Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 DOI 10.1186/s40410-016-0031-3

RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access Urban tribalism: negotiating form, function and social milieu in towns, Shlomit Tamari1, Rachel Katoshevski2, Yuval Karplus3 and Steven C. Dinero4*

Abstract Background: Historically, the tribe was a central pillar of Bedouin society. Recently, the forcibly resettled-Bedouin of Israel’s Desert have experienced profound socio-economic transition and change in addition to spatial relocation. Results: This paper offers a critical examination of the manner in which the tribe has served to inform top-down State-led urban planning, resettlement and housing policies while remaining a vital aspect of Bedouin life. Conclusions: We suggest that in an ironic twist, these policies have generated a new form of urban tribalism that challenges the development of a “modern,” “western” social fabric and practices of citizenship as initially envisioned by State officials.

Background Following a traditional pastoral economy, Bedouin Prior to resettlement, the Bedouin tribes of the Negev tribes throughout the Middle East developed mainly Desert were highly structured and their functions largely as subsistence-based social organizations residing in a in-tact, despite decades of evolutionary change which semi-arid environment; as such, they lived within a spa- had occurred under Ottoman and later British Manda- tially dispersed system dependent primarily upon natural tory rule. Such tribes and their nested groups (segments, resources. By occupying and defending their territories co-liable groups and extended families, see Marx 1967; against competing tribes, members were able to prac- Stewart 2012) can be defined, following Cribb 1991( ) tice semi-nomadic resource extraction on a cyclical basis and Gingrich (2001), as a group dominating a territory, (mostly seeking pasturage for flocks), as well as access to maintaining sociopolitical collective identity in which water reservoirs, wells, and cultivated lands (Hole 2009; common ancestral descent distinguishes between its Khazanov 1994; Perevolotsky 1987; Salzman 1980). members and nonmembers. Within such a collective, However, in the wider geopolitical context tribes also kinship ties and adherence to group obligations ensured have served in more recent times as administrative divi- and strengthened the coherence of social networks. Chief sions within the newly-created states in which many among these was the collective code which directed tribal found themselves (Marx 2006). States have set up tribal members’ conduct and which equated personal honor collectives that govern their members as ethnic enclaves, with conformity to group interests and unconditional granting or denying certain rights and privileges accord- loyalty to the group (Abu-Lughod 1986; Abu-Rabia- ing to political alignments and interests. Indeed, in recent Queder 2007; Eickelman 1989; Lancaster 1981). history complex relations have developed between inde- pendent Middle Eastern states in particular (i.e., those formed since WWII), and the Bedouin, as governments *Correspondence: [email protected] have attempted to encapsulate their nomadic and semi- 4 Carter & Fran Pierce Term Chair for the Liberal Arts; College of Science, nomadic tribal populations within the broader contexts Health and the Liberal Arts, Philadelphia University, School House Lane and Henry Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19144, USA of the nation-building agenda (for an extensive discussion Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© 2016 Tamari et al. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 2 of 14

of nomadic tribes relations with states across the Middle Within this era of transition, it is appropriate then to East see Chatty 2006 and Szuchman 2009). ask, so what of the tribe, and of tribalism? While Meir For the formerly pastoral nomadic Bedouin tribes of the (1997), for example, has suggested that following Bedouin Negev region, these relations have been particularly acute sedentarization and urbanization, an important economic and contentious. Largely, this was due to the ethno-cul- shift has occurred as members of this pastoral nomadic tural differences between the predominantly Jewish State society began to move away from tribal collective ideol- apparatus, which sought to pursue its planning interests ogy towards greater individualism, it would seem that with limited participation or buy-in from the indigenous during the last five decades, the interplay between tribal Bedouin population. But further, strained relations must systems as an internal sociopolitical organization on the also be placed within the wider Israeli–Arab conflict geo- one hand and as a subject of State administration on the political context; Israel was created as a state for the Jew- other, has continued to shape much if not most of every- ish people upon the lands of historic Palestine, home of day Bedouin urban social and spatial realities. the Bedouin people, a subset of the Palestinians. There- Given the centrality of tribalism in traditional Bedouin fore, any State planning on behalf of the Bedouin was by society and in their recent modern life, the following will definition likely to be challenging—all the more so given seek to problematize the role of the ‘tribe’ within the the top-down approach pursued by State planners from unanticipated outcomes of the State-induced Bedouin the outset (see Dinero and Steven 2010). urbanization process. More specifically, we seek here to Indeed, since the establishment of the State of Israel critically examine the manner in which the ‘tribe’ has (1948) the tribes were subjected to pro- informed State-led urban planning and housing policy found spatial relocations and transitions and with these, over the past five decades. social and economic upheaval (for key events in the To this end, our analysis covers three stages in the chronology of Bedouin urbanization see Appendix). In overall urbanization process. The first stage concerns the the wake of the Israel’s Independence War (1948–1949) planning of Bedouin towns. We highlight the ideals and some 80–90 % of the pre-state population of approxi- planning policies that had shaped the physical layout of mately 90,000 Bedouin organized in 96 different tribes Bedouin towns through insights gained from interviews was displaced to neighboring countries (Marx 1967). held between 2012 and 2014 with five urban planners and Shortly thereafter, the remaining Bedouin were relocated architects assigned by the government to plan the towns. to the northeastern part of the Negev region, an area of A comparison between the produced master plans is 1500 km2 designated as the Seyag (restricted) zone, and also offered to further reveal changing values and plan- placed under Military Administration. In just a few years, ning dynamics over time. In this comparison particular Bedouin society had been socially shattered, spatially dis- attention is given to elements that address possible ten- placed, and left with little means to sustain itself economi- sions between and within the neighborhood (i.e., tribal cally. Two decades after the initial ‘regional concentration’ space) and the urban fabric as a whole (i.e., multi-tribal of the population (Shmueli and Khamaisi 2011) the state space). Additional four interviews held with past and embarked on a Bedouin resettlement and urbanization present government officials help contextualize the sec- program that saw, between 1968 and 1990, the establish- ond stage of housing policies, lot allocation and the tribal ment of seven Bedouin towns. This first wave of urbaniza- component in the social organization of the planned tion was followed by a second wave (since 2000) with the towns. The interplay between the physical layout of the planning of over a dozen additional Bedouin settlements. towns (as shaped at the planning stage) and their tribal While resettlement in the urban environment has oriented social structure (as shaped in the settling stage) indeed produced many changes within Bedouin society, play a significant role in urban Bedouin residency experi- only a cursory glance finds that the literature is replete ence. Ten Interviews with local residents, (6 men and 4 with examples of the manifest ways in which many of women) as well as our own experience working with the these changes are surely unanticipated and perhaps, community provide valuable insights into the manner undesired from the State’s perspective. This is particu- in which urban tribalism informs municipal functioning larly true when examining the so-called “traditional” and residents’ everyday life. roles of children, women and elders (see, for example, We will conclude with the contention that rather than Dinero and Steven 1997, 2006, 2012; Abu-Rabia-Queder to be broken down, tribal/sub-tribal interests, values and 2006; Ben-David and Meir 1992; Meir 1997; et al.). Mean- priorities continue to be strengthened and reified in the time however, there is ample evidence which suggests an urbanized Negev Bedouin context. As such, tribal inter- economic reorientation away from subsistence and agro- ests ought to remain a high priority issue for policy mak- pastoral activities towards a partial integration with the ers in Israel. Like other aspects of “traditional” Bedouin wage-labor market (Abu-Rabia 2000). life, the tribe is here to stay, at least for the foreseeable Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 3 of 14

future. Our analysis suggests that successful planning (Ben-Israel 2009; Karplus 2010). However, below we seek begins with the old adage that planning “with” communi- to focus on but one dimension, namely the challenges ties rather than “for” them usually produced more effec- and opportunities that arise from the interplay between tive, long lasting results. the layout of the towns (as shaped at the planning stage) and their tribally-oriented social structure (as shaped in Negotiating tribalism in bedouin urban planning the settling stage). Local residents known to the authors The term Negotiation is not used here in its generic sense; as community leaders provided valuable insights into meaning a dialogue between the government, planners the manner in which urban tribalism informs municipal and the Bedouin community with the intention of resolv- functioning and residents’ experiences. ing points of difference and reaching a mutually benefi- The Bedouin towns’ physical layout and structure are cial outcome. Rather, by using the term Negotiation we primarily a product of top-down government decisions, suggest that the manifestation and meaning of Bedouin actions and state-led formal planning which was imple- tribalism had undergone a process of adaptation in light mented within the context of the state-building processes of urbanization and its particular construction of urban discussed above, combined with “bottom-up” public ini- form, function and social milieu. Thus, urban tribalism tiatives and responses of an internally colonized popula- in Negev Bedouin towns is explored below through the tion from below. Informed by the Planning and Building dynamics of three consecutive stages: planning, settling, Law of 1965, Israel’s planning process is hierarchical and and residency of the in-migrants. The planning stage is statutory. Under the purview of the Ministry of Interior, analyzed mainly through the outline master-plans pro- planners assumed continuity whereby outline schemes duced over the years for Negev Bedouin towns by State- at the national level guided district master plans, which contracted architects and urban planners. Coupled with in turn determined the parameters of local outline plans insights gained from planners involved in the planning that enable the production of detailed building plans and process and from government officials from the South- ultimately the assignment of building permits (Alterman ern District Planning Administration Office at the Min- 2001). istry of Interior, the analysis seeks to reveal the changing After weighing several alternatives for Bedouin urbani- ideals and planning policies that had shaped the physical zation and encapsulation including resettlement in mixed layout of the towns. Arab–Jewish cities (such as Jaffa, Lydda and Ramla) or The second stage, housing policies and the settling in possible absorption into the regional capital city of Be’er the planned towns, is mediated through governmental Sheva (Porat 2009), seven Bedouin towns were planned institutions set up especially to address Negev Bedouin and built between 1969 and 1991: , , Segev affairs. Following the end of military administration in Shalom, Kseifa, Arara, Laqiya and (Fig. 1). Prior the mid-1960s, this role was taken up by the Israel Lands to their establishment the government determined such Administration (ILA), formerly a branch of the Minis- details as the number of settlements to be built and their try of Agriculture. In 1986 the Administration for the general location, and authorized the relevant ministries Advancement of the Negev Bedouin (AANB) was estab- and the ILA to proceed with statutory planning and site lished within the ILA as the main governmental body development (Israel Government 1962, 1973, 1978). In charged with negotiations over Bedouin land owner- accordance with these decisions and within the param- ship claims and overseeing the development of Bedouin eters of the valid national outline scheme (N/O/S/6 1975) towns including the formulation of housing policies and the District Master Plan (D/M/P/4 1982) was amended allocation of housing lots for prospective residents. Since to account for the new settlements. At this decisive 2007 the AANB became The Negev Bedouin Settlement stage, Bedouin settlements were designed for the first Authority (NBSA) and was placed under the director- time in terms of exact location, character and permitted ship of the Ministry of Construction and Housing. It is land-uses. with regard to AANB/NBSA’s role in housing lots alloca- Once the amended District Master Plan was approved tion that the dynamics of the towns’ social structure, as an by the National Planning and Construction Council overlay on the planned physical layout, is most influenced. (whose members are appointed by the Minister of Inte- Analysis of the forces generating these dynamics is based rior) a number of state bodies among them the Ministry on interviews carried out with officials from the AANB/ of Development (1953–1974), the Division of Planning NBSA, policy papers, as well as interviews held with Administration at the Ministry of Interior, and the ILA Negev Bedouin towns’ municipal managers and residents. formulated tenders for architects and urban planners Environmental, material, social, cultural, political for the production of local outline schemes and detailed and psychological dimensions all contribute to Negev building plans. The tenders provided important guide- Bedouin experience and practices of urban residency lines for professional planners by identifying the target Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 4 of 14

Fig. 1 Bedouin towns in the Negev Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 5 of 14

population (referring to certain tribes residing in a given represented disparate ad hoc solutions for resettlement area within the Seyag zone), and by stipulating the nec- needs of the various tribes and families being coerced essary outputs such as demarcation of the settlement into the resettlement sites or rather, conversely, is indic- boundaries, projections of population growth and the ative of a government which sought to forcibly mesh allocation of different land-uses for residency, public together urban-level land-use components to structure spaces and facilities, employment and roads. This was a comprehensive, homogenous urban fabric? In a similar carried out without the involvement or participation of vein, to what degree did local outline schemes represent a the future Bedouin residents themselves (Meir 1997) yet structured urban fabric or rather, the compiled products with officials’ assurance that their social needs would of disjointed neighborhood plans? And finally, in relation be met in the internal layout of the planned settlements to inter-urban comparisons, does the apparent differ- (Fenster 1993). ence between the local plans for the seven Bedouin towns Aiming to counter the development and geographic reflect the bottom-up approach tailored for Bedouin sprawl of dozens of the organic, tribally-structured vil- social needs—or rather, something else entirely? lages which were arising throughout the Negev as the Local outline schemes and detailed building plans of Bedouin began to abandon their tents for semi-hard the seven Bedouin towns (available at Israel’s GIS portal, walled domiciles (Dinero and Steven 2013), state officials http://www.govmap.gov.il) offer insights into the ideals insisted on relocating the entire society into the seven and planning approaches that generated the urban physi- planned towns, offering these as the “only accepted form cal layout as they relate to the neighborhood/tribe versus of Bedouin settlement” (Atzmon 2013). Thus, Bedouin the pursuit of tribal integration via urban integration, i.e., resettlement efforts took on a certain sense of hastiness planning oriented towards town unity rather than neigh- and immediacy; emphasis was placed on rapid provision borhood cohesion. In particular, three features found of housing lots, and settlement proceeded apace in close here bring to light different planning approaches which tandem with the production of comprehensive local out- address possible tensions between and within the neigh- line schemes and, though at times, even preceded them borhood and the urban fabric as a whole. These features relying instead on smaller-scale ad hoc neighborhood- include the layout of residential areas and their relation level detailed building plans (Rafaeli 2010; see discussion to one another, the location of public spaces, and the on Tel Sheva in Frenkel-Horner 1982; Porat 2009 and on arrangement of arterial thoroughfares within the intra- Rahat in Golan-Yoel 2013). Indeed, as Table 1 suggests, urban road network. Such insights hold value in under- Bedouin resettlement to Tel Sheva, Rahat, Segev Shalom, standing the degree to which tribalism played a role in Arara and Hura commenced a decade or more prior to the planning process of state-induced Bedouin urbaniza- their actual final statutory approval, only further compli- tion policy. cating the process of family relocation. In Rahat and Segev Shalom housing lots were com- This chronological gap, in part due to the arduous and monly arranged concentrically around neighborhood years-long process of comprehensive scheme production cores reflecting a typology of spatial segregation with and approval, raises a number of questions concerning little, if any, direct inter-neighborhood connectivity. the tension between neighborhood-oriented planning Such conceived urban form where housing lots form a and the seemingly a posteriori planning of a comprehen- cohesive and defined residential area encapsulated and sive urban structure. More specifically, we may ask to bordered by open spaces and/or main roads was not acci- what degree this neighborhood-level detailed planning dental but rather was aimed at supporting ILA’s housing policies (discussed in detail below) offering each prospec- Table 1 Dates of Bedouin towns initial settlement tive group of urbanizing Bedouin its own “private” area and approval of comprehensive local outline schemes within the town (Atzmon 2013; Ben-David 1993; Fenster 1993, 2005; Golan-Yoel 2013). Town Initial housing lots alloca- Statutory approval Tel Sheva, Kseifa, and Arara present a different resi- tion and settlement of comprehensive local outline schemes dential arrangement commonly oriented towards a more continuous urban fabric and the intermeshing of neigh- Tel Sheva 1967 1986 borhoods. In these arrangements roads funnel traffic Rahat 1971 1989 through neighborhoods (e.g., Tel Sheva) and no clear Segev Shalom 1979 1991 boundaries such as additional roads or topographical Kseifa 1982 1991 barriers are found between them (e.g., Arara and Kseifa). Arara 1982 1993 It would seem that the last of the Bedouin towns to be Laqiya 1985 1988 established, Laqiya and Hura, were both planned to offer Hura 1989 1999 a certain degree of neighborhood segregation while still Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 6 of 14

maintaining overall cohesive urban structure through collector roads and a central arterial road framing of each direct passage between neighborhoods. neighborhood as a discrete area. While Rahat, Kseifa, The second feature of our analysis concerns public Hura, Arara and Laqiya do present a tiered network spaces (parks and playgrounds, education, health and of roads, theirs is arranged around residential clusters cultural facilities) and their integration within the lay- rather than discrete neighborhoods. out of the towns. The generative role of public spaces Returning to the questions posed above, Jewish plan- in the development of social interactions among urban ners from outside of the community (i.e., non-Bedouin) residents has been widely discussed elsewhere (cf. Ive- were tasked with the challenge of bringing a series of son 1998; Mitchell 2003; Walzar 1986). Public spaces ad hoc-produced neighborhood-specific detailed build- often engender contestation over ‘the right to space’ as ing plans together under unified urban outline schemes power relations may endeavor to regulate who is ‘in’ or (Rafaeli 2010). Such schemes were aimed at attaining ‘out’ of place’ in public space (Cresswell 1996; Mitchell a cohesive functional urban structure for the existing 1995, 2003). Fenster (2009) study of the central park in neighborhoods while enabling the future development Rahat, for example, suggests that it is a ‘forbidden’ place of the towns. Both Atzmon (2013) former head of the for women due to the risk of unwanted encounters with AANB and Amit, who produced Rahat’s master plan men outside the tribal group. Nonetheless, the basic idea (cited in Golan-Yoel 2013, 46), expressed their vision that of universal access associated with these spaces offers urban growth would sprawl into open spaces between residents the opportunity to meet and interact as a com- neighborhoods giving a more cohesive shape to the munity across familial, gender, socioeconomic and eth- towns layout. nic divides. Such opportunity is dependent, in part, on Further insights may be gathered from a comparison the location of public spaces. When these are aggregated between the seven towns in terms of chronological devel- together to form one or more urban centers they facilitate opment in planners’ approach to the tension between greater interaction among residents, whereas decentral- ‘neighborhood-oriented planning’ in which the family ized, neighborhood-based public spaces may contribute and tribe played a stronger role and a posteriori planning to intra-urban social encapsulation and segregation. of a ‘comprehensive urban structure’. Such comparisons The Bedouin towns’ outline schemes facilitate the inte- suggest a process of oscillation between two structural gration of different land-uses within the urban structure. concepts, namely a cohesive urban fabric and settlements While in all neighborhoods lots were earmarked for kin- which more closely resembled the organic Bedouin use of dergartens that exclusively cater to their young residents, space, dominated by segregated neighborhood clusters. other public facilities (schools, youth and cultural cent- Tel Sheva, the first established Bedouin town, was ers, and healthcare clinics) were aggregated to form a planned with an urban fabric in mind offering continuous number of central hubs for adjoining residential areas. residential structure, centrally located public spaces and These centers make it necessary for residents to leave non-hierarchical road network. While this had mirrored their neighborhood in order to obtain public services. the government’s rural-to-urban, “tradition-to-moder- The exception for this layout is found in Segev Shalom, nity” concept, it also generated great opposition from the where planners created such centers with the intention of Bedouin who were reluctant to relocate to a town that availing public facilities at the neighborhood level. With inadequately preserves socio-spatial practices of tribal regard to open public spaces (parks and playgrounds), in segregations (Dinero and Steven 2010). Keeping Bedouin most towns land was set aside for central and ring parks opposition in mind, the planning of Laqiya and Rahat, the at the urban level for the purpose of joint activities and next towns to which an outline scheme was produced, social interaction. Segev Shalom is once again the excep- were both oriented toward maintaining neighborhood spa- tion as its parks are purposely planned to provide a clear tial segregation reinforced by a hierarchical road network, boundary between neighborhoods. yet with central public facilities and parks that provide res- The third feature articulated in the plans of the idents with opportunities to interact and share activities. Bedouin towns and which offers insights on the tension Shortly thereafter Segev Shalom’s outline scheme offered between neighborhood-oriented planning and a compre- the concept of segregated neighborhood clusters, decen- hensive urban orientation is the arrangement of arterial tralized public spaces and a hierarchical road network. thoroughfares within the intra-urban network of roads. While the concept was not followed through in the plan- Tel Sheva has no designated arterial and its roads share a ning of Kseifa, Arara and Hura, all three towns offered a similar hierarchical level within the network, reinforcing flexible morphology incorporating features of both partial the perception of a continuous urban fabric. Segev Sha- separation and urban cohesive integration. lom on the other hand was planned with a clearly tiered However, in an environment of ‘planning oligar- network comprised of cul-de-sac streets, neighborhood chy’ (Meir 1997) and the formal mechanics of modern Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 7 of 14

‘procedural planning’ (Fenster 1999) the Bedouin had Underlying the resettlement policy was the idea that little if any access to information and power in decisions the towns reproduce within a compact urban setting relating to the towns’ planning process. Thus, such con- the Seyag’s territorial organization of clans, sub-clans traction may be attributed more to the articulation of and tribes. ILA and AANB/NBSA resettlement efforts Jewish urban planners’ conceptualizations of the ideal proceeded by marketing housing lots within designated Bedouin town (and the supervising government bodies) tribal neighborhoods ensuring as much as possible that than to a local, community-based, bottom-up planning internal tribal organization would be maintained (Fig. 3). or to methodologies of participatory planning by a dis- Taking also into account future housing needs, and mir- empowered minority (Dunski 2012). roring the customary practice of wed sons to build their The production and statutory approval of the towns’ homes adjacent their father’s, detailed building plans per- plans and schemes advanced in concert with their actual mitted the construction of more than one residential unit settlement. The development of housing policies and per lot. This made it possible for extended-family com- the process of resettling Bedouin in the towns, over- plexes to gradually form within the tribal neighborhood. seen by the ILA and the AANB/NBSA included physi- Bedouin who claimed ownership to traditional lands cal infrastructure development (e.g., roads, water-supply were reluctant to abandon their villages and lands and and swage-systems) and the marketing of housing lots. participate in the government’s resettlement and urbani- In a deeply contested move (Swirski and Hasson 2006), zation project. However, the fellaheen Bedouin (descend- a significant portion of housing lots in Bedouin towns ents of migrant landless peasant villagers who aligned were subsidized and offered to Seyag’s residents on the themselves with the Bedouin as sharecroppers during condition that they waive laid claims to ownership of the 19th century; see Dinero and Steven 2010) had per- traditional lands and leave their villages (cf. ILA 2002, ceived resettlement in the towns as an opportunity to Decisions no. 932; 2004, no. 996; and 2005, no. 1028; ). gain liberation from feudal-like relations under the land- Further subsidies and relocation incentives were granted lord Bedouin, as well as valued assets in the form of sub- to organized groups that met these terms and were will- sidized land lots. The fellaheen Bedouin therefore were ing to relocate en masse. the first to settle in the established towns in what Ben- Development of the towns’ social configuration was David and Gonen (2001) refer to as differential urbani- for the most part a combined result of both government zation process. Eventually with higher compensation for housing policies and Bedouin internal social dynamics. settling land claim and heavy pressure on Seyag residents During the 1950s within the Seyag area, territories that to relocate (through denial of municipal services and were historically associated with certain clans and their risking house demolitions there) increasing number of tribes saw the continued growth of pre-1948 Bedouin Bedouin resettled in the towns. Both Bedouin and fella- villages whose communities were based on tribal affilia- heen Bedouin insisted that housing policy would enable tion. At the same time, new villages were spontaneously residential separation between the two groups and facili- established by other, post-1948 internally displaced refu- tate the development of tribally exclusive neighborhoods. gee Bedouin tribal groups (Abu-Rabia 1994). Thus when By the mid-1990s Bedouin transition from rural vil- the government began in the mid-1960s to formulate its lages to the seven towns decreased measurably (Krakover Bedouin urbanization and resettlement policy, it aimed 2002), owing much of the increase in urban population to transform the socio-spatial reality of dozens of tribal thereafter to natural growth. As established neighbor- Seyag villages with an annual growth rate of 5.3 % and hoods were meeting their capacity, young families’ need population of over 20,000 Bedouin (Porat 2009). for housing solutions was partially answered with town Based on a government sponsored study that identified expansion projects and the planning of new neigh- certain sub-clans and tribes as the most ready for reset- borhoods. Marketing of residential lots in this second tlement and urbanization (Zohar 1979), the initial policy generation of urban development did not target, as pre- called for the establishment of three towns for 3 of the viously done, tribes or sub-tribes, but rather extended 4 sub-clans of the largest Bedouin clan—the Tiyaha. Tel families of several households that together formed an Sheva would be established for 2 tribes of the Qudeirat extended family housing-complex in what became trib- sub-clan (Abu-Rqaiyiq and Al-Asam), Rahat for a tribe of ally heterogeneous neighborhoods (Abu Sahiban 2012; the Hukuk sub-clan (Al-Huzaiyil), and Kseifa for a tribe Cohen, 2012). Based on data gathered from Atzmon of the Dhullam sub-clan (Abu-Rabi’a). A decade later the (2013), Fig. 4 portrays the social configuration or degree government established 4 additional towns—Segev Sha- of neighborhood tribal homogeneity in each of the seven lom, Arara, Laqiya and Hura, each for a different Negev Bedouin towns. While all neighborhoods are internally Bedouin sub-clan (Fig. 2). divided into extended family residential complexes, the Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 8 of 14

Fig. 2 Distribution of sub-clans in the Seyag and towns designated for their resettlement (adapted and compiled from Ben-David 1996; Gal-Peer and 1979; Stern and Gradus 1979)

figure brings to light the significant degree of social-tribal encapsulation prevalent at the urban level. During the five decades since the establishment of the first Bedouin town of Tel Sheva Bedouin urban popula- tion grew many folds (from only 150 residents in 1970, to 6300 in 1980, 35,200 in 1990, 73,000 in 2000, and 113,400 in 2010) currently accounting for about 60 % of all Bedouin residing in the Negev (Negev Bedouin sta- tistical data book 2011). For many of the residents, those who experienced the rural to urban transition first hand, resettlement in the towns meant acclimation to a new social and physical environment, foreign and at times at odds with the traditional and spontaneous village set- tings they had left behind. As shown above, some socially oriented considerations of tribal segregation were incor- porated into the towns’ planning and settling process. Fig. 3 Housing lots marketing approach in Bedouin towns (Stern and However traditional mechanisms of socio-spatial self- Gradus 1979) organization that gradually brought into shape rural residential complexes, private and public spaces, spatial Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 9 of 14

Fig. 4 Social configuration of Bedouin towns—1Neighborhood associated with one tribe; 2Neighborhood associated with two tribes; 3Neighbor- hood associated with three or more tribes

ranges of mobility, and enabled economic and other eve- exclusively, with a particular tribal community and its ryday activities were replaced by externally conceived territory, Bedouin towns absorb multiple tribal commu- modernistic creations of compact and uniform, rigidly nities, each with its own spatial enclaves. Such enclaves zoned and spatially segmented urbanity. strengthen, on the one hand, intra-tribal cohesion and on the other hand inter-tribal segregation, turning the Negotiating tribalism in Bedouin urbanity urban landscape into a fractured space of disassociated A number of aspects associated with the Bedouin rural communities (El Asam 2012). They also bring to the to urban transition and the interplay between the physi- fore inter-tribal relations and socio-cultural practices cal layout of the towns (as shaped at the planning stage) that bear on residents’ intra-urban ranges of mobility, as and their tribal oriented social structure (as shaped in the right-of-access to residential areas and public facilities settling stage) play a significant role in urban Bedouin within them is granted according to tribal affiliation (Al residency experience. The Bedouin towns both allow for Huzil 2012). in-group (Bedouin) versus out-group (Jewish) reification Dinero has argued that the forced de-territorialization and concretization; at the same time, within the towns, of the Bedouin was, prima facie, an attempt to also “de- tribal structures are (re)aligned, solidified, and further Bedouinize” the community (2010: 123–27). This meant, maintained. in effect, to both separate the Bedouin from the land, and These include, for examples, tribal heterogeneity and to also break down tribal affiliations, orientations, and residential segregation that directly relate to the socio- identities—relative to one another in terms of who they spatial composition of the towns, as well as certain are, Arabs and Muslims, and who they are not, Jews. And aspects of tribal homogeneity and conformity across yet, he shows, such affinities and tribal affiliations have neighborhoods and residential spaces. While tradi- been further concretized in the new town setting; tribe tional and spontaneous villages are associated, often and background remains an especially pronounced social Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 10 of 14

and economic indicator in the urban setting (see Dinero between and across neighborhoods to prevent unwanted and Steven 2010 throughout). encounters. In extreme situations, entire neighborhoods Segregated neighborhoods allow residents to preserve are abandoned as hundreds of residents seek temporary a strong tribal identity and through such identity what refuge in other Bedouin towns or villages, school chil- Sack (1986) classifies in his study of human territoriality dren are prevented from attending tribally integrated as a ‘social definition of spatial relations’. As the decision schools, and municipal services grind to a halt. to move to the towns is mostly taken in the framework The ‘tribe’ as illustrated above, had informed (to some of the extended family or tribe and is conceived in utili- extent at least) local outline schemes and detailed build- tarian terms of improved quality of life and access to ser- ing plans conceived by architects and urban planners, vices (though other factors include forced resettlement, was a major organizing consideration in the settling pro- Dinero and Steven 2010) residents’ spatial affiliation or cess of Bedouin towns, and continues to have a signifi- sense of place continues to be informed by tribal mem- cant impact on urban residency experience. So much so, bership. Hence rather than adopting a Western-oriented that the modern urban scheme of flows between private urban citizenry identity, residents’ socio-spatial orien- and public areas, between neighborhoods and town cent- tation is maintained through the social unit of the tribe ers turned into a fragmented tribal space, an urbanity of and the spatial unit of the neighborhood. When residents segregation, disconnection and exclusion. Under agro- migrate to new heterogeneous neighborhoods opportu- pastoral economy the tribe as a social organization fulfills nities arise for the construction of new socio-spatial ori- a vital role as a subsistence-enabling territorially-associ- entations based on more individualistic urban identities ated collective, where, through occupancy and defense of (Abu Sahiban 2012), but also as studies show may birth a a collective territory tribal members gain direct access to growing sense of placelessness (Ben-Israel 2009; Karplus land, water and pasture resources. 2010). The rural-to-urban transition has presented itself as a Residents of the heterogeneous neighborhoods need move from land-based economy to wage labor making also adjust their everyday conduct having lost the safe this traditional role seemingly obsolete (Meir 1997; Kar- zones of tribally segregated space. Of great concern is the plus 2010). This however is not the case. The tribe has preservation of women’s chastity and privacy as well as adapted its role to the urban environment and contin- the need to manage frequent social interactions among ues to provide its members with important social safety neighbors outside the kin-group who share the residen- nets and benefits. On the neighborhood level extended- tial area. Mechanisms of avoiding conflict through the family and tribal members support each other in house reduction of unwanted interactions (both face-to-face construction through financial aid, materials and labor. and through line-of-sight) include spatial and temporal Similarly, as many residents struggle daily with unem- channelling of movement that regulate mobility (Al Huzil ployment and persistent poverty (Abu-Bader and Got- 2012), and different forms of seclusion ranging from high tlieb 2009); isolation, extreme poverty and homelessness fences around residential lots to strict dress code for are averted by the sharing of resources among extended- women (the veil being a symbolic form of seclusion). families (Abu-Saad et al. 2004). In the tribal neighbor- Given such difficulties, it is not surprising than that hood children are safe to play under the watchful-eye of surveys of urban Bedouin attitudes toward housing neighboring family members, and the elderly and peo- policies (Abu-Saad et al. 2004) suggest that 70 % of resi- ple with disabilities are cared for and closely integrated dents favor tribal segregation. The reason being, as con- within the community (Abu Bader 2010). veyed by our interviewees, is that living among extended However it is perhaps on the urban level and in munici- families ensures property and personal safety as well as pal politics that the tribe comes through in its greatest group integrity (Al Huzil 2012; El Assam 2012). Yet, in extent as a source of collective power. In 1989 Rahat was the tribally heterogeneous urban environment, main- granted a independent municipal status taining tribal cohesion and collective codes of uncom- and held its first local elections. This was followed for promising group loyalty and mutual responsibility raises Tel Sheva in 1993 and for Kseifa, Segev Shalom, Arara, another challenging issue. Abu-Saad et al. (2004, 105) Laqiya and Hura in 2000. Since then and every 5 years note that “when extended families were concentrated the mayor’s office and council seats in the Bedouin towns in one small area [tribally segregated neighborhoods], became an arena of inter-tribal struggle for control over sometimes even small conflicts, such as disagreement the municipality and its resources. When residents come between school children, would spark a much larger and to the ballot in local elections as Ben-David and Gonen more serious conflict involving the entire extended fami- (2001) argue, the tribal element overrides liberal and lies”. As often the case, when such conflicts spiral into democratic notions of ‘the greater good’ or candidates’ lethal blood-feuds, barricades and roadblocks are set-up qualifications and abilities in favor of much narrower Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 11 of 14

kin-group interests. Nassasra (2013) a resident of Laqiya criticism against the culturally insensitive, procedural colorfully describes such politics saying “here, everyone top-down planning of Bedouin towns (cf. Dinero and knows that if you run a donkey from a large enough tribe Steven 2010; Fenster 1999, 2005), we argue that the con- to office, it will win the elections”. ceived and planned modernistic layout of the towns, their There are a number of important advantages for the social heterogeneity, population size and density as well tribe or tribal coalition that controls the local council, as as the move from rural agro-pastoral to urban wage- the governing body sees itself foremost accountable for labor economy had indeed presented Bedouin tribes the advancement of its own electorate. First, the munici- with a more individualistic centered alternative for social palities are a significant employer in Bedouin towns organization. and the jobs they provide for their tribal members offer And yet, to date, the latter has not been adopted due much needed reliable income. In particular, the munici- largely to housing policies that informed the settling palities have great influence on the selection of teachers stage of the rural to urban transition. Early on, and in and other kindergarten and school employees (currently response to Bedouin requests, the AANB began desig- numbering ~4000, Negev Bedouin statistical data book nating neighborhoods to specific tribes and housing lots 2011). While these are formally recruited by the ministry were offered according to tribal affiliations. While such of education on a strict basis of personal qualification, the practice may have facilitated the initiation of Bedouin ministry often exercises extreme flexibility in favoring the urbanization and was in line with government policy of municipalities’ candidates even if these are underquali- mass resettlement, it also placed substantial challenges fied (Abu-Saad 2013). Municipal tenders for civil engi- on the development of an urban society according to the neering works, school transportation, waste disposal and western-ideals that informed urban planning. sanitation services and provision of goods are another The inherent tensions such housing policy had cre- area where tribal members can gain from the loyalty of ated between form, function and social milieu make successful council candidates (Abu Sriharan 2012). residents’ everyday experiences a far cry from that envi- A third advantage relates to the development of the sioned ideal of a modern urban society. Ethnic, religious, towns’ physical infrastructure and the provision of ser- and other aspects of difference found between Israel’s vices. Bedouin municipalities are ranked continuously dominant Jewish-centered planning establishment and at the bottom of Israel’s local councils’ socio-economic the Bedouin community at large have created challenges index (Central Bureau of Statistics 2012). The underde- which, though perhaps not unique to the Negev case, cer- veloped state of their local economies affects the ability tainly impact it in ways which are relevant and, to a great of municipalities to meet the urban-wide demand for the degree, extraordinary. development and maintenance of public infrastructure On a more general level, the potential conflicts between and services. Given inadequate municipal funds the pre- the processes of top-down planning and bottom-up dicament of governing body officials where to pave roads adaptive reactions raise fundamental questions of the and sidewalks, develop playgrounds, parks and commer- role of architects and urban planners: to what degree can cial areas, build new kindergartens, schools or mosques formal planning incorporate distinct understandings of and maintain such infrastructure is answered by the social and spatial organization? And, what ethical bound- transfer of scarce resources to their own socio-spatially aries, if any, should be placed on top-down planning as segregated tribal neighborhoods (Karplus 2010). Such an agent inducing local reactions and social transfor- uneven-development further atomizes the urban land- mations. Such considerations are important not only in scape and everyday residents’ urban experiences along relation to Negev Bedouin processes of urbanization but neighborhood and tribal fault lines. also on very different contexts of cross-societal planning initiatives. Conclusions and directions for further research The issue of urban tribalism is a significant one in Israel The enduring resilience of tribalism in the urban setting not only with regard to the challenges facing the resi- owes much to its continued role in providing a commit- dents of the established seven towns but also vis a vis the ted network of mutual aid as well as offering its members, current resurgence of old state policy of resettling the as in traditional agro-pastoral settings, the potential of Negev Bedouin in governmentally planned towns. For gaining access and controlling economic resources in an the past two decades, Bedouin subaltern insurgent civil environment of scarcity and competition. We suggest action (Meir 2005), and a number of state committees that both tribal and individualistically based social organ- and study reports (Duchan 2010; Goldberg Commis- izations are ‘institutional alternatives’ (Salzman 1980) sion 2008; Prawer Report 2011), have led to the recogni- between which Bedouin society may shift in response tion that there is a need to establish more settlements for to pressures and exigencies. Contrary to established Bedouin residing in the Seyag area. Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 12 of 14

Eleven new settlements earmarked for specific tribes Further research is essential in order to evaluate these are currently at various stages of planning for popula- evolving phenomena. As the resettlement agenda now tions ranging between 1000 and 5000 residents each. approaches the 50th year of its inauguration, it is only Tenders released in 2013 by NBSA seek further planning appropriate that planners, scholars, and indeed the and settling solutions for the rest of the nonurbanized Bedouin themselves now look back in order to assess Bedouin. This population of ~50,000 currently resides how far they’ve come—and for that matter, how much in 34 formally unrecognized traditional and spontane- further they’ve yet to go. ous villages and dozens of smaller extended-family farms Author details 2 and hamlets within an area of 1160 km . According to the 1 Department of Interdisciplinary Studies, Sapir College, D.N. Hof, tenders, planning and resettlement solutions may include 7916500 , Israel. 2 Department of Geography and Environmental Development, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 84105 Beer‑Sheva, Israel. new neighborhoods in one of the seven Bedouin towns or 3 84965 Omer, Israel. 4 Carter & Fran Pierce Term Chair for the Liberal Arts; establishing new independent settlements. However, the College of Science, Health and the Liberal Arts, Philadelphia University, School latter option is contingent on not being in conflict with House Lane and Henry Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19144, USA. land-use and zoning constraints informed by the district master plan (NBSA 2013) leaving very little room for its Appendix actual materialization. See Table 2.

Table 2 Key events in Bedouin urbanization chronology 1948–2010 (adapted from Ben-David 2004)

Year Event Effect

1948 Israel takes control of the Negev Migration of most Bedouin to Jordan and Egypt due to flight or deportation Establishment of military rule over the Bedouin Relocation of the remaining Bedouin to the Seyag zone 1948–current The growth of non-formal villages by Bedouin in the Seyag zone Considered by government as unauthorized settlements these settlements are denied services and under threat of demolishment 1966 End of military rule Freedom of movement beyond the Seyage boundaries. Greater education and work opportunities 1967 Establishment of Tel-Sheva, the first Bedouin town Initiation of planned, governmentally induced re-settlement 1971 Establishment of Rahat The intensification of urbanization 1979 Establishment of Segev-Shalom The intensification of urbanization 1980 Parliament enacts the “Peace Law” in conjunction with the peace Relocation of 5000 Bedouin from Tel el-Maleh accord between Israel and Egypt Planning of new settlements for the relocated Bedouin Government offers compromise and compensation to Bedouin issuing native title claims 1981/2 Execution of the “Peace Law” The establishment of Kseifa and Arara for the Bedouin to Tel el-Maleh 1985 Establishment of Laqiya The intensification of urbanization 1989 First local election in Rahat The transfer of local authority to residents’ hands Establishment of Hura 1993 Local elections The transfer of local authority to residents’ hands in Tel-Sheva Second elections in Rahat 1994 Rahat is officially announced as a city Rahat reaches 20,000 residents, indication of the deepening urbanization process 1995 Government outlines a new plan to resolve Bedouin land claims Plan rejected by the Bedouin as inadequate tying compensation with urbanization 1996 Establishment of the “Regional Council of Unrecognized Bedouin Bedouin offer a plan of their own to resolve land claims as Villages” NGO well as gain government recognition of 45 non-formal villages 2000–current Government agrees to recognize 11 Bedouin villages, granting 11 villages are incorporated under a formal regional council them formal status and initiates their planning headed by a Jewish appointed mayor Tamari et al. City Territ Archit (2016) 3:2 Page 13 of 14

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