RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Endnotes Minnesota Geological Society of Minnesota America Bulletin 12 R. V. “Glacial geology ofthe Dakota County Ruhe area,” and L.M.Gould, 1990). University ofMinnesota, Geological (St.Paul: Survey, eds., “Bedrock11 J. geology,” H.Mossler, Plate N. 2in and H.Balaban H.C.Hobbs, 1962). Minneapolis, University ofMinnesota, (M.S. thesis, rangles,” “Pleistocene geology ofthe St.Paul10 C.L.Matsch, Park and Prescott quad- p. 161. 1987), of Minnesota, University Minnesota (St.Paul: Geological Guidebook Survey, Series No. 15, and Wisconsin guidebook for Iowa, theUpper Mississippi Valley: Minnesota, “Quaternary geology ofsoutheastern in Minnesota,” 9 H.C.Hobbs, and postglacial time,” 8 W. “The history S. ofthe Cooper, River upper Mississippi late in Wisconsin pp. 57-70. 1971), YaleConnecticut: University Press, ed., Quaternary,” K. in Turekian, “Evidence for variation ofatmospheric7 M.Stuvier, C-14content the late in Folio 201, Atlas, W. Sardeson, Frederick 6 Academy ofNatural Sciences Bulletin 5 Frederick W. “Fossils the St.Peter in Sandstone,” Sardeson, 72pp. United States Geological (1929), Survey Professional Paper, “Moraines and Shorelines4 Frank ofthe Lake Leverett, Superior Basin,” Bulletin 1 Newton H. Winchell, Chapter 1 William Lass, pp. 27-30; 1979), William WattsMinnesota Folwell, 117; 114, 104, 94, pp. 90, 1938), Press, TheMinnesota University Society ofMinnesota ofColonial Dames of America, withanintroduction by Grace Lee Nute. (Published for the E.Cross, Marion Southwest ofNewFrance by Order oftheKing 1 Preface tural conditions ofthe south half ofMinnesota,” 3 Frank Leverett and Frederick W. “Surface formations and agricul- Sardeson, 1896). Government Office, Printing 658(Washington: Monograph 25, 2 WarrenUpham, 1888). state printers, &Harrison, Smith Final Report HistoryNatural Survey, Minneapolis published as Minneapolis 5 Lucile M.Kane, files, toric Centennial Union Power Figure Dam Coon4 History,” in Early Rapids “Railroads, M Comprehensive River3 Mississippi Coordinating and National Park Commission Service, Title National RiverVII -Mississippi and RecreationStat 4599, Area. 102 1988, November 18, Law Public 100-696, 2 Section 701.(a)Findings, ahrLusHnei’ ecito fLusaa Newly DiscoveredFather tothe LouisHennepin’s ofLouisiana, Description Geologic Geologic 4 Mnepls nvriyo inst,1919). University ofMinnesota, (Minneapolis: 14, o.1 S.Pu:MneoaHsoia oit,15,third printing Minnesota 1956, Historical Society, (St.Paul: vol. 1, , Anoka Herald Union County 96,ue hsa e il o hpe ,see p. 1. uses thisasher title for Chapter 1, 1966), , originally 1987; Minnesota Historical Society Press, (St.Paul: , The Waterfall that aCity: Built The Falls ofSt. Anthony in Atlas ofDakota County (1916). etme,16,Hnei ak,Co aisDm his- Coon Dam, Rapids Hennepin Parks, 1965, September, , anagement Plan The Falls ofSt. Anthony: The Waterfall that Built The Glacial Lake Agassiz Minnesota Geological SurveyBulletin Minnesota Geology of Minnesota: Minnesota Geological and Minnesota ofMinnesota: Geology Minneapolis-St. Paul Folio: U. S.Geological Survey inst,AHistory Minnesota, My19) pp. 7-9. (May 1995), , .2 Mnepls inst:Johnson, Minnesota: (Minneapolis, v. 2, , Late Cenozoic ages glacial .3 19) pp. 318-19. (1892), v. 3, , onyAlsSre -,Minnesota County Atlas Series C-6, , etme,1965. September, , Geological Society of America , Translated from by the original , .6,(1954)pp. 769-92. v. 65, , Minnesota Geological Survey Minnesota p 59-60. pp. , 6 13) 116pp. (1935), 26, (New Haven, Minnesota Anoka County A History of Field trip , Minnesota, in Eighty-Nine Sheets.” Eighty-Nine in Minnesota, RiverMississippi from the Mouth ofthe OhioRiver to Minneapolis, “Detail ofthe Upper Map River26 Mississippi (MRC), Commission U.S. Army Corps Prepared (1991). ofEngineers for the St.Paul District, No. 44, for Minnesota Institute ArchaeologyMississippi River, Upperical ofLake study Pepin and theupper reaches Pool ofNavigation 4, iklo,eds., Mickelson, Driftless Area ofsouthwestern James in C.KnoxWisconsin,” and D. M. 15 James C.Knox and W. “Late Quaternary the alluviationin C.Johnson, St.Paul (1985). UniversitySurvey, ofMinnesota, Pleistocene evolution oftheUpper Mississippi Valley “History River ofthe Mississippi below in Jr., St.Paul,” 14 Herbert E. Wright, 608pp. second edition), 1932, (Madison, Natural History Survey Bulletin 36, 7 prepared Paul St. for the Minnesota State Historic Preservation37, Office, and Structures: Series Planning A Comprehensive 1630 A.D. adocument -1820 A.D.),” the series in The Contact Period Contexts “Historic (Ca. Context Outlines: Clark A. Dobbs, Institute for Minnesota Archaeology, 1988); St.Paul (Minneapolis: Office, prepared for the MinnesotaInvestigation State Historic Preservation No. 37, History Sitesand Structures: in Series Planning A Comprehensive 25 Clark A. Dobbsand H.D. Mooers, pp. 26-41. 1983), University ofMinnesota Press, (Minneapolis: tts”i .C otr ed., S. C.Porter, in States,” Late Wisconsin glacial record ofthe Laurentide Ice Sheet the United in “The Jr., and H. W. D. S. Fullerton, Borns, Lee Clayton, 17 D. M.Mickelson, pp. 515-47. 1972), University ofMinnesota, Geological (St.Paul: Survey, and eds., G.B. Morey, P. in “Quaternary History ofMinnesota,” Jr., K.Sims, 16 Herbert E. Wright, pp. 134-62. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History 1974), Survey, rgt r,ed., Jr., Wright, 20 L.Clayton, (Inpress). during Heinrich events, ganization and J. D.19 H.D. Lehr, Mooers, 1988). Minneapolis, University ofMinnesota, (Ph.D. central Minnesota,” dissertation, of Late Wisconsin glaciation, “Quaternary history and ice dynamics ofthe18 H.D. St.Croix phase Mooers, 1983). University ofMinnesota Press, (Minneapolis: 13 L.Martin, eid(Ca.12,000B.P.Period adocument - A.D. the series in 1700),” ofHistoric Contexts “Outline history. for the Prehistoric Clark A. Dobbs, from these contexts and other important sources onregional Native American presented information UnlessOffice. here otherwise has been noted, drawn early contact periods developed for the Minnesota State Historic Preservation 1 This isstructured discussion historic contexts using for the precontact and Chapter 2 24 J. C. Knox, “Response of river systems to Holocene climates,” in Herbert E. Herbert in climates,” Holocene to systems river of “Response Knox, C. J. 24 23 Ibid. 1952). Minnesota Press, Geological Survey Minnesota 35, Bulletin 22 J. H.Zumberge, 1990). Minnesota, C-5 Series AtlasCounty eds., and G.N. Meyer, L. Swanson, geology,” “Surficial R. W. and21 G.N. C.J. Plate Meyer, 3in Patterson, Baker, History 1984). Survey, Wisconsin Geological and Natural (Madison: Information Circular No. 46, The physical geography of Wisconsin litcn elg fteSpro ein Wisconsin Geologyof Pleistocene the Superior Region, Late Quaternary Environments States oftheUnited Late Quaternary Environments of Wisconsin The lakes ofMinnesota: Their and origin classification. Geology ofMinnesota: A Centennial Volume inst elgclSre S.Pu:University Minnesota of Geological Survey (St.Paul: , The LatePleistocene A terrestrial record Ice Sheetreor- ofLaurentide Geologic Atlas Geologic A phase Iarchaeological andgeomorpholog- Mnepls University of (Minneapolis: , o.2 pp. 3-37, vol. 2, , Reports ofInvestigation No. , Wisconsin Geological and , of WashingtonCounty, Reports ofInvestigations , Minnesota Geological , Minnesota HistoryMinnesota Sites in (Madison: . Reports of Minnesota Minnesota , Vol. 1 , , 188 Endnotes , ,p. Minnesota 33 (1986):1-74. , pp. 58-59. 36:3 (1938):227- The Schilling Site The 5:1 (1980):57-72. , No. Bulletin Science , pp. 56-57. The Minnesota The , 1, vol. (St. Paul: Minnesota Emergent Horticultural Emergent . Minnesota, A History (prepared for the Advisory Committee on Committee Advisory the for (prepared , Investigations, Archaeological for Center Minnesota, A History , 58. p. A History of Minnesota A History ; P. S. Jenson,Village Bremer “The and Mound Site,” Iowa Journal of History and Politics and of History Journal Iowa Spring Lake Archeology , 13; p. Lass, , France, of New pp. governor-general new The 16-18. , pp. 22-23; Lass, , (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Norton 1998;W. , York: W. 1st edition (New Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology of Midcontinental Journal Journal of the Iowa Archaeological Society Archaeological of the Iowa Journal What this awl means: feminist archaeology at a Wahpeton at a feminist means: this awl archaeology What The Sheffield Site: An Oneota Site on the St. Croix River the St. Croix An Oneota Site on Sheffield Site: The Spring Lake Archeology: The Spring The Sorg Site Archeology: Lake History of the Santee Sioux: United States Indian Policy on Policy Sioux: United States Indian of the Santee History The Iowa Effigy MoundAn Interpretative Iowa Manifestation: The (St. Paul: Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1993). 19:2 (1954):17-24. The Sorg Site Sorg The Minnesota Minnesota Minnesota Minnesota, A History , 9, No. Report Archaeologist, City (1976). State Office of the Iowa (Lincoln: Press, of Nebraska University 1967). 30 Mildred Mott, “The Relationship of Historic Indian Tribes to Archaeological to Mott,30 Mildred Tribes Indian of Historic Relationship “The in Iowa,” Manifestations Archaeologist Johnson,Withrow, Elden E. 21 Randy Whelan, Mary and (21WA1), Grove, Cottage Minnesota Preservation,Historic Grove, Cottage Minnesota, 1987). Johnson, 22 Elden 3 Chapter Folwell, Watts 1 William 17 B. E. Perkl, E. 17 B. (21WB56): “King Coulee A Stratified, Site Multi-Component Pepin,on Lake County, Minnesota,” thesis, Wabasha (Master’s of University Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1996). Taylor, and 18 Johnson of dating means new with a archaeologists provides of pottery advent The 19 points, As with projectile cultures. archaeological distinguishingand between form,the space. time and composition, over vary of pottery decoration and Wilford,A. Shelter,” Rock 20 Lloyd La Moille “The thesis,(Master’s of Minnesota, University Minneapolis, 1959). E. Gibbon, 28 Guy Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology Series No. 11, No. Series Archaeology Prehistoric (St. Paul:Minnesota Minnesota Society,Historical 1973). Time: Mist of the Through Indians Ioway at the Wedel, “Peering M. 29 Mildred 1700,” 1630 - circa 314; EarthA. Dobbs, in Blue River the Clark Patterns Settlement “Oneota dissertation, (Ph.D. of Minnesota, University Valley,” Minneapolis, 1984). Meyer, W. 31 Roy Trial D.32 Janet Spector, villageDakota 24 C. M. Arzigian,24 C. M. in Economies of Horticultural Emergence “The Keegan, F. ed., Wisconsin,” in W. Southwestern Society,Historical 1956, printing third 1979), 1, pp. 4-7; Lass, William Minnesota, A History 3, part 3, (St. Paul, Institute, Minnesota: St. Paul of the Museum Science The 1959). in Gibbon,23 Guy Transition A. H. Caine, C. and Woodland Late to Middle “The Minnesota,” Eastern Woodlands of the Eastern Economies 7, No. Paper Occasional (Carbondale: Illinois Southern University, 1987), pp. 217-42, Caine,25 Gibbon and Woodland.” Late to Middle “The 26 R. C. Mallam, Model 27 Johnson, 1977), 56. p. 2 Folwell, 3 Folwell, Louis de Baude, de Louis Frontenac, de in history,” figure Canadian comte greatest “the Folwell, off journey. on their Joliet and Marquette send would 19; Lass, 4 Folwell, , The , Minnesota No. 49 (1937); No. (St. Paul: (Minneapolis: Late Quaternary 45:1 (1986): 3-36. 102 (1990):1646-1657. Data Recovery Investigation of the St. Croix Data Recovery Spring Lake Archeology: The Spring The Lee Archeology: MillLake Cave chaeologist , Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology Series No. , Series Archaeology Prehistoric Minnesota ane, Continuous Record “A Eolian of Holocene Minnesota Ar The Mississippi and St. Paul: A Planning Study of Interpretive St. Paul: and Mississippi The , Series,Archaeology 11 (St. Paul: Prehistoric No. Minnesota , 2 (St. Paul: vols. Department, Archaeology Minnesota The Itasca Bison Kill Site: An Ecological Analysis An Ecological Bison Kill Site: Itasca The Aspects of Upper Great Lakes Anthropology: Papers in Honor of in Honor Papers Anthropology: Lakes Great of Upper Aspects The Archaeology of Petaga Point: The Preceramic Component Preceramic The Point: of Petaga Archaeology The Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association Anthropological American Memoirs of the , (1988). Society Historical County Ramsey the for prepared 189 3 (St. Paul: Society, Historical 1988; Minnesota edition); 3rd revised A. Jalbert , David F. Richards, of Overstreet, D. Inventory John and Resources Cultural (Minneapolis: 1988);Archaeology, Minnesota for Institute Johnson, Elden Prehistoric Peoples of Minnesota Peoples Prehistoric 10, Mississippi Upper River, Pool the to Anthony Falls St. Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota,and 384 (Milwaukee, No. Wisconsin: of Investigations Reports Center, Research Inc.,Archaeological Lakes Great 1996), S. U. the for prepared of Engineers,Army Corps District. St. Paul Webb, III,T. 2 Cushing, E. J. Wright, E. and Herb Jr., in the Changes “Holocene Midwest,” in of the H.Vegetation Wright, E. Jr., ed., Holocene The of the United States,Environments 2: Volume Press, of Minnesota University 1983), 142-65. pp. rather (B.P.) present before in years measured is generally history 3 Precontact In this system, years. inthan calendar “present” at 1950. is set point”“Projectile 4 classify arrowheads, to used is a term darts, spearheads or of stone, out fashioned generally of wood, out but sometimes bone, copper. or space, time and over can differed point forms projectile archaeologists Because Often, cultures. archaeological espe- distinguish and between date to use them points history,American projectile of Native periods cially during earliest the aims. accomplish these to have archaeologists means the are from Points Projectile Higginbottom, K. of Fluted 5 D. Inventory “An Plains Conference,Annual 54th at the Minnesota,” Iowa presented a paper City, Iowa, 1996. Minnesota,” of Northern Steinbring, in Elden 6 J. Archaeology Preceramic “The Johnson, ed., A. Wilford Lloyd Society, Historical 1974),Minnesota 64-73. pp. Burial Associated and Man Valley A. E. Jenks,7 Brown’s “Minnesota’s Artifacts,” Bradbury Brook at the Recovery Data R. Malik K. Bakken, and “Archaeological Site, 21ML42, Lacs County, Mille Minnesota,” (St. Paul: Archaeology Department, Society, Historical 1993), Minnesota Minnesota the for prepared Transportation, of Department St. Paul. Skeleton,” Valley C. Shane, 8 O. Browns the of Bone from Assays “Radiocarbon 90-C2443 contract for Society Historical Minnesota the to final report (1991); Malik Bakken, and Site.” “Bradbury Brook from Changes Florin,Vegetation 9 Frank and of Minnesota Paleo-Indians “Late thesis, (Master’s 2 vols. of Minnesota, 10,500-8,000 BP,” University Minneapolis, 1996). 10 Ibid, 191. p. Zellie, 11 Carole Potentials 12 K. L. Keen, L. C. K. Sh Activity and Vegetation Change at Lake Ann, at Lake Change Minnesota,” East-Central Vegetation Activity and BulletinAmerica Society of Geological Shay, T. 13 C. 3, No. Bulletin Science part 2, (St. Paul, Minnesota: of the Museum Science The Institute,St. Paul 1956). Historical Society,Historical 1993). Taylor, S. P. and Johnson 16 Elden Minnesota Historical Society, Historical (1971);Minnesota G. Michlovic, Michael Archaeology “The Canningof the Site,” (St. Paul: Series Society,1969).Archaeology Historical Minnesota Prehistoric E. Myster, Hoffman J. and W. 15 B. Access Site,River Archaic and A Multicomponent 21WA49: Woodland Habitation Site 14 P. Bleed, 14 P. RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area enyvna .&A ord o,11) p ,1,22-24. 14, pp. 1, 1810), Co., & C.& A. Conrad, Pennsylvania: An Account totheSources ofExpeditions oftheMississippi from Zebulon Pike, 1966; Inc., University Microfilms, Michigan: (Ann Arbor, 32 Zebulon Pike, p. 24. reprinted 1980), 1967; University ofNebraska Press, History oftheSantee StatesIndian Sioux:United Policy on Trial 31 Lass, 30 Folwell, 9Pn,“artv, p 75;Anderson, pp. 47-50; “Narrative,” 29 Pond, nCre’ ol,see Parker,on Carver’s goals, Traders of theNorthwest ed., “The Narrative28 Peter ofPeter Charles in Pond, M.Gates, Pond,” 27 Anderson, p. 116. blanket seeking peace. Ibid., the Chippewa had sent abelt and beaver he says, 26 Onlyashort timebefore, pp. 117-18. 25 Ibid., 120. pp. 115-17, 24 Ibid., pp. 92-94. 23 Ibid., 22 Parker, 21 Lass, pp. 8-9. 1976), Minnesota Historical Society Press, Minnesota: The Journals ofJonathan 1766-1770 Carver and Related Documents, 20 Anderson, 19 Lass, pp. 25-26. 18 Ibid., p. 53. 17 Ibid., see p. 48. defeat, onthe mythofthe Sioux awaying pp. the woodlands 47-48; from the Dakota, 16 Anderson, 15 Anderson, 14 Lass, 13 Folwell, 12 Folwell, p. 23. 1984), Press, ntheUpper Mississippi 1650-1862 Valley, in Clayton11 Gary Anderson, 10 Folwell, p. 118. 9 Ibid., 8 Hennepin, 6 Hennepin, 7 Folwell, nvriyo inst rs,13) p 4 0;Folwell, 104; pp. 94, 1938), University ofMinnesota Press, Discovered totheSouthwest ofNewFrance by Order oftheKing 5 Louis Hennepin, inst,AHistory Minnesota, Minnesota AHistory Minnesota, Minnesota Minnesota Carver Minnesota Minnesota Minnesota Minnesota Description ofLouisianaDescription Description ofLouisianaDescription Kinsmen Kinsmen Kinsmen Kinsmen p 90-91. pp. , Sources oftheMississippi and the Western Louisiana Territory ahrLusHnei’ ecito fLusaa Newly Father LouisHennepin’s ofLouisiana, Description itr,p. 71. History, A , itr,p. 41. History, A , .3;Lass, p. 30; , p 67-68. pp. , p 45;Lass, 44-52; pp. , Lass, 36-41; pp. , p 37-39. pp. , p. 73. , Folwell, 66-67; pp. , p 62;problems withthe Chippewa stories oftak- 26-27; pp. , p 23-25. pp. , MneoaHsoia oit rs,16) pp. 44-46; 1965), (Minnesota Historical Society Press, ise fAohrKn,Dakota-White Relations of Kinsmen Another Kind, Carver .8;Anderson, p. 82; , p. 43. , inst,AHistory Minnesota, p 0 1,17 Folwell, 117; 114, 90, pp. , p 7-15. pp. , p. 117. , inst,AHistory Minnesota, inst,AHistory Minnesota, Minnesota Lnon University ofNebraska (Lincoln: , Kinsmen Kinsmen p 63-64. pp. , .5;Jh akr ed., John Parker, p. 53; , p 59-60. pp. , .7;Roy W. p. Meyer, 79; , Philadelphia, , Minnesota Mnepls The (Minneapolis: , p 3 65. pp. 63, , p. 60. , (Lincoln: , Minnesota (St.Paul, , p 27-29. pp. , Five Fur p. 30. , , narrative ofLong’s 1823expedition. See William H.Keating, 48 The account ofLong’s to effort beat Pike comes from William H.Keating’s pp.92-95. Kinsmen, 47 Anderson, ieal hneoe h w eae ic is’ ii. hn npg 81, onpage Then, thetwo decades since Ainse’s visit.” changesiderable over ertr fWr ne h omn fSehnH og U.S.T.E.Secretary of War, under theCommand H.Long, ofStephen Performed the in Year &c, Woods, 1823by the Order oftheHon. J. C.Calhoun, Lake ofthe totheSourceExpedition oftheSt.Peter’s Lake Winnepeek, River, 46 Lass, 45 Anderson, Anderson, p. 56; “Narrative,” 44 Pond, 56. pp. 44, “Narrative,” 43 Pond, stayedlife the same. important ofthe parts Native American way and yet, of American expansion, acknowledge that important changes occurred asaresult ofEuropean and tures the dilemma manyNative American historians faced. They had to essentially the between same the timeofPond and andAinse Pike. This cap- says that overall the eastern Sioux population and lifestyle remainedhe 7Ii. pp. 96-98. 57 Ibid., 56 Anderson, History Happened to Fountain Cave–the Real Birthplace ofSt.Paul?” “St.Paul Underground–What see Greg Brick, tory ofFountain Cave, p. 68.For his- anin-depth quote, pp. 68-69, Northern Expeditions, 55 Kane, 54 Keating, 1967):8-12. 4:2 (Fall, Historic Site or RamseyWhat County History Happened to Carver’s Cave?” seepened Charles T. to Carver’s “Caseofthe Burnley, Cave, Vanishing 2O ae7,Anderson, 79, page On 42 41 Anderson, 40 Anderson, see pp. 92-93for fullstatement. p. 93; 39 Ibid., p. 28. 38 Ibid., quote p. 93. 93-94; pp. 30, 37 Ibid., quote p. 30. pp. 29-30; 36 Ibid., 35 Pike, River. the Mississippi Meyer, to go Wabasha.River thathadonce beenWabasha headed by hadleft thisvillageto Fils dePinchow orPinichon was th 53 Kane, p. 67. 52 Ibid., Related Documents Journals the of1817and 1823and Northern H.Long, ofStephen Expeditions edited, and Carolyn Gilman, June D. Holmquist, 49 Lucile M.Kane, 51 Kane, 50 Keating, 4Ii. p 42;Meyer, pp. 24-26; 34 Ibid., pp. 23-24. 33 Ibid., 94(itr 1995):4-15. 29:4 (Winter, inst,AHistory Minnesota, Sources oftheMississippi Northern Expeditions Northern Expeditions Narrative Narrative Kinsmen Kinsmen Kinsmen Kinsmen S.Pu:MneoaHsoia oit rs,17) p. 66. 1978), Minnesota Historical Society Press, (St.Paul: , p. 300. , p 297-98. pp. , ut .8,see pp. 80-81. quote p. 81, , p 59,see footnote 68onO’Fallon’s account. 95-96, pp. , p 79;Lass, 87-91; pp. , p 84-85. pp. , Kinsmen Santee p. 84. , p 76,69.For anaccount ofwhat hap- 67-68, pp. , p 56;quote p. 66. 65-67; pp. , p. 24. , p 52;Anderson, 25-26; pp. , Santee e leader ofavil says that the tribe “had undergone con- , Kinsmen inst,AHistory Minnesota, p. 25. , p. 79. , lage uptheMi Kinsmen p. 83. , Ramsey County Ramsey Narrative ofanNarrative p. 297. , nnesota p. 80.Le , The 190 Endnotes , , 74-75. Canoe Wisconsin Narrative of an ExpeditionNarrative of an , (Washington, D.C.: U.S. , (Minneapolis: University Upper Mississippi,Upper Wilderness A , B, Appendix of Navigation Opening Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, Annual Report , 24; p. Keating, , 249; p. Merrick,Times, Old 232. p. , pp. 106-7. before 1847. Military supplies and furswould , (Austin:Texas, of University 1994), 141. p. Canoe Old Times on the Upper Mississippi: The Recollections The Mississippi: the Upper on Times Old , 528. p. From Canoe to Steel Barge Canoe From , 15. p. River Engineers of the Middle Mississippi: A History of A History Engineers Mississippi: of the Middle River , 162, not p. were 1857 there 1852 to “From that says , 103. p. Structures in the Stream,Structures Science, Water, the Rise of the and A Wilderness Saga A Wilderness History of Transportation on the Upper Mississippi & Illinois Mississippi the Upper on Transportation of History Canoe 73:1-2 (March-June, 1992):71, 20 boats only about that says Old Times Old Times Sources of the Mississippi Sources , Printing Office, (Washington: Government U.S. 1983), 21-22; , (Washington, D.C.: Printing Office, Government 1876-1940), 309. p. ,York: Company, & Rinehart; Farrar Ives (New and Little York: J. J. New Annual Report, 1877 Annual Report,Annual 1881, 2746. p. 2 George Byron Merrick, Byron 2 George of a Steamboat Pilot from 1854 to 1863 Pilot from of a Steamboat 32; Hartsough, Mildred of Minnesota Press,of Minnesota 1934), 65-66; of Navigation pp. History Tweet, “A Roald Rapids,” Island District, Rock on the Island (Rock Improvements Army U.S. of Engineers,Corps April 1980):2; Jensen, Stream: the O. Down “Gently John Mississippi Northern on the Transportation of History the An Inquiry into Resources,” Cultural Submerged for Potential the and River Archeologist were Galena operating above Galena. above trade steamboat smaller much the dominate at St. Paul, 1844-1862, (St. Paul: Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1987), p. at St. of boats number the and arrivals or lists number 295. Merrick the differ slightly arrivals those for from His figures years. of these each for Paul in 1857 965 arrivals for counting 2.1. He lists 99 boats Table of Dixon in in 1858. 1,090 arrivals the for as accounting 62 boats and 3 Hartsough, 4 Ibid., 101-2. pp. 5 Merrick, tour.”“fashionable the take to came Some easterners Arriving in or St. Louis bank, east river's the on railheads at other traveled excursionists these upstream,Anthony Falls, St. to sometimes (see beauty imbibing river's the Havighurst, Walter references). above the Saga 1944), 166; p. Hartsough, Mississippi Illinois Upper and on the Transportation of Tweet, “History 7 Rivers,” 22. p. Dobney, J. 8 Frederick the St. Louis District, of Engineers Corps Army U.S. Printing Office,Government 1978), 33. p. Dodd, S. Wynelle United of the Statistics and Historical Dodd B. 9 Donald Midwest,Alabama Press, The of States, II University (The Vol. 1790-1970. 1973), 2, pp. 10, 22, 46. 10 Petersen, “Captains,” 235; on the p. Transportation of Tweet, “History Mississippi IllinoisUpper and Rivers,” 21-22. pp. Shallat, 11 Todd of Engineers Corps Army U.S. boats enough to carry the people who were flocking into the newly-opened the into flocking were who people the carry to enough boats paradise.” lumbermans' farmers' and Tweet, 6 Roald Rivers Petersen, Cargoes,” “Captains and 228, 234-38; Hartsough, 15 12 Pike, p. 297. 13 Havighurst, 16 Merrick, 17 Ibid., 18-19, pp. 29-30. 18 Ibid., 35. p. 19 Ibid., xii-xiii, pp. 35, 80, 83, 240. 14 U.S. Army, of Engineers, Corps 14 U.S. 1872 , 84; p. , pp. 60-61. 12 (October, , 86; p. Steve , 29. p. 13 (1929_30):227- Little Crow, Spokesman , pp. 187-89. , pp. 189-90. , pp. 192-94. Little Crow Historic Lifestyles in the Historic chaeologist Little Crow , 64. p. Minnesota, A History Kinsmen Kinsmen , Paul: (St. Historical Minnesota Kinsmen Steamboating the Upper on Minnesota, A History Little Crow Minnesota Ar , 128. p. , Printing (Washington: Government U.S. , pp. 30, 32, III Crow Little that suggests ,America, of York: Press University (New A History of the Rock Island District, Island of the Rock A History Army, U.S. Wisconsin Magazine of History Magazine Wisconsin , pp. 25-26; M. Babcock, Willoughby Jr., “Sioux , 56. p. , 61. p. , pp. 61-63 ; Idem., , 65, pp. 66; Idem., , pp. 66-67; Idem., , pp. 69-75. Kinsmen , pp. 180-82; 184-87; Idem., , pp. 99, 101-02; Lass, , pp. 107-10, 130; Idem., , 101. p. , 189; p. Idem., , Chapter 7; Babcock,Villages,” 137. “Sioux p. , pp. 155, 158. , 106 ; p. Anderson, Gary Clayton , pp. 138-40; Lass, , pp. 302-03. Little Crow , 140. p. Little Crow Kinsmen Little Crow Kinsmen Kinsmen Kinsmen Little Crow Little Crow Kinsmen Kinsmen Kinsmen Little Crow Little Crow Little Crow Kinsmen , (St. Paul: Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1986), 27. p. Narrative Minnesota , City: of Iowa, Society (Iowa Historical State 1968), The 206- pp. Minnesota FortWilderness of the Snelling: Colossus Mississippi 09, 209, 246; Petersen, of Early Upper J. Cargoes William “Captains and Mississippi Steamboats,” Office, 1984), 39; p. Petersen, J. William for the Sioux for 64 Anderson, 63 Anderson, 1837,” prior to in Minnesota Villages Chapter 4 Chapter Anne Mosher-Sheridan, Settlement and A. Lanegran European 1 David “The Valley: Mississippi Cairo, Upper River of the Illinois, Itasca, Lake to ed., 1860,”Wozniak to S. Minnesota–1540 in John Upper Mississippi River Valley River Mississippi Upper 1983), 23-25; pp. Tweet, Corps of Engineers,Corps 1866-1983 58 Anderson, Folwell, 1945):136. 65 Anderson, 59 Folwell, 72 Anderson, 66 Quoted in Anderson, in 66 Quoted 61 Ibid., 103-04. pp. 62 Keating, 74 Ibid., 62. p. 75 Anderson, Hall, Press,Society 1987). 60 Anderson, (Wakinyantanka or Big Thunder) moved Kaposia across the river in 1838 as a river Kaposia the across moved Thunder) Big or (Wakinyantanka 1837 treaty. of the result 71 Anderson, 73 Anderson, 76 Anderson, 67 Anderson, 68 Anderson, 69 Ibid., 159-60, pp. 162, 165-66, 174-76. 70 Babcock,Villages,” 137, “Sioux p. that those who say Kaposia argues list of 1834,” he “Taliaferro’s wrong. are 1837 treaty the after moved Kaposia of the band, insists, as head [Wakinyantanka] this chief “shows Snelling.’” Fort below Mississippi of the 9 miles and ‘West Furthermore, he list of 1834,contends,Taliaferro his similar “The by however, reinforced on his manuscript band map of the of 1835,locating conclusively prove 1834.” prior to place took removal the that after writes Although he Babcock, Anderson, 77 Anderson, 78 Anderson, 79 Anderson, 191 RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Minnesota PioneerMinnesota [Nathan] Daly, 22 Capt. “Nate” that “piloting was not somuch atrade asamiracle.”159, p.that early steamboating was and, ofmen“a triumph more than machines,” Wisconsin and Letters Arts Academy ofSciences, before the Civil “RailroadsWar, ofthe Old Northwest, Frederic L.Paxson, pp. 29-30; 1909), Government Office, Printing (Washington: DocumentNational No.Waterways 11, Commission, 36 Frank Dixon, Haigh p. 27. 35 Ibid., “Survey River,” ofUpper p. Mississippi 25. 34 House Ex.Doc. No. 58, 21 Merrick, 95. pp. 93, 20 Ibid., 33 and Dams,” “The Secret32 John History Locks Earliest O. ofthe Mississippi's Anfinson, p. 5. Ex.Doc. No. 58, 2dSession, Congress, report ofthe surveys 39th ofthe river Upper Mississippi and itstributaries,” withGeneral Warren’s report transmitting ofthe ChiefofEngineers, 1866, Secretary of War ofDecember 20, answer in to aresolution ofthe House, Letter “Survey from the River, ofUpper Mississippi House, 31 U.S. Congress, Transportation Routes p. to the Seaboard,” 455. 30 p. 18. 29 Ibid., pp. 17-18. House Ex.Doc. No. 58, 2d sess., “Survey River,” ofUpper 39thCongress, Mississippi House, 28 U.S. Congress, alDsrc,U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers Paul District, 26 Raymond Merritt, pp. 152-53. 1913), Government Office, Printing D.C.: (Washington, 1491, Doc. No. 3dsess., 62nd Cong., vol. 1, Improvement ofRivers and Harbors, Laws ofthe United States Relating to the House, 25 U.S. Congress, p. 44. 1938, OhioState University, Ph.D. dissertation, 1866-1933,” “A History24 Edward ofRivers and Harbors L.Pross, Appropriation Bills, and the fallsreceded. limestone broke large slabs, in off the sandstone out from underneath the limestone atthe edge ofthe falls, below thismantle lay asoftsandstone layer. As water and ice eroded the downtown St.Paul. A thick limestone mantle formed the riverbed. Just St. Anthony Falls stretched10,000 years ago, across the river valley near 23 Shortly after the glaciers withdrew from southern Minnesota some p.161. AWildernessSaga, Havighurst, hcg,vaarudbu ot,in viaaroundabout route, Chicago, and then from to Springfield 1852, in Illinois, from Alton to Springfield, shows that the railroad completed whom he cites, tracks Paxson, However, Riverthe Alton Mississippi and 1852-53. St.Louis was in the Chicago, says that railroad the first toW. reach p. 296, W. 1991), Norton &Company, William Cronon, 27 mrc,18) .8,says railroad the first reached p. River the Mississippi at 84, 1983), America, ie;see Dobney, river; when St.Louis became the new office for the middleCincinnati until1873, the middle stayed Mississippi withthe of Office Western Improvements in Duties for pp. 67-68; 1984), U.S. Government(Washington: Office, Printing Roald Tweet, 1979); Office, Printing Lifestyles in theUpper in Lifestyles Mississippi River Valley Points the Upper in Mississippi Valley,” John (in S. Wozniak ed., Terminals and Nexus “The F.tion until1854.Gary Railroads: Browne, Annual Report Annual Report Annual Report Minnesota HistoryMinnesota Old Times Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and theGreat West 87 p. 260. 1867, , 85 at2 o.2 pedxC,“Reports on Appendix CC, Vol. 2, Part 2, 1875, , p. 262. 1867, , Wle,Mneoa asCut ine,13) p. 18. 1931), CassCounty Pioneer, Minnesota: (Walker, , River Engineers Creativity, Conflict &Controversy: Conflict A History oftheSt. Creativity, .10 Havighurst, p. 100; , A Traffic History oftheMississippi River System 54:6 (Summer 1995):254-67. Tracks and Trails: ofa theLife Incidentsin p 44-45. pp. , 1853, but did notha butdid 1853, A History ofRock Island District Wsigo:U.S. Government (Washington: , A WildernessSaga (New University PressYork: of , 7(94:5-0 269-71. 17 (1914):257-60, Transactions ofthe eteln nopera- in theline ve .18 says p. 158, , Historic (New York: , , , Government Seaboard Grant. “this Well he had warned the aware Senate that, unrest, ofthe agrarian 54 The Senate alsoconsidered awarning from President Republican Ulysses 53 Salisbury, 52 Woods, Alexander and failed leader, Republican to Ramsey, get reelected. he quarreled withMinnesota's senior 6 years 1868, Butin asaRepublican. lieutenant governor. Hemoved onto represent Minnesota the U.S. in House for Donnelly had p. become 293. Minnesota'sWhile histwenties, stillin 51 Ibid., p. 290. 1963), 1975, Minnesota Press, 50 Blegen, 49 Woods, 48 p. 22. 47 Ibid., p. 21. 1971), Greenwood Corporation, Publishing Revolution and American Foreign 1860-1900 Policy, 46 Harold B. Schonberger, 45 Woods, pp. 108-9. 44 Ibid., 43 Buck, itly approved while others so. did ment that Kelley actively pushed economic and political solutions and/or tac- supports and greatly expands argu- onBarns' Chapters 7and 8, 1991), Press, oftheGrange Origins historians admit. Thomas A. Woods, amore radical from mind organization the in outset than Buck and other had came away and that Kelley from hissouthern withthe idea trip for the Grange, Kelley's niece. alsoargues Barns that Kelley Hall, particularly ofMissCarrie recognizing the credits roleBarns Kelley ofothers, the withfounding Grange, or events did force the Grange thatit became way? the early during 1870s, Kelley did want to make the Grange into thely his? radicalAnd, organization was the ideaGrange ofthe through Grange onhistrip the South? real- Second, History AReappraisal,”Hudson Kelley and the Genesis ofthe Grange: “Oliver William D. Barns, pp. 40-42; 1933), Harvard University Press, 1870-1880 Economic and Social Manifestations, Its Political, 42 Solon J. Buck, 40 Hartsough, addresses three issues concerning did Kelley Kelley. get the idea for the First, okIln nFbur 2 1854.Petersen,Rock Island onFebruary 22, 41 Hartsough, to38 Contrary mosthistories that follow Dixon, p. 517. 1924), Press, 37 Frederic Paxson, ognizes the railroad atRock Island to asthe first reach the river. 90:9;Dixon, 1920):496; Magnate,”A Mississippi “Steamboating onthe after Upper Mississippi the39 Lester Civil War: Shippee, them. and he lists the river by 1877, says that there were fourteen p. bridges 46, across 1977), University of Texas, (Austin, Master’sChannel ofUpper River Mississippi toThesis, 1939,” “The Corps and ofEngineers Navigation ImprovementsPatrick onthe Brunet, thatsaying there were thirteen bridges across River the Mississippi by 1880, St. LouisDemocrat 1(uy16)293. hogothsatce(p 2-2,Barns 41 (July 1967):229-30. Throughout (pp. hisarticle 229-42), p xxx -0 Robert S. Salisbury, 3-30; ix-xix, pp. , Granger Movement inst,AHistory oftheState Minnesota, Knights Knights Knights NwYr:Uiest rs fAeia 93,pp. 123-24. 1993), (New University PressYork: of America, , William Windom Canoe Canoe Granger Movement, A Study of AStudy andAgricultural Organization Granger Movement, p 4,115,15 Schonberger, 155; 151-52, 148, pp. , p. 141. , p 138-39. pp. , A TrafficHistory mrcnFote,1763-1893 American Frontier, p 9-7 9;Tweet, 199; 196-97, pp. , p 9,203. 197, pp. , nRpbia Ideology Republican in a 4ad1,1873. 14and 15, May , Mississippi Valley Historical Review Transportation totheSeaboard: The Communication p. 108. , p. 113. , .4;Hartsough, p. 49; , Knights ofthePlow:Knights Oliver Kelley and the Ae:Iowa State University (Ames: , Mnepls University of (Minneapolis: , ila idm ApostleofPositive William Windom, Steamboating History of Transportation A TrafficHistory Ciao The Riverside (Chicago: , Wspr,Connecticut: (Westport, , Canoe Transportation tothe 6:4 (March .28 alsorec- p. 298, , (Cambridge: , p 48,91. 84-85, pp. , Agricultural .4,in p. 48, , 38-39. , 192 Endnotes St. , 94. p. , 2034, p. , pp., 155-56; Survey of the Survey , 58, Doc. Exec. St. Anthony , pp. 1780-81. In , 287. p. , 96. In 1869, p. a tunnel illiam W. Eastman,illiam W. John 54:6 (Summer 1995):254-67. 54:6 (Summer Annual Report, 1890 , pp. 92-93; Kane, 312. p. “Rivalry,” Laws of the United States Laws St. Anthony , 96, p. never state the points that out operators W operators Annual Report, 1892 Annual Report, 1874 St. Anthony Minnesota History St. Anthony , 141, the p. that it appeared “When that says Laws of the United States RelatingLaws to the Improvement , pp. 259, 262; , 2154. p. , 2154; p. Mackenzie, , 2034; p. , pp. 1682-83; Congress, U.S. Senate, “Construction , 411; p. Survey of the Upper Mississippi River Mississippi of the Upper Survey , 247, Doc. Exec. 40th Cong., sess., 2d 9. p. , 141. p. , 93. p. , 2, vol. Cong., 62nd 3d sess., 1491, No. Doc. Creativity Creativity St. Anthony , 175, p. coveted, facilities they navigation per- of the “Deprived says Annual Report, 1891 Annual Report, 1873 Annual Report, 1891 Annual Report, 1890 Annual Report, 1894 Annual Reports, 1867 71 U.S. Congress,71 U.S. House, 58, Doc. 72 H. Exec. 45-46. pp. 73 Kane, 39th Cong., 2d sess., 46; p. Kane, 74 House Ex. Doc. 58, Ex. Doc. 74 House 45. p. 75 Ibid., 47. p. 76 Anfinson, History,” “Secret 77 H. Exec. Doc. 58, Doc. H. Exec. 30, pp. Chief of Engineers, the to report In his next 50-52. a sec- build to have would Corps the that showed surveys new that stated Warren dam, and lock ond Creek, of Minnehaha mouth the it near locating one- about 1; Dam and No. Lock Congress, mile below half U.S. see House, Upper Mississippi River Mississippi Upper 78 Kane, 312-15, pp. 315; “Rivalry,” p. from quote Kane, 79 Kane, 316. p. “Rivalry,” E. McNair,William included businessmen M. St. Paul Eugene The 80 Ibid. Wilson, King, S. William Meeker, Kane Murphy,Atwater. Isaac and Edward says, himself, for company of the some shares retained as did his friends. 81 Ibid., waterpower included amendment the to 318-19. Opponents pp. were with them Allied Chute. Richard and Washburn D. William magnates company and boom operators sawmill transferred the grant to the company. the grant the to transferred 82 Kane, 319-320; pp. “Rivalry,” Kane, Martin, Sumner W. Farnham, James A. Lovejoy, and Joel B. Bassett. Support Martin, Bassett. Farnham, B. Joel A. Lovejoy, and W. James Sumner stockholders, company's the from and came project boosters the for navigation Kane, city business leaders. Due island. the just below collapsed Island Nicollet to falls of the toe the from to of this tunnel, away. collapse the of eroding in danger was Anthony Falls St. falls. the save to on a project working of Engineers was Corps The its 83 Kane, recognized 322, p. government “Rivalry,” federal the that suggests authorizing the in $25,000 for by 1873 navigation obligation improving for Merritt, project. Mississippi River Improvement and Manufacturing Company would not be not Manufacturing and Company would Improvement Mississippi River able to conflicts, its internal over project the give resolve to decided Congress to of Engineers.” Corps the to Congress pushed who discusses author Neither project. the authorize 84 85 Merritt, 86 reported that the Corps had completed several examinations of the area over area of the examinations several completed had Corps the that reported river of the year, last the representatives Minneapolis with the “in company interests.” 87 June and July of 1891, Mackenzie carried out even more “accurate surveys”“accurate of 1891, more July and of June even out carried Mackenzie Line Short the to warehouse Minneapolis steamboat the from river most of the River; Minnesota the to down areas of select and Island Meeker below bridge see 88 of Locks and Dams and in Mississippi 53d Cong., the River,” of Locks 2d sess., Doc. Exec. 109,No. 7-8. pp. Congress,89 U.S. House, Harbors and of Rivers (Washington, D.C.: Printing Office, Government 1913), 704. Kane, p. Anthony , Annual Letter from Letter , Select , 237; p. Annual Report , 29. p. Minnesota History may have done some work with some work done have may The Corps,The the Environment, and The Falls of St. Anthony: The Anthony: of St. Falls The 1872, 310. p. Annual Report, 1869 Caffrey , pp. 68-74; Carroll, Jane “Dams and work had included 1,600 feet of wing 1,600 feet included had work , 59th Cong., sess., 2nd 341, No. H. Doc. , Printing (Washington: Government U.S. , (St. Paul: Press, Society Historical Minnesota , (Spring, 1990):4-5. , 243. p. Transportation to the Seaboard Transportation Creativity Annual Report Caffrey’s , 1495. p. , pp. 2103-04; , The 302. p. , 140; M. Kane, Lucile , 111, p. 1, figures see 2, 3. Plate 3 and and 37:8 (December 1961):309-23. 310-11. 37:8 (December , 2309; p. H. Merritt, Raymond Select Committee Select Minnesota History Creativity , 7; p. Schonberger, the rule has been to place them, been to place the rule has in straight reaches, five-sevenths of the reaches, in curved width apart; channel the concave on proposed one-half W.A. Engineer Assistant sides. the convex the full width on sides and (the to the present project adapted is better gives a rule which Thompson 6-foot channel), the dams the full in in he places straight which reaches width apart, side channel the convex on cent 25 per increasing the space side, the concave diminishing on and cent it 25 per the depending on at the following be pointed upstream should Wings of curvature. degree angles: 105N to 110N, in straight reaches, 100N to 102N in concave, 90N to 100N in convex, practicable, where located be so they should and prolonged their axes that meet in the center would the channel. of Annual Report, 1875 Annual Report, 1880 Annual Report, 1895 193 1872, 309-10. pp. 60 55 Windom, 56 Ibid., 213. p. 57 Ibid., at low of 5 feet a depth 243; p. recommended Committee Select The 213. p. St. Louis. to St. Paul for water 58 Ibid., 211. p. wing dams would while that 59 In 1872, argued Throckmorton Captain J. river, upper the for work not probably closing dams would. issue would inevitably be forced on the Exec. branch, Exec. on the that forced be inevitably suggested . . . [and] would issue find and a solution.” problem study the Congress the Windom, Committee pp. 14-15: pp. h ertr fWr Transmitting,War, of the Chief of Engineers, from the Secretary with a Letter the between River in the Mississippi Channel of EstimateReport Six-Foot for St. Paul, and River Missouri Minn. dams. He does not provide a location for this work and there is no mention of is no mention there and work this for a location provide not dams. He does reports,it in later however. 1906, to left 61 Before largely was arrangement of the problem important the Congress, S. in U. As cited engineers. of local House, judgment the closing dams earlier. In his report for the 1871 season, the for In his report closing dams earlier. Wm. Captain the that Hillhouse reported 62 For wing dams, the suggested proportion of brush to rock was two to one, to wing two dams, was 62 For rock of brush to proportion suggested the strong, was current the of a ratio to although where might ratio increase the 341, No. H. Doc. one of rock. 14; every of brush for portions four or p. three Annual Report, 1879 63 Alberta Kirchner Hill, Kirchner Alberta 63 Fleet,” the With “Out (1961):286. 64 Hill, 291. Fleet,” the p. With “Out 65 66 Report, 1901 the Upper Mississippi River Basin River Mississippi the Upper Office, 1984), 1; p. Merritt, Damages: States, Ojibway, United the The Mississippi the and Headwaters Reservoirs,” 68 Ibid., 310-12. pp. 69 Ibid., 311. p. 70 Merritt, 67 Lucile M. Kane,67 Lucile Mississippi,” a River: the for and Cities “Rivalry Twin the Minnesota History 1987), 92-93; pp. Kane, 311-12; pp. “Rivalry,” during that these Kane adds This required the get sought to had extended. Meeker date years completion some delay. also caused Waterfall that Built Minneapolis that Waterfall RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Forum rates see aspossible E. asfar V. “The Smalley, Deep Waterways Problem,” p. “Appropriation 139.Onrailroads Bills,” having reduced10 Pross, their 89 (February 1984):85-86. “Herbert Hoover and Conservation,”Clements, History ed., Carolyn Merchant, 1910); Company, New Page Doubleday, & York: 1967; University of Washington Press, (Seattle: Gifford Pinchot, pp. 361-79; 1911), Iowa, Rapids, Mississippi ValleyHistorical Associat “The Conservation of Natural Resources,” McGee, J. W. Iowa E-2-6; StateDocumentation Historic Preservation Form, (1991), Office National Register ofHistoric Places Multiple1942,” Property “The Conservation 1857- Movement Rebecca Conard, Iowa, in 1959); Press, 1890-1920 Conservation Movement, 9 Samuel Hays, pp. 66-68. 8 Ibid., p. 69. Company), Printing McMein Illinois: 1906(Quincy, October 10and 11, Minn., RiverUpper Mississippi Improvement Association held Minneapolis, in Proceedings River7 Upper Mississippi Improvement ofthe Association, p. 4. 1957), Press, California .6;James H.Shideler,p. 67; America:Century The1920’s ed., and David Brody, Robert H.Bremner, John in Braemen, 1919-1929,” “The Farmer’s Dilemma, 6 Gilbert C.Fite, p. 73. 5 Ibid., 1902 November 12-13, Illinois, Improvement HeldatQuincy, Convention Association Mississippi River River4 Upper Mississippi Improvement Association, hoped that by reviving the river they could revive economies. their sinking Improvement Association due to the loss oftimber-related businesses. They says that towns along the river formed the River Upper Mississippi 37, 1890-1950 Mississippi, 3 Philip V. Scarpino, 2 p. 51. 1909), Office, Government Printing D.C.: Document No. 11(Washington, Commission, Traffic History oftheMississippi River System and less than 56,000bushels after 1895.See Frankdecade H.Dixon, butitonlyregistered 400,000bushels atthe end ofthethrough the canal, upper river. In1879and 1880over two bushels passed ofgrain million the late nineteenth century illustrates the decline ofthe freight trade onthe through traffic 1 Grain the Des Moines Canal Rapids and atSt.Louis during Chapter 5 Minnesota. St.Paul, 1909. St.Paul records, District 91 Major Francis February R.Shunkto Mayor Minneapolis 17, J. C.Haynes, 1578-79. 90 push for the project. who made without discussing the final construction ofLock 2, and Dam Mackenzie repeatedly calledGranted, for locks to and Kanejumps dams. the which she does not demonstrateproponent they were. ofthe project, project withthe Corps instead ofCongress and makes the Corps aproactive This misplaces the the for authority authorizing two locks and ..” dams United States engineers army responded 1894by in announcing plans for suasive Minneapolitans continued to urge the federal government to act. Annual Reports nulRpr,1908 Annual Report, I (u. 1895):746-52. XIX(Aug., , Lxntn ascuet,19) hp.91;Kendrick A. 9-11; Chaps. 1993), Massachusetts, (Lexington, Conservation and theProgressive theGospel ofEfficiency: 1892-1909. , Great River: An Environmental History oftheUpper Qic,Ilni,nd) p ,8-9. pp. 6, n.d.), Illinois, (Quincy, p 3,1649-50; 530, pp. , Farm Crisis Clmi:Uiest fMsor rs,18) p. 1985), University Press, ofMissouri (Columbia: Clmu:Oi tt nvriyPes 1968), OhioState University Press, (Columbus: 992 LsAgls University of (Los 1919-23 Angeles: , ion for the Year 1909-1910 Cmrde as:Harvard University Mass.: (Cambridge, Change in and Continuity Twentieth Major Problems Environmental in National Waterways , nulRpr,1907 Annual Report, American Historical Review The Fight for Conservation Proceedings oftheUpper Proceedings ofthe 3(Cedar , ,pp. A 30 Kerwin, No. 1to avoid problems that arose over agreements atsites these. like may have recommended thatEngineers, the Corps build allofLock and Dam tions to be approved either by the War Department, or, as I think would asIthink tions to be be approved or, either by the War Department, the United States which should be protected through conditions and stipula- and achargelimit to be paid to the Government the are interests among of every such actgranting apermit ofwords adequate to showin that atime “should be removed he contended, such doubts,” henceforth by the insertion ers the War Department to acharge fix and set atimelimit. All grounds for “There ofjudgement conflict isasharp asto whether thisgeneral actempow- admitted that his 1908veto Minnesota, in ofaproject River, onthe Rainy Scarpino, 163-64; pp. 1978), Nashville, District, U.S. Engineer Army Tennessee: (Nashville, States United Army A History District Corps oftheNashville ofEngineers, and lock atitsown expense. Leland Johnson, canalRapids served navigation needs and the company had to build the dam the Corps determined that the Iowa. Des Moines Here, River atKeokuk, obtainedCompany to agrant build apower onthe dam upper Mississippi the Keokukwon and Hamilton Water a99-year lease. In1905, Power payCompany for the dam. The company received the power atnocharge and Corps to build the lock butmade the Chattanooga Tennessee River Power atHales onthe Bar Tennessee Congress required the River, 29 In1904, received See grants. p. 3072. Congress would appear to engage favoritismcautioned, in to thosewho small group ofindividuals for their exclusive use. heWithout aset policy, that itgavethe arguing President’s anextremely valuable veto, resource to a 6 t ,p 02 Kerwin, p. 3072; pt.3, 36, pp. 2-3; F58362, Box 1408, Entry 103, National RecordArchives Group 77, and Records 1905, Administration, 4, April Circular No. 14, Office ofthe ChiefofEngineers, 26 War Department, 111-25. 82-83, pp. 8-11, 1926), University Press, Theodore Burton ofOhioargued that they were Burton defended minimal. arguedAlabama while that Representative the charges were reasonable, 28 Kerwin, p. 3; Circular No. 14, 27 War Department, 25 Jerome G.Kerwin, 24 Hays, 23 Hays, 1900-1920 Jr., John Milton Cooper, 1967); Wang, 22 Robert H. Wiebe, “OurGreat River,”21 McGee, pp. “Appropriation 131-32. Bills,” 20 Pross, secretary ofthe National Rivers and Harbors Congress. letter read to the convention p. 77; from J. Captain F.19 Ibid., Ellison, p. 79. 18 Ibid., 80. pp. 16, 17 Ibid., 16 15 Hays, “OurGreat River,” p. 8576. 14 McGee, p. 92. 13 Ibid., pp. 91-92. 12 Ibid., 11 Hays, Congressional Record UMRIA Proceedings Conservation Conservation Conservation Conservation Water-Power (New W. York: W. 1990). Norton &Company, Great River The 1877-1920 Search for Order, Federal Water-PowerLegislation p. 114. , p. 2. , p 92-94. pp. , p. 91. , 97 p. 16. 1907, , 93 pp. 3071-72. A Representative from 1903, , p 1-4 ewn .17 asta osvl,in says that Roosevelt, p. 117, Kerwin, 111-14; pp. , Water-Power p 32. .L asal the Chiefof 23-24. W. pp. L.Marshall, , World’s Work Pivotal Decades: The States, United p. 79. , Congressional Record Fbur 3 97,p. 8577. 1907), (February 13, Engineers on the Engineers Twin Rivers: Water-Power NwYr:Columbia (New York: (New York: Hill and Hill (New York: 93 Vol. 1903, , p 82-84. pp. , 194 Endnotes Laws of Laws , 10, June , 2, v. , 2, v. Minneapolis nflicts in operation Annual Report, St. Paul Pioneer Press Pioneer St. Paul give co rise to , 10, June 1909, 4; p. Kane, Laws of the United States Laws Laws of the United States Laws , 114, p. information that presents , pp. 1799-1800. Federal Conservation Policy, Conservation 1921-1933 Federal Conservation , 10, June 1909, 2; p. , pp. 102-10. , 119. p. St. Paul Pioneer Press Pioneer St. Paul , 144; p. Merritt, 145, p. Shunk recog- while that adds , pp. 144-45. , 2, v. 1419-20, compensation” pp. “reasonable for provided Annual Report, 1910 Creativity Creativity Conservation Conservation , 10, June 1909, 4, 9 public p. June at the those present that reported pp. 1799-1800. pp. Minneapolis Tribune Minneapolis pp. 1564-65. pp. 64 Hays, and administration . . . .”and As a result, says, Hays that commission decided the power. the lease and costs construction the pay would government federal the government the simply not whether 1 was Dam and No. at Lock question The The possible. power hydroelectric make to cost part of the all or pay would navigation authorized of the much completed Engineers had the fact that to specifically project the in position Corps the of redoing put the project Hays, See development. 215, 109 and pp. hydropower accommodate for position on this issue. Mackenzie’s General 741,58 H. Doc. 3. p. 59 Merritt, 49 that hydropower, believed he develop no authority to had Corps the that nized . . . .” oversight of legislative just a case the “was this over debate the Given development, simply not a power it was in hydroelectric role government’s federal over disagreement but of national oversight of legislative matter development. hydropower Haynes,60 Shunk to 17, February 1909. 61 Merritt, 1419-20; pp. Act, Harbor and 63 River 25, July 1912, 65 Ibid., 108-12. pp. 66 Ibid., Newlands’ approved 109-14. In 1917 Congress bill, pp. but many made, been already bill had in the for its signifi- undermining called changes C. Swain, also Donald See cance. 1909, 4; p. 741, H. Doc. 5. p. 50 741, H. Doc. 8; p. 321. p. “Rivalry,” 51 H. Doc., 741, 8. p. 52 Ibid., 8-9. pp. 53 Ibid., 7. p. 54 Ibid., board, the this position to by 8. In contrast p. the Tribune high building of the dam, the as favoring on record go to voted meeting state, the by accomplished interest. whether a private or cities the 741,55 H. Doc. 8-9, of Minnesota pp. State the eliminated board The 12-13. not was constitution state’s the that it believed because consideration from Minneapolis The a project. in such engage it to allow to amended be to likely of Minnesota. University the for hydropower included resolution 56 Ibid., 3. p. 57 Ibid., 3-4. Hays, pp. the United States 62 River and Harbor Act, Harbor and 62 River 25, June 1910, Angeles: Los and (Berkeley of California Press, University 1963), 98. p. earlier,As noted 67 Congress,Act of 1910, Harbor and in River the 1910, 68 Hays, would explain Marshall’s decision. Hays relates that when some members of some members when that relates Hays decision. Marshall’s explain would cost the pay parties private that Commission suggested Waterways Inland the dam, of a navigation portion hydropower of the and of Engineers Corps “the that this would objected many in Congress 1; Dam and No. at Lock lease power a hydroelectric from , , 561. p. , pp. 117-19. , 60th Cong., 1st , 90-91, p. 100. Conservation Annual Report, 1909 Conservation , 2, v. 1343; , pp. 134, 151, Cities Twin the Why 154. Use of Surplus Water Flowing over Government Dam Government over Flowing Water Use of Surplus Mississippi River,Mississippi to Minneapolis, St. Paul Minn. , 10, June 1909, 4. p. , 22. p. , 62; p. Hays, , 9, June 1909, 1. p. , 9, June 1909, 1; p. 741, H. Doc. 5. Representatives p. , pp. 90, 102-03. , St. Paul Minneapolis and that 142. Merritt argues p. Great River Great Great River Great Creativity St. Anthony St. Anthony Falls Conservation Laws of the United States Laws Minneapolis Tribune Minneapolis Press Pioneer St. Paul Minneapolis Tribune Minneapolis 32 Hays, 33 McGee, 8580-83. pp. River,” “Our Great 34 Ibid., 8579. p. 35 Scarpino, sess., 218, No. Doc. 2, pp. 6. Mackenzie, Island Rock serving as the after 1895, 1879 to District Engineer from Chief of Engineers on the became the from Judson V. 23,W. January Major were commissioners The 1904. Department,Treasury the from Major and of Engineers,Corps Woodwell E. J. Corps. Quartermaster the Kimball from W. Amos water at low 10.2 feet from 37 Ibid., varied at this site head the While 3. p. at high usual, stages, than 4.0 feet longer to lasted high the stages the to due downstream miles Mississippi the two about River,Minnesota entered which 1. Dam and No. Lock up to water backed and 38 Ibid., 218, pp. 4-6. 39 Merritt, 36 Kane, research. more much deserves position project their on the changed Congress,36 U.S. House, in Minneapolis, and St. Paul between River Mississippi Minn. 31 Scarpino, officials haggled over the placement of Lock and Dam No. 1 and that high that 1 and Dam and No. of Lock placement the over officials haggled in St. Paul,” Minneapolis and “Business interests its start. hampered water he generate would dam that a larger for contends, press to delay the “used power.” were. electrical interests these who say not He does 40 preferable, Department.” Interior the by Hays, 41 U.S. Congress,41 U.S. House, and St. Paul a party from met had of Minnesota University the from At this encounter, the before. day 1 the Dam and No. Minneapolis at Lock of power in hydroelectric the interest University’s of the learned cities two highthe dam. 47 48 61st Cong., 2d sess., using 741, H. Doc. flash- proposed board The 5. p. height of the raise surface–to dam’s the to attached boards boards–wooden 1, Dam and No. At Lock channel. pro- a 6-foot for they provide 2 to Dam No. auxiliary an adding and lock one foot dam by raising height of the the posed of Board The situations. low-water extreme 1 for Dam and No. Lock below first with the recommendation concurred Harbors and Rivers Engineers for lock, building another than Rather second. with the it suggest- but disagreed depth; necessary the by floor ed completed already the lower Corps the that 5, pp. see 14. a required 42 Ibid., have would upstream dam farther 5-6. Placing the pp. and station hydroelectric Pillsbury-Washburn new of the dam because lower against building it farther decided They Anthony Falls. St. dam at Lower gorge, Creek Minnehaha the flooded have it would because downstream which, noted, city of board of the the attractions natural “one of the was Minneapolis.” 43 Ibid., 6. p. C. Haynes, J. 17, Minneapolis Mayor R. Shunk to February Francis 44 Major 1909, District records, St. Paul St. Paul, Minnesota. 45 Ibid. 46 195 RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Maintenance Transportation and Restoration and totheNational Welfare; Their Creation, 85 Herbert Quick, pp. 56-57. n.d.), R3584, Report, College of andAgricultural LifeSciences Researchof Wisconsin-Madison, of Commercial on Navigation theUpper Mississippi River Richard Hoops, p. 195; Creativity, 84 Merritt, 48. pp. 23, 83 Ibid., pp. 14-15. 82 Ibid., 81 Ibid. p. 14. 80 Ibid., pp. 14-15. 79 Ibid., p. 17. 78 Ibid., p. 19. 77 Ibid., p. 19. Doc. No. 583, Improvement by ofLocks theConstruction and Dams witha Viewand Survey ofMississippi to River from Minneapolis toLake Pepin, to Lake Pepin. on Report Examination from Preliminary theChiefofEngineers House, effect U.S. in1925. Congress, take This may refer to the fact that the decision the Indiana in Rate Casewas to Cities the past in few monthsareal interest the revival in ofriver traffic.” there has developedfreight rates, the men business amongst ofthe Twin roads had begun to raise their rates. “Under the spurofincreasing railroad 76 Twin Cities businesses had taken agreater interest freight rates in asrail- p. 9. 2dsess., 40thCong., the River,” Upper Exec. Mississippi Doc. 247, “Survey of House, U.S. Congress, 1909; February 17, 75 Shunkto Haynes, “Rivalry,” p. 322. 74 Kane, hydroelectric power generated dam. atahigh written asthe University ofMinnesota was considering how usethe itmight pp. 1-2. This thesis and the previous oneby1909), Jevne and Timperley were University ofMinnesota,River between (Thesis, St.Paul and Minneapolis,” Proposed Water Power Development Mississippi atU. S. Lock No. and Dam 1, Lester “A H.Gatsby, Studyof 73 RalphWalter M.Davies, C.Beckjord, p. 84. (September 1983), Corps ofEngineers,” for St.Paul District, Riverthe Mississippi and Two unpublished, Structures atSt. Anthony Falls, St.Paul Locks District on and Dams “Historical Resources Evaluation, Gjerde, Jon p. 1; 1910), University ofMinnesota, (Thesis, St. Paul and Minneapolis,” Power Development River Mississippi Between atU.S. Lock No. and Dam 1, George72 W.Jevne D.and William Proposedof Timperley, “Study Water No.Dam 1became the Federal Power Commission’s Project No. 362. 71 Merritt, for however, ineffective. being criticizes the commission, Swain ofwater-power and ofother beneficial uses ..’” development, tion, hensive scheme ofimprovement for the and purposes utilization ofnaviga- toauthority require that projects be planned accordance in witha ‘compre- “the received commission argues, p. 113, Swain, es. “Most important,” toauthority 50-year grant licenses and to regulate electrical rates and servic- overthe FPCjurisdiction allwater the power sites onnavigable streams, malized federal regulation ofhydroelectric power development. The actgave notes that the actalsocreated aFederal21, Power (FPC)and for- Commission 69 Scarpino, pose approach for over adecade. Swain, water-related development. This essentially ended hopes for the multiple-pur- mitted hydroelectric itseparated power water development, power from other a compromise between conservationists and their opponents. While itper- 70 Hays, Conservation Creativity NwYr,10) p. 77. The made farm crisis 1920sfarm (New 1909), York, Great River American Inland Waterways, Their toRailway Relation p. 146.Hydroelectric power development, atLock and p 115-21.Hays says that the 1920actrepresented pp. , p. 65. , Federal Conservation Policy Mississippi River from Minneapolis A River theEvolution ofGrain: 9hCn. 2dsess., 69thCong., , Mdsn University (Madison: p 111- pp. , 98 Ibid. historic files, Dam, Herald historic files, Coon Dam, Rapids 96 Hennepin Parks, Herald historic files, Coon Dam, Rapids 95 Hennepin Parks, 1910. accordance and June 23, withthe Water 1906, Power actsofJune 21, specifically stated that the company had to build the and dam power plant in p. 893. The act Chapter 12, 3rd sess., 61stCong., Minnesota,.” County, RiverMississippi Hennepin from in County apoint to in apoint Anoka Great Northern Development to Company construct across adam the Minneapolis Tribune Herald historic files, Coon Dam, Rapids 94 Hennepin Parks, historic files, Dam, County Union Centennial Union County Power Figure Dam Coon97 History,” in Early Rapids “Railroads, County Union Centennial Union County Power Figure Dam Coon93 History,” in Early Rapids “Railroads, historic files. Coon Dam, Rapids Hennepin Parks, Electric Office, Genl. written atthe Minneapolis, from William de la Barre, Illinois, Chicago, 92 Letter Insurance from H.M.Byllesby Exchange Building, &Company, 1952):36-41. (March 6, Untimely Thaws Mettle onRiver Job,”Test Contractors’ Anthony Falls,” “Nine-Foot Channel Extension Above Nelson, Martin St. 1963):1-18; Proceedings ofthe American Society Engineers ofCivil “The St. Anthony Falls Navigation Project,” Francis Mullin, 1962); Records: Construction ofthe St. (St.PaulAnthony Falls District, Project,” 91 Kane, ittranscended pork barrel simple projects.support for thisproject, depth and expanse ofthe movement. Given the great interest and popular must consider buthe underestimates hisargument carefully, the power, 9-foot channel project through and that itwas apork barrel project. One “A argues ofmen that asmallclique pushed River the ofGrain,” 90 Hoops, 89 p. 522. no. 11388, v. 66, 88 Ibid., 728-42. no. 13671, v. 88, ibid., 709-24; 1924), April, (Februaryto no. 11388, v. 88, ibid., 512-22; 520, 1922), (January to March, Commercethe Interstate Commission States ofthe United Railway Company,Fe Service ofIndiana Et 87 Public Commission Al. v. Topeka &Santa Atchison, “Waterways asHighways,” Franklin Snow, pp. 116-22; 1934), Inc., DoranDoubleday, &Company, and Other ofHerbert Public HooverWritings Papers ed., foot Channel ofthe OhioRiver. William Starr Myers, ..”, celebration in ofthe Completion ofthe Nine- 1929, OctoberKentucky, 23, Academy Improvement ofOurMid-West Waterways,” 86 Roald Tweet, porters ofnavigation improvements thisdecade. during organizations equipment and farm manufacturers someofthe strongest sup- Archaeologist Historical Overview and ArchaeologicalPart 1: Potentials,” “Archaeology1 Scott F. of the CentralAnfinson, Minneapolis Waterfront, Chapter 6 St. Paul Pioneer Press eebr1,1913. 17, December , 1913. 26, November , 1913. The been had article originally printed the in 26, November , 3 Jnay12) p 52;Ie. “Address atLouisville, Idem., pp. 15-24; 135 (January 1928), St. Anthony 812 (1989):17-20. 48:1-2, The MinnesotaEngineer History of Transportation Anoka Herald Union County Anoka Herald Union County SeUS oges os,“An Act To authorize the House, . See U.S. Congress, p 5,147;Caec udig “A Review Clarence ofthe Buedning, 174-76; 154, pp. , nesaeCmec omsinRprs Decisions of CommerceInterstate Commission Reports, A nadEpr’ ed”(a 2 1928). “An Inland (May Empire’s 12, Need,” , etme,16,Hnei ak,Coon Rapids Hennepin Parks, 1965, September, , etme,16,Hnei ak,Coon Rapids Hennepin Parks, 1965, September, , North AmericanReview Jn,16)69 “Flooding and 1960):6-9; (June, .7;HretHoe,“The Herbert Hoover, p. 77; , The Annals ofthe American . etme,1965. September, , vol. N. 1(GardenY.: City, , 227 (May 1929):592. 89:CO1 (March, Anoka Union County Anoka Union County Anoka Union County .6,no. 11388, v. 66, , Construction Bulletin The Minnesota The State Anoka Anoka 196 Endnotes , pp. 107-08, 122. St. Anthony , 86. p. , 254. p. St. Anthony , 20, November 1876. , pp. 184-89. Canoe Voyage Canoe , pp. 9, 12. , 81. p. , pp. 34-38. , 53; p. Wiggins, (April 27, communication personal , pp. 57, 58, 106. , pp. 108, 115, 125. , 34. p. Kinsmen St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony Voyage Minneapolis Tribune Minneapolis 27 Ibid., 35. p. 28 Zellie, of Nature,” 11. p. “Voice 29 Kane, 25 Featherstonaugh, 26 Long, 30 Ibid., 13. p. 31 Ibid., 13-14. pp. 32 Ibid., 15-16. pp. 33 Ibid., 16-19, pp. 17. p. quote 34 Ibid., 18. p. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Ibid., 26-27. pp. 38 Ibid., 31-32. pp. 39 Ibid., 32. p. 40 Anderson, 41 Kane, 48 Kane, 49 Ibid., 71. p. 50 Ibid., 72. p. 51 52 Kane, 53 Ibid., 106, pp. 107;Anfinson, Scott (April communication personal 2000), dam. new the information regarding the provided 26, pp. 54 Anfinson, 28; “Archaeology,” Kane, 42 Ibid., 37, pp. 42, 50-51. 43 Ibid., 42, pp. 44, magnate of fur trade son-in-law the was 49. Sanford importer, and a banker a was was Gebhard Davis and Chouteau. Pierre 25. p. See merchant. 44 Ibid., 43, pp. 44. 45 Ibid., 44-49, pp. 52-53. 46 Ibid., in 600 feet to 49-54, canal the pp. lengthened company The 57. of about a head in mid-1890s. It created the 950 feet to mid-1860s and the river- a six-block distribution turned 35 feet, system “. . .this waterpower and industrialized, most densely country’s strip the into front water- direct-drive district.”power Continuation Sheet, Register National See 8-4. p. 47 Kane, 2000), was tunnel side east on the began construction date the that suggests 1883, 1875 to 1867, some purpose. From did serve cave The 1866. not bring in to tourists cave and tunnel part the of used Pettingill P. Mannesseh Kane, See on flatboats. 55 Kane, , The Northern The (Albany, York: New E. & , 2; p. Wiggins, Dave St. (St. Paul: Minnesota St. Anthony , 117. p. (Chicago: Books, Quadrangle Inc., 1962; , pp. 92-93. A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor, up the Minnay with an Voyage A Canoe Travels through the Northwestern Regions of the the Northwestern through Travels Narrative Journal of Travels through the Northwestern through Travels of Narrative Journal , 205. p. , 290. p. , 289; p. Zellie, of Nature,” 9. p. “Voice , 3. p. , 2. p. , 9. p. , 3. p. Voyage in in Anthony of Saint Skiff Falls to the a Six-Oared A Pilgrimage in America, inA Pilgrimage of the to the Discovery Leading , pp. 2-3; 5, in footnote 197, p. many ver- are there says she Travels Travels , an pp. have did not he that 35-36. Long acknowledged (Ann Arbor,(Ann Michigan: Microfilms, University Inc., 291, p. from Pilgrimage Description of Louisiana , M. Kane, Lucile by ed. Holmquist, D. June Gilman, Carolyn and (St. St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony Sources of the Mississippi Sources St. Anthony Voyage St. Anthony 17 Zellie, of Nature,” 8-9. pp. “Voice E. Colhoun, of James Journal “The 18 1823,” in published Expeditions of Stephen H. Long, Related 1823 and of 1817 and Journals The Documents Paul:Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1978), 284. p. 19 G. C. Beltrami, 21 Kane, Sources of the Mississippi and Bloody Rivers; with a DescriptionWhole Rivers; of the Bloody and of the Mississippi Sources Course of the Ohio of the Former, and in London, published first edition England, 1828), 204-05. pp. 20 Beltrami, Account of the Lead and Copper Deposits in Wisconsin; of the Gold Region in of the Gold the DepositsWisconsin; in Copper and of the Lead Account Manners of Popular Country; Sketches and Cherokee Society,Historical 1970; in London, Bentley Richard by first published England, 1847), 253-54. pp. 22 Ibid., 3. p. 23 Zellie, of Nature,” 10. p. “Voice Featherstonaugh, W. 24 George 16 Schoolcraft, 11 Pike, 12 Kane, 13 Ibid., 2, pp. quotes 3, 4 respectively. and Zellie, of Nature,14 Carole Landscape and Voice Features “The Geographic Anthony Falls Saint the for prepared Falls,”AAnthony report at St. Change Board,Heritage Research, Landscape by St. Paul, Minnesota, 1989, October 8; p. on Spirit trees the that Zone) suggests Heritage Anthony Falls (St. Wiggins Dave (April 27, communication Personal oak. than rather cedar 2000). were Island 15 Schoolcraft, 1817 by Major Stephen H. Long, Topographical Engineer, Stephen H. Long, Major 1817 by Army United States Topographical II (St. Paul, Society, Historical vol. Minnesota of the Collections Minnesota: Society, 1997)), Historical printed 1889 (facsimile copy Minnesota 37-40; pp. Kane, lists and some. sions of this story Schoolcraft, Rowe 6 Henry United States Schoolcraft, Rowe Henry Chain of the Great through Detroit Regions of the United States Extending from Lakes,American of as a Member River, of the Mississippi to the Sources Performed 1820 Cass, Governor the Expedition under Year in the E. Hosford, 1821). 19-20; pp. Anfinson,7 5, Figure see “Archaeology,” 21. p. 8 Kane, 9 Long, fall exactly. the measure to instrument 10 Kane, Anthony Falls Heritage Zone, Heritage Anthony Falls (April 27,communication personal 2000). 4 Hennepin, H. Long, 5 Stephen 2 Ibid., 19. p. 19; p. 3 Anfinson, Kane, “Archaeology,” 197 RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area 79 Anfinson, see alsopp. 59-60. pp. 110-11; 78 Ibid., pp. 108-10. 77 Ibid., after the pool behind the lock and drained dam due to the station’s collapse. undermined itsfoundation. The ofthe old outline was dam clearly visible after the river and the station collapsed 1987, in the early in and Dam 1950s, removedEngineers quotes p. the lower 154. The Corps of when dam 171-72; itbuiltthe Lower St. Anthony Lock 165, 152-57, 149, pp. 117, 76 Ibid., 75 Kane, 74 Scarpino, pp. 140-41. 73 Ibid., otnainFr,p.73 -,89 Kane, 8-9; 8-7, pp. 7-3, Form, Continuation 72 Kane, 8-7. p. Form, Continuation Nomination 71 Kane, pp. 8-6to 8-7. National Register Form, Continuation Nomination SAF, pp. 98-99; 70 Ibid., 69 Kane, Anthony Kane, p. 8-8; National Register Form, Continuation Nomination Places, National Register ofHistoric 68 St. Anthony Falls Historic (SAF), District 113. pp. 98-99, 67 Ibid., p. 99. 66 Ibid., 65 Kane, ofChicago’scussion marketing system. grain see Cronon, p. 101; 64 Ibid., p. 104. 63 Ibid., pp. 101-03. 62 Ibid., 61 Kane, 60 Dodd and Dodd, 59 Kane, 8Afno,“Archaeology,” Kane, 58 Anfinson, p.24; 1880. in lion Minnesota wheat harvest was bushels 1869and 39.4mil- in 17.7million Movement 2 J. Fletcher Williams, Vermillion River Hastings. in early economy was sotied toThe milling. istrue onthe for same mills Anoka’s since deserve they consideration, corridor, MNRRA the of boundaries ashort distance upstream fromthe itsmouth RumRiver, and justoutside the toon the receive Mississippi logs. theAlthough sawmills at Anoka were on developmentnomic ofthosecommunities. Even not onthe mills river relied Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1983; first published 1876by first in the 1983; Minnesota Historical Society Press, tl rtclt h ordrshsoy Their activities helped the define eco-still critical to the corridor’s history. butthey lay1 Somemills are justoutside the MNRRA corridor’s boundaries, Chapter 7 57 Dodd and Dodd, 32. pp. 27, 56 Ibid., p 6 0,123. 104, 86, pp. , St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony p 28-34.Kane, pp. , Great River Archaeology Historical Statistics Historical Statistics p. 154. , p 134-37. pp. , National Register SAF, 172-73; 150-51, 115, pp. , 147. 123, 116, 87, 86, pp. , p. 105. , p. 102. , p 104-05. pp. , A History Paul oftheCitySaint to1875 p. 22. , .2;SF National Register Nomination SAF, p. 29; , St. Anthony Nature’s Metropolis p 24-25. pp. , p 42;Solon J. Buck, 24-25; pp. , .10 uses the following figures: p. 100, , St. Anthony St. Anthony chapter 3for adetailed dis- , p 9 99-101. 59, pp. , p. 173. , (St.Paul: , Granger St. rs Minnesota wheat harvest was bushelsures: 1869and 39.4mil- in 17.7million Granger Movement 5 Goodrich, 5 see p. 124for aphoto ofthe mill. pp. 123-25; 1976), reprinted by Anoka Bicentennial Commission, 1905; Co., Minnesota County, Dayton Hennepin in 4 Albert M.Goodrich, p. 54. Minnesota Historical Society Collections, (1976)], Minnesota, Bicentennial [CityofRamsey, project 1976,” in written “The and published history asa 3 Jean ofRamsey/researched, James, 1860. 85-88. Brooklyn township into Brooklyn split Center and Crystal Lake in . More Than Just aDream,” Leslie A. Guelcher, 281; pp. 144, Historical Society), Minnesota Historical Society as Volume 4ofthe Collections ofthe Minnesota John R. Tester, for ashort description ofvarious see mills pp. 12-13; pp. 15-16; 1993), 31, Landscape Research (JulyPreservation and the CityofHastings, Commission submitted to Historic Heritage the Contexts,” Hastings “Hastings’ 9 Zellie, powered mill. dthe river 1805.Dodd in and Dodd, ed notes that Fairbault had apostoneto two miles above St.Paul when Pike ascend- Collections 1849-1984,” Minnesota, Coon Rapids, history of cityby site: adam afine “Coon Rapids, Randels11 Leslie Gillund, 1895. No. MRCChart 189, p. “The and St.Paul,” 14; Mississippi 10 Hesterman, Woods once covered sometwo acres million south and west ofthe Twin says that the Cities. Big p. 70, 1995), University ofMinnesota Press, (Minneapolis: River and the Citythat Shaped It,” Change isaConstant for “The and St.Paul: Mississippi 8 Paul Hesterman, No.1897 MRCChart (1895). Numbers 189and each 201adjoin other. No. Chart 189(1895). There are nochart Sheets, numbersNine 190-200. Eighty- in Minnesota, River from the Mouth ofthe OhioRiver to Minneapolis, “Detail ofthe Upper Map Mississippi RiverMississippi (MRC), Commission 201(1898); Numbers Chart 202(1898), from Surveys 1898-1904, Seventy-Eight in Sheets, to Lake Itasca, Minnesota, River from Minneapolis, “Detail ofthe Upper Map Mississippi River6 Mississippi (MRC), Commission 433. See quote from the Williams, plant wheat butdoes not say when. Williams, says that Fairbault was to the first p. Historic Contexts,” 11, “Hastings’ 17 Zellie, and DevelopmentAgricultural (nd). (1870-1940),” Railroads “Historic Context: 16 Minnesota State Historic Preservation Office, the MNRRA in corridor. milling sorghum andAgriculture River (nd). Ifound on nothing Settlement (1840-1870),” Early “Historic Context: 15 Minnesota State Historic Preservation Office, pp. 1-2. 14 Ibid., p. 1. nd., Minnesota, Cottage Grove and Newport, “The Heritage Site Grey File, 13 Heritage Cloud LimeKiln,” Education Project, p. 16. Historic Contexts,” “Hastings’ Zellie, p. “The and St.Paul,” 13; Mississippi yards Neillmentions. Hesterman, onthe eastjust south ofthe citylimits side. These could be related to the brick- shows abrickyard onthe east side and near aclay the pit citylimits Minneapolis 1895, ontheinformation location ofthese brickyards. No. MRCChart 189, Neillprovides pp. nofurther 278-79.Other than reference, hisinitial 1881), by J. Fletcher Williams Minnesota, and oftheHistory Outlines of Including Explorers and Pioneers ofMinnesota, 12 Rev. Edward D. Neill, A History Paul ofSaint ut .7 see pp. 7-8. quote p. 7, , History of Anoka County inst’ aua eiae AnEcological Perspective Minnesota’s Heritage, Natural p 28-34.Kane, pp. , History of Anoka and the County Towns and ofChamplin History of Hennepin County andHistory theCityofMinneapolis, County ofHennepin Pioneer Silae,Mneoa risd rs,18) pp. 1982), Croixside Press, Minnesota: (Stillwater, , (Minneapolis: North Star Publishing Company, North Star Publishing (Minneapolis: , oebr2,o .21 about the steam- onp. 281, 28, November , p 4,21 otoep.358,and p. footnote pp. 385-86, 281, 144, pp. , Ramsey County History County Ramsey St. Anthony p. 60. , Historical Statistics Mnepls Hennepin Publishing (Minneapolis: , Minnesota Historical Society A History Paul ofSaint .10 uses the following fig- p. 100, , The History . ofNininger p 42;Buck, pp. 24-25; , 21:1 (1986):13; p. 38, , , 198 Endnotes

lion in 1880. Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” pp. 11-12; Reynolds, 38 ”St. Paul Union Stockyards, Centennial Year 1886-1986,” Minnesota “Dakota County Multiple Resource Nomination (Draft, June 1979),” p. 3H. Historical Society Collections; Reynolds, “Dakota County Multiple Resource Nomination (Draft),” p. 5H. 18 Goodrich, History of Anoka County, pp. 29-30, 35, 58, 107-08. 39 Tewton, “The Business of Agriculture,” p. 275. 19 Goodrich, History of Anoka County, pp. 108-10; Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” p. 14. 40 “St. Paul Union Stockyards, Centennial Year 1886-1986,” Minnesota Historical Society Collections. 20 Robert C. Vogel, “Cottage Grove History: A Palimpsest,” Heritage Education Project, Advisory Committee on Historic Preservation, City of 41 Kirk Jeffrey,“The Major Manufacturers: From Food and Forest Products to Cottage Grove, 1997. pp. 2-3. High Technology,” in Clark, ed., Minnesota in a Century of Change, p. 225. Hormel, located in Austin, Minnesota, was the largest producer in the state by 21 Vogel, “Cottage Grove History,” p. 3. 1920.

22 Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” p. 11. 42 Tewton, “The Business of Agriculture,” pp. 275-76; Charles McGuire, per- sonal communication, Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, 23 Ibid., pp. 11, 13. (Spring 2000).

24 MRC Chart Nos. 185-89, 201-05 (1895 and 1898). 43 Gary J. Brueggermann, “Beer Capital of the State – St. Paul’s Historic Family Breweries,” Ramsey County History 16:2 (1981):3; Scott F. Anfinson, 25 Goodrich, History of Anoka County, pp. 65, 68, 73. “Archaeology of the Central Minneapolis Riverfront,” The Minnesota Archaeologist, vol. 49:1-2 (1990):41; Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” p. 26 Neill, Hennepin County, p. 304; Lucile M. Kane and Alan Ominsky, Twin 13. Cities: A Pictorial History of Saint Paul and Minneapolis, (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1983), p. 56. 44 Deborah A. Hull-Walski and Frank Walski, “There’s Trouble a-Brewin’: The Brewing and Bottling Industries at Harpers Ferry,West Virginia,” 27 Neill, Hennepin County, pp. 279, 301, 304; Goodrich, History of Anoka Historical Archaeology (1994):106; Jeffrey,“The Major Manufacturers,” p. County, pp. 172-73; Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” pp. 12-13; 226. Guelcher, Nininger, p. 89. On Banfil, see Williams, A History of Saint Paul,p. 160. The mill on Rice Creek appears on MRC Chart No. 201 (1898). 45 Brueggermann, “Beer Capital of the State,” pp. 4-5.

28 Goodrich, History of Anoka County, p. 126. 46 Ibid., pp. 6-7.

29 D. Jerome Tewton, “The Business of Agriculture,” in Clifford E. Clark, Jr., 47 Ibid., pp. 7-9. ed., Minnesota in a Century of Change: The State and Its People Since 1900, (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1989), p. 267. 48 Ibid., p. 9.

30 Ibid., p. 268. 49 Ibid., pp. 12-13.

31 Robert Hybben and Jeffrey Hess, “Historic American Engineering Record, 50 Ibid., p. 10, has a good description of the caves. The caves still exist under Equity Cooperative Exchange Grain Elevator Complex,” unpublished docu- West Seventh Street. ments prepared for the City of St. Paul, (December 1989), pp. 4-5. This docu- ment was prepared at the direction of the City of St. Paul but never officially 51 Ibid., pp. 10-11. submitted to the Historic American Engineering Record. 52 Scott F. Anfinson, “Archaeology,” p. 41. 32 Theodore Saloutos, “The Rise of the Equity Cooperative Exchange,” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 32:1 (June 1945):31-62; C. L. Franks, 53 Jeffrey,“The Major Manufacturers,” pp. 226, 239; Zellie, “Hastings’ “Inland Waterways Advocate, Col. George C. Lambert, Dies: Among Pioneers Historic Contexts,” p. 14; Brueggermann, “Beer Capital of the State,” p. 11; to Back Channel in Upper Mississippi,” Upper Mississippi River Bulletin 3:3 John E. Haynes, “Reformers, Radicals, and Conservatives,” in Clark, ed., (March 1934):1; David L. Nass, "The Rural Experience," in Clark, ed., Minnesota in a Century of Change, p. 367. Minnesota in a Century of Change, p. 143. 54 Virginia Brainard Kunz, The Mississippi and St. Paul, A short history of the 33 E. J. Barry,“Water Transportation and Grain Marketing,” in American city’s 150-year love affair with its river, (St. Paul, Minnesota: The Ramsey Cooperation, 1961 (Washington DC: American Institute for Cooperation, County Historical Society, 1987), p. 40. 1961), pp. 365-366. See also “How the Nine Foot Channel was Built,” Upper Mississippi River Bulletin 8 (November 1939): 4. Barbara A. Mitchell, 55 Because the falls was the head of navigation, pioneers settling above the Hemisphere Field Services, Inc., “A History of the St. Paul Municipal Grain falls had a difficult time getting supplies. Initially, they had to buy their Elevator and Sack House,” prepared for the MNRRA as part of the Historic goods in the town of St. Anthony. To get there, they sometimes tied some logs Resources Study. together and floated down. They followed Indian trails on their return trip. Neill, Hennepin, p. 298. Goodrich, History of Anoka County, p. 42; James, 34 Application for Permit, City of St. Paul. August 14, 1951, number “The history of Ramsey,” p. 9. James says the settlers arrived in June of 31833; February 18, 1955, 10802; May 13, 1955, 12891; December 22, 1850. She shows a photo of some type of working boat with the following 1955, 32805, 32806, 32807, 31808; June 1, 1956, 32804; October 24, caption: “A steamboat coming into the harbor at Itasca Village.” Goodrich, 1956, 421824, at St. Paul City Hall. History of Anoka County, p. 68.

35 Application for Permit, City of St. Paul. May 15, 1958, number 76407. 56 Neill provides contradictory reports on steamboat traffic above St. Anthony. When talking about the history of “Brooklyn,” he claims that the 36 Robert L. Morlan, Political Prairie Fire – The Nonpartisan League, 1915- Mississippi was navigable there and that “small steamers ply up and down.” 1922, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1955), p. 361. See also Yet when discussing Champlin, he writes that “At one time, steamboats plied Oscar N. Refsell, “The Farmers’ Elevator Movement I,” Journal of Political on the river, landing at Champlin . . . ” but, he adds, “the river is not navigat- Economy 21(November 1914): 872-873. ed regularly at the present time.” Neill, Hennepin, pp. 285, 300.

37 “St. Paul Union Stockyards, Centennial Year 1886-1986,” Minnesota 57 Nancy and Robert Goodman, “Joseph R. Brown, Adventurer on the Historical Society Collections (1986), no page numbers. Minnesota Frontier, 1820-1849,” (Rochester, Minnesota: Lone Oak Press, Ltd., 1996), p. 159. Goodrich, History of Anoka County, pp. 38, 43, 46-47, 49, 63,

199 71. The present-day Robert Street Bridge in St. Paul is named for Louis Robert. Chapter 8 Neill, Hennepin, p. 299, says that a Joseph Holt began operating a ferry at Champlin in 1855. Either this is a second ferry that began operating between 1 The literature on the history of the Twin Cities is voluminous and much of Anoka and Champlin or Holt owned the Elm Creek and Anoka Ferry Company. it addresses, however indirectly, the physical growth of the cities. Not all, Williams, A History of St. Paul, pp. 237, 322. He says the bridge opened in however, directly address residential growth, particularly the ordinary devel- 1858, whereas Lisa Haller, Ivelise Brasch, Gary Phelps, and Bill Wolston, opment of neighborhoods, developers’ plats, and other staples of land use “Crossings,” Over the Years, 31:1 (Dakota County Historical Society, change. The following texts have been most useful to the present study, and September 1991):5, say the bridge opened in 1859. Dorothy Goth, ed., St. should be considered the source of specific information, unless otherwise Paul Park’s Heritage: A History of Saint Paul Park on The Mississippi, 1887- noted. John Borchert, et al., Legacy of Minneapolis: Preservation Amid Change 1895, (Cottage Grove, Minnesota: Inky Fingers Press, 1985), p. 56. (Bloomington, Minnesota: Voyageur, 1983); Paul Donald Hesterman, Interests, Values, and Public Policy for an Urban River: A History of Development Along the 58 Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” p. 21. Mississippi River in Saint Paul, Minnesota (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1985); Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul: 59 Gillund, “Coon Rapids,” p. 3; James, “The history of Ramsey,” p. 10; Goodrich, Change is a Constant for River and the City that Shaped It,” Ramsey County History of Anoka County, p. 51; Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” p. 22. History 21:1 (1986): 3-22; June Drenning Holmquist, ed., They Chose 60 Goodrich, History of Anoka County, p. 51. Minnesota: A Survey of the State’s Ethnic Groups (St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1981); David Lanegran, “The 61 Vogel, “Cottage Grove History,” p. 3. The Henry House, built in 1854 on a Neighborhood River,” in Carole Zellie, The Mississippi and St. Paul: A Planning military road, is still standing and is listed on the National Register. See Vogel, Study of Interpretive Potentials (unpublished report submitted to the Ramsey

A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area and Recreation River National the Mississippi Study of Resources A Historic “Cottage Grove History,” p. 2. County Historical Society and the National Endowment for the Humanities, 1988), pp. 37-102; Judith A. Martin and David Lanegran, Where We Live: The 62 Zellie, Hastings’ Historic Contexts, p. 23. Lois A Glewwe, The History of Inver Residential Districts of Minneapolis and Saint Paul (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Grove Heights, Minnesota’s Treasure, 1858-1990, (City of Inver Grove Heights, Published by the University of Minnesota Press in association with the Center 1990), p. 204, mentions that a military road was built from Hastings to St. Paul for Urban and Regional Affairs, University of Minnesota, 1983); Larry, was “graded through as early as 1855 by the military crews of Captain William Millett, Lost Twin Cities (St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Dodd.” She says it became known as the St. Paul to Hastings Road. Press, 1992); Edward Duffield Neill, “St. Paul and Its Environs,” Minnesota History v. 30 (1940):204-19; Warren Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, 63 Richard S. Prosser, Rails to the North Star, (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Dillon Their Origin and Historic Significance (St. Paul, 1969; reprint edition); J. Press, 1966), pp. 8-12, 17; Gillund, “Coon Rapids,” p. 4. The St. Paul and Fletcher Williams, A History of the City of St. Paul to 1875 (St. Paul, 1876; Pacific succeeded the Minnesota and Pacific, which had built the first line reprint, Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1983). RIVER OF HISTORY: from St. Paul to St. Anthony in 1862. See Gillund, “Coon Rapids,” p. 4. A special notation must be made of the work of the Presbyterian minister Edward Duffield Neill. Neill was surely the most prolific early historian of 64 Prosser, Rails, pp.17, 35. the state, being listed as a principal author of dozens of books on a variety of subjects. Four of these have been basic to the research undertaken for this 65 MRC Chart Nos. 185-89, 201-05 (1895 and 1898). study: History of Hennepin County and the City of Minneapolis (Minneapolis, Minnesota: North Star Publishing, 1881), History of the Upper Mississippi 66 MRC Chart No. 201, 1898. Valley (North Star Publishing, 1881), History of Dakota County and the City of Hastings (Minneapolis, Minnesota: North Star Publishing, 1881), and History 67 Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul.” of Ramsey County and the City of St. Paul (Minneapolis, Minnesota: North Star 68 Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul,” pp. 9, 14; MRC Chart Nos. 186- Publishing, 1881). The similarities between these volumes extend beyond 89. On Hastings, see Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” pp. 21, 22. Other their titles and publication dates. Each volume, compiled by George E. Warner than railyards at the city’s center, she says, p. 24, “the Milwaukee Railroad and Charles M. Foote, has a nearly identical Table of Contents. Neill con- Depot (1884) is among the best evidence of the early transportation context.” tributed the first essay “Explorers and Pioneers of Minnesota,” and J. Fletcher Williams followed with a year-by-year compilation of significant facts in the 69 Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul,” p. 10. state’s history between 1858 and 1881. The following chapters varied slight- ly from volume to volume but typically included an account of the Civil War 70 Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul,” pp. 4-5, 10. record of men from that county, a brief summary of the county’s leading lawyers, its chief events, and other notations. The bulk of each volume, 71 Ibid., pp. 6, 9, 12, 14. though, and the sections most directly important for this study, are the detailed descriptions of the establishment and early settlement of the cities 72 Ibid., pp. 6, 10. and townships (“towns” in the late nineteenth century usage) of each county. A great deal of the settlement story for this area, at least until around 1880, is 73 John R. Borchert, “The Network of Urban Centers,” in Minnesota in a contained in these chapters. Century of Change, p. 69. The limitations of these books as analytical history or the “full story” are obvious. For example, women hardly appear at all; there is an implicitly 74 Borchert, “The Network of Urban Centers,” pp. 69-70; Baerwald, “Forces at “Manifest Destiny” ideology to the books that treats Native Americans as obsta- Work on the Landscape,” in Minnesota in a Century of Change, pp. 23-24; cles to “civilization,” and, once conquered, as objects of nostalgia. Town settle- Gillund, “Coon Rapids,” p. 12; Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” pp. 21-22. ments are treated as heroic narratives of commercial enterprises and progres- sions of industrial development. This is not the place to discuss the reasons for 75 Borchert, “The Network of Urban Centers,” pp. 71, 84, 86-87; Baerwald, these patterns and biases, nor has there been time to conduct investigations “Forces at Work on the Landscape,” p. 20. that would correct and enhance the pictures they depict. Their use in the pres- 76 Goth, ed., St. Paul Park’s Heritage, p. 56. ent study should be understood as sources of important detail on one version of the past and the Euro-American settlement of the MNRRA corridor 77 Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Metro Area River Guide: A guide to boating the Mississippi, St. Croix and Minnesota rivers,” 1994, pro- 2 Some explanation of this typology is in order. The historical and geographi- vides the river miles for the river above St. Anthony Falls as well as below. cal literature defining towns, cities, population centers, etc., is large and com- plex. For the purposes of this study, a population center is considered as a 78 Guelcher, Nininger, p. 85. group of dwellings clustered more tightly than the surrounding agricultural residence pattern and usually focusing on some non-residential establishment, 79 Kane, St. Anthony, p. 40; Haller, et al., “Crossings,” pp. 4-9, 20-21; the perhaps a school, church, or post office, but often a commercial establishment entire issue is about bridges. such as a store or tavern. “Urban Centers” are understood as those places with

200 Endnotes

a sufficient concentration of commercial enterprises to result in a degree of 28 Millett, Lost Twin Cities; see also Federal Writers’ Project, Works Progress specialization and perhaps spatial ordering into a “commercial district” or Administration, The Bohemian Flats (St. Paul, 1986; originally published 1941). “downtown.” Research for this study clearly indicates that the relative importance of a 29 Millett, Lost Twin Cities, p. 83. particular population center changed dramatically over time and in relation to other centers. For example, Nininger, now a semi-urban enclave between St. Paul 30 Borchert, Legacy. and Hastings, was once a substantial center with a population of over 1,000. By contrast, the present municipality of Coon Rapids did not exist until 1952, 31 Anfinson, “Archaeology.” when the Village of Coon Rapids was formed from Anoka Township. The present 32 Theodore Wirth, Minneapolis Park System, 1883-1944: retrospective study is intended to be more descriptive than analytical; therefore, the categories glimpses into the history of the Board of Park Commissioners of Minneapolis, have been developed as a rudimentary attempt to sort out the dominant popula- Minnesota, and the city’s park, parkway and playground system, presented at the tion threads throughout the region during the study period. annual meeting of the Board of Park Commissioners, July 16, 1945, 3 Isaac, Atwater, ed., History of the City of Minneapolis (New York: Munsell & (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Minneapolis, Board of Park Commissioners, 1945). Co., 1893), p. 69. 33 Lanegran, “The Neighborhood River,” pp. 37-102. 4 Neill, History of Ramsey County, p. 296. 34 Martin and Lanegran, Where We Live; Rueben H. Donnelley, Donnelley’s 5 Millett, Lost Twin Cities, p. 10. Atlas of the City of St. Paul, Minnesota (Chicago: The Corporation, 1892); Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 437. 6 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 439. 35 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, pp. 437-39. 7 Borchert, Legacy, pp. 8-9. 36 Williams, City of St. Paul, pp. 260, 414. 8 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 226. 37 John Walters, “A History of Harriet Island,” unpublished typescript, 9 Atwater, City of Minneapolis, p. 29. Division of Archives and Manuscripts, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.

10 Joseph Stipanovich, City of Lakes: An Illustrated History of Minneapolis 38 David L. Curtice, Curtice’s Revised Atlas of the City of St. Paul, (St. Paul, (Woodland Hills, California: Windsor Publications, 1982), p. 8. Minnesota: H. M. Smyth Printing Co., 1908).

11 Atwater, City of Minneapolis, p. 29. 39 Millett, Lost Twin Cities, p. 82.

12 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 223. 40 Lanegran, “Neighborhood River,” and Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul.” 13 Scott F. Anfinson, “Archaeology of the Central Minneapolis Riverfront, vol. 1: Historical Overview and Archaeological Potentials,” The Minnesota 41 Neill, History of Dakota County, p. 296. Archaeologist 48:1-2 (1989). 42 Ibid., p. 214. 14 Neill, History of Dakota County, pp. 209, 265; Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 165. 43 Wirth, Minneapolis Park System.

15 Neill, History of Dakota County, pp. 265-77. 44 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 568.

16 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 22, cites the authority of 45 Lois Glewwe, South St. Paul Centennial, 1887-1987, (South St. Paul (?): Professor A. W. Williamson for this derivation. Dakota County Historical Society, 1987).

17 Neill, History of the Upper Mississippi Valley, pp. 222-30. 46 See, for discussions of more recent historical and geographical trends, Hesterman, Interests, Values, and Public Policy; Borchert, “The Network of 18 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 23; Neill, History of the Upper Urban Centers,” pp. 55-99; John S. Adams and Barbara J. VanDrasek, Mississippi Valley, p. 275. Minneapolis-St. Paul: People, Place, and Public Life, (Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1993). 19 Accounts of Mendota are well known. See standard histories of the state: Folwell, A History of Minnesota,and Blegen,Minnesota; also, Anderson, Kinsmen. 47 Martin and Lanegran, Where We Live.

20 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 572; John H. Case, “Historical Notes of Grey Cloud Island and Its Vicinity,” Minnesota Historical Society Collections vol. 15, pp. 371-78. Epilogue

21 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 166; Neill, History of Dakota 1 Lucile M. Kane, June D. Holmquist, and Carolyn Gilman, edited, The Northern County, pp. 440-43; Leslie A. Guelcher, The History of Nininger . . . More Than Expeditions of Stephen H. Long, the Journals of 1817 and 1823 and Related Just a Dream (Stillwater, Minnesota: Croixside Press, 1982), p. 57. Documents, (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1978), p. 66.

22 Neill, History of Washington County, pp. 355-56; Upham, Minnesota 2 David Glassberg, “Public History and the Study of Memory,” The Public Geographic Names, p. 568. Historian, 18:2 (Spring 1996):19-20.

23 Neill, History of Washington County, pp. 353-57. 3 Ibid., p. 17.

24 Millett, Lost Twin Cities, p. 49. 4 Ibid., p. 21.

25 Ibid., pp. 49, 107. 5 Section 701.(a) Findings, Public Law 100-696, November 18, 1988, 102 Stat 4599, Title VII - Mississippi National River and Recreation Area. 26 Anfinson, “Archaeology,” p. 50.

27 Stipanovich, City of Lakes, pp. 232, 243.

201