nancy Cunard to Dorothy Padmore, November 1959. Cunard Papers, 17/10. 57. Y. Berger, ‘Remembrances of George Padmore’, James MSS/UWI, box 23, folder 440. 58. C.L.R. James, ‘Notes on the Life of George Padmore’, p 16. 59. Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich, pp. 76–86. 60. Extensive correspondence between Padmore and African recruits, and of his conflicts with LAI comrades can be found in RGASPI 534/3/668; 534/3/754; 534/3/755. 61. For correspondence related to the raid on Hamburg and Moscow’s accu- sations that Padmore had not been ‘entirely blameless’, see RGASPI 495/261/1380 and 534/3/895. 62. For a comprehensive archival rendering of Padmore’s time in Moscow that draws on multilingual sources I have benefited from S. Ani Mukherji, ‘Moscow’s New Negro, and Vice Versa: Interwar Circulations of Black Radicalism in the Context of the Global Cold War’, Conference Paper, ‘Negotiating Independence: New Directions in the History of Decolonisation and the Cold War’, 3–4 May 2013. University of Cambridge. 63. For Padmore’s frustration that he was being treated like a child, see RGASPI 534/3/755. 64. R. Overy, The Morbid Age: Britain Between the Wars (London: Allen Lane, 2009), p 28; p 21. 65. K. King, ‘Introduction’ in R. Makonnen, Pan-Africanism from Within (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), p xxi. 210 Notes

66. P. Corthorn, In the Shadow of the Dictators: The British Left in the 1930s (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2006), pp. 40–59. 67. Corthorn, In the Shadow of the Dictators, p 2. 68. Callahan makes this point well in his study of R. Palme Dutt, in his dis- cussion of the general view of the ‘decay of capitalist civilisation’ held by many non-Communist socialists and liberal intellectuals at the time. See J. Callahan, Rajani Palme Dutt: A Study in British Stalinism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1993), pp. 29–30. 69. N. Owen, The British Left and India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 225–231. 70. Samuel Asante, Pan-African Protest (London: Longman, 1977). 71. C. Hogsbjerg, C.L.R. James in Imperial Britain, PhD dissertation, University of York (2009), p 201. A draft document in the papers of Ralph Bunche states that the IASB was set up by incorporating Wallace-Johnson’s ‘West African Youth League’ (WAYL) and the Committee of the Friends of Africa. ‘An Appeal’, Ralph Bunche Papers, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, box 10b, folder 13. Wallace-Johnson’s life remains under-researched, but for a short biography of his work up to 1945, see Leo Spitzer and La Ray Denzer, ‘I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson and the West African Youth League: Part 1 & 2’, pp. 413–452 and 565–601. 72. S. Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich. Padmore’s movement within these circles is a prominent part of Pennybacker’s story. 73. D. Whittall, ‘“In this Metropolis of the World We Must Have a Building Worthy of Our Great People”: Race, Empire and Hospitality in Imperial London, 1931–1948’, in Africa in Europe, eds. Eve Rosenhaft and Robbie Aitken (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2013), pp. 76–98. 74. M. Matera, ‘Colonial Subjects: Black Intellectuals and the Development of Colonial Studies in Britain’, Journal of British Studies 49, no. 2 (April 2010), pp. 388–418. 75. W.R. Louis, Imperialism at Bay, 1941–1945: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977), pp. 101–103. 76. Cary Fraser, ‘The Twilight of Colonial Rule in the British West Indies: Nationalist Assertion vs. Imperial Hubris in the 1930s’, Journal of Caribbean History 30, no. 1, (1996), pp. 1–27. For an overview of these revolts, see O. Nigel Bolland, The Politics of Labour in the British Caribbean (Kingston: Ian Randle, 2001); Ken Post, Arise Ye Starvelings (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1978). 77. Richard Hart, ‘Origin and Development of the Working Class in the English- Speaking Caribbean Area, 1897–1937’ in Labour in the Caribbean, eds. Malcolm Cross and Gad Heuman (London: Macmillan, 1988), p 62. 78. Quoted in Fraser, ‘The Twilight of Colonial Rule in the British West Indies’, p 8.

2 Putting Empire in Black and White: Padmore’s Ideas about Race and Empire, 1930–1939

1. Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom, pp. 8–9. 2. Ras Makonnen, Pan-Africanism from Within (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), pp. 102–103. The commissioning of the pamphlet and its production is discussed in RGASPI 534/3/668. Notes 211

3. Letter Padmore to J.A. Mahon, 3 August 1931. RGASPI 534/6/18, item 131. Von Eschen also notes that Padmore’s intended audience was white workers. Von Eschen, Race Against Empire, p 13. 4. Letter Padmore to H. Rathbone, 28 December 1931. RGASPI 534/6/18, item 178. 5. Letter Padmore to J.A. Mahon, 3 July 1931. RGASPI 534/6/18, item 131. 6. George Padmore, The Life and Struggles of Negro Toilers (London: Red International of Labour Unions, 1931), p 111. 7. Padmore, Life and Struggles of Negro Toilers, p 18. 8. Padmore, Life and Struggles of Negro Toilers, p 46. 9. Padmore to J.T. Marks, Johannesburg, 17 May 1932. RGASPI 534/3/755, item 86. 10. Padmore, ‘This “have” and “have not” business – some facts bared’. 11. See also Worrell, ‘George Padmore: Social and Political Thought’, in George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary, pp. 180–182. 12. For the differences between Hobson and Lenin’s theses, see A.M. Eckstein, ‘Is there a Hobson-Lenin thesis?’ The Economic History Review 44, no. 2 (May 1991), pp. 312–316. See also P.J. Cain, Hobson and Imperialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p 33. 13. Padmore, ‘This “have” and “have not” business – some facts bared’, Gold Coast Spectator, 9 October 1937. 14. See, for example, William Roger Louis’s description of Leo Amery and ‘The Governing Intellect’ in Louis, Ends of British Imperialism, pp. 383–384. Also Jim Tomlinson, ‘The Empire/Commonwealth in British Economic Thinking and Policy’, in Andrew Thompson, Britain’s Experience of Empire in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 212–248. 15. S.A. Mukherji, ‘Moscow’s New Negro and Vice Versa’, pp. 10–11. 16. Hooker, Black Revolutionary, p 35. 17. Nancy Cunard to Dorothy Padmore, November 1959. Cunard Papers/17/10. For Cunard’s ‘communist vocabulary’ in Negro, see Hooker, Black Revolutionary, p 28. 18. ‘An Open Letter to Earl Browder’, The Crisis, no. 10, October 1935. This article is analysed in Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich, p 84. 19. Some controversial arguments about Padmore’s knowledge of the purges can be found in Paul Trewela, ‘The Death of Albert Nzula and the Silence of George Padmore’, Searchlight South Africa 1 (1988), pp. 49–64. 20. The quotation is from American Romantic poet James Russell Lowell. George Padmore, How Britain Rules Africa (London: Wishart, 1936), p vi. Emphasis added. 21. For a summary of the importance of the plantation and slavery to Caribbean intellectual histories, see A. Bogues, ‘Writing Caribbean Intellectual History’, Small Axe 26 (June 2008), pp. 168–178. 22. George Padmore to Otto Theis, 7 July 1935. Louise Morgan and Otto Theis Papers, Yale University Library, box 13, item 4. 23. Ibid. Padmore also notes in an earlier letter of 17 May that the aim of the book is not to inform blacks about their own conditions: ‘this we know bet- ter than anybody else.’ 24. George Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism (London: Dennis Dobson, 1956), p 304. 25. Padmore, How Britain Rules Africa, p 335. 212 Notes

26. Hill, Introduction to the Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, volume 10, Africa for the Africans (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006), p lxxxi. 27. ‘International African Opinion: A Review’, The People, 3 September 1938. 28. Here Padmore was writing against the dominant narrative of the time, shaped by the works of Frederick Lugard and Margery Perham on indirect rule. See Louis, Ends of British Imperialism, pp. 974–982. 29. See L. Trotsky, Permanent Revolution (London: Workers’ International Press, 1940), p xvii. 30. Padmore, ‘How Britain Governs the Blacks’, in Negro, ed. N. Cunard (London: Wishart and Company, 1934), p 812; Padmore, Africa and World Peace, p 186. 31. Padmore, ‘Ethiopia and World Politics’ Crisis (May 1935); ‘Hitler, Mussolini and Africa’ Crisis (September 1937); ‘This “have” and “have not” business – some facts bared’, The Gold Coast Spectator 2, 9, 16 October 1937. 32. Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom, p 198; p 204. 33. See Daniel Whittall, ‘Colonial Fascism’, History Today 60, no. 10 (October 2010), pp. 44–48. 34. For an analysis of Paul Robeson’s role in this international project linking anti-fascism and anti-imperialism, see Ashley Dawson, ‘The Rise of the Black Internationale: Anti-imperialist Organising and Aesthetics in Britain during the 1930s’, Atlantic Studies 6, no. 2 (2009), pp. 159–174. 35. Padmore, How Britain Rules Africa, p 364. 36. L. Putnam, ‘Nothing Matters but Color’, in From Toussaint to Tupac, eds Michael West et al. (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press), p 108. 37. Padmore, Africa and World Peace, pp. 154–155. 38. Our London Correspondent, ‘Africans to Protest against Germany’s Colonial Demands’, The People, 11 December 1937; Our London Correspondent, ‘Diplomatic Moves to Barter Africa in Readjustment of World Situation Disclosed’, African Morning Post, 11 December 1937. For confirmation of these plans, see R. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 43–45. For a summary of the historiographi- cal debates surrounding Britain’s support for Italian and German colonial demands, see Bush, Imperialism, Race, and Resistance (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 259–260. For the left’s interest in this issue, see Howe, Anti- Colonialism in British Politics, pp. 107–109. 39. Padmore, ‘This “have” and “have not” business – some facts bared’, The Gold Coast Spectator 2, 9, 16 October 1937. 40. Padmore, ‘A Negro Surveys the Colonial Problem’, African Morning Post, 30 January–1 February 1939. 41. Padmore, ‘The Negro Faces the War’, Workers Age, 23 December 1939. Schwarz also notes that Padmore ‘regularly equated the suffering of Jews in Germany with blacks in the British colonies’; see Schwarz, West Indian Intellectuals in Britain, p 141. 42. Our London Correspondent, ‘Africans Hold Mass Meeting in London’, The People, 4 September 1937. 43. ‘Review by the Literary Editor’ The People, 10 September 1938. 44. Our London Correspondent, ‘International African Bureau Submits Memo to West Indies Commission’, The People, 8 October 1938. Notes 213

45. S.A. Mukherji, ‘Moscow’s New Negro, and Vice Versa’, pp. 10–11. 46. For the argument that Africa was central to the IASB, see Howe, Anti- colonialism in British Politics, pp. 102–103. 47. Singh, Race and Class Struggles, p 168. 48. Singh, Race and Class Struggles, pp. 118–119. 49. Our London Correspondent, ‘When Trinidad Flared Up’, The People, 18 September 1937. 50. Our London Correspondent, ‘Messrs Tate and Lyle Deny Certain Statements Re: Riot’, African Morning Post, 26 May 1938.

3 ‘The Long, Long Night is Over’: A War of Opportunity?

‘Manifesto to the Colonial Workers, Farmers and Intellectuals of Africa’, in H. Adi and M. Sherwood, The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress Revisited (London: New Beacon Books, 1995), p 56. 1. Wm R. Louis, ‘The Road to the Fall of Singapore’, in Louis, Ends of British Imperialism, p. 294. The notion of ‘prestige’ and ‘managed decline’ have been central to the narratives of British decolonization. See Darwin, ‘Decolonisation and the End of Empire’, in Oxford History of the British Empire, volume 5, ed. R. Winks (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p 547; also S. Ward, Introduction to British Culture and the end of empire, ed. S. Ward (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), p 1–20. 2. Ronald Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonization, 1918–1968 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p 88. 3. For wartime changes to British thinking on colonial labour, see Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 110–166. 4. Ashley Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2006), pp. 90–91. 5. George Padmore, ‘Socialists Answer Our Questions on the War’, Left, November 1941. 6. Transcript of interview of C.L.R. James by Rukudzo Marapa, undated. University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. C.L.R. James Collection. Box 22, folder 421. 7. George Padmore to Alain Locke, 28 February 1944. Locke Papers/Howard, box 164–76, folder 16. 8. George Padmore, ‘The Second World War and the Darker Races’, The Crisis, November 1939. 9. Padmore, ‘To Defeat Nazism We Must Free Colonials’, The People, 14 September 1940. 10. S. Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), pp. 86–87. 11. Padmore, ‘Socialists Answer Our Questions on the War’, Left, November 1941. 12. Padmore, ‘The Negro Faces the War’, The Workers Age, 23 December 1939. 13. Quoted in R. Ottley, No Green Pastures (London: J. Murray, 1952), p 68. 14. N. Stammers, Civil Liberties in Britain during the Second World War (London: St. Martin’s Press, 1983), p 14; p 88. 214 Notes

15. T.B. Subasinghe to Marika Sherwood, 27 February 1995. In possession of Marika Sherwood. 16. George Padmore to Alain Locke, 31 December 1942. Locke Papers/Howard, box 164–76, folder 16. 17. T. Sullivan, ‘Listening Through: The Wireless and World War Two’, in War Culture: Social Change and Changing Experience in World War Two, eds P. Kirkham and D. Thoms (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1995), p 173. 18. George Padmore to Alain Locke, 11 April 1941. Locke Papers/Howard, box 164–76, folder 16. 19. George Padmore to Alain Locke, 31 December 1942. Ibid. 20. Author interview with Beatrice Pizer, Dorothy Pizer’s niece, 27 April 2011. Pizer is mentioned in the acknowledgements to Africa and World Peace. She also published an article in International African Opinion in 1938. Dorothy Pizer, ‘How Blacks Fought for Freedom’, International African Opinion 1, no. 4 (October 1938), p 11. Although George Padmore and Dorothy Pizer never legally married, there are family accounts which state that somewhere in the 1950s Dorothy legally changed her name to Padmore. Although this is not confirmed and there is no known date, she did sign her name Dorothy Padmore on George Padmore’s will. I therefore refer in this manuscript to Dorothy Pizer, until 1959 when I refer to Dorothy Padmore. 21. C. Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa (Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 2009), p 29. 22. Nancy Cunard to Dorothy Padmore, November 1959. Cunard Papers/17/10. 23. Dorothy Pizer to Ivar Holm, 18 December 1946. Nkrumah Papers/ Howard/154-41, folder 14. 24. Nancy Cunard and George Padmore, White Man’s Duty (London: W.H. Allen, 1942), p 4. 25. These debates were focused primarily on Britain’s imperial presence in Asia. For a useful overview of these debates, see Chapters 11, 13, and 14 in W.M. Louis, Ends of British Imperialism (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006). 26. He made extensive notes on his copy of M.F. Ashley Montagu’s book Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (New York: Columbia University Press, 1942). 27. The remark is hand-written in the margin of Padmore’s copy of Hallett Abend, Pacific Charter (London: John Lane the Bodley Head, 1943), p 62. 28. Padmore, ‘The Negro Faces the War’, Workers Age, 23 December 1939. 29. Quoted in H. Zinn, A People’s History of the United States (London: Longman, 1996), p 354. 30. Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War, pp. 21–22. 31. Our London Correspondent, ‘Colonial Aid to Britain in Great War’, Vanguard, 16 March 1940. 32. D. Johnson, World War II and the Scramble for Labour in Colonial Zimbabwe (Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications, 2000); D. Hargreaves, Decoloni- zation in Africa, p 54; A. S. Milward, The Economic Effects of the Two World Wars on Britain (London: Macmillan, 1970); L. Collingham, The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food (London: Allen Lane, 2011), pp. 121–141. 33. Our London Correspondent, ‘Financial Help from Natives’, Vanguard, 23 March 1940. Notes 215

34. Meshack Owino, ‘In His Majesty’s Service: The Akamba of Kenya and British Fighter Aircraft in World War II’, Conference Paper. Africa in World Politics Conference. University of Texas, Austin, 25 March 2011. Also K. Jeffery, ‘The Second World War’, in Oxford History of the British Empire volume IV The Twentieth Century, eds. Judith M. Brown and Wm Roger Louis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p 311. 35. See regular coverage in The Ashanti Pioneer from July 1940 to November 1942. 36. For colonial troops in Britain’s war effort, see G. Schaffer, ‘Fighting Racism: Black Soldiers and Workers in Britain during the Second World War’, Immigrants and Minorities 28, no. 2 (2010), pp. 246–265; B. Bousquet and C. Douglas, West Indian Women at War: British Racism in World War II (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1991). 37. Our London Correspondent, ‘Black Troops to be Recruited in British Colonies for Service in France’, Vanguard, 29 June 1940. 38. Our London Correspondent, ‘Negro Training as Britain Army Officer’, Vanguard, 30 March 1940. 39. Numerous articles can be found in the Chicago Defender. For example, George Padmore, ‘French Colonials Remove 3000 Mines’, 4 November 1939; ‘French Negro Troops to Fight Burma Japs’, 3 February 1945; ‘British Laud Bravery of African Commando Troops’, 27 May 1944. 40. George Padmore, ‘First African Commissioned: King of Ashantis Now Lieut. Colonel of Home Guards’ (NY) Amsterdam News, 12 September 1942; George Padmore, ‘African Warrior Tribe Joins Enemies of Axis’ (NY) Amsterdam News, 23 May 1942. 41. Our London Correspondent, ‘Famine in Kenya Native Reserve’, Vanguard, 23 March 1940; Our London Correspondent, ‘African Miners in Northern Rhodesia on Strike’, Vanguard, 11 May 1940; George Padmore, ‘Arrest of Wallace Johnson’, The People, 16 March 1940 (reprinted from African Standard); Our London Correspondent, ‘Political Prisoners in Africa Discussed in Parliament’, Vanguard, 18 May 1940. 42. Padmore, ‘Freedom War Grips Empire’, Vanguard, 25 May 1940. 43. James Hooker, Black Revolutionary: George Padmore’s Path from Communism to Pan-Africanism (London: Pall Mall, 1967), p 66. 44. Our London Correspondent, ‘Britain Calls for Unity of Coloured Races Against Japs’, Vanguard, 14 March 1942. 45. Our London Correspondent, ‘Coloured Officers to Lead British Army Should Japs Invade India’, Vanguard, 21 March 1942. 46. Padmore, ‘Democracy’s Colour Bar’, Vanguard, 27 June 1942. 47. Ibid. 48. Our London Correspondent, ‘20,000,000 Africans Send Cable to Churchill’, Vanguard, 28 February 1942. 49. Two-thirds of those travelling on the Empire Windrush served in Britain dur- ing the war and were suing their gratuities to pay passage back to Britain. Ian Spencer, ‘World War Two and the Making of Multiracial Britain’, in War Culture, eds P. Kirkham and D. Thoms, p 213. 50. George Padmore to Harold Moody, 4 October 1942. Drake Papers/Schomburg, MG 309, box 64, Folder 4. 51. George Padmore to Cyril Olivierre, 19 August 1945. Padmore Papers/ Schomburg, MG 624, folder 1. Emphasis added. 216 Notes

52. Our London Correspondent, ‘League of Coloured Peoples Endorse New Colonial Policy’, Vanguard, 15 May 1940. 53. Quoted in R. Murapa, Padmore’s Role in the African Liberation Movement, PhD dissertation, Northern Illinois University (1974), p 87. 54. Ibid. 55. George Borodin, Red Surgeon (London: Museum Press, 1944), p 25. The mark- ings are contained in Padmore’s copy in Accra. 56. George Padmore to Harold Moody, 4 October 1942. Drake Papers/Schomburg, MG 309, box 64, folder 4. 57. Aimé Césaire, Notebook of a Return to My Native Land (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), p 133. 58. George Padmore to Cyril Olivierre, 11 December 1945. Padmore Papers/ Schomburg, MG 624, folder 1. 59. George Padmore to Cyril Olivierre, 5 December 1944. Ibid. 60. George Padmore to Cyril Olivierre, 7 March 1945. Ibid. 61. George Padmore to Cyril Olivierre, 11 December 1945. Ibid. 62. J. Parker, Brother’s Keeper: The United States, Race, and Empire in the British Caribbean, 1937–1962 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p 62. 63. Padmore, ‘Black and White’, Vanguard, 21 April 1945. 64. Hakim Adi, ‘Pan-Africanism in Britain: Background to the 1945 Manchester Congress’, in Adi and Sherwood, The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress Revisited, pp. 11–32. 65. Makonnen’s restaurant provided significant funds for the Federation, as well as a key location for the Congress. Makonnen, Pan-Africanism from Within, pp. 136–137. For more on this restaurant, see John McLeod, ‘A Night at “The Cosmopolitan”: Axes of Transnational Encounter in the 1930s and 1940s’, Interventions 4, no. 1 (April 2002), 53–67. 66. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 17 August 1945. James Papers/UWI, box 7, folder 193. 67. Much later, and in a different context, Steve Biko would echo this strategic necessity. See Gail Gerhart’s interview with Steve Biko, October 1972 in Biko Lives! Contesting the Legacies of Steve Biko, ed. Mngxitama et al, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), p. 27. 68. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 17 August 1945. James Papers/UWI, box 7, folder 193. Emphasis added. 69. George Padmore, ed, Colonial and Coloured Unity: A Programme of Action and History of the Pan-African Congress (Manchester: Panaf Services, 1947), p 119. 70. Hakim Adi’s description of a British ‘coup’ is particularly important here. Adi, ‘George Padmore and the 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress’, in George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary, eds Baptiste and Lewis, pp. 66–96. See also Marable, W.E.B. Du Bois: Black Radical Democrat (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1986), p 164. 71. For Du Bois’s politics in these years and his relationship to the NAACP, see C. Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 58–112. For Du Bois’s relationship to American communism and the McCarthy era, see G. Horne, Black and Red: W.E.B. Du Bois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1985). Notes 217

72. Adi, ‘George Padmore and the 1945 Manchester Congress’, in George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary, eds Baptiste and Lewis, p 89. 73. C.L.R. James, Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution (Connecticut: Lawrence Hill, 1978), p 71. 74. This was a world in which both Padmore and James were drawn into debates on the revolutionary left about Stalinism, the validity of the Soviet Union as a workers’ state, and thus the wisdom of defending it against outside aggres- sion. For discussion of these debates, see Anna Grimshaw, ed. Special Delivery: The Letters of C.L.R. James to Constance Webb, 1939–1948 (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996), pp. 8–12. 75. James, Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution, pp. 28–33. 76. L. Winkiel, Modernism, Race, and Manifestos (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p 19. 77. Winkiel, Modernism, Race, and Manifestos, p 6. 78. E. Wilson, Russia and Black Africa before World War II (London: Holmes and Meier, 1976), p 289. 79. Padmore, Colonial and Coloured Unity, p 55. 80. Munro, ‘The Anti-Colonial Front’, p 90. 81. Jon Woronoff argued that at this conference a ‘new note’ was struck in the vociferous demands made by delegates. Jon Woronoff, Organizing African Unity (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1970), p 23. 82. Padmore, Colonial and Coloured Unity, p 56. 83. Quoted in Grimshaw, Special Delivery, p 7. 84. Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), Part 1. 85. Padmore, How Russia Transformed her Colonial Empire, p 176. 86. See especially S. Rose, Which People’s War? (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2003). 87. Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War, pp. 7–10. 88. L. Beers, Your Britain Media and the Making of the Labour Party (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), pp. 165–185. 89. Cunard and Padmore, The White Man’s Duty, p 44. My emphasis on this point here is informed by Frederick Cooper’s call not to flatten European and colonial history, but to be attentive to debates and changes within Europe itself about its universalizing rhetoric and its application in its own territory. Cooper, Colonialism in Question, p 20. 90. Saliha Belmessous, Assimilation and Empire: Uniformity in French and British Colonies, 1541–1954 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 2–3.

4 Writing Anti-Imperial Solidarity from London: George Padmore’s Colonial Journalism, 1940–1951

1. To support this claim, Hooker argued that ‘only on one occasion did an article of his scoop the press.’ See James Hooker, Black Revolutionary (London: Pall Mall Press, 1967), p 84. More recent assessments praise Padmore’s ‘wit and brilliance as a journalist’, and the importance of his journalism both to his livelihood and to his overall work. See S. Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to 218 Notes

Munich (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p 102; C. Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa (Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 2009), p 58. 2. P. Von Eschen, Race Against Empire (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), p 8. 3. Letter George Padmore to Cyril Olivierre, 5 December 1944. NYPL Schomburg Center, George Padmore Collection, MG 624. folder 1. 4. Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa, pp. 50–54. 5. K. Singh, Race and Class Struggles in a Colonial State (Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1994), p 17. Padmore’s work for the paper is confirmed in a clipping of the Obituary for the newspapers editor, Edward J. Partridge, no date, no paper. University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, George Padmore Collection, vol. 1. 6. Makonnen, Pan-Africanism from Within, pp. 98–100. Referenced in Mukherji, ‘Moscow’s New Negro, and Vice Versa: Interwar Circulations of Black Radicalism in the Context of the Global Cold War’, Conference Paper, ‘Negotiating Independence: New Directions in the History of Decolonisation and the Cold War’, 3–4 May 2013, University of Cambridge. 7. F. Smith, Creole Recitations (Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2002), pp. 27, 29. 8. L. Putnam, ‘Nothing Matters but Color’, in From Toussaint to Tupac, eds West et al. (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), p 121. 9. L. Putnam, ‘Provincializing Harlem: The “Negro Metropolis” as Northern Frontier of an Interconnected Greater Caribbean’, Modernism/Modernity 20, no. 3 (2013), pp. 469–484. 10. For more on Briggs’s political divorce from Amsterdam News and his decision to found his own radical paper, see Solomon, The Cry Was Unity (Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi, 1998), pp. 7–25; Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom, p 49. 11. M. Stevens, ‘Early Political History of Wilfred A. Domingo’, in Caribbean Political Organising, ed. R. Lewis (Kingston: Ian Randle, 2012), pp. 122–133. 12. M. Solomon, Cry Was Unity (Jackson, MI: University of Mississippi Press, 1998), pp. 7–25; C. McKay, A Long Way from Home (New York: Lee Furman, 1937). 13. C. Polsgrove, ‘George Padmore’s Use of Periodicals to Build a Movement’, in George Padmore, eds Baptiste and Lewis (Kingston: Ian Randle, 2009), 97–104. 14. For how Padmore’s journalism served to analyse the early Cold War in the Caribbean, see G. Horne, Cold War in a Hot Zone (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2007). 15. Our London Correspondent, ‘Africans to Protest against Germany’s Colonial Demands’, The People, 11 December 1937. 16. George Padmore, ‘West Indians Asked to Beware of Commission: No Afro- Indians Appointed’, The People, 3 September 1938. Harvey Neptune argues that by the mid-1930s The People was a ‘race-conscious’ newspaper that acted as the main ‘voice of proletarian advocacy’ in Trinidad. H. Neptune, Caliban and the Yankees (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), p 39. 17. ‘Minutes of Meeting of the National Negro Committee’, 7 September 1928. CPUSA Papers/Tamiment, reel 104, delo 1366. 18. George Padmore, ‘Awakened Negro Youth’, Negro Champion, 1928. Notes 219

19. George Padmore, ‘Great Negro Revolutionists’, Negro Champion, 22 June 1928. 20. Mukherji, ‘Moscow’s New Negro’, 9. For more on US anti-lynching journal- ism, see Bogues, Black Heretics, Black Prophets, pp. 48–67. 21. ‘Great Negro Revolutionists’, Negro Champion, 23 June 1928. 22. The paper initially appeared as The International Negro Workers’ Review in 1928. While issues sporadically appeared between 1934 and 1937, the paper lost steam with the departure of Padmore and the closing of the Hamburg office. For correspondence pertaining to its continued publication after Padmore left, see RGASPI 495/155. 23. Through the pages of Labour Monthly, Dutt led the British Communist Party’s thinking on imperialism. See John Callaghan, Rajani Palme Dutt: A Study in British Stalinism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1993). 24. R. Palme Dutt and Ben Bradley, ‘The Anti-Imperialist People’s Front in India’, Labour Monthly 18, no. 3 (March 1936). 25. However, Small reprinted parts of the Negro Worker in his paper and his affiliation with the communist movement was of ongoing interest to the colonial admin- istration. See J. Ayodele Langley, ‘The Gambia Section of the National Congress of British West Africa’, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 39, no. 4 (October 1969), 384–385. For Padmore’s letter, see ‘Some Observations on Gambia’ by Malcolm Nurse, extract from The Gambia Outlook and Senegambian Reporter 6, no. 17, 29 December 1931. RGASPI 534/7/74, item 30. 26. Letter R. Benjamin Wuta-Ofei to Padmore, 25 July 1932. RGASPI 534/3/756, item 42–43. 27. Letter R. Benjamin Wuta-Ofei to George Padmore. 29 December 1931. RGASPI item 30. RGASPI 534/7/74. 28. G.D.H. Cole, ‘The Fabian Society: Past and Present’, Tract Series No. 258 (November 1942), p 4. 29. Lisanne Radice, Beatrice and Sidney Webb: Fabian Socialists (London: Macmillan, 1984), p 201. 30. Christopher Bayly, Recovering Liberties (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p 105. I am grateful to Richard Drayton for suggesting this comparison. 31. George Cotkin, ‘Illuminating Evil: Hannah Arendt and Moral History’, Modern Intellectual History 4, no. 3 (November 2007), pp. 463–490. 32. For an analysis of Padmore’s use of colonial sources as a tool for claiming ‘objectivity’ and as a means of more convincingly condemning colonial rule, see T. Martin, ‘George Padmore as a Prototype of the Black Historian in the Age of Militancy’, Pan African Journal IV, no. 2 (Spring 1971), pp. 161–162. 33. J. Teelucksingh, ‘The Immortal Batsman’, in George Padmore: Pan-African Revolutionary, eds Baptiste and Lewis (Kingston: Ian Randle, 2009), p 19. 34. Our London Correspondent, ‘The West Indies Discussed in Parliament’, Vanguard, 1 June 1940. This article summarizes the questions asked in parliament regarding the West Indies since the publication of part of the recommendations of the Moyne Commission. The full findings of the com- mission were suppressed during the war and only made public in 1945 – a fact Padmore also reiterated in 1939 and 1945 in his journalism. 35. Our London Correspondent, ‘Large Amount of Space Is Devoted to Problems in Colonies by British Press’, African Morning Post, 20 January 1939; Padmore, ‘British Press Spotlight Colonies’, Ashanti Pioneer, 24 December 1949. 220 Notes

36. For example Hubert H. Harrison, ‘Take Up the Black Man’s Burden’, sent from George Padmore, The Ashanti Pioneer, 8 August 1949; J. Halcro Ferguson, ‘Election Clouds Over Jamaica’, sent from George Padmore, The Ashanti Pioneer, 20 September 1949. 37. C. Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009). 38. Our London Correspondent, ‘Child Labour in Kenya Exposed’, The People, 18 June 1938. 39. Padmore, ‘West Indian Sugar Battle Continues’, The Ashanti Pioneer, 25 August 1949. 40. Padmore, ‘English Blacks Plead for New Social Regime’, Chicago Defender, 27 August 1938. 41. Our London Correspondent, ‘Our Correspondent Sits Near Sir Murchison’, The People, 26 March 1938. 42. Padmore, ‘African Colonials Cost Britain Penny Each’, Chicago Defender, 5 August 1944. 43. Padmore, ‘Lord Olivier Denounces British Colonial System’, Chicago Defender, 25 June 1938. 44. Quoted in R. Murapa, Padmore’s Role in the African Liberation Movement, PhD dissertation, Northern Illinois University (1974), p 80. 45. Polsgrove also mentions this incident in her useful coverage of Padmore’s difficulty with the censors. Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa, pp. 54–55. For Padmore and the MOI, see also Hooker, Black Revolutionary, p 62. 46. Padmore, ‘Imperialism Groomed for Comeback at Peace Table’, Chicago Defender, 18 September 1943. See also Padmore, Africa and World Peace, p 178. 47. Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa, p 54. 48. J. Flint, ‘Managing Nationalism’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 27, no. 2 (1999), p 146. Flint states circulation figures for the African Morning Post in 1936 of 10,000 a day. 49. Idemili, ‘What the West African Pilot Did’, Black American Literature Forum 12, no. 3 (1978), p 86. 50. For a useful Marxist history of Public Opinion, the People’s National Party, and the Jamaican labour rebellions, see Ken Post, Arise Ye Starvelings: The Jamaican Labour Rebellions of 1938 and its Aftermath (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1978). 51. Quoted in Murapa, ‘George Padmore’s Role in the African Liberation Movement’, p 80. See also K. King, ‘Introduction’ in R. Makonnen, Pan- Africanism from Within, p xvii. 52. Padmore, ‘Jamaica Airmen Clash with British Troops’, Chicago Defender, 2 March 1946; Padmore, ‘Jamaica Riots Subside as Rival Unions Clash’, Chicago Defender, 23 March 1946. 53. Padmore, ‘African Rail Strike, Farm Revolt Plague British’, WAP, 22 December 1945; Padmore, ‘South Rhodesian Railwaymen Now Strike and Sympathising African Miners Join’, WAP, 30 November 1945; Padmore, ‘Excellent Discipline of the Rhodesian Strikers Defeats Aim of Government’, WAP, 1 December 1945. 54. Padmore, ‘Africans in Belgian Congo Strike for Higher Wages and Better Conditions’, WAP, 28 December 1945. Notes 221

55. Padmore, ‘Black and White’, Vanguard, 21 April 1945. 56. Cary Fraser, ‘The Twilight of Colonial Rule in the British West Indies: Nationalist Assertion vs. Imperial Hubris in the 1930s’, Journal of Caribbean History 30 (May and November 1996), pp. 1–27. 57. Padmore, ‘Governor Pays to House Negroes’, Ashanti Pioneer, 1 September 1949. 58. Padmore, ‘Strikes in Rhodesia and Sudan: Domestic Servants Join, Labour Leaders Denounced as Traitors and Beaten Up’, Ashanti Pioneer, 19 May 1948. 59. Padmore, ‘Malan Double-Crosses Attlee’, The Ashanti Pioneer, 27 July 1949. 60. Padmore, ‘African Colonies Seethe in Political Uprisings’, Chicago Defender, 20 October 1945. 61. Padmore, ‘Uganda under Reign of Terror?’ The Ashanti Pioneer, 22 July 1949. For earlier articles on the post-war momentum, see George Padmore, ‘Sudanese Nationalists Want Complete Independence’, WAP, 6 December 1946; Padmore, ‘Colonial Office Is Worried by Spread of Nationalism and Unrest in Colonies’, WAP, 18 March 1947. 62. Padmore, ‘Post for Hastie Alarms British’, Chicago Defender, 23 March 1946. 63. Padmore, ‘Madagascar Turns Anti-French’, Ashanti Pioneer, 16 August 1947. 64. Padmore, ‘Uganda under Reign of Terror?’, Ashanti Pioneer, 22 July 1949. 65. Padmore, ‘Police Security Move in Colonies’, Ashanti Pioneer, 6 September 1947. 66. Padmore, ‘World View’, Chicago Defender, 11 January 1947; Padmore, ‘World View’ Chicago Defender, 31 January 1948. 67. Padmore, ‘World View’, Chicago Defender, 5 July 1947. 68. Padmore, ‘British MPs Force African Issue in Open’, Chicago Defender, 25 May 1946. 69. Our London Correspondent, ‘Famine in Kenya Native Reserve’, Vanguard, 23 March 1940; ‘Political Prisoners in Africa Discussed in Parliament’, Vanguard, 18 May 1940; Our London Correspondent, ‘Parliament Hears About Native Leaders’ Imprisonment in Africa and the West Indies’, Vanguard, 16 May 1942. 70. Padmore, ‘East African Labour Leader Exiled’, Ashanti Pioneer, 29 April 1948. 71. A. Thompson, ‘Introduction’, in Britain’s Experience of Empire in the Twentieth Century, ed. Andrew Thompson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), p 7; p 17. 72. Ernest Bevin quoted in P. Murphy, ‘Britain as a Global Power in the Twentieth Century’, in Britain’s Experience of Empire in the Twentieth Century, p 54. For more on the Attlee government’s policy to maximize dollar exports via colonial exports, see Jim Tomlinson, ‘The Empire/Commonwealth in British Economic Thinking and Policy’, in Britain’s Experience of Empire in the Twentieth Century, p 223. 73. Tomlinson, ‘The Empire/Commonwealth in British Economic Thinking and Policy’, p 223. 74. For more on colonial development policy in Africa, see F. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 120–123. 75. Padmore, ‘African Colonials Cost Britain Penny Each’, Chicago Defender, 5 August 1944. 76. Padmore, ‘African Receives a Reward of 5 Pounds for Finding World’s Largest Diamond’, WAP, 2 June 1945. 77. Padmore, ‘Biggest Diamond Found in Africa – Goes to British’, Chicago Defender, 4 December 1943. 222 Notes

78. Padmore, ‘British White Paper Reveals Huge Profits Made on West African Cocoa and New Plans for Control after the War’, WAP, 31 October 1944. 79. Padmore, ‘World View’, Chicago Defender, 3 April 1948. 80. Padmore, ‘European Imperialists Ponder!’ Ashanti Pioneer, 16 July 1947. 81. Quoted in Padmore, ‘World View’, Chicago Defender, 17 January 1948. 82. Quoted in Padmore, ‘World View’, Chicago Defender, 14 February 1948. 83. Padmore, ‘Dollar Investment in Colonies to Overcome Difficulties Will Be Encouraged to Operate through Colonial Office Development Corporation’, Ashanti Pioneer, 25 October 1949. 84. Padmore, ‘“White Supremacy” in all Africa?’, Ashanti Pioneer, 6 October 1949. 85. Padmore, ‘Post for Hastie Alarms British’, Chicago Defender, 23 March 1946. 86. Padmore, ‘Colonies and Sterling Devaluation’, Ashanti Pioneer, 10 October 1949. 87. Padmore, ‘US British Partnership in Colonies Postwar Aim’, Chicago Defender, 25 September 1943; ‘Britain May Invite US to Join in Colony Rule’, Chicago Defender, 9 January 1943. 88. Padmore, ‘US Asked to Replace British Role in Africa’, Chicago Defender, 11 December 1948. 89. Padmore, ‘How US Rules Its Colonial Empire’, Ashanti Pioneer, 30 August 1949. 90. Padmore, ‘Post for Hastie Alarms British’, Chicago Defender, 23 March 1948. 91. O.A. Westad, The Global Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), Chapters 1 and 2. 92. Padmore, ‘America Backs Russia against UK’, Ashanti Pioneer, 18 November 1948. 93. Murphy, ‘Britain as a Global Power in the Twentieth Century’, pp. 50–54. 94. Padmore, ‘Imperialism Groomed for Comeback at Peace Table’, Chicago Defender and Pittsburgh Courier, 18 September 1943. 95. Padmore, ‘Africa Holds Key to Atomic Future’, Chicago Defender, 8 September 1945; ‘World View’ Chicago Defender, 7 August 1948. 96. Padmore, ‘World View’, Chicago Defender, 19 July 1947; ‘May Turn Africa into Arsenal against Reds’, Chicago Defender, 1 January 1949. 97. Padmore, ‘World View’, Chicago Defender, 1 March 1947. 98. Padmore, ‘Whither Colonial Development?’, Ashanti Pioneer, 27 February 1948; ‘Africa May Have Big Negro Army’, Ashanti Pioneer, 28 November 1949. 99. Padmore, ‘Malan Disarm Order Delays Defense Plan’, Chicago Defender, 18 December 1948. 100. Here the development of the South African Communist Party while Padmore was in Moscow is foundational. He was involved in helping to plan developments of the Party, corresponded frequently with South African workers on conditions they experienced, and published them wherever possible. See, for example, ‘Letter from a Worker in South Africa’ (extract from The Negro Worker) and ‘Pass Laws in South Africa’ by George Padmore both in Cunard, ed. Negro (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1934), p 792; pp. 807–808. 101. Padmore, ‘Ghetto Law for South African Natives’, Chicago Defender, 7 January 1939. 102. Our London Correspondent, ‘Black Troops to be Recruited in British Colonies for Service in France’, Vanguard, 29 June 1940. 103. Padmore, ‘Black and White’, Vanguard, 21 April 1945. Notes 223

104. Padmore ‘Famine Grows in South Africa’, Chicago Defender, 23 February 1946. For a historical critique of Jan Smuts at the UN and of Du Bois’s con- temporary criticism, see M. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), pp. 14–20; pp. 28–64. 105. Padmore, ‘General Smuts Vows Purge as Starving Africa Rebels’, Chicago Defender, 19 January 1946. 106. Padmore, ‘British Empire Faces Big Crisis’, Ashanti Pioneer, 29 June 1948. 107. Padmore, ‘White Man’s Justice in Africa’, in Negro, ed. Cunard, pp. 813–816. 108. Padmore, ‘US–British Partnership in Colonies Post-War Aim’, Chicago Defender, 23 March 1946. Similar arguments have been made more recently by Frederick Cooper. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, p 112. 109. Carol Anderson, ‘International Conscience, the Cold War, and Apartheid: The NAACP’s Alliance with the Reverend Michael Scott for South West Africa’s Liberation, 1946–1951’, Journal of World History 19, no. 3 (September 2008), pp. 297–298; p 317. 110. Padmore, ‘World View’, Chicago Defender, 15 November 1947. 111. Shula Marks and Stanley Trapido, ‘Introduction’, in The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in Twentieth Century South Africa, eds S. Marks and S. Trapido (London: Longman Group, 1987), p 20. 112. Padmore, ‘White Supremacy in All Africa?’, Ashanti Pioneer, 6 October 1949. 113. R. Irwin, Gordian Knot (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), p 6; p 10. 114. Leah Rosenburg, ‘The Audacity of Faith: Creole Recitations Explained’, Small Axe 15, no. 2 (July 2011), p 168. 115. Padmore, ‘Freedom of Colonial Press Is Withdrawn’, Chicago Defender, 15 January 1949.

5 The Psychological Moment: The Colonial Office, Pan-Africanism, and the Problem of the Soviet Union, 1946–1950

1. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 9 August 1946. W.E.B. Du Bois Collection, University of Massachusetts, reel 59/337–376. 2. Secretary of State for the Colonies to All Colonies, Protectorates, and Mandated Territories, 17 May 1946. The National Archives of the United Kingdom (TNA), CO 537/5120. 3. R. Kelley, Race Rebels (New York: The Free Press, 1994), p 9. 4. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 12 December 1946. Du Bois Papers, reel 59/337–376. 5. Dorothy Pizer to Ivar Holm, 23 July 1946. Howard University, Kwame Nkrumah Collection, 154–141, folder 14. 6. R. Desai, Rural Sociology in India (Mumbai: Popular Prakashan Ltd, 1969), pp. 411–415. 7. Dorothy Pizer to Ivar Holm, 18 December 1946. Nkrumah Papers/Howard, 154-41, folder 14. 8. A number of excellent studies of the connections between Indian anti- colonialists and African Americans, and especially Du Bois, have appeared recently. See especially Gerald Horne, The End of Empires: African Americans 224 Notes

and India (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2008); Nico Slate, Coloured Cosmopolitanism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012). Slate’s work acknowledges the sometimes contradictory results of trans- national anti-colonial solidarity movements that on occasion both con- structed bonds of unity across race, class, and geographical experience, and augmented traditional conceptions of race, class, and gender. 9. Padmore introduced the Secretary of the Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society to his ‘Sudanese friends’ in Paris in October 1948. This likely included the Umma Party’s Assistant Secretary, Yusuf Osman. C.W. Greenidge to George Padmore, 16 Febraury 1949. University of Oxford, Rhodes House, Anti-Slavery Societ Papers. Mss.Brit.Emp.S.19, 8/7, File 1. 10. Letter George Padmore to Jawaharlal Nehru, 2 December 1946; Letter George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 12 December 1946, Du Bois Papers, reel 59/337–376. 11. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ivar Holm, 18 December 1948, Nkrumah Papers/ Howard, 154–41, folder 14; Padmore, ‘Future of Former Italian Colonies’, Ashanti Pioneer, 22 October 1949. 12. Letter Peter Abrahams to Richard Wright, 23 October 1946. Yale University Library, Richard Wright Collection, reel 93/1161. 13. Padmore had been working with organizations like WASU long before the formation of the Centre. See H. Adi, West Africans in Britain (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1998), p 77. 14. See correspondence between the Pan-African Federation and the Fabian Colonial Bureau, University of Oxford, Rhodes House, Fabian Colonial Bureau Papers, Mss.Brit.Emp.s.365, Box 6, File 1. See also Du Bois Papers, reel 62/1013–1097 for Ras Makonnen’s correspondence as PAF Acting Secretary. 15. Letter George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 9 August 1946. Du Bois Papers, reel 59/337–376. 16. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Richard Wright, 29 May 1948. Wright Papers/103/ 1522. 17. For information on Chris Jones, see Christian Hogsbjerg, Mariner, Renegade and Castaway: Chris Braithwaite (London: Redwords, 2013). 18. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Richard Wright, 22 November 1948. Wright Papers/103/1522. 19. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois. 9 August 1946. James Papers/UWI, box 7, folder 193. 20. Padmore, ‘Attlee’s Sister Condemns Smuts Govt’, Ashanti Pioneer, 4 July 1947. 21. Letter C.W. Greenidge to George Padmore, 16 February 1949. Correspondence between Greenidge and Padmore is found in the Anti-Slavery Society Papers, Rhodes House. Mss.Brit.Emp.S.19, 8/7, File 1. 22. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 12 December 1946. Du Bois Papers, reel 59/337–376. 23. George Shepperson and St. Clair Drake, ‘The Fifth Pan-African Conference, 1945 and the All African Peoples Congress, 1958’, Contributions in Black Studies 8, Article 5 (1986), pp. 44–46. 24. T.R. Makonnen to All Delegations, United Nations, 25 October 1948. Du Bois Papers, reel 62/1013–1097. See also ‘Text of Cabled Replies Received’ n.d. Du Bois Papers/40B.7d.40. Notes 225

25. For more on the Caribbean Labour Congress, see Horne, Cold War in a Hot Zone, pp. 71–132; O.N. Bolland, ‘Democracy and Authoritarianism in the Struggle for National Liberation’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 17, no. 1 (1997), pp. 99–117. 26. ‘No Mandate for Empire Peoples: Observations on Mr. Grantley Adams at UNO’, League of Coloured Peoples Newsletter, vol. xvii, no. 104 (October– December 1948). Richard Hart Collection, Institute of Commonwealth Studies Library, , M861, Reel 6. 27. Richard Hart, ‘Caribbean Labour Congress President’s Speech at UNO Criticized by CLC Secretary’, Jamaica Arise (October 1948). Du Bois Papers, reel 62/1013–1097. 28. Padmore introduced Abdullah Issa to Du Bois in 1949, when Issa went to New York to speak on Somalia in the Trusteeship Council. Letter George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 24 March 1949. Du Bois Papers, reel 64/203–225. 29. Letter George Padmore to C.W.W.Greenidge, 26 January 1948. Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society Papers, Rhodes House, Mss.Brit.Emp.s.19. 30. Letter David Lewis to Richard Hart, 22 May 1948. Richard Hart Collection, Institute of Commonwealth Studies Library, M861, Reel 6. 31. Letter Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 21 August 1950. Du Bois Papers, reel 65/420–430. 32. Letter Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 21 May 1946. Du Bois Papers, reel 59/337–376. 33. Padmore, ‘Suppression of African Papers Explained’, Vanguard, 4 August 1945; Padmore, ‘Press Liberty Threatened in Colonies’, Public Opinion, 28 March 1946; Padmore, ‘Zik Press Ltd and Nigeria’s Nationalism Will Be Hit’, Ashanti Pioneer, 1 July 1947. 34. Padmore, ‘Will “Daily Mirror” Invade Nigeria?’ Ashanti Pioneer, 1 July 1947; Padmore, ‘UK Lords Propose Challenge Zik’s Press Ltd By Founding Paper’, West African Pilot, 10 July 1947; Padmore, ‘Financiers of New Paper Hope to Succeed Where the PRO Fails’, West African Pilot, 11 July 1947. 35. Padmore, ‘What Price African Nationalism?’, Ashanti Pioneer, 1 June 1948. For more on the Mirror Group’s foray into West Africa, see John Chick, ‘Cecil King, the Press, and Politics in West Africa’, Journal of African Studies 34, no. 3 (September 1996), pp. 375–393. 36. Padmore, ‘Freedom of Colonial Press is Withdrawn’, Chicago Defender, 15 January 1949. 37. Telegram Governor of Sierra Leone to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 24 July 1950. TNA, CO 537/6550. 38. Governor of Bermuda to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 10 January 1947. TNA, CO 537/2545. 39. Telegram Governor of Bermuda to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 10 January 1947. TNA, CO 537/2545. 40. Telegram Governor of Jamaica to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 16 December 1946. TNA, CO 537/2545. 41. Telegram Governor of the Gold Coast to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 10 February 1948. TNA, CO 537/5120. 42. Telegram, Governor of Nyasaland to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 11 March 1947. TNA, CO 537/2545. 43. Internal memorandum, 17 May 1947. TNA, CO 537/2545. 226 Notes

44. Telegram Governor of Nigeria to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 30 July 1947. TNA, CO 537/2545. 45. Telegram K. Adumu-Bossman to Governor, Gold Coast. 7 July 1947. Fabian Colonial Bureau Papers, Rhodes House. Mss.Brit.Emp.s.365. Box 81, File 1. Ako Adjei was part of the ‘Big Six’ in Gold Coast politics and was arrested, along with Nkrumah, in 1948 as a leader of the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC). Adjei was also instrumental in recruiting Kwame Nkrumah back to the Gold Coast in 1947. K. Hadjor, Nkrumah and Ghana (London: Kegan Paul, 1988), p 40. 46. Telegram Governor of Gold Coast to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 10 February 1948. TNA, CO 537/5120. 47. ‘Directive for Countering Soviet Attacks on “Colonialism” and Colonial Administration’, 20 August 1948. TNA, FO 1110/20. 48. Colonial Office Public Relations Department, Internal Memorandum, 1 May 1946. TNA, CO 537/1476. 49. Letter George Padmore to Nancy Cunard, undated. Cunard Papers/17/10. 50. Padmore, ‘Hands Off the Soviet Union’, Left, no. 41 (February 1940). He argued the same thing in Africa and World Peace, pp. 257–258. Padmore’s arguments in this period swayed towards articulating a Trotskyist line on the USSR of revolutionary defencism. See Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, transl. Max Eastman (London: Faber and Faber, 1937). I am grateful to Susan Dabney Pennybacker for this point. 51. F. Hirsch, Empire of Nation (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), p 8. 52. For essays outlining these projects, see R. Suny and T. Martin, eds A State of Nations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). 53. Hirsch, Empire of Nations, pp. 232–261. 54. T. Martin, ‘Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, Journal of Modern History 70, no. 4 (1998), p 816. 55. The works that informed Padmore’s study are held at the George Padmore Library in Accra, and included S.P. Turin, The USSR: An Economic and Social Survey (London: Methuen, 1944); Joseph Macleod, The New Soviet Theatre (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1943); G.D.R. Phillips, Dawn in Siberia: The Mongols of Lake Baikal (London: Frederick Muller, 1942); William Mandel, The Soviet Far East and Central Asia (New York: International Secretarial Institute of Pacific Relations, 1944); Fannina W. Halle, Women in the Soviet East Translated from the German. (London: Martin Secker and Warburg, 1938). 56. Padmore, ‘Hands Off the Soviet Union’, Left, no. 41 (February 1940). A record of ‘the Stalinist Blood Purge’ was printed in the Worker’s Age, the organ of the Independent Communist Labor League. 57. Padmore, ‘British Imperialism and the Labor Movement’, Workers Age 7, no. 17 (23 April 1938). 58. Shepperson and Drake, ‘The Fifth Pan-African Conference’, p 55. 59. I am grateful to Susan Dabney Pennybacker for this suggestion. 60. Padmore, ‘Hands Off the Soviet Union’, Left, no. 41 (February 1940). He argued the same thing in Africa and World Peace, pp. 257–258. His fascination with Soviet defence is evidenced in two articles. Our London Correspondent, ‘Russia Strong Enough to Defy All the Powers Single-Handed’, and ‘Russia’s Growing Undersea Fleet’, The People, 24 April 1937. 61. Letter T.B. Subasinghe to Marika Sherwood, 27 February 1995. In possession of Marika Sherwood. Notes 227

62. Letter George Padmore to George Breitman [under pen name ‘Albert Parker’].n.d. NYU Tamiment Library Archives. Box 48, folder 3. Thank you to John Munro for sharing this file. 63. One of the most well-known British historians of Pan-Africanism, George Shepperson, once recalled that as a student at the University of Cambridge he took out a subscription to the journal Pan-Africa because he was eager to obtain a free copy of How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire. Shepperson and Drake, ‘The Fifth Pan-African Conference’, p 53. 64. Quoted in S. Rose, Which People’s War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p 270. 65. Padmore, ‘MP Demands Equality for Negroes’, Vanguard, 24 October 1942. 66. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 292. 67. Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire, p 76; p 153. 68. Martin, ‘Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, pp. 813–861. 69. Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire, p 64. 70. A. Grimshaw, ‘Introduction’, in Special Delivery: C.L.R. James’ Letters to Constance Webb, ed. Anna Grimshaw (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), p 9. 71. Selma James, ‘In Conversation about Dorothy Pizer and George Padmore’, George Padmore Institute, 19 March 2013. Transcribed by Leslie James. 72. Padmore, ‘Colonial Powers Report on Colonies’, AP, 30 October 1948. 73. S. James, ‘In Conversation about Dorothy Pizer and George Padmore’, 19 March 2013. 74. Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire, p 175. 75. Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire, p 35. Padmore made a sharp distinction between Labour MPs and ‘Intellectuals’, and the trade union hierarchy. For his detailed analysis of the difference between ‘right- wing political Labour leaders and the Trade Union officials’ and ‘left-wing “intellectuals”’ in the party, see ‘Imperialism: The Basis of Labour Party Crisis’, Left, no. 92 (June 1944). 76. Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire, p 35; p 170. 77. Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire, p 35; p 166. 78. Telegram Governor of Trinidad & Tobago to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 29 March 1947. TNA, CO 537/2545. 79. Telegram Governor of Sierra Leone to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 13 January 1948. TNA, CO 537/5120. 80. Telegram Governor of Trinidad & Tobago to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 9 February 1950. TNA, CO 537/6550. 81. Telegram Governor of Gold Coast to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 10 February 1948. TNA, CO 537/5120. 82. Public relations departments in the colonies followed efforts in the 1930s to promote colonial products in Britain itself through the Empire Marketing Board. For public relations in Britain and the Empire Marketing Board, see S. Anthony, Public Relations and the Making of Modern Britain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2012), pp. 29–62. 83. ‘Public relations in the colonies: African Governors’ Conference paper’ 8 November 1947. In Hyam, ed. Labour Government and end of Empire, vol 1, Doc 61, p 262. 84. ‘Soviet propaganda attacks on colonial administration’, May 1948. TNA, FO 1110/20. 228 Notes

85. Harold Cooper, Lagos Public Relations Dept. to K.W. Blackburne, Director of Information, Colonial Office, 4 November 1947. TNA, CO 537/2545. This quote was repeated in a cabinet memo by Ernest Bevin called ‘Review of Soviet policy’. Hyam, ed. Labour Government and the End of Empire, vol 2, Doc 143, pp. 319–326. 86. P. Murphy, ‘Britain as a Global Power in the Twentieth Century,’ in Britain’s Experience of the Twentieth Century, ed. Andrew Thompson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 50–55. 87. Goldsworthy, Colonial Issues in British Politics, 1945–1961, pp. 15–43; Pearce, The Turning Point in Africa, pp. 110–115. 88. K.O. Morgan, ‘Imperialists at Bay: British Labour and Decolonization’ Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 27, no. 2 (1999), pp. 237–238. 89. The Colonial Office appointed a Press Officer in 1931, and in 1940 set up a Public Relations Branch. After the war the Public Relations Branch of the CO was restructured and enlarged into the Information Department, which developed as a department distinctly aware of the Cold War context. See R. Smyth, ‘The Genesis of Public Relations in British Colonial Practice’, Public Relations Review 27 (2001), pp. 149–161. For the Colonial Office interpretation of public relations, see Hyam, ed. Labour Government and End of Empire, vol 1, Doc 61, p 262. 90. Chick, ‘Cecil King, the Press, and Politics in West Africa’, pp. 375–393. 91. Letter H.M. Foot to Arthur Creech Jones, 31 May 1949. TNA, CO 875/54/4. 92. Jason Parker, ‘Remapping the Cold War in the Tropics’, p 319. 93. For a concise summary of the extensive literature on the idea of the ‘Black- Red’ encounter in the Cold War, see Erik S. McDuffie, ‘Black and Red: Black Liberation, The Cold War, and the Horne Thesis’, Journal of African American History 96, no. 2 (Spring 2011) pp. 236–245. 94. Letter Harold Cooper, Lagos Public Relations Dept. to K.W. Blackburne, Director of Information, Colonial Office, 4 November 1947. TNA, CO 537/2545. This quote was repeated in a cabinet memo by Ernest Bevin called ‘Review of Soviet policy’. Hyam, ed. Labour Government and the End of Empire, vol 2, Doc 143, pp. 319–326. 95. Von Eschen, Race against Empire, pp. 7–20; pp. 40–44. 96. Cooper, Colonialism in Question, p 4. 97. Stammers, Civil Liberties in Britain during World War II (London: St. Martin’s Press, 1983). 98. Johannes Morsink, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins and Intent (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), pp. 10–32. There is a growing body of literature on the United Nations and Human Rights. Two of the most recent and historiographically important studies are Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace, and Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010). See also Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Jennifer Amos, ‘Embracing and Contesting: The Soviet Union and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948–1958’, in Human Rights in the Twentieth Century, ed. Stefan-Ludwig Hoffmann (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Roland Burke, Decolonization and the Evolution of International Human Rights (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010); Jan Eckel, ‘Human Rights and Decolonization: New Perspectives and Notes 229

Open Questions’, Humanities: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 1, no. 1 (Fall 2010), pp. 111–135; Andreas Eckert, ‘African Nationalists and Human Rights, 1940s–1970s’, in Human Rights in the Twentieth Century, ed. Stefan-Ludwig Hoffmann (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); A.W. Brian Simpson, Human Rights and the End of Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). 99. C. Anderson, Eyes off the Prize, pp. 5–6. 100. Schedule of publications, books, newspapers, and periodicals prohibited by colonial governments to be imported or circulated, 25 May 1950. TNA, CO 537/5246. 101. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 31 October 1949. Du Bois Papers, reel 64/203–225. 102. Internal memorandum, ‘Security Arrangements – West Africa: Undesirable Publications – “Africa” by George Padmore’, 31 March 1950. TNA, CO 537/6523. 103. Letter M. Joseph Mitchell, to the Right Honourable James Griffiths, 23 March 1950. TNA, CO 537/6523. 104. Letter African League to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 24 April 1950. TNA, CO 537/6523. 105. Letter Elizabeth M. Allen, to James Griffiths, 19 April 1950. TNA, CO 537/6523. For a history of the NCCL and the complicated affiliation of several Members of Parliament, and allegations of Soviet influence at this time, see Christopher Moores, From Civil Liberties to Human Rights? British Civil Liberties Organising, 1934–1989, PhD dissertation (2010), pp. 94–102. 106. 473 Parl. Deb., H.C. (5th ser.) (1950) 1185–1186. 107. For the banning of Padmore’s books, see Pennybacker, From Scottboro to Munich (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), p 75. For the functioning of MPs as representatives for colonial people, see D. Goldsworthy, ‘Parliamentary Questions on Colonial Affairs’, Parliamentary Affairs 23 (1970), p 147. 108. Meeting Notes, 25 April 1950. TNA, CO 537/6523. 109. Howe, Anti-colonialism in British Politics, p 22. The issue was also aided by the specific political context of the Labour Government in the first half of 1950. In February 1950 the Attlee Government won a small and tenuous majority in the general election, and simultaneously faced a diplomatic conundrum with the Seretse Khama affair. These events created sensitivity on a number of levels: at the level of party accord now vulnerable both to the criticism of left and to the right-wing Labour backbenchers, at the general level of the party’s public image, and especially with regard to the Khama affair, in terms of the Labour Government’s reputation regard- ing imperial and commonwealth affairs. See K. Morgan, Labour in Power (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984), pp. 410–417. For a history of the Labour Party’s increasing use of the mass media to construct its image and win elections, see L. Beers, Your Britain (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), pp. 165–180. 110. Telegram Secretary of State for the Colonies to Governor of Nigeria, CC to Gold Coast, Gambia, Sierra Leone, 1 April 1950. TNA, CO 537/6523. 111. M. Marable, W.E.B. Du Bois (Boston, MA: Twayne Publishers, 1986), p 164. 230 Notes

112. Padmore was, notably, one of those reported in 2003 to be on George Orwell’s list of communist sympathizers which he served up to the Information Research Department in 1949. 113. McDuffie, ‘Black and Red’, p 241. The importance of the Soviet Union as a model for African American intellectuals like Du Bois and Robeson, and of how this related to Padmore’s thinking, is taken up in Chapter 6. 114. Letter George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 12 December 1946. Du Bois Papers, reel 59/337–376. 115. R. Hill, Introduction to The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, vol 9, pp. xlviii– xlix. For the ramifications of Garvey-inspired censorship on anti-colonial nationalists, see R. Hill, Introduction to The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, vol. 10, pp. lxxxi–v. For the label of communism and Garveyism together, see, for example, ‘The Pan-Black Congress’, in The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, vol. 9, ed. Hill, pp. 180–182. 116. Padmore, ‘Asian and African Leaders to Meet’, Ashanti Pioneer, 5 October 1949. 117. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 31 October 1949. Du Bois Papers, reel 64/203–225. 118. Padmore, ‘Cause of Nationalism in Africa’, Ashanti Pioneer, 12 October 1949; ‘West Africa Looks to Gold Coast’, Ashanti Pioneer, 29 November 1949.

6 A Buttress for the ‘Beacon Light’

1. Manning Marable, African and Caribbean Politics (London: Verso, 1987), p 109; C.L.R. James, Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution (Connecticut: Lawrence Hill, 1978), pp. 62–65. 2. In Hooker’s biography, Padmore appears to lose touch with reality by focusing on ‘West African affairs after the war, to the exclusion of an active interest in events transpiring elsewhere on the continent’. Hooker’s interpretation does not consider Padmore’s continued articles in newspapers in the West Indies, other parts of Africa, and Asia. Hooker, Black Revolutionary (London: Pall Mall, 1967), p 103. 3. Padmore, ‘A Comparative Study of “Bloodless” Revolution’, Accra Evening News (AEN), 21 June 1952. 4. Padmore, ‘Bribery and Corruption among British Statesmen’, AEN, 2 March 1955. 5. Padmore, ‘Party Programmes on the Colonies Compared’, Ashanti Sentinel (AS), 20 April 1955. 6. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 14 December 1955. Wright Papers/103/1521. 7. Padmore, ‘A Comparative Study of “Bloodless” Revolution’, AEN, 21 June 1952. 8. Later in life Brockway himself acknowledged Padmore’s guidance by noting that Padmore’s ideas about Pan-Africanism were a major intellectual influence on his view of imperialism. Stephen Howe, Anti-Colonialism in British Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), p 171. 9. Letter George Padmore to Ivar Holm, 22 December 1953. Nkrumah Papers/ Howard, box 154-41, folder 14. Notes 231

10. Padmore, ‘British Press Reports On Kumasi Riots’, AS, 31 May 1955; ‘British MPs Blame NLM Leaders for Stoning Queen’s Representative’, AEN, 29 March 1955. 11. George Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire (London: Dennis Dobson, 1946), p 38. 12. Frederick Cooper, Decolonisation and African Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p 451. 13. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 19 October 1955. Wright Papers/103/1522. 14. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, pp. 225–243. 15. For aspects of Gandhi’s practice and especially their differences with Nehru, see Nicholas Owen, The British Left and India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 235–236. 16. George Shepperson and St. Clair Drake, ‘The Fifth Pan-African Conference’, Contributions in Black Studies 8 (1986), pp. 47–48; p 50. 17. Padmore, ‘Movement for Colonial Freedom Appeals to Gold Coast Political Leaders to Avoid Violence’, AS, 8 February 1955. Emphasis added. 18. Padmore, ‘African Soldiers May Oust Indians in Suppressing Malayan Freedom Fight’, West African Pilot (WAP), 19 April 1950. 19. Padmore, ‘SofS Says East African’s Freedom Must Depend on Racial Equality’, WAP, 8 January 1951; ‘Secretary of State Outlines Basic Plan to Prevent Racial Conflict’, WAP, 11 January 1951. 20. Padmore, ‘New Spirit of Racial Tolerance Exists in the Malay States’, WAP, 26 April 1951; ‘West Indies May Teach World’s Statesmen How to Solve Problem of Race Relations’, The Clarion, 7 April 1951; ‘Officials and Leaders of Public Life Implore Britons to End All Forms of Colour Bar’, WAP, 10 August 1951; ‘Mexican Anthropologist Debunks Theory of Racial Superiority’, WAP, 27 November 1951. 21. Padmore, ‘Dr. Malan Warns British against Granting Self-Rule to Nigeria and the Gold Coast’, WAP, 19 July 1951. 22. Padmore, ‘West Indies Call for Boycott of Goods from South Africa’, WAP, 27 October 1950; ‘Honduras May Riot to End Starvation and Oppression’, WAP, 12 January 1950; ‘Starving Natives Might Riot Warns Bishop of Honduras’, Vanguard, 25 February 1950; ‘Kenya Africans Attack White Administrators’, WAP, 10 May 1950; ‘Unrest in East Africa Blamed on African Secret Freedom Bodies’, WAP, 21 June 1950; ‘English Pastor Warns of Racial War Threat in African Continent’, WAP, 11 July 1950. 23. Padmore, ‘Seretse in Exile’, WAP, 16 April 1952; ‘Labour Members of Parliament Oppose Tories on Khama Issue’, WAP, 20 May 1952. 24. Padmore, ‘Africans Boycott Central African Federation Conference in London’, AEN, 8 May 1952. For more on the Central African Federation, see Philip Murphy, Party Politics and Decolonization: The Conservative Party and British Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa, 1951–1964 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); and Philip Murphy, ed., British Documents on the End of Empire: Central Africa, Parts I and II (London: The Stationery Office, 2005). 25. Padmore, ‘Sudanese Betrayal’, WAP, 21 May 1952; ‘Sudanese Want Western Powers to Aid Them to Independence’, WAP, 6 June 1952; ‘Leader of the Sudan in London to Demand Independence’, WAP, 9 October 1952. For an overview of British policy in the Sudan, see Douglas H. Johnson, 232 Notes

‘Introduction’ in British Documents on the End of Empire: Sudan, Part I, 1942– 1950 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1998). 26. Padmore, ‘Dictatorship Laws in East Africa Criticised’, AEN, 14 October 1952; ‘Crisis in East Africa’, WAP, 28 October 1952; Defence Committee Formed to Assist Kenya Nationalists’, WAP, 9 December 1952; ‘Burning Spear’, WAP, 17 December 1952. 27. ‘Gold Coast Judge Named Candidate for Mau Mau Enquiry’, AEN, 27 October 1952. 28. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 20 January 1953, Wright Papers/ 103/1521. 29. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 7 November 1955, Wright Papers/ 103/1521. 30. Our London Correspondent, ‘West Indies May Teach World’s Statesmen How to Solve Problem of Race Relations’, The Clarion, 7 April 1951. 31. Padmore, ‘Irish to Boycott Coronation’, AEN, 26 May 1953; ‘Opposition in Ceylon Parliament Support Coronation Boycott Action’, AEN, 27 May 1953. 32. Letter Padmore to Ivar Holm, 7 July 1953 and Ivar Holm to Padmore, 16 November 1953. Nkrumah Papers/Howard, box 154-41, folder 13–15. 33. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Richard Wright, 25 October 1954 and Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 31 February 1955. Wright Papers/103/1521–22. 34. Cooper, Decolonisation and African Society, p 390. 35. Parker, My Brother’s Keeper: The United States, Race, and Empire in the British Caribbean, 1937–1962 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 94. 36. Padmore, ‘Self-Government’, (NY) Amsterdam News, 10 August 1940. 37. Padmore, ‘Okay West Indies Federation’, Chicago Defender, 7 July 1945. 38. Parker, My Brother’s Keeper, p 106. 39. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 19 October 1955; Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 14 December 1955. Wright Papers/103/1521-22. 40. Selma James, ‘In Conversation about Dorothy Pizer and George Padmore’, George Padmore Institute. 19 March 2013, Transcribed by Leslie James. 41. For a useful analysis of these events, see Richard Drayton, ‘Anglo-American “Liberal” Imperialism, British Guiana, 1953–1964, and the World since September 11’, in Wm. Roger Louis, ed. Yet More Adventures with Britannia: Personalities, Politics and Culture in Britain (London: I.B. Tauris, 2005), pp. 321–342. 42. Robert Anthony Waters, ‘A Betrayal of the Cause of Colonial People the World Over’, Journal of Caribbean History 43, no. 1 (2009), pp. 115–135. 43. Letter George Padmore to Daniel Guerin, 29 October 1953. Biblioteque de Documentation Internationale Contemporaine, Daniel Guerin Papers. 44. Padmore, ‘Nkrumah’s Tactics Widely Praised’, AS, 3 November 1953. 45. ‘British Guiana, A Warning to Colonial Nationalists’, AS, 31 October 1953. 46. Padmore, ‘US Democratic Presidential Candidate Condemns South African Racialism’, AS, 22 May 1955. 47. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 3 December 1954. Du Bois Papers, reel 70/955–959. 48. Letter George Padmore to Daniel Guerin, 9 August 1955. BDIC: Daniel Guerin Collection. 49. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 323; p 339. Notes 233

50. For more on these problems, see Horne, Cold War in a Hot Zone (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2007); Parker, ‘Remapping the Cold War in the Tropics’, p 326; McDuffie, Erik S. ‘Black and Red: Black Liberation, The Cold War, and the Horne Thesis’, Journal of African American History 96, no. 2 (Spring 2011), p 241. 51. Robert Hill, ‘Introduction’, in The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers. Volume XI. The Caribbean Diaspora, 1910–1920, ed. R. Hill (Durham: Duke University Press, 2011), p lix. 52. Padmore, ‘Tory Regards Stopping Colour Bar by Legislation as Fatal’, WAP, 6 August 1953; ‘UK Government Rejects Bill to Make Colour Bar Illegal’, WAP, 20 August 1953. 53. Padmore, ‘Race Problem in Britain’, AS, 11 May 1954; ‘British Govern- ment to Set up Commission to Enquire into Colour Bar’, AEN, 20 January 1955. 54. Padmore, ‘Legal Experts Finalise Gold Coast Constitution – Malan Trembles’, AS, 14 April 1954. 55. For the most important example here, see William Roger Louis, Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization. Collected Essays (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006). 56. ‘Labour Party Backs Gold Coast Independence’, AS, 3 September 1954. 57. Manning Marable used Pan-Africanism or Communism to draw lines between Padmore’s ideas and Nkrumah’s actions, and Rukudzo Murapa used inter- views with associates such as St. Clair Drake and C.L.R. James along with Padmore’s journalism in African American newspapers to argue for Padmore’s influence over Nkrumah. Polsgrove has utilized U.S. State Department files, the Nkrumah correspondence at Howard University, and British Colonial Office files to argue that Padmore saw himself as the Gold Coast’s ‘hidden philosopher and strategist’. 58. George Padmore to Dorothy Pizer, 6 September 1951. TNA, KV2/1850. 59. George Padmore to Dorothy Pizer, 11 September 1951. TNA, KV2/1850. 60. ‘Correspondence Relating to George Padmore’, TNA, KV2/1850. Letter from George Padmore to Dorothy Pizer, 8 August 1951; Letter from Dorothy Pizer to George Appiah, 21 August 1951; Letters George Padmore to Dorothy Pizer, 29 August and 1 September 1951. 61. C.L.R. James, ‘Notes on the Life of George Padmore,’ p 106. 62. Marable, African and Caribbean Politics, p 106. 63. Letter George Padmore to Kwame Nkrumah, 9 November 1951. Nkrumah Papers/Howard, box 154-41, folder 13. 64. Letter George Padmore to Kwame Nkrumah, 29 December 1951. Nkrumah Papers/Howard, box 154-41, folder 13. 65. Letter George Padmore to Kwame Nkrumah, 22 November 1951. Nkrumah Papers/Howard, box 154-41, folder 13. 66. Letter George Padmore to Kwame Nkrumah, 2 October 1952. TNA, KV2/ 1850. 67. Letter Kwame Nkrumah to George Padmore, 14 May 1953. See also Colonial Office internal memo, 13 July 1953. TNA, KV2/1851. 68. Letter Kwame Nkrumah to George Padmore, 18 July 1953. Nkrumah Papers/ Howard, box 154-41, folder 13. 234 Notes

69. Letter George Padmore to Kwame Nkrumah, 10 May 1954. Nkrumah Papers/ Howard, box 154-41, folder 14. 70. Padmore, ‘Nkrumah Throws the Challenge’, WAP, 19 October 1951. 71. Padmore, ‘Gold Coast Celebrates Independence Day’, WAP, 17 January 1952. 72. Padmore, ‘Dr. Kwame Nkrumah – First African Prime Minister’, WAP, 11 Jun 1952. 73. Letter George Padmore to Kwame Nkrumah, 15 November 1951. Nkrumah Papers/Howard, box 152-41, folder 13. 74. Letter George Padmore to Ivar Holm, 7 July 1953. Nkrumah Papers/Howard, box 154-41, folder 14. 75. Letter George Padmore to Ivar Holm, April 1953. Nkrumah Papers/Howard, box 154-41, folder 14. 76. P. Nugent, Africa since Independence (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), p 28. 77. Padmore, ‘Nationalism Sweeping through Central and East Africa’, AS, 7 October 1954. 78. Padmore, ‘New Constitution for Singapore’, AS, 29 May 1954; ‘Jamaica Ready for General Elections’, AS, 6 December 1954. 79. Padmore, ‘Nigeria, A Warning to the Gold Coast’, AS, 21 September 1954. 80. Hussein M. Adam, ‘Black Thinkers and the Need to Confront Karl Marx’, Pan-African Journal IV, no. 1 (Winter 1971), p 84. See Kwame Nkrumah, Neo- colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism (London: Thomas Nelson, 1965). 81. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 5 March 1956. Wright Papers/103/1522. 82. Immanuel Wallerstein calls this the ‘year of African socialism’. Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity, p 232. 83. Robert Hill, The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, vol X, Africa for the Africans, 1923–1945 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006), p lxxxi. 84. Padmore, ‘Premier’s Self-Government Called Statesmanlike in London’, AEN, 27 October 1952; ‘Nkrumah Is Teaching World Statesmen Racial Tolerance’, AEN, 25 March 1953; ‘Key to Nkrumah Strength: Organised & Disciplined Party’, AEN, 26 March 1953. 85. For this topos, see Emily Greenwood, ‘Dislocating Black Classicism’, in Orrells et al., African Athena: New Agendas (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 376–378. 86. George Padmore, ‘Nationalists Strong on African Gold Coast’, Chicago Defender, 30 April 1949. 87. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 255; p 265. Emphasis in original. 88. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, pp 269–272; How Russia Trans- formed Her Colonial Empire, pp. 35–37; p. 49. 89. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 168. 90. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p xviii; p 355. Emphasis added. 91. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 21 July 1954. Wright Papers/ 103/1522. 92. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 25 April 1955, Wright Papers/1521; Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 21 July 1954. Wright Papers/1522. 93. In the early 1950s, the CPGB carried out increased work particularly with regard to politics in Nigeria, and attracted a number of Nigerians to the Party. See John Callahan, Cold War, Crisis and Conflict: The CPGB, 1951–1968 (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 2003), p 130. Notes 235

94. George Padmore, ‘The Socialist Attitude to the Invasion of the USSR’, Left, no. 60 (September 1941). 95. Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich, pp. 101–102. 96. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 5 March 1956. Wright Papers/103/1522. 97. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 267. 98. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, pp. 316–317. 99. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 5 March 1956. Wright Papers/103/1522. 100. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 351.

7 The Era of Padmore the ‘Outsider’: Nation, Diaspora, and Modernity, 1950–1956

1. Padmore, ‘Tribalism, Greatest Menace Facing Africa’, AS, 15 September 1954. 2. The notion of the ‘outsider’ in African politics, particularly as experienced by the diaspora, has become a common refrain in African and Pan-African history. This dates at least from Colin Legum’s foundational text on Pan- Africanism, which referred to ‘black aliens in Africa’ and the idea of the ‘stranger’ in African politics. See C. Legum, Pan-Africanism: A Short Political Guide (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962), pp. 108–110. 3. One of the most important studies to outline the problem of the nation-state in Africa, and its historical antecedent in Europe, comes from the pioneer- ing Africanist, Basil Davidson. Davidson, The Black Man’s Burden (London: Currey, 1992). For a useful summary of the notion of modernity and, in particular, its relevance to colonial history, see Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005), pp. 113–149. 4. George Padmore to Dorothy Brookes, 17 April 1956. Wright Papers/103/1522. 5. C.L.R. James, ‘Notes on the Life of George Padmore’, p 37. 6. Selma James, ‘In Conversation about Dorothy Pizer and George Padmore’. George Padmore Institute. 19 March 2013. Transcribed by Leslie James. 7. Undated Letter Mary Klopper to Marika Sherwood. In the possession of Marika Sherwood. 8. George Padmore to Dorothy Brooks, 17 April 1956. Wright Papers/103/1522. 9. Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 24 December 1956. Wright Papers/103/1521. 10. A.S. Rush, Bonds of Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), p 111. 11. Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 24 & 26 December 1956. Wright Papers/ 103/1521. 12. S. James, ‘In Conversation about Dorothy Pizer and George Padmore’, 19 March 2013. 13. George Padmore to Richard Wright, 28 June 1954. Wright Papers/103/1522. 14. C.L.R. James, At the Rendezvous of Victory (London: Allison and Busby, 1984), p 259. 15. J. Hooker, Black Revolutionary (London: Pall Mall Press, 1967), p 9. 16. Along with an Englishwoman named Rose Verner, Padmore arranged to collect and ship 300 books to create a library for a school in Accra. ‘George Padmore’s Tribute to Late Kwesi Plange’, AEN, 6 May 1953. 17. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 19 October 1955. Wright Papers/ 103/1522. 236 Notes

18. Letter Anthony Eden to Fenner Brockway, 13 September 1952. TNA, KV2/ 1825. 19. Letter C.L.R. James to George Padmore, 23 June 1953. Wright Papers/103/1522. 20. For further insight into this exchange, see John Munro, ‘The Anticolonial Front: Cold War Imperialism and the Struggle against Global White Supremacy, 1945–1960’. PhD Dissertation. University of California Santa Barbara. September 2009. 21. Author interview with Selma James, 10 April 2014. 22. C. Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009), pp. 118–133. 23. George Padmore to Richard Wright, 5 December 1955. Wright Papers/103/1522. 24. George Padmore to Richard Wright, 28 June 1954. Wright Papers/103/1522. 25. Padmore ‘Unitary Government versus Federal Government, Ashanti Sentinel (hereafter cited as AS), 30 September 1954. 26. Abrahams participation in a BBC programme in 1952 sparked a comment by Dorothy Pizer that ‘once a coloured man gets onto the BBC in any other pro- gramme than a colonial or commonwealth one, you know for sure that he’s made his peace with the other side. We hope he can maintain his “liberal” detachment in the very free air of Goli!’ Dorothy Pizer to Richard Wright, 26 May 1952. Wright Papers/103/1521. 27. Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa, p 120. 28. Pan-Africanism or Communism is the best example of this and is evidence, as discussed later in this chapter, of the difficulty in using the text as the major source of Padmore’s thought. 29. Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa, p 133. 30. Quoted in J. Allman, Quills of the Porcupine (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), p 45. 31. Allman, Quills of the Porcupine, p 18. 32. Paul Andre Ladouceur, Chiefs and Politicians: The Politics of Regionalism in Northern Ghana (London: Longman Group, Ltd. 1979), pp. 132–145. 33. George Padmore to Richard Wright, 9 February 1955. Wright Papers/103/1522. 34. ‘British Press Endorse PM’s Conciliatory Gesture’, AEN, 1 March 1955. 35. Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 31 February 1955. Wright Papers/103/1521. 36. No author, ‘Padmore’s Stupidity’, Daily Echo, 25 July 1952. 37. No author, ‘Black Goebbels’, Daily Echo, 29 July 1952. 38. K. Tololyan, ‘Beyond the Homeland’, in The Call of the Homeland, ed. Gal et al. (Leiden: Brill, 2010), p 33. 39. K.Y. Attoh, ‘Padmore, Liar of the Year’, Daily Echo, 22 October 1955. Attoh, an Accra journalist, was one of a group of 38 opposition members to be arrested under the new Preventive Detention Act in November 1958. See Austin, Politics in Ghana, p 381. 40. K.Y. Attoh, ‘Padmore, Liar of the Year’, Daily Echo, 22 October 1955. 41. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, pp. 58–59. Cited in Diana Paton, ‘The Moyne Commission, Caribbean Religion, and the Development of Social Scientific Knowledge between Metropolis and Colony’. Conference Paper given at the North American Conference on British Studies, November 2012. 42. Paton, ‘The Moyne Commission, Caribbean Religion, and the Development of Social Scientific Knowledge between Metropolis and Colony’. 43. Rathbone, Nkrumah and the Chiefs, p 24. Notes 237

44. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 19 October 1955. Wright Papers/ 103/1522. 45. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 24 May 1954. Wright Papers/ 103/1522. 46. George Padmore to Richard Wright, 23 August 1955. Wright Papers/103/1522. 47. P. Gilroy, The Black Atlantic (London: Verso, 1993), p 24; pp. 192–193. 48. A. Bogues, Black Heretics, Black Prophets (London: Routledge, 2003), p 11. 49. Gilroy, Black Atlantic, p 112. 50. Padmore, ‘First African Commissioned: King of Ashantis Now Lieutenant Colonel of Home Guards’, New York Amsterdam News, 12 September 1942. 51. Padmore, Africa: Britain’s Third Empire, p 114. 52. Allman, Quills of the Porcupine, pp. 25–39. 53. Padmore, ‘British Capitalists to Delay Independence’, AS, 8 September 1954; ‘Gold Coast Economic Stability Leads Colonial and Commonwealth’, AS, 12 October 1954. Padmore made similar arguments in private correspondence to Du Bois, when he noted that the Gold Coast was ‘too poor to produce the necessary capital to pay for their Industrial Revolution’, but that ‘borrowing for this means economic enslavement’. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 12 January 1955. Du Bois Papers, reel 71/640–650. 54. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 12 April 1956. Wright Papers/ 103/1522. 55. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 355. Emphasis added. 56. Cooper, Colonialism in Question, p 115; p 133. 57. Much of this debate hinges around arguments made by Subaltern Studies scholars about ‘multiple modernities’. For a recent critique of multiple and ‘alternative’ modernity arguments, see John Marriott, ‘Modernity’ in The Ashgate Research Companion to Modern Imperial Histories, eds P. Levine and J. Marriott (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), pp. 581–584. 58. Padmore, How Britain Rules Africa, p 387. 59. A. Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), p 2. 60. N. Cunard and G. Padmore, The White Man’s Duty (London: W.H. Allen, 1942), p 28; Padmore, ‘Churchill Turns Down Colored Peoples’, Chicago Defender, 25 November 1944. 61. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 349; Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1963), p 94. 62. Padmore, The White Man’s Duty, p 30. 63. Padmore, ‘African Chiefs Given More Power by Britain’, Chicago Defender, 30 January 1943. 64. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, p 382. 65. Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism, p 11. 66. Padmore, ‘George Padmore World Views’, Chicago Defender, 24 January 1948. 67. Kate Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), pp. 2–10. 68. For analysis of the Soviet model as perpetuating ‘premodern-modern bina- ries’, see Christopher J. Lee, ‘Tricontinentalism in Question’, in Making a World after Empire, p 281. 69. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 322. 70. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, pp. 292–293. 238 Notes

71. Letter George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 12 January 1955. Du Bois Papers, reel 71/640–650. 72. S. James, ‘In Conversation about Dorothy Pizer and George Padmore’, 19 March 2013. 73. In the early 1960s a strain of Soviet scholarship in the Western academy also championed the argument that class identity had outstripped ethnic identity in the Soviet Union. These arguments were usually made by those inter- ested, in the 1960s, in ‘development’ theory who looked to the USSR as an alternative model that materially lifted people out of poverty and, through this process, transcended ethnic national identities. For a summary of this historiography, see Suny and Martin, ‘Introduction’ in R. Suny and T. Martin, eds A State of Nations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 4–6. 74. Padmore, ‘Party System Lynchpin of Political Democracy’, AEN, 7 June 1952. 75. Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire, p 45. 76. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, p 7. 77. Hussein M. Adam, ‘Black Thinkers and the Need to Confront Karl Marx’, Pan-African Journal IV, no. 1 (Winter 1971), pp. 75–102. 78. J. Breuilly, Nationalism and the State, Second Edition (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), p 1; pp. 195–196. 79. P. Chatterjee, Empire and Nation (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), pp. 26–27. 80. Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire, p 79. 81. Amilcar Cabral, ‘Connecting the Struggles: An Informal Talk with Black Americans’, in Cabral, Return to the Source: Selected Speeches by Amilcar Cabral (New York: Africa Information Service, 1973), p 84. 82. Minkah Makalani, ‘The Decolonial Character and Black Marxism: A Genealogy of Black Marxist Thought’, Paper given to the University of Oxford Race and Resistance Network, 17 May 2013. 83. S. Howe, Anticolonialism in British Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), pp. 116–117. 84. Rene Depestre, ‘An Interview with Aimé Césaire’, in Aimé Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism. 85. P. Gilroy, The Black Atlantic (London: Verso, 1993), p 29. For further discus- sion of Gilroy’s analysis of the interactions between national and global perspectives, see Lucy Evans, ‘The Black Atlantic: Exploring Gilroy’s Legacy’, Atlantic Studies 6, no. 2 (2009), pp. 255–268. 86. Ifeoma Kiddoe Nwankwo, Black Cosmopolitanism (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), p 12. 87. Padmore, ‘Padmore Hints New Job for CiPiPists’, Accra Evening News, 26 March 1957.

8 Ghana, Death, and the Afterlife

1. W.S. Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), p 28; D.Z. Poe, Kwame Nkrumah’s Contribution to Pan-Africanism (London: Routledge, 2003), p 108. 2. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 9 April 1957. Wright Papers/103/1521. 3. J. Hooker, Black Revolutionary (London: Pall Mall Press, 1967), p 109. Notes 239

4. D. Austin, Ghana Observed (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1976), p 49. 5. D. Austin, Politics in Ghana (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964), pp. 364–369. 6. Austin, Politics in Ghana, p 380. 7. Austin, Politics in Ghana, p 381. 8. R. Rathbone, Nkrumah and the Chiefs (Oxford: James Currey, 2000), pp. 151–155. See also B. Amonoo, Ghana, 1957–1966 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1981), pp. 1–2. For disagreement that Ghana was a dictatorship after 1960, see D. Apter, Ghana in Transition (New York: Atheneum, 1963), p xvi. 9. Telegram George Padmore to Jain Times of India, 6 September 1959. Bureau of African Affairs Papers, RLAA/413, ‘Cablegrams 1959’. I am grateful to Frank Gerits for providing me with a copy of this telegram. 10. Els Bogaerts and Remco Raben, eds. Beyond Empire and Nation: The Decolonization of African and Asian societies, 1930s–1960s (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2012), p 17. 11. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 29 January 1957. Wright Papers/103/1522. 12. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 9 April 1957. Wright Papers/103/1521. 13. No author, ‘Padmore Hints New Job for CiPiPists’, Ghana Evening News, 26 March 1957. 14. Letter Norman Manley to George Padmore, 23 March 1957; Padmore to Eric Williams, 15 March 1957. Bureau of African Affairs Papers, Sc/BAA/187. 15. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 2 May 1957. Wright Papers/103/1521; George Padmore to Richard Wright, 22 April 1957. Wright Papers/103/1522; ‘Padmore Back from Sierra Leone, Gives Impressions’, Ghana Evening News, 11 May 1957. For a useful account of the politics of the RDA in this period, see Elizabeth Schmidt, ‘Cold War in Guinea: The Rassemblement Democratique Africain and the Struggle over Communism, 1950–1958’, Journal of African History 48, no. 1 (March 2007), pp. 95–121. 16. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 2 May 1957. Wright Papers/103/1521. 17. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 22 April 1957. Wright Papers/ 103/1522. 18. Telegram George Padmore to Jain Times of India, 6 September 1959. BAA/ RLAA/413, ‘Cablegrams 1959’. For this argument by the ILP in the 1930s, see S. Howe, Anticolonialism in British Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), pp. 116–117. 19. Letter Dorothy Pizer to St. Clair Drake, 3 June 1963. Drake Papers/Schomburg/ MG 309, box 8, folder 23. 20. Letter George Padmore to Richard Wright, 22 April 1957. Wright Papers/ 103/1522. 21. Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire, pp. 44–46. 22. Letter George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 10 March 1955. Du Bois Papers, reel 71/640–650. 23. S. James, ‘In Conversation about Dorothy Pizer and George Padmore’, 19 March 2013. 24. No author, ‘Padmore Hints New Job for CiPiPists’, Accra Evening News, 26 March 1957. 240 Notes

25. Telegram, George Padmore to Jain Times of India, 6 September 1959. BAA/ RLAA/413, ‘Cablegrams 1959’. 26. Telegram Office of High Commissioner for UK to Secretary of State, Commonwealth Relations Office, 29 April 1958. TNA, FO 371/131239. 27. Jeffrey Ahlman, ‘Road to Ghana: Nkrumah, Southern Africa and the Eclipse of a Decolonizing Africa’, Kronos 37, no. 1 (2011), p 25. 28. A. Biney, The Political and Social Thought of Kwame Nkrumah (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), p 135. Kojo Botsio was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1958. 29. Interview by the author with Kwaku Amoah-Awuah, Accra, Ghana, 31 May 2011. For more on the African Affairs Centre, see Ahlman, ‘Road to Ghana’, p 26. 30. Telegram Daniel Chapman to George Padmore, 11 February 1958; Padmore to Chapman 27 January 1958. Bureau of African Affairs Papers, Folder 12, Secretary’s Correspondence. 31. Telegram George Padmore to Daniel Chapman, 26 May 1958. Bureau of African Affairs Papers, Secretary’s Correspondence. Details of Mboya’s case and of the failed attempt to send Ernest Sowah, a Ghanaian lawyer, to help with the case can be found in TNA, DO 35/9332. Padmore met Sowah at the airport after he was denied entry to Kenya. 32. Letter Michael Scott to George Padmore, 28 October 1958. African Bureau Papers, Rhodes House, University of Oxford. MSS.Afr.s.1681. box 303, file 3. 33. Between 1947 and 1953 Padmore produced 11 newspaper articles related to Scott’s work in the West African Pilot, Public Opinion, The Ashanti Pioneer, and the Accra Evening News. 34. Telegram British Embassy Khartoum to Foreign Office, 24 February 1958. TNA, FO 371/131238. 35. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Ellen Wright, 19 March 1958. Wright Papers/103/ 1521. 36. Consul General Report to Africa Department, Foreign Office. 10 March 1958. TNA, FO 371/131238. 37. Telegram, ‘On the Eve of the Pan-African Conference’, 2 December 1958. National Archives of the United States of America, College Park (NARA). RG 59, box 3646, 770.00/12–158. 38. Dorothy remarked after his death that Padmore ‘had to face this business of being a “stranger” while working in Ghana’. Letter Dorothy Pizer to Richard Wright, 31 October 1959. Wright Papers/103/1521. 39. Memorandum George Padmore to Staff, Office of Adviser to the Prime Minister on African Affairs, 30 July 1958. BAA, folder 165. 40. Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p 29. The remarks are attributed to Nkrumah’s principal secretary, A.L. Adu. 41. Hooker, Black Revolutionary, p 133. 42. Padmore to Official Functions Officer, 8 August 1958. BAA, folder 165. Hooker also alluded to Padmore’s concern that his position be viewed with appropriate deference by demanding an impressive salary. Hooker, Black Revolutionary, p 133. 43. Adviser on African Affairs comments on Pan-African developments, 17 February 1959. NARA, RG59, box 3647, 770.00/2–259. 44. Austin, Ghana Observed, p 39. Notes 241

45. Chick, ‘Cecil King, the Press and Politics in West Africa’, p 387. 46. Rathbone, Nkrumah and the Chiefs, p 153. 47. Quoted in Apter, Ghana in Transition, pp. 340–341. 48. Raphael Dalleo, ‘“The Independence So Hardly Won Has Been Maintained”: C.L.R. James and the U.S. Occupation of Haiti’, Cultural Critique 87 (Spring 2014), pp. 38–59. 49. ‘Padmore Hints New Job for CiPiPists’, Accra Evening News, 26 March 1957. 50. Padmore, How Britain Rules Africa, pp. 333–334. 51. Biney, The Political and Social Thought of Kwame Nkrumah, p 87. 52. J. Ahlman, ‘A New Type of Citizen: Youth, Gender, and Generation in the Ghanaian Builders Brigade’, Journal of African History 53, no. 1 (March 2012), pp. 87–105. For the general importance of youth in postcolonial African societies, see Mamadou Diouf, ‘Engaging Postcolonial Cultures: African Youth and Public Space’, African Studies Review 46, no. 2 (2003), pp. 1–12. 53. ‘Padmore Hints New Job for CiPiPists’, Accra Evening News, 26 March 1957. 54. Padmore, How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire, p 48. 55. G. Shepperson and St. Claire Drake, ‘The Fifth Pan-African Congress’, Contributions in Black Studies 8, Article 5 (1986), pp. 55–56. 56. Telegram George Padmore to Jain Times of India, 6 September 1959. Bureau of African Affairs Papers, RLAA/413, ‘Cablegrams 1959’. 57. Adamafio was arrested and jailed by Nkrumah in 1963. Adamafio, By Nkrumah’s Side (Accra: Westcoast Publishing House, 1982). 58. ‘The New Party’, Memorandum Tawia Adamafio to Kwame Nkrumah, undated. Bureau of African Affairs, folder 500. 59. ‘The New Party’, BAA, folder 500. Emphasis in original. 60. ‘An Address by Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah on the Opening of the George Padmore Library in Accra on 30 June 1961’, Bulletin on African Affairs vol 2, no 86. 61. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, pp. 68–69. 62. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 82. 63. J. Allman, ‘Nuclear Imperialism and the Pan-African Struggle for Peace and Freedom: Ghana, 1959–1962’, Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture, and Society 10, no. 2 (2008), p 86. For Accra as an ‘extra-metropolitan’ centre, see Meredith Terretta, ‘Cameroonian Nationalists Go Global: From Forest Maquis to a Pan-African Accra’, Journal of African History 51, no. 2 ( July 2010), pp. 189–212. 64. For Nkrumah’s struggle with the Algerian Question and the use of violence, see Jeffrey Ahlman, ‘The Algerian Question in Nkrumah’s Ghana, 1958– 1960: Debating “Violence” and “Nonviolence” in African Decolonization’, Africa Today 57, no. 2 (Winter 2010), pp. 67–84. 65. Shepperson and Drake, ‘The Fifth Pan-African Conference’, pp. 47–50. 66. For more on Ghana’s relations with Egypt, see Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 45–48. 67. Ahlman, ‘Road to Ghana’, p 40. 68. Letter George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 28 March 1951. Du Bois Papers, reel 67/306–320. George Padmore to W.E.B. Du Bois, 8 January 1952. Du Bois Papers, reel 68/764–766. 242 Notes

69. For an analysis of the similarities between the AAPC and Padmore’s other world, see Munro, ‘The Anti-Colonial Front’, p 415. 70. Secret Telegram from Foreign Office to British Embassy, Washington. 6 June 1958. TNA, FO 371/131239. 71. Ngubane quoted in ‘Getting Ready for a Conference That Will Change the Course of African history’, Peace News, 24 October 1958. TNA, CO 936/579. 72. Letter C.G. Eastwood to A.W. Snelling, 25 July 1958. TNA, CO 936/579. 73. ‘Extract from Nigerian FIC Report No. 8, 1958. TNA, CO 936/579; Savingram from Secretary of State for the Colonies to Governor General of Nigeria, 4 November 1958. TNA, CO 936/579. 74. N.A. Leadbitter, UK Information Office to Mr. Le Tocq, UK High Commission, 12 September 1958. TNA, CO 936/579. 75. ‘On the Eve of the Pan-African Peoples Conference’, 2 December 1958. NARA, RG59, box 3646, folder 770.00/12–158. 76. Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich, p 90. 77. Congratulatory message to AAPC, 2 December 1958. NARA, RG59, box 3646, folder 770.00/12–158. 78. See, for example Poe, Kwame Nkrumah’s Contribution to Pan-Africanism, p 53. 79. Quoted in Leo Zeilig, Lumumba: Africa’s Lost Leader (London: Haus Publishing, 2008), p 67. 80. Irwin, Gordian Knot (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), p 37; Munro, ‘The Anti-Colonial Front’,p 426. 81. Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, p 61. 82. Telegram British Embassy, Tel Aviv to Foreign Office, 23 January 1959. TNA, FO 371/142296. 83. For his trip to Nigeria, see ‘Kwame Nkrumah Arrives in Nigeria’, Daily Graphic, 23 February 1959. For his trip to Conakry, see ‘US Embassy Report – Conversations with George Padmore’, 6 April 1959. NARA, RG59, box 3647, folder 770.00/4–159. For the internal wranglings of the AAPC Steering Committee, see Thompson, Ghana’s Foreign Policy, pp. 63–66. 84. Adviser on African Affairs comments on Pan-African developments, 17 February 1959. NARA, RG59, box 3647, 770.00/2–259. 85. Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, p 356. The book ends with the fol- lowing statement: ‘And all the national units comprising the regional federa- tions shall be autonomous in all matters regional, yet united in all matters of common interest to the African Union. This is our vision of the Africa of Tomorrow – the goal of Pan-Africanism.’ 86. Telegram British Embassy Accra to Foreign Office, 24 November 1958. TNA, FO 371/131428. 87. The British Embassy in Conakry assessed Nkrumah’s meetings in Guinea in April as affirming the ‘accord and determination’ behind the Ghana Guinea union. See Confidential report from British Embassy, Conakry, to Foreign Office, 20 May 1959. FO 371/138170. 88. For example, the Declaration called for the recognition of the Provisional Government of Algeria (GPRA). I. Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), pp. 37–38. 89. Dr. Stokes and Professor Rosenheim to Kwame Nkrumah, 29 September 1959. BAA, folder 500. Notes 243

90. Telegram George Padmore to Jain Times of India, 6 September 1959. BAA, RLAA/413, ‘Cablegrams 1959’. 91. Telegram Ministry of Foreign Affairs to Ghana Bureau, Conakry, 12 September 1959. BAA, RLAA/413, ‘Cablegrams 1959’. 92. Last Will and Testament of George Padmore, 30 June 1951. Padmore Papers/Schomburg, MG 624. 93. ‘Memorial Service for George Padmore in UK’, WAP, 30 September 1959. 94. Cablegrams, Bureau of African Affairs 1959. BAA Papers/3. 95. ‘Padmore’s ashes arrive’, Daily Graphic, 5 October 1959. 96. ‘To Padmore’, undated. Drake Papers, MG 309, box 8 (103). 97. Mabel Dove, ‘He Lives’, Ghana Times, 28 September 1959. For more on Mabel Dove, see S. Newell and A. Gadzekpo, eds Mabel Dove (Nottingham: Trent Editions, 2004). Dove’s poem affirms a consistent theme in Akan Highlife songs that death is a reality ‘from which no one returns’, but acknowledges that Padmore’s physical death does not preclude his intel- lectual survival. S. Van der Geest, ‘The Image of Death in Akan Highlife Songs of Ghana’, Research in African Literatures 11, no. 2 (Summer 1980), p 169. 98. A. Gregory, The Last Great War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p 7. 99. ‘George Padmore’s death an inspiration’, Ghana Evening News, 3 October 1959; ‘A Beginning’, Ghana Times, 28 September 1959. 100. ‘You have electrified Africa’, Ghana Evening News, 3 October 1959. 101. ‘Now sorrow walks our streets with bended head’, and ‘George Padmore: The Man Africa Will Miss’, Ghana Evening News, 3 October 1959. 102. ‘This day a mighty man hath fallen in Israel’, Ghana Evening News, 3 October 1959. 103. Editorial, West African Pilot, 30 September 1959. 104. Andrew Bwalya Mwenya to Office of Advisor on African Affairs, 27 December 1959, Bureau of African Affairs Papers, Secretary’s Personal Correspondence; Report of First Annual National Conference of the Pan-Africanist Congress in Johannesburg, Bureau of African Affairs Papers, Secretary’s Personal Correspondence; Report of Meeting of Steering Committee of AAPC, 10 October 1959. NARA, RG59, box 3648, folder 770.00/10–1059. 105. ‘Friends of Ghana Plan Memorial’, Chicago Defender, 3 December 1959. 106. ‘Tributes to Padmore’, Ghana Times, 25 September 1959. 107. ‘Why the Castle?’ Ashanti Pioneer, 29 September, 1959. 108. Stewart, ‘Now sorrow walks the streets with bended head’, Evening News, 3 October 1959. 109. Shepperson and Drake, ‘The Fifth Pan-African Conference’, p 63. 110. ‘Friends of Ghana Plan Memorial’, Chicago Defender, 3 December 1959. 111. K. Gaines, American Africans in Ghana (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Caroline Press, 2006), p 26. 112. D. Scott, Conscripts of Modernity (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), p 133. 113. Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity, p 25. 114. Anthony Bogues, ‘Reflections on the Radical Caribbean Intellectual Tradition’. Talk given at the Institute for the Study of the Americas, London, UK. 19 June 2013. 244 Notes

Conclusion: ‘The Soliloquy of Africa’

1. C.L.R. James, Beyond a Boundary (New York, 1963), p 116. 2. Internal Memoranda, Foreign Office, 28–29 September 1959. TNA, FO 371/138164, folder JC 1016/14. 3. Internal Memoranda, Foreign Office, 2–4 November 1959. TNA, FO 371/138164, folder JC 1016/15. 4. Summaries of General Reports on Ghana from Soviet Embassy, AVP RF, f. 573, op. 3; A.B. Davidson, S.V. Mazov, and G.V. Tsypkin, Rossiya i Afrika, Tom II, 182–3; RGANI, fond 5, opis 35, delo 79, listy 244–255. I am grateful to Alessandro Iandolo for identifying and translating these files for me. 5. Immanuel Wallerstein argues that it was the very subtlety of the ideology that leant itself to distortion because it required constant reinterpretation. Furthermore, the absence of any clear hierarchy or organization structure meant that interpretation was done collectively, which led to conflict. I. Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), p 235. 6. C. Legum, Pan-Africanism: A Short Political Guide (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962), p 111. 7. This trajectory from pan-Africanism to Pan-Africanism is outlined in Ronald Walters, Pan-Africanism in the African Diaspora: An analysis of Modern Afrocentric Political Movements (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1993). See also Daniel Zizwe Poe, Kwame Nkrumah’s Contribution to Pan-Africanism: An Afrocentric Analysis (London: Routledge, 2003); Jon Woronoff, Organizing African Unity (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1970). 8. Woronoff, Organizing African Unity, p 25; Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity, p 19. 9. Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity, p 118. 10. P. Nugent, Africa since Independence: A Comparative History (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), p 34. 11. At Sanniquellie Padmore witnessed what Wallerstein described as ‘the de facto compromise between the core and the periphery’ of the movement for African unity. Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity, p 38. 12. Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity, p 58. 13. OAU Charter quoted in Nugent, Africa since Independence, p 103. 14. Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity, p 152. 15. R. Irwin, Gordian Knot (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), p 20; C. J. Lee, ‘Decolonization of a Special Type’, Kronos 37, no. 1 (2011), p 9. 16. Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Unity, p 27. 17. Quoted in Poe, Kwame Nkrumah’s Contribution to Pan-Africanism, p 56. 18. Sol Plaatje, Mhudi: An Epic of South African Native Life a Hundred Years Ago (Lovedale, South Africa: Lovedale Press, 1930); Nelson Mandela, ‘Wither the Black Consciousness Movement? An Assessment’, in Reflections in Prison, ed. Mac Maharaj (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), p 47. I am grateful to Elleke Boehmer for suggesting these readings. 19. Albert Donkor, The Soliloquy of Africa (author published manuscript), New York Public Library. Donkor respectfully dedicated his manuscript to ‘the late comrade George Padmore, a beloved devotee of African nationalism’. Notes 245

20. I take this from Anthony Bogues’s outline of the task of postcolonial Caribbean thought in his preface to the Small Axe Special Issue on the frames of the nation. Bogues acknowledges the work of many twentieth-century Caribbean intellectuals to critique colonial rule and urges that ‘the work of creating an inventory still remains’. The task Bogues outlines certainly does go beyond Padmore’s work, particularly in his own struggles to think about the nation; however, Bogues’s emphasis on naming and creating an inven- tory does bear a resemblance to Padmore’s work. A. Bogues, ‘Preface: The Frame of the Nation’, Small Axe 6, no. 1 (2002), p vi. 21. N.P. Singh, Black is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), p 53. Singh recognizes Padmore’s Life and Struggles of Negro Toilers as one of the earliest examples by black intellectuals who in the 1930s began to draw together racism and colonialism as part of a single global history. 22. C.J. Lee, ‘Tricontinentalism in Question’, in Making a World After Empire, ed. C.J. Lee (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2010), pp. 280–281. Padmore’s engagement with the work of James La Guma and Harry Haywood can be found in RGASPI 491/155/83 and 534/6/25. For Haywood and La Guma’s theses, see H. Haywood, Black Bolshevik (Chicago, IL: Liberator Press, 1978), pp. 237–239. For the importance of the line on the ‘national question’ in America, see C. Robinson, Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition (London: Zed, 1984), p 300. 23. For one of the most important starting points for this research, see Matthew Connelly, ‘Taking off the Cold War Lens: Visions of North–South Conflict during the Algeria War for Independence’, The American Historical Review 105, no. 3 (2000), pp. 739–769. 24. Nicholas Cullather, ‘Narratives are all we have and all we will ever have’, review of The Other Cold War, by Heonik Kwon, H-Diplo Roundtable Review 13, no. 6 (2011), p 9. 25. Heonik Kwon, The Other Cold War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010). 26. Nugent, Africa since Independence, p 8. See also F. Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005), p 17. 27. B. Davidson and Barry Munslow, ‘The Crisis of the Nation-State in Africa’, in The Politics of Transition in Africa: State, Democracy and Economic Development, eds G. Mohan and T. Zack-Williams (Sheffield: Roape, 2004), p 190; p 194. 28. B. Alleyne, Radicals against Race: Black Organising and Cultural Politics (Oxford: Berg, 2002), p 100. 29. P. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral: Revolutionary Leadership and People’s War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 167–187. 30. Tony Martin, ‘George Padmore as a Prototype of the Black Historian in the Age of Militancy’, Pan African Journal 4, no. 2 (Spring 1971), p 158; p 166. 31. W. Rodney, The Groundings with My Brothers (London: Bogle-L’Ouverture, 1969), p 64. 32. P. Gilroy, The Black Atlantic (London: Verso, 1993), p 30. 33. ‘George Padmore’, Public Opinion, 10 October 1959. 34. Dorothy Padmore, ‘On the Death of George Padmore’, undated. Nkrumah Papers/Howard/154-41, folder 17. 246 Notes

35. Dorothy Padmore to Richard Wright, 20 October 1959. Wright Papers/ 103/1521. 36. Mills notes that ‘the first fruit of this imagination … is the idea that the indi- vidual can understand his own experience and gauge his own fate only by locating himself within this period.’ C.W. Mills, The Sociological Imagination (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 5. 37. Mills, The Sociological Imagination, p 3; p 8. Bibliography

Books and pamphlets by George Padmore

Africa: Britain’s Third Empire. London: Dennis Dobson, 1949. Africa and World Peace. London: Secker and Warburg, 1937. The White Man’s Duty: An Analysis of the Colonial Question in Light of the Atlantic Charter (with Nancy Cunard). London: W.H. Allen, 1942. ed., Colonial and Coloured Unity, A Programme of Action and History of the Pan African Congress. Manchester: Panaf Services, 1947. Gold Coast Revolution. London: Dennis Dobson, 1953. How Britain Rules Africa. London: Wishart Books, 1936. How Russia Transformed Her Colonial Empire. London: Dennis Dobson, 1946. Life and Struggles of Negro Toilers. London: Red International of Labour Unions, 1931. Pan-Africanism or Communism? London: Dennis Dobson, 1956. ed., Voice of Coloured Labour. Manchester: Panaf Services, 1945.

Archives

Archives Nationale d’outre mer, Aix-en-Provence, France Service de liaison avec les originaires des territoires francais d’outre mer (SLOTFOM) Biblioteque de Documentation Internationale Contemporaine, France Daniel Guerin Collection Churchill Archives Centre, University of Cambridge Fenner Brockway papers Federal Bureau of Investigation, Records Section, Washington, D.C. Reports on George Padmore. 1950–1959 George Padmore Research Library on African Affairs, Accra, Ghana Bureau of African Affairs Collection Howard University, Moorland Spingarn Research Center Kwame Nkrumah Papers Alain LeRoy Locke Papers Institute of Commonwealth Studies Library, University of London Richard Hart Collection London School of Economics and Political Science Archives Independent Labour Party Archives National Archives of Trinidad & Tobago The Clarion The People The Vanguard National Archives of the United Kingdom Colonial Office Papers Foreign Office Papers

247 248 Bibliography

Security Service Papers Metropolitan Politice Office Papers New York University, Tamiment Library Communist Party USA papers Russian State Archive of Social and Political History (RGASPI), Moscow Fonds 495, Executive Committee of the Communist International (ECCI) 534 Red International of Labour Unions (Profintern) 542 League Against Imperialism Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library Ralph Bunche Papers St. Clair Drake Papers George Padmore Collection Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University George Padmore Collection W. Arthur Lewis Papers University of Massachusetts, W.E.B. Du Bois Library W.E.B. Du Bois papers University of Oxford, Bodleian Library of Commonwealth and African Studies at Rhodes House Africa Bureau papers Anti-Slavery Society papers Fabian Colonial Bureau papers University of Texas at Austin, Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center Nancy Cunard Collection University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago C.L.R. James Collection Eric Williams Memorial Collection George Padmore Collection Yale University Library, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Collection. Langston Hughes Papers Louise Morgan & Otto Thesis Papers Richard Wright Collection

Newspapers

Accra Evening News (Gold Coast) African Morning Post (Gold Coast) Amsterdam News (United States of America) Ashanti Pioneer (Gold Coast) Ashanti Sentinel (Gold Coast) Barbados Advocate Chicago Defender (United States of America) The Clarion (Trinidad & Tobago) The Crisis (United States of America) Controversy (United Kingdom) Daily Echo (Gold Coast) Forward (United Kingdom) Gambia Outlook Bibliography 249

Gold Coast Observer Gold Coast Spectator Labour Monthly (United Kingdom) Left (United Kingdom) Negro Worker New Leader (United Kingdom) The People (Trinidad & Tobago) Public Opinion (Jamaica) The Socialist Leader (United Kingdom) Trinidad Guardian The Vanguard (Trinidad & Tobago) West African Pilot The Workers Age (United States of America)

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Aborigines Rights Protection Society, Césaire, Aimé, 18, 58–9, 137–8, 33, 101–2, 224 156–7, 161–2 Abrahams, Peter, 8, 15, 82, 99, 144, Chicago Defender, 61, 69, 80–1, 103 148–51, 236 Churchill, Winston, 57, 138 Accra Evening News, 132, 154, 173 Atlantic Charter, 48–50, 56, see also Adams, Grantley, 101–2, 129 World War II Africa and World Peace, 38, 42, 80, Iron Curtain, 97 226 retirement, 122–3 Africa: Britain’s Third Empire, 116, 155 colonialism African Morning Post, 38, 43, 81 administration, 7–8, 19, 46, 55, All African Peoples’ Conference, 76, 103–8, 112–15, 153, 207 170, 179–83, 187, 194 labour, 17, 32–3, 37, 41, 45–9, 54–5, see also Pan-African Congress 60–1, 65, 67, 79, 83–5 American Negro Labour Congress, 73 resource extraction, 47–8, 53–4, Amsterdam News, 72, 81, 128 86–8, 156 apartheid, 91–3, 115, 121, 126–7, 131, Colonial Development and Welfare 179 Act, 31, 33, 88–9 see also Malan, Daniel Francois Colonial Office (Britain), 47, 87, 97, Ashanti Pioneer, 151–3, 164, 188 102–5, 113–17, 181 Atlantic Charter, see World War II colour bar (Britain), 31, 53, 81, 108, Azikiwe, Benjamin Nnamdi, 93, 138 115, 121, 126, 128, 130–1, 197 newspapers, 81–2, 102, 113, 185 Communist International President of Nigeria, 193–4 (Comintern), 16, 24–8, 39–41, 64, 76 Barbados, 18–19, 32 League Against Imperialism, 24–5 Bermuda, 103–4 Third Period, 24–8 Bevin, Ernest, 86–7, 104–5, 228 Communist Party, 28, 107, 141, 175 Bolshevik Revolution, 106 of France, 137 inspiration for Padmore, 48, 109, of Great Britain, 29, 33, 50–1, 75, 123, 139, 158, 168, 174–5, 197 100, 141, 234 Braithwaite, Chris, 30, 44, 100 of South Africa, 25, 93, 222 Briggs, Cyril, 72–4 of the United States, 24–5 Brockway, Fenner, 99, 117, 123, 148, Controversy, 73 185, 230 Convention People’s Party, see Ghana Buganda, Kingdom of, 84, 101, 207 Cripps, Arthur, 87 Bunche, Ralph, 164, 210 Crisis, The (United States), 38 Bustamante, Alexander, 59, 129 Cunard, Nancy, 1, 27, 39, 51–2, 64, Butler, Uriah, 45 92, 106

Cabral, Amilcar, 161, 199 Dark Continent Caribbean Labour Congress, 101–2 as trope, 41, 83, 136 censorship, 37, 57, 70, 80, 115, 230 detribalization, 153–4 Central African Federation, 126 diaspora, 19, 153–4, 162, 187–8

270 Index 271

Domingo, Wilfrid A., 26, 72, 158 Guiana (British), 128–30 Drake, St. Clair, 125, 167, 175, 179, labour revolts, 32 182, 188 People’s Progressive Party (PPP), Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt 128–9, 198 (W.E.B.), 9, 11, 53, 57, 60–4, Guinea, 183–4, 192–3 91–2, 96, 98–100, 105, 116, 118–19, 129, 138, 142, 158–9, Hailey, (Lord) William Malcolm, 31 164, 168, 180, 197, 199 Haiti, 61, 174 Dutt, Rajani Palme, 30, 33, 75–6, 84, Haitian Revolution, 115, 189 210 Hamburg, 26–8, 76 see also International Trade Union Ethiopia Committee of Negro Workers invasion of, 30–1, 40, 43–4 Harlem, 23–4, 72, 187 see also New Negro Movement Fabianism, 31, 76–7, 108 Hitler, Adolf, 28, 43–4, 175 Fabian Colonial Bureau, 69, 101 Hobson, John A., 38 Fanon, Frantz, 18, 156–60, 179 How Britain Rules Africa, 39–40, 42 fascism How Russia Transformed Her Colonial colonial, 35, 40–5 Empire, 36, 104–5, 108–10, 123, European, 28–9 159–60, 168, 174 Ford, James, 24–5, 39 Huiswoud, Otto, 24, 39 Foreign Office (Britain), 97, 105, 111–12, 180–1, 191 Independent Labour Party (ILP), 1, 29, Froudacity, 20, 94 48, 161 indirect rule, 84, 143, 193, 212 Gambia Outlook, 76 imperialism Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand, 125, development, 31–3, 37, 52, 87–9, 179 113, 156 Garvey, Amy Ashwood, 29–30 imperial preference, 79 Garvey, Marcus, 9–10, 18, 69, 72, 130, liberalism, 5, 76–8 138, 160, 177–8 race, 6–8, 22, 30–1, 41, 49–50, 73, Garveyism, 9, 21, 25–6, 41, 118–19 108, 112–15 Negro World, 72 violence, 5–6, 37, 57–8, 66, 124–5, Ghana 157, 179 and African diaspora, 151–4, 187–8 see also, Hobson, Lenin as ‘Beacon’, 121, 126, 132–3, 136–7, India, 54–5, 77, 98, 109, 127 139, 179–80 independence of, 47, 84, 86, 90, Convention People’s Party (CPP), 120, 125 132–3, 136–7, 150–1, 153–5, Indian National Congress (INC), 55, 165, 169, 174, 186–7, 190 120, 127, 175 independence of, 135, 164–8, 172–4 International African Friends of National Liberation Movement Ethiopia (IAFE), 30 (NLM), 150–1, 154–5, 165 International African Service Bureau Gold Coast see also Ghana (IASB), 29–30, 42–5, 50, 57, 63, cocoa, 44, 155 210 newspapers, 38, 43, 76, 81, 102–3, International Trade Union Committee 113 of Negro Workers (ITUCNW), Gold Coast Revolution, 127 24–8, 76 Gold Coast Spectator, 76 Italo-Abyssinian Crisis see Ethiopia 272 Index

Jagan, Cheddi, 129–30, 198 Locke, Alain Leroy, 51 Jamaica, 57, 79, 102 Lugard, (Lord) Frederick, 11, 212 independence of, 59, 193 see also indirect rule labour revolts, 32, 83–4, 101 Lumumba, Patrice, 169, 182, 185 nationalism, 13, 130 James, Cyril Lionel Robert, 4–5, 10, Makonnen, T. Ras, 10, 12, 30, 60, 71, 27, 42, 146, 157, 189–90, 196 99, 146, 179 at Ellis Island, 148–9 Malan, Daniel Francois, 91–2, 126, International African Opinion, 1, 42 131 International Friends of Ethiopia see also apartheid (IAFE), 30 Malaya Emergency, 84, 86, 89, 101, see also Garvey, Amy Ashwood 103, 114, 120, 126 in the United States, 110, 118 Mandela, Nelson, 195 modernity (‘The Myth’), 64 Manley, Norman, 13, 82, 98–9, 101, Padmore and revolutionary strategy, 129–30, 164, 167, 205 48, 63, 65, 168 Marshall Plan, 87 West Indian intellectual tradition, Marxism, 62–3, 141–2, 175 18–20, 22, 161, 177 Black Marxism, 9, 18, 28, 35, 62, Jones, Chris, see Braithwaite, Chris 161 class struggle, 41, 45, 168 Kadalie, Clements, 102 postcolonial economic development, Kenya Emergency, 123, 127, 169 155, 159–60 Kenyatta, Jomo, 31, 93, 125, 127, 138, race, 41 150, 185, 193 Mau Mau rebellion, 37, 127–8, 169, 179 Khama, Seretse, 6, 126–7, 229 British response to, 123 KUTV see University of the Toilers of in Pan-Africanism or Communism, the East 124–5, 140 Maxton, James, 29 Labour Party of Great Britain, 45 Mboya, Tom, 169, 182, 240 colonial policy, 66, 86–7, 103, 111, McKay, Claude, 18–19, 23, 25, 72–3, 123 158 electoral victory, 48, 63–5, 67 modernity, 64–5, 77, 144, 156–7, National Government, 29 161–2 Lamming, George, 17, 22, 149 and colonialism, 124–5, 156–8 La Guma, Alex, 158, 197 cultural, 153, 160 La Guma, James, 25, 197 material, 125, 141–2, 155, 159 League Against Imperialism (LAI), see also James, C.L.R., Césaire, 24–5 Aimé, Union of Soviet Socialist League of Coloured Peoples (LCP), 30, Republics 33, 45, 57, 62, 101, 116, 146 Moody, Harold, 54, 57–61, 101 League of Nations, 43 Moyne Commission, 32–3, 45, 86, Mandate System, 80, 92, 96 153, 219 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 9, 48, 142, 159–60, 174–5 National Association for the and imperialism, 11, 37–8, 43 Advancement of Coloured Lewis, Sir Arthur, 31 Peoples (NAACP), 38, 62–3 Liberia, 74, 81, 138, 155, 180–5 National Association of Socialist Life and Struggles of Negro Toilers, 25, Student Organisations (Ghana), 36–7 169, 174 Index 273

National Council for Civil Liberties People’s Progressive Party, see (NCCL), 117 Guiana nationalism, 12, 159–61 Perham, Margery, 5, 11, 52 African, 93, 102, 136, 141, 152–5, Pizer, Dorothy, 51–2, 98, 214 170, 194 Port of Spain, see Trinidad anti-colonial, 41–2, 178–9 Public Opinion ( Jamaica), 81–2, 104 bourgeois, 159–60 Negro Welfare Association, 45 race, 6–8, 30–1, 52–3, 55, 56 Negro Worker, 25–7, 74–5, 180 racial chauvinism, 41 Negro World, 72 see also imperialism, Marxism, Nehru, Jawaharlal, 85, 98, 120, 172, Trinidad, United States of 175, 184 America, Union of Soviet see also Indian National Congress Socialist Republics New Negro movement, 3, 74–5 revolution Nigeria, 56, 183, 185 counter-revolution, 173–5 federation, 139 strategy, 63–5, 107–8, 122–3, 141–2, independence of, 120–1, 128–9, 166–8, 173–4 136, 193–4 violence, 57–8, 63, 124–5 newspapers, 81, 102, 104, 112–15 Rhodesias, 46, 54–5, 83, 91, 116, 126, political parties and movements, 137, 153, 187 99, 102, 181 Rienzi, Adrian Cola, 45 Nkrumah, Kwame, 13, 22, 71, 93, Rodney, Walter, 161, 199 120–2, 125, 132–7, 139, 144, Russian Revolution, see Bolshevik 147, 151–3, 155, 162, 164–5, Revolution 167, 188, 191 internationalism, 171, 179–83, Scott, Michael, 92–3, 169–70 193–4 Sekou Touré, Ahmed, 183–4, 195 Nkrumahism, 135, 145, 172–3, Selassie, Haile, 31, 43 175–6, 187–8 Singapore, 47, 53, 109, 137 non-violence, 179 slavery, 17, 31, 46, 65, 101, 177, 189 as trope, 37, 39–40, 50 Ottley, Roi, 50 Smuts, Jan Christiaan, 11 trusteeship, 80, 91–2 Padmore, Dorothy see Pizer, Dorothy Somali Youth League, 99, 102 Pan-Africanism, 12, 16, 30, 42, 58–9, South Africa, Union of, 81, 90–3, 94, 71, 138, 118–19, 137–42, 143, 100, 102, 115, 126–7, 131, 179, 161, 171–5, 177, 180–3, 187, 183, 194 190, 191–9 see also apartheid, Malan, Daniel, Pan-African Congress, 18, 30, 180, Smuts, Jan 183 Soviet Union, see Union of Soviet 5th Congress in Manchester, 9, Socialist Republics 59–61, 64–7, 76 St. Lucia, 32 Pan-African Federation, 98–101 Stalin, Josef Pan-Africanism or Communism, 41, 65, anti-Stalinism, 28–9, 107, 110, 148, 121, 127, 138–42, 143, 159, 177 159 People, The (Trinidad), 43, 45–6, 73, colonialism, 109, 123 78, 82 Subject People’s Conference, 60, 67 People’s National Movement Sudan, 83, 98, 127, 137, 146, 185, (Trinidad), 129 187, 193 274 Index

Third International, see Communist Universal Declaration of Human International Rights, 115–17, 228 Thomas, John Jacob, 20, 71, 93–4, 177 University of the Toilers of the East tribalism, 143, 151–7, 160, 181 (KUTV), 25 Trinidad, 3, 19, 22, 70, 184 class, 20–2 Wallace-Johnson, Isaac Theophilus politics, 129, 193 Akunna, 30, 44, 55 labour revolts, 32, 45 West African Pilot, 81, 93–4, 185, 187 race, 20–2, 45–6 West African Students Union (WASU), 31, 56, 99, 150 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics West Indies Federation, 102, 193 (USSR) White Man’s Duty, 52–3 Africa, 159, 191 Williams, Eric, 5, 18, 20, 31, 129, 157, colonialism, 89, 96–7, 107–9, 158–9 167, 193 Moscow, 24–7, 36, 159, 197 Williams, Henry Sylvester, 18–19, 138, modernity, 110–11, 158–9 177 purges, 30, 106–7 World Federation of Trade Unions, race, 108, 158 60, 130 World War II, 51, 96 World War I, 68, 74, 186 United States of America (USA) colonial soldiers, 74–5 anti-communism, 118, 148 see also League of Nations imperialism, 46, 88–9, 137, 158, World War II 174, 197 Atlantic Charter, 1, 48, 50–2, 56, newspapers, 10, 69, 72–4 58, 64 race, 6–7, 23–4, 93 colonial troops, 54–5 relations with Britain, 88–9 decolonization, 66–8 rela tions with British West Indies, detention in colonies, 55, 85 32, 59, 114 postwar reconstruction, see Marshall see also Communist Party of the Plan United States, Harlem, New Spitfires Fund, 54 Negro movement, Universal Wright, Ellen, 127, 146, 164, 166–7 Declaration of Human Rights Wright, Richard, 8, 11, 99, 124, 137, United Nations, 58, 64, 89, 92–3, 110, 140, 144, 147, 149, 154, 166–7, 121, 169 185, 187, 199 formation of, 60, 91 Trusteeship Council, 96, 101–2, 121 Yergan, Max, 100