A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn Table of Contents Abstract 3

Acknowledgements 3

Introduction 4 The Historical Periods of Dutch Immigration 5 Push/Pull Factors 6

Methodology 7 Documentary Evidence 7 Oral History 7

Early History 9 Ethnic Origins 9 Loyalist Settlement Patterns 9 Dutch Characteristics of Loyalists 10 Signifi cance of “Dutch” Loyalists to Quebec 11

The Period of 1900 to 1945 13 Dutch Immigration Prior to World War II 13 Demographics 13 The Immigration Experience 15 Making a Living 19 The World War II Years 20

The Post World War II Period 22 Demographics 22 The Immigration Experience 26 Making a Living 29 Community Life 33

Discussion 40 A History of the Dutch in Quebec 40 Underrepresentation of Dutch in Quebec 41

References 44

Appendices 46

Janny Lowensteyn, né Heldoorn, departs from Amsterdam Schiphol Airport for Montreal, Quebec, on 20 April 1955

- 2 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn Abstract The study analyses the history of people of II immigration. Lack of a base mitigated World World War II immigrants were, on Dutch origin in the province of Quebec in against chain migration had a further the whole, poorly organized, economically terms of settlement patterns, immigration negative impact during the post-World War weak, and, with a few exceptions, left no experience, economic and socio-cultural II years. mark; development and integration. Attention is given to the rural/urban distinction, and Analysis is based on historical and con- (c) that Post World War II Dutch Quebeck- push and pull factors are assessed during temporary published material, as well as ers, on the other hand, are more numerous, the three periods under consideration: the on privately-held documents of ethnic are among the highest income groups of “Loyalist” period, 1900-1945, and 1946 institutions. Information obtained from the province’s ethnic and charter groups, onward. 18 oral histories collected in 1983-1984 is and boast a number of ethnic institutions Furthermore, an attempt is made to answer used to illustrate and underscore certain in spite of their high level of integration. the question why a disproportionately points. small number of Dutch in Canada are In addition to the proposed reasons for found in Quebec. Findings indicate that limited Dutch settlement in Quebec, the French language appears to have had a It is proposed that reasons changed over (a) descendants of Dutch Loyalists are negative effect, but did so primarily in time: political ones during the “Loyalist” indistinguishable from native Canadians; the rural areas, except for a recent urban times, and a mixture of political, religious, exodus as a result of political changes in and economic ones during pre-World War (b) that the small group of Dutch pre- the province.

Acknowledgements

The idea of writing a paper about the Dutch in Quebec originated in the early I am also grateful to Professor Gavaki for The Institute for Citizenship provided a eighties when I was invited to join the being kind enough to share certain very grant, which, among other things, made Montreal Ethnic Research Project at useful statistics on the Dutch that would possible the necessary travelling, and I Concordia University. Graduate students otherwise not have been available to me. gratefully acknowledge that assistance. and faculty members from diverse ethnic Professor Bird deserves special thanks backgrounds studied and compared their for introducing me to Mrs. Loren Singer, The helpfulness of the Emigration attaché respective ethnic communities. librarian at Concordia University, who was at the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Ot- in charge of the Oral History Montreal tawa and the Consul General in Montreal, The insight gained in the problems that Project. It was through her cooperation who provided me with ample documenta- beset other ethnic groups have made me that I was given access to facilities and tion and archival information, was also aware of the relative position of my own services normally reserved for faculty. much appreciated. group, the Dutch. More particularly, it The oral histories I prepared were used has made me appreciate the uniqueness of only in small measure for this paper and Because of so many other obligations, each group and the diffi culty (sometimes as a project stand by themselves. I wish to such as family, career, and community uselessness) of comparing them. Thus, thank Mrs. Singer, as well as the numerous projects, competing for attention, this my thanks go to all those involved in this leaders and members of the Dutch ethnic study has been protracted almost beyond research project, specially those who even- group in this province for giving me this the limit. In this respect I wish to thank tually became members of my advisory opportunity to help preserve a small part my advisor, Professor Bill Reimer, for his committee, Professors Efi e Gavaki and of the history of Montreal. patience, encouragement, and academic Fred Bird. guidance, without which the work would While many Dutch-Canadians have been surely have been shelved. I wish to acknowledge with thanks the of assistance, two persons merit special FCAC grant which the Montreal Ethnic mention: Mrs. Virginia Sondermeyer, and Finally, my thanks go to my husband, Studies Research Project received from the Mr. C.C.A. Blommesteyn. The recollec- Peter, who, in addition to giving valuable Ministère de l’Education du Québec, and tions, advice, and/or documentation they criticism, as well as moral support, helped which was of great benefi t to me. were able to provide, proved invaluable. me by word processing the entire docu- ment.

© 2005 Peter Lowensteyn - All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced , stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, withour prior permission.

- 3 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn Introduction

No comprehensive history exists of the not agree. Physical distance does not help with the lowest number of Dutch (Table Dutch in Quebec. Yet, with an increasing in promoting personal interaction without III); interest for cultural minorities, especially which one cannot speak of community. in 1941, the Dutch population of Quebec in government and educational circles, was the lowest in absolute numbers after there is frequent need to draw upon solid The above defi nition does not mention Newfoundland, the North West Territories, data. Although the Dutch are one of the institutions of the formal or informal kind. the Yukon, and Prince Edward Island. smaller ethnic groups in this province, However, Breton (1968) found “[the com- (Table XI; they do exist and they have their own story munity’s]... capacity to control the social in 1961, New Brunswick fell behind to tell. For the sake of completeness they integration of its members is not so much Quebec in addition to the other four prov- are included in presentations of various its having many formal organizations as inces and territories mentioned, and this kinds, for example, the series of profi les having one as opposed to none at all” (P. remained so until 1981. This is particularly of minority groups prepared for Montreal 201). He further argues that the degree of striking since these provinces and terri- school children by the Council of Chris- institutional completeness (number and tories all have much smaller populations tians and Jews. Unless such organizations variety of institutions) has an important than Quebec (Table X); are provided with properly researched ma- bearing on the power of the ethnic com- the Canadian population of Dutch ethnic terial, the danger is there that the “story” munity to attract members. origin numbered 408,240 in 1981; just will contain inaccuracies and omissions. over 8,000, or two percent lived in the Thus, this paper will be concerned es- Bird (1979) modifi es and extends this to second largest province of the country. sentially with piecing together the social the extent that it is not so much the num- (Table X). history of this small and almost invisible ber and variety of institutions as it is their There have been many explanations of group. ability to facilitate communication widely why the Dutch shun Quebec in greater and quickly between members of the eth- measure than many other immigrant This involves essentially a description of nic group, “particularly between those not groups. Most commonly, these explana- the various Dutch immigration waves to immediately related by kinship or personal tions were of a cultural nature: this province and an analysis of the social network.” language: Dutch fi nd it easier to learn dimensions thereof. Such waves were English than French (Canada, 1951:37) ; found to have arrived during three relative- A suitable defi nition of community would lifestyle: the lifestyle of French-Canadians ly distinct periods which will be described thus be a synthesis of the above: is more alien to the Dutch than that of in detail later on. “Waves” is used here to English Canadians. (Canada, 1951:37); emphasize that the concern does not lie An ethnic community can be called so if it with the odd individual arrival. is more or less spatially concentrated, if it has one or more ethnic institutions that are But many other explanations may be pro- A social history presupposes some sort of able to facilitate communication among a posed, e.g.: political: Quebec’s reluctance group formation and interaction of group large number of the group members, and if to accept immigrants for fear it would members. The extent of this interaction, its members display a sense of belonging, unfavourably affect the balance between e.g. the formation of a community, and its a “we”- feeling. French and English in the province; consequences both within the group and in economic: the industrialization process relation to society at large are analyzed. In researching the history of the Dutch in was behind that of Ontario, making this Quebec, one is constantly faced with the province less attractive for newcomers; While it is not the intention in this paper to peculiarity of this second most populous religious: the considerable proportion of question whether the Dutch actually have province containing such an insignifi cant Dutch immigrants who were of orthodox any “communities” in Quebec, (which number of Dutch. An attempt is made to Calvinist persuasion avoided this Catholic could fi ll another paper), it is useful to- fi nd an explanation for this phenomenon. province; defi ne the word. One defi nition of com- historical: the number of Dutch settlers munity holds that it must have at least the Even a cursory glance at immigration from Loyalist times on had always been following characteristics: (a) physically: statistics shows that the number of Dutch slight in Quebec, thus preparing no basis located in a specifi c geographic area; in Quebec is insignifi cant, both compared for future immigration; spatial concentration; and (b) socially and to other ethnic groups in Quebec and to geographic: Southern Ontario is claimed psychologically: “community sentiment”, Dutch in other provinces. to attract Dutch immigrants because it a sense of belonging. This provides the provides farmland that is similar to that of basis for group solidarity. Consider the following: in 1871, Quebec the homeland. (Sas, 1957) had the lowest number of Dutch of the Although some suggest that the geographi- four provinces included in the census cal area is not as important a factor as per- (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, On the other hand, there are a number of sonal interaction in forming or maintain- and Ontario) (Table III); reasons why one would have expected ing an ethnic community, most scholars do in 1901, Quebec was still the province more Dutch in Quebec, e.g.:

- 4 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn agriculture: this is, and always has been, 1900; (2) from about 1900 to 1945; and for by mortality, but a large proportion is very important in the Netherlands. Most (3) from 1946 onward. thought to have returned to the homeland, agriculturists who emigrated were used to or moved on to the United States. dairy, mixed farming, or market garden- Prior to 1900, a few Dutch individuals ing. Southern Quebec, along with South- arrived in Quebec but it was not until the In all these respects, this period stands in ern Ontario, are the main dairy farming end of the eighteenth century that group stark contrast with the post World War II areas of Canada. On this basis alone, movements took place that at least pro- period when not only the number of Dutch Quebec should have attracted a sizeable vided the potential for community forma- immigrants rose dramatically, but also proportion of Dutch agricultural immi- tion where a number of families settled in because most of those who came, stayed grants; the same general area. These Dutch came in this country. The circumstances under religion: many agriculturists came from from the Hudson and Mohawk Valleys re- which emigration and immigration took the Southern Netherlands, a solidly Catho- gion where their ancestors had established place differed also. During that time, Que- lic area. One would have expected these a Dutch colony which had later been bec, which had never held much attraction farmers to be steered to Quebec by church absorbed by the British. for Dutch immigrants, began to increase agencies; its share of the total number of Dutch in language: In the 1950’s when most of the In the Western provinces, one can detect a Canada from 1% (1951 census) to 3%. Dutch urban immigrants arrived, economic period of Dutch migration from the United (1971 census). Al though the actual num- power in Montreal was still largely in the States, notably during the late nineteenth bers in Quebec are still small, of course, hands of the English (see also Chapter 8, century. But in Quebec, the next period the effect of the Dutch population increase “English Business and French National- of interest is the turn of this century when both in Canada and in Quebec can clearly ism” in McLeod Arnopoulos/ Clift, 1980). immigrants began arriving directly from be seen in the structure of community life Immigrants integrated mostly in the Eng- the Netherlands. with institutions arising where there had lish sector, and it was still largely possible been few or none before. for them to get by without speaking any Elsewhere in Canada one fi nds also a sig- French. Hence language should not have nifi cant number of Mennonites who claim Thus the end of World War II is a practical been a major stumbling block, and one Dutch ancestry. This includes a majority of cut-off point of the preceeding period and could have expected Montreal to attract a those who live west of Ontario and a small a useful starting point of a whole new era fairly large proportion of Dutch urban im- minority of Mennonites in Ontario. Other in Dutch immigration to Quebec. migrants, all other things being equal. Dutch do not consider these people to be part of their ethnic group as they do not Within the post-World War II period one Summarizing: It is proposed that reasons speak Dutch but German. Nevertheless, can observe several distinct waves, such as for sparse settlement of Dutch in Que- they show up in census data and one has War brides, the farm families movement, a bec differ according to the period under to be aware that their substantial numbers period of heavy migration (wide range of discussion. (e.g. in 1941, 65,000 Mennonites claimed occupations), and the most recent one with Dutch origin) and their atypical lifestyle its emphasis on transients and entrepre- In Loyalist times the reasons were essen- can have an effect on such variables as neurs, albeit in very small numbers. tially political. In the fi rst half of this cen- mother tongue, level of education, inter- tury, the main reasons were likely political, marriage, etc. This is not true for Quebec In terms of reasons for emigration, orga- economic, and religious, whereas after as there are no Mennonites of Dutch nizational, and community support in both World War II to these reasons was added ancestry in this province. the sending and receiving countries, ease the accumulative or historical effect of all of travel, and economic opportunities, these factors which led to the lack of a ba- From the end of the nineteenth century on, these “waves” show more similarity than sis for chain migration. In the rural areas the Dutch began to emigrate directly from differences. Therefore, they will be dealt language may have played a decisive role, the Netherlands to Canada in small num- with only as subgroups of the same period. but in the urban area this is not thought bers. Two decades stand out: the fi rst de- to have been the case, at least not until cade of the century when the Dutch-born To allow for comparison between pre and recently. In the 1970’s, political changes in population in Canada increased tenfold, post-World War II infl ux, in regard to Quebec set in motion a substantial exodus and the 1920’s when their numbers almost organization of emigration, immigrant ser- of anglophones, including many Dutch, doubled. However, throughout the period vices, and the economic and socio-cultural but this trend appears to have been halted. from 1900-1945, the Dutch share of total aspects of settlement, the chapters dealing immigration in Canada varied from a low with these two period are organized under 0.06% (1900) to a high of 2.42% (1939) the following headings: Demographics, Historical Periods of Dutch (Tuinman, l952:85). The highest number The Emigration Experience, Making a Immigrations of Dutch-born was shown in the 1931 Living, and Community Life. census and then numbered only about The history of the Dutch in Quebec can be 11,000, although by Tuinman’s account The rural /urban distinction, so important separated into three fairly distinct periods: about 30,000 entered Canada during that when discussing the Dutch in the Cana- (1) the early period, till approximately time. Some of the difference is accounted dian context, is, for Quebec Dutch at least,

- 5 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn of greatest importance in the post-World held great appeal for these settlers. This The most interesting comparison to be War II period. In the early “Loyalist” pe- stands in contrast to the late 19th and early made in the case of the Dutch, is that of riod, all Dutch settlers appear to have been 20th century period when Canada actively the pre and post-World War II periods, farmers, who became so thoroughly inte- recruited overseas to try and populate the especially in terms of the push factor. The grated that in later years their behaviour is West. Aside from the Gold Rush which so-called “emigration climate” that existed indistinguishable from that of native Cana- had a magnetism all its own, the opportu- in the decade following World War II is dians. By contrast, there were apparently nity to open up the empty and fertile lands unique in Dutch history. This phenomenon few farmers among the pre-World War II of the plains was a real pull factor. Still, was brought on by a host of factors includ- Dutch immigrants in Quebec. the relatively small share that the Dutch ing psychological, religious, economic, had in pre-World War II immigration and political ones, and it coincided with Push/Pull Factors refl ects a generally weak push factor in the the pull of a Canada that (a) wished to re- home country. populate its countryside, and (b) somewhat Each of these three immigration periods later required more skilled manpower for will be discussed in terms of the push/pull Within Canada, the pull of the West out- its expanding industries. factors at work. weighed any pull Quebec might have had during that time. In fact, a more important After World War II the United States still The push may have come from various interfering pull factor was the United exerted a strong attraction, but entrance directions, depending on the period and States, a better known country, not to the via Canada was made quite diffi cult so that areas under discussion. In Loyalist times, same degree suffering a reputation of it no longer presented the signifi cant drain- the push came from South of the border harsh climate and immense loneliness as ing factor it used to be in the early decades and was primarily of a political nature. its northern neighbour. of the 20th century. On the other hand, Without the necessity to leave their com- one can profi tably discuss the relative pull munities, Canada would not likely have exerted by various parts of Canada.

Dutch immigrants

- 6 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn Methodology

To gather basic facts essentially two tools books have been written on the subject, 1982), which compared a number of have been used: (a) documentary evidenc- but the pre-World War II Dutch, although groups, including the Dutch. es and (b) oral history. numerous enough in Canada if one includes descendants of Loyalists, Men- Good sources of documentary evidence nonites, and others, did not constitute an were the manuscrips, dossiers, and reports Documentary Evidence important immigration movement from in the fi les of the Catholic Immigrant the Netherlands and did not warrant much Services (C.I.S.), stored in the Ontario Ar- Liberal use has been made of statistics attention for that reason. chives. Unfortunately, these documents are provided by Statistics Canada and its so numerous that only a selection could predecessor, the Dominion Bureau of The situation is entirely different for the be perused. A former offi cial of the C.I.S. Statistics. In addition, some statistics were post-war War II period. Important works, was extremely useful in helping to verify culled from those available in the Neth- such as Petersen’s Planned Migration statements made in some of the inter- erlands. Research done by Ganzevoort (1955), Beijer’s Characteristics of Over- views, and to give the interviewer a better (1975) on Dutch Immigration before the seas Migrants (1961), and a host of schol- understanding of certain situations. The Second World War has been useful in this arly and less scholarly articles and books same condition applied to fi les belonging regard. Through Kralt (1981-821, who shed light on the situation. In addition, to one of the more active Dutch voluntary prepared special bulletins for Statistics there are the many works on immigration associations in Montreal, to which this Canada on the issue of “01 d” versus and ethnicity that make reference to the interviewer had access. “new” Dutch, a better understanding Dutch. of the complex issues surrounding the determination of what constitutes” Dutch” One problem encountered is that, while Oral History immigration, was obtained. there is a fair amount of material on the Dutch in Canada, this cannot be said about The Multicultural History Society of Especially for the earlier history of the the Dutch in Quebec. Because the size Ontario has about 150 interviews on tape Dutch in Quebec, research reported in the of the group is so small, they are often with Dutch immigrants. Among them were publication of the Holland Society of New ignored in comparative studies. Other some interviews with persons who had York, “De Halve Maen”, has been im- works, such as Tuinman (1951, 1956) deal lived in Quebec before moving to Ontario. mensely helpful, as has been the work of with farmers only, of which there are very These were used in addition to the author’s the Missisquoi County Historical Society. few in Quebec. A major anecdotal work, own interviews. To All Our Children, focusses on orthodox For the pre-World War II period, Gan- Calvinists, who are underrepresented in As far as the latter are concerned selecting zevoort’s work, an unpublished doctoral Quebec. A happy exception is the research respondents presented a particular prob- thesis, was the single most useful source done under the aegis of the Concordia lem, because of the diffi culty in obtain- of solidly researched material. Some University Ethnic Research Project (1981- ing a representative cross section of the

• maximum number of interviews to be twenty (the maximum this researcher expected to be able to handle); • within this group a minimum of two persons to represent each one of the following categories to allow cross checking of information received (overlap possible):

Categories Actual number of interviewees Number of women included

those who arrived before World War II 4 0 those who arrived just after World War II (1945-1950) 5 2 those who arrived during peak immigration years (1959-1968) 6 2 those who arrived after 1968 1 1 adherents to Christian Reformed faith 3 1 adherents to Roman Catholic faith 7 3 adherents to other faiths or no religion 7 1 integrated in francophone sector (balance integrated in anglophone sector) 6 3 strongly involved with other Dutch (balance somewhat involved with other Dutch) 5 1 not involved with other Dutch 5 0 farming 4 2 business 4 0 service sector 6 2 manual work 0 no occupation (including homemakers, excluding farm wives) 2 2

- 7 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn population (including those not involved a former employee) were interviewed re- the ethnic group at large, are represented in institutions). The proportion of “invis- garding the same deceased person. In four more or less in the proper proportions. ible” Dutch is very high in contrast to, for cases both husband and wife were present, The only area not represented is the example, the Greeks or Jews, and these although only in one case the wife was manual work one. Perhaps not surpris- Dutch are extremely diffi cult to locate. interviewed also. In one case the daughter ingly because only 15 percent of Dutch in With the small number of interviewees re- was interviewed as well as the father. One Montreal worked in that category in 1981. quired for a qualitative study, it is actually person was interviewed on three separate Then there are only one war bride and one possible to get representatives from the occasions as he had been involved in the person who arrived after 1968. The war “invisible group” too. Dutch community over a long period of bride had no occupation (housewife), but time. One other person was interviewed the husband was working class. The recent Under the auspices of the Oral History twice. The rest was interviewed once. In- arrival was a farm wife, perhaps somewhat Montreal Project of Concordia University, terviews averaged 110 minutes and ranged unfortunate, since by far most of the recent 18 persons were interviewed. Selecting from 30 minutes to 4 l/2 hours. arrivals are urban people (artists, profes- candidates from one or more residential sionals, businessmen). On the whole, all areas was considered, but found unsuit- Except for a few where this was not persons in the sample were distinct, in able. What residential concentration there possible, interviews were held in the the sense that, except for couples, none of is, is found in the West Island area of person’s own home. Interviews were kept them were either neighbours, relatives, or Montreal, particularly in the Beaconsfi eld/ as unstructured as possible in order to close friends (although they sometimes Pointe Claire, and the Pierrefonds/Dollard- allow the interviewee to bring up those knew each other). des-Ormeaux (DDO) areas, but both areas points that seemed of greatest importance would yield skewed samples, because the to him or her, and to aid in the process of The most diffi cult part was to fi nd people Christian Reformed Church is situated in trust formation. An interview schedule who are not involved with other Dutch. DDO, and its adherents are highly concen- was kept for reference by the interviewer After all, the snowballing method relies trated there, while they represent no more (see appendix) to ensure that, ultimately, on a network. Some of these contacts were than fi ve percent of the Dutch population all points would be covered in each case. obtained through non-Dutch. in the Montreal CMA. The Beacons- In only a few cases some points had to be fi eld/Pointe Claire population would have dropped due to time limitations. Historical 1 Two of the interviewees (now in busi been too selectively upper income. It was, and maturation problems were not encoun- ness), had started with manual work therefore, decided to use the snowballing tered as there was only brief contact with upon arrival. technique, while observing the following each respondent. criteria in order to get all or most catego- 2 One of the housewives is also a war ries of the Dutch in Quebec represented: In retrospect, the selection process has bride. worked quite well. Various categories in In one case two persons (the widow and the Dutch community and outside of it, in

Dutch immigrants

- 8 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn Early History

It is not clear when the fi rst Dutch settlers census specifi cations largely deter While the British government was pre- arrived in Quebec. It might have been mined by the patrilinear predecessor’s pared to settle these people and reward Jan Smit, the son of a Dutch father and a mother tongue or ethnic group them for their loyalty, it was not consid- native mother who, after many adventures membership upon immigration to ered a good idea to have them too close to as a chief of his tribe, eventually settled in North America; the Americans. The argument by Governor Caughnawaga probably sometime during Haldimand, that a culturally, linguistically, the 1680’s, as one of the “praying” (i.e. (2) mother tongue, i.e. language tradition- and religiously different French population converted to Christianity) Indians. Jan ally spoken by members of a particular would form a more effective barrier to the Smit, otherwise known as Canaqueese, is ethnic group; incursions of settler’s from the U.S., was unlikely to have displayed any Dutch char- accepted in London (Ashton, 1974:24). acteristics, although he may have spoken (3) ethnic-oriented religion, i.e. participa- Thus, those who landed at Missisquoi Bay the language since he was often in contact tion or membership in a religious were ordered to depart to Upper Canada, with the Dutch of Albany1 affi liation recognised as the traditional on pain of being struck off the provision religion of a particular ethnic group; list. About a thousand of them stubbornly refused to move and they and their descen- Ethnic Origin (4) folkways, i.e. the practice of certain dants were the ones who began opening up customs unique to the group (1981:37). the Eastern Townships around Missisquoi Some of the United Empire Loyalists, who Bay (Noyes, 1907). came to Canada during the last decades of the eighteenth century, can lay a some- Not all these factors have to be present for The push factor at work south of the what stronger claim to a Dutch heritage. ethnic identifi cation to exist, as mentioned border was of a political nature, and the It will be argued that there was a Dutch earlier. For example, the mother tongue refugees were all drawn to Canada for the ethnic component among the Loyalists or the ethnic religion may be lost, while same reasons. Within Canada, the pull of who entered Quebec. For this particular individuals still strongly identify with Quebec was considered weaker than the group, even more so than for later Dutch their ethnic group. On the other hand, pull of what is now Ontario. Not everyone immigrants who arrived for the most part “outsiders” who take on ethnic folkways agrees on what caused this discrepancy. directly from their country of origin, it is or join an ethnic religion, do not belong important to defi ne what is meant by an to the ethnic group. Its involuntary nature Although Haldimand’s orders seem by ethnic population. A bewildering array as expressed by ethnic origin is a barrier themselves a forceful enough deterrent of defi nitions exists, rooted in either, or to this. A diffi cult issue arises in the case against staying in or heading for Que- both, objective and subjective schools of of intermarriage, a frequent occurrence bec, Moir (1978) thinks the Loyalists thought. In analysing some thirty of them, among the Dutch. Self identifi cation, for had other reasons for going elsewhere. Isajiw ultimately embraced the following example, does not al ways follow the patri- Quebec had a different language and defi nition: linear descent line. True to the chosen defi - religion. Furthermore, Republicans and nition, the position taken in this paper is Loyalists had fought for three essential “An involuntary group of people who that anyone who considers him or herself rights: representative institutions, English share the same culture or the descendants to involuntarily belong to a group with any common law, and freehold land tenure. of such people who identify themselves or all of the Dutch characteristics as listed None of these rights existed in Quebec. and/or are identifi ed by others as be- under (1) to (4), is of Dutch ethnicity. The result was alienation and settlement longing to the same involuntary group” in Upper Canada. Ashton (1974), however, (1979:6:25). This defi nition is useful for claims that “The absence of self -govern- the Dutch group since it has the advantage Loyalist Settlement Patterns ment, jury trial, habeas corpus, and other that it can be applied to future generations basic rights of Englishmen did not bother who may no longer share the same culture Two major groups of Loyalists came to Loyalists. Their legal and constitutional (language, customs), but who still take Canada. In 1773 about 30,000 of them, concerns concentrated exclusively on land pride in their heritage. mainly made up of members of the and the mechanisms for its distribution professional and merchant class, came by and exploitation” (p. 23). Considering the To study ethnicity one needs objective ship from the lower Hudson Valley to the practical rather than philosophical bent of criteria. Anderson and Frideres consoli- Maritimes. Soon after , a group of about farmers anywhere, as well as the hard- dated the many identifi cation traits, the 6000, mainly owners of backwood farms ships endured during the trek to Canada, sum of which identifi es an ethnic group in involved in the war, came from the upper one would be inclined to believe that the an objective manner, and came up with the Hudson and Mohawk Valley region, either potential settlers said the English, German, following four factors: over land or by way of Lake Champlain to or Dutch equivalent of “J’y suis, j’y reste”. what is now Quebec and Ontario (Moir, Nevertheless, there was a large emigration 1978). from the Mohawk Valley and vicinity to (1) ethnic origin, according to Canadian the Niagara frontier and to other parts of

- 9 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

Ontario, including Essex, Kent, and Lamb Table I Alice Kenney, an Albany historian who counties. The government gave the settlers Population of Albany County, spent the last two decades researching the land grants and promised provisions and 1639-1790 Dutch of upper New York State, found tools. Unfortunately, these promises were that at about the time of the American not always kept, and a number of settlers Year Population Revolution, the Dutch Reformed Church moved elsewhere (Magee, 1983:25). As far 1639 270 in America was breaking away from as can be determined, they did not move to 1689 2,016 government from the Netherlands, fi nally Quebec. 1697 1,452 adopting the English language for worship 1749 10,500 (Kenney, 1977/78). But women in par- Many of those Loyalists who settled in 1771 42,700 ticular continued to speak Dutch in their what is now Quebec and Ontario hailed 1790 72,000 (fi rst Federal cen- homes and at church until after the Ameri- from northern New York State, particularly sus) can Revolution (Kenney, 1980). This is the Albany region. Albany was originally corroborated by the examination of an old a Dutch settlement (Fort Oranje) which, (Source: Penney & Willenken, 1977) family bible2 in the possession on of one although under control of the British since Quebec based Loyalist descendent, which 1664, maintained its Dutch characteris- shows entries made up to 1775 written in tics until well into the second half of the perfect Dutch. eighteenth century. In fact, O’Dwyer states Even then, with their customary large that a proposed retrogressive constitutional families, the Dutch could still be expected As far as religion is concerned, there is amendment establishing a literacy test as to have accounted for at least half the mention of a settled minister (Rev. Broef- a qualifi cation for voting was defeated at Albany area population during the time fl e or Proeffl e) sent out by the Classis of the Constitutional Convention of 1846 on of the Loyalists’ trek north. That does not Albany of the Dutch Reformed Church the objection of Dutch-descended citizens mean that they were equally well repre- in 1795. However, the War of 1812 made who were still using Dutch idiom and sented among the Loyalists, of course. it necessary for churches with American would be disenfranchised if the amend- connections to choose sides and most ment became effective (O’Dwyer, 1975). So, while one can assume on the basis of Loyalists sided again with Britain and ties the above, that there were a good number with the Church in America were cut. A There is, admittedly, a great deal of of Dutch descended persons among the “Presbyter of the Canadas” was formed in confusion about the ethnic background of United Empire Loyalists, short of trac- 1818 which the Dutch Reformed Mission so-called Dutch Loyalists. This is in the ing the place of birth of each Loyalist’s in Upper Canada (Moir, 1978). fi rst place brought on by the English word overseas ancestor one cannot determine “Dutch” meaning “from the Netherlands” the exact proportion. Fortunately, this Lifestyle and material culture of the but which sounds almost like the German task has been undertaken by Ruth for the Mohawk and Hudson Valley area Dutch word “Deutsch” meaning “from Ger- Royal Commission on Bilingualism and had been highly infl uenced by the ortho- many”, a situation likely to have confused Biculturalism, at least for a representative dox Calvinist religion they espoused, As a census taker or anyone not familiar with sample. He arrived at a proportion of 10% was the case in the Netherlands, men and such fi ne distinctions. Dutch among all anglophone Loyalists women learned to read, write, and keep who settled in Canada. (Ruch, 1982) But accounts, but this knowledge was used Also, there were many Palatines (Ger- we have no way of knowing whether Que- mostly for practical purposes: they read mans) among the Loyalists. They spoke a bec falls into this pattern as well. the scriptures, and handled their business low German which is quite close to Dutch affairs. “To participate intelligently in the and they may or may not have spent some services of the church was the chief in- time in the Netherlands before coming Dutch Characteristics of ducement for parents to send their children to this continent in search of religious Loyalists to school” is how Alexander C. Flick, an freedom. No doubt, many sailed for the eminent historian put it (cited in Curran, New World from a Dutch port and/or on a 1975). The population spent its time on However, even where the origin can be Dutch ship. To make matters worse, many the fur trade, crafts or household duties undisputedly determined to be Dutch, for Germans were members of the Dutch and this kept them from writing diaries, the purposes of this study the important Reformed Church of America. letters or books. For artistic enjoyment question is: “From a social and cultural they turned to pictures of relatives and perspective, were there any Dutch charac- In spite of these diffi culties, Penney and of scenes from the bible (Kenney, 1980). teristics present upon arrival in Canada, Willenken (1977) conclude that up until There were also two principal families and which, if any, were subsequently 1759 at least eighty percent of all recorded of silversmiths in eightteenth century maintained?” baptisms, marriages and burials in the Al- Albany, the Ten Eycks and the Lansinqs bany area were Dutch. The proportion of who, between them produced many fi ne These characteristics could include Dutch in the population declined steadily artifacts for use by the white population language, religion, folkways (lifestyle, after 1759 with the infl ux of German Pala- as well as for the Indian trade. According material culture, names), and in-group tines and others. to Kenney, this material culture remained marriage.

- 10 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn the same even at the time of the American ing at the Ten Eyck family cemetery) are Lt. Col. Henry Ruiter, “toughness, endur- Revolution when the church showed signs also all in English (Mrs. M. Ellis, personal ance, (and) ambition for personal fi nancial of anglicization (Kenney, 1977-1978). communication, 1983). independence” is a recurring theme (p.8). Canada is portrayed as a land of opportu- But in Quebec at this time, remnants of nity: “... free or cheap land, fi nancial aid, material culture are practically non-exis- Signifi cance of “Dutch” Loyalists political preferment, a new country with- tent, although a thorough search might, to Quebec out an established elite as in the United of course, turn up items. At this point it States, attractive to those with formerly is limited to unverifi ed reports of Dutch So the “Dutch” Loyalists formed a minor- modest holdings” (1974:231. style barns belonging, or having belonged, ity who probably arrived with a certain to the Cuyler family, and a few household amount of ethnic cultural baggage, but This is similar to the thread that runs items of Dutch origin, a pewter platter, a soon lost it and were totally assimilated in through the post- World War II Dutch powder horn, and the like (Mrs. M. Ellis, a short time, leaving hardly a trace of their immigration history, or indeed of that of personal communication, 1983). heritage. Of what possible signifi cance other north-European groups. could this be for Quebec’s past, present Small numbers and lack of institutions no and future? More such research would be useful. It doubt hastened the assimilation process. is often undertaken or fi nanced by those Noyes (1907) claims that the Dutch (or The census of 1880-1881, taken about a who have strong ethnic feelings and the German) language had disappeared “in a century after the fi rst Loyalists arrived fact that to this day there are Loyalists’ generation or so” which is perhaps even here, shows that in Quebec, 776 persons descendants who are interested in their too mild an assessment if one considers considered themselves of Dutch “na- Dutch origins leaves the potential for such how ethnically mixed the population was. tionality”, which, one may presume, was work wide open. Other Quebec families John Ruiter’s property (land on which the confused with “origin”, since none of of Dutch origin are mainly concerned with village of Philipsburg, named after his son these listed the Netherlands as their place genealogical research but pride in their Philip, now stands), for example, was sur- of birth. They formed a negligible propor- ancestry drives to mark old graves and rounded by those of Harmonas Best, Al- tion of the population of this province, maintain the many family cemeteries that exander Taylor, John Hawver, Christjohn but were concentrated in certain areas dot the Eastern Townships. They attempt Wehr, and Lodwick Streit (Thomas, 1866: especially in St. Georges de Clarenceville to save historical items and collect them in 16-17). Except for Taylor, these names are (Missisquoi) where 10% of the population local musea. An excellend example of the most likely German. In Dunham Town- polled declared themselves Dutch (See signifi cance that such ethnic feelings can ship, the fi rst township to be erected in Table II). have for the study of history is the Holland Lower Canada, of the 35 grantees, seven Society of New York whose members are appear to be Dutch: two Ruiters, three Although some may have been recent ar- Americans in every respect and display Reicherts (or Rykerd), and two Ten Eycks rivals from the U.S.A., it is clear that one no obvious Dutch characteristics, what- (Thomas, 1866: 110). Among other 18th deals here with a largely indigenous popu- ever these may be. Yet, the mere fact that century and early 19th century land grants lation, most of whom are the descendants one can lay claim to having descended in the area one fi nds other apparently of Loyalists. from some of the earliest settlers on this Dutch names, such as Albrecht, Cuyler, Dyke, De Haren, Schouten, Van Antwer- Table II In a rural environment and Nationality and Birthplace of Population of pen, and Van Vorst (P.A.C., Records of with pioneering days a fairly Land Grants, Eastern Townships, Vol.167- St. Georges de Clarenceville (Missisquoi Co.), recent memory, it is perhaps 1880-1 438). These again form a small proportion not so remarkable that so of the total number of settlers, insuffi cient many would still be clear to sustain the mother tongue. about their ethnic origin, Nationality Birthplace despite extensive intermar- The genealogy of the Dutch-descended riage. To this day, however, Dutch 121 British Isles 82 Ten Eyck family shows the sort of devel- there are those who remem- English 334 Nova Scotia 1 opment we might expect to have taken ber and who take a particular French 193 Quebec 993 place in such families as well: Dutch interest in their heritage. The German 110 Ontario 3 Christian names until shortly after the turn Dutch hold no monopoly Irish 243 United States 106 of the century, but only in case of in-group on this, of course, but those Italian 1 Not given 1 marriage. Where the spouse was Eng- who do manifest an interest Scottish 120 lish, the children would be given English in proven or presumed Dutch Not given 64 Christian names. While this already quite origin, take great pride in it frequently happened in the 18th century, (Ashton, 1974; Mrs. M. El- Total 1,186 Total 1,186 it became practically the rule thereafter. lis, personal communication, Inscriptions and epitaphs on all but the June 27, 1983). Source: Dominion Bureau of Statistics - 1880-1883, very earliest gravestones (which are miss- In Ashton’s (1974) story of Census

- 11 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn continent lends status, motivating strong 1 For a more detailed account of 2 Statenbijbel with entries by Peter support for research on the history of New Canaqueese’s life, see P. Lowensteyn, Dumont, in hands of Mrs. M. Ellis of Netherland, especially translations of pri- 1983:9 Dunham, Quebec. mary documentary sources. On a smaller scale, similar efforts could certainly be undertaken in Quebec as well.

Dutch immigrants

- 12 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn The Period of 1900 to 1945 Demographics This section deals with the period in which which were being opened up (Ganzevoort, provinces. Ontario increased its share Dutch immigration to Canada directly 1975:8). slightly from 67.4% in 1871 to 68.8% in from the Netherlands began to take shape. 1901. The whole vast area west of On- Compared to the post-World War II infl ux, At about the same time, the fi rst signifi cant tario held no more than 2,185 or 6.4% of numbers were very small, and in Quebec migration to Canada from the Netherlands all Dutch recorded in 1901. Nova Scotia even smaller than elsewhere. took place. In the spring of 1893, the gained a few souls, but New Brunswick The United States was a major competi- Christian Emigrant Society (C.E.S.) sent lost about 40% ( 2,341) of its Dutch tor for immigrants, and within Canada out 73 emigrants who settled in Western population, more than all the Dutch who the West tended to compete with the East. Canada, where Dutch-Canadian Robert In- settled in the West. The latter is not easy Within the East, Ontario’s pull was much sinqer, member of the Territorial Assembly to explain in view of the overall increase stronger than that of Quebec. Factors lead- for Assiniboia, was acting as a go-between in both the urban and rural population in ing to these conditions are analysed, so is for the C.E.S. More emigrants followed, New Brunswick. Quebec al most doubled the type of Dutch immigrant that arrived but their numbers remained small. Clifford its Dutch population, from 798 to 1,554, here, and the role played by Canadian and Sifton, Minister of the Interior, responsible increasing both its urban and rural com- Dutch recruiting agents or agencies. for immigration under the Liberal govern- ponents. This may mean that a number of ment of Sir Wilfred Laurier (in power from New Brunswick Dutch settled here. Although some farmers appear to have 1896), campaigned actively for settle- settled in Quebec, the majority of Dutch ment of the West. However, government The overall shift to urban areas during immigrants in Quebec during these years representatives and steamship company those years, did not occur quite as rap- were urban workers. On the whole, these booking agents found recruitment in the idly among the Dutch in Quebec as it did do not seem to have been too successful. Netherlands diffi cult around the turn of among the Dutch in Canada, a situation The few interviewees that could be found the century. Far-reaching social change reversed in later years. Between 1871 and and who are quoted in these pages were in was taking place at that time in the Dutch 1901, the number of rural Dutch decreased this respect rather the exception than the nation, and a sense of optimism in the by 17% in Quebec compared to 20% in rule. country’s future prevailed. Furthermore, Ontario and 20% in Canada. Comparable full religious freedom had been achieved fi gures for the general population are: The Dutch were served by few ethnic in- and dissenters were playing a promi- 22%, 27%, and 21% (fi gures compiled stitutions. The Consulate was one of them nent part in Dutch politics (Ganzevoort, from Table III by author). and its history is traced. 1975:39-41). As illustrated by Table III, in the decades between 1871 and 1901, the Immigration, largely from Europe, began Finally, the high rate of intermarriage and total Dutch-Canadian population increased to take on unprecedented proportions in its relationship to the community structure by only 4,183. the beginning of the twentieth century, is examined. and immigration from the Netherlands The fi gures in the table must be ap- increased likewise. However, compared to proached with a great deal of caution. In other populations, the Dutch contributed Dutch Immigration Prior to the fi rst place, as Sas (1957) points out, only very small numbers and of these the World War II not all those who entered Canada, and majority settled in Ontario and the West- claimed Dutch origin, came from the ern provinces. This is illustrated by Table Demographics Netherlands. Mennonites from Russia IV. The relatively large increase between claimed Dutch origin, and so did sec- 1921 and 1931 refl ects increased interest Dutch emigration to Canada began in the ond and third generation Dutch from the in emigration during an economic crisis late 1800’s. Several decades earlier, group United States, and who settled primarily in which reached its depth in 1923, as well migration from Holland to the United the West. Descendants of United Empire as the introduction of a quota system for States had taken place, mainly by Protes- Loyalists, whose forebears came to this immigrants by the United States. It must tants in search of religious freedom, but continent from the Netherlands, were be kept in mind that these earlier popula- also including some Roman Catholics. also likely to claim Dutch origin. The fact tion statistics are diffi cult to interpret. For These settlers were true pioneers who that the majority of those claiming Dutch example, the distinction between Dutch helped open up parts of Michigan, Iowa, origin belonged to the rural populations from overseas and from the U.S.A. was and Wisconsin. However, later in the of Ontario and the Maritime Provinces, only introduced in 1925. Also, emigration century, cheap, arable land began to be- where most Loyalists settled, tends to fi gures to the U.S.A. are not available al- come scarcer in the United States, and by underscore this. though it is known that many used Canada 1890, Dutch-Americans began tentatively as a convenient stepping stone on their to move towards the Canadian prairies Table III shows some interesting changes way to the U.S. in the distribution of Dutch among the

- 13 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

Table III Racial Origin of the Population, Rural and Urban, Canada and the Provinces, 1871 and 1901.

1871 1901

Total Total Population Netherlands Population Netherlands (1)

Canada total 3,485,761 29,662 5,371,315 33,845 urban 710,143 2,067 2,014,222 8,744 rural 2,775,618 27,595 3,357,093 25,101 P.E.I. total (2) 103,259 242 urban 14,995 34 rural 88,304 208 Nova Scotia total 387,800 2,868 459,574 2,941 urban 32,082 56 129,383 725 rural 355,718 2,812 330,191 2,216 N.Brunswick total 285,594 6,004 331,120 3,663 urban 50,213 417 77,285 783 rural 235,381 5,587 253,835 2,880 Quebec total 1,191,516 798 1,648,898 1,554 urban 271,851 64 654,865 386 rural 919,665 734 994,833 1,189 Ontario total 1,620,851 19,992 2,182,947 23,280 urban 355,997 1,530 935,978 6,160 rural 1,264,854 18,462 1,246,969 17,120 Manitoba total (2) 255,211 925 urban 70,436 226 rural 184,775 699 Saskatchewan total (2) 91,279 345 urban 14,266 51 rural 77,013 294 Alberta total (2) 73,022 369 urban 18,533 120 rural 54,489 249 Br. Columbia total (2) 178,657 437 urban 90,179 224 rural 88,478 213 Yukon total (2) 27,219 89 urban 9,142 36 rural 18,077 53 N.W.T. total (2) 20,129 -- urban -- -- rural 20,120 --

(2) Racial origin fi gures not available (1) Includes the four original provinces of Canada only. (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, Quebec)

Source: 1931 Census, Table 35, pp.710-723, as cited in Sas (1957:36).

They may also have moved to Ontario as the sharp increase of urban Dutch there cannot be accounted for by the limited decrease in the rural population or by the very minimal immigration from overseas (In 1901 the Dutch-born population in Canada amounted to 385 see Table IV).

- 14 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

Table IV Population Born in The Netherlands: Canada and the Provinces, 1901-1941

1901 1911 1921 1931 1941

Canada 385 3,808 5,827 10,736 9,923 Prince Edward Island -- 11 -- 16 11 Nova Scotia 19 24 51 29 95 New Brunswick 7 32 32 62 49 Quebec 73 174 313 490 525 Ontario 112 687 1,123 3,774 3,639 Manitoba 57 730 1,042 1 ,444 1,109 Saskatchewan 36 628 984 1,225 858 Alberta 17 1,136 1,765 2,466 2,142 British Columbia 49 379 515 1,224 1,484 Yukon Territory 15 7 2 3 3 Northwest Territories ------3 8

Source: (1957:31) Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Canadian Census, 1941, Vol I, as quoted in Sas.

The Immigration Experience

Information about pre-World War II Dutch Until the 1920’s, Canada, wishing to prospective emigrants is one of very slight in Quebec is very scant indeed. There is settle its empty lands, paid a commis- government involvement, a laissez-faire hardly any written documentation and only sion to steamship agents of £.1/- per bona attitude, in line with Dutch belief in free a few people are left who can relate their fi de farmer or domestic recruited. This, trade. From time to time pressure groups personal experiences. For example, no together with the lax attitude of the Dutch would protest shady recruiting practices by person has been found by this writer, who government, would tend to emphasise agents, or unacceptable transportation con- could tell what it was like to be a Dutch- commercial interests (e.g. the settle- ditions, forcing some tightening of control. Canadian farmer in Quebec in the pre-war ment of specifi c C. P. R. developments) Such groups formed the Netherlands Emi- years. rather than the welfare of immigrants. The grations League in 1913, dedicated, among What little information there is lets us agents’ propaganda methods were often other things, to the gathering of accurate know, however, that the immigration ex- criticised in the Netherlands. Unfortu- information on immigration countries perience of the few hundred Dutch people nately, some Dutch private agents, even (Ganzevoort, 1975:23-24). In 1923 the who called Quebec their home, was very some Dutch priests in Canada, followed Central Emigration Foundation Holland different from that of the thousands who similarly unscrupulous methods of recruit- began a pioneering venture in assisted arrived here after World War II. ing (Ganzevoort, 1975141; Van Stekelen- emigration which, while successful in burg, 1980). There are no reports that their some ways, had diffi culties attracting the Travelling was more cumbersome, as- ill effect was felt in Quebec, because the most suitable emigrants. Such people did sistance from government and private recruiters’ attentions were mainly focussed not wish to leave the Netherlands, while sources was minimal and, since most of on areas west of this province. Further- those who did leave, more often than not, these prewar New-Canadians were of very more, in Quebec there was an ideological refused to repay their loans (Ganzevoort, modest means, regular visits to the home bias against immigrants, who were thought 1975:991. country in those jet-less days, were not the to integrate with the English, thereby normal occurrence they became for post- weakening the relative position of the Perhaps lack of enthusiasm to emigrate war immigrants. French in Canada (Petersen, 1955:120 ff.). was partly due to press reports which, since the late 19th century, had car- The fi rst knowledge potential immigrants In 1917, in preparation of the infl ux ried negative messages about Canada, would gain about Canada was usually expected after World War I, a federal its climate, labour conditions, harvest dispensed in the homeland by Canadian Department of Immigration and Colonisa- uncertainty, and loneliness (Ganzevoort, government representatives, agents of tion was formed (Ganzevoort,1975:421. 1975:29). This is quite understandable if steamship and railway companies, and This did not diminish the importance of one considers that, prior to World War II Dutch authorities and private organisa- the agent’s role. His heyday lasted into the bulk of Dutch immigrants were men tions. In addition, press reports and tes- the 1930’s, when economic conditions no who were either single or had left their timony from relatives and friends who longer favoured immigration. families behind (Ganzevoort, 1975: 62). had already settled here were important sources for information. On the Dutch side the overall picture Not all immigrants found hard times and concerning information and support to loneliness out West: witness the experi-

- 15 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn ences of interviewee U (J. Lowensteyn completely accepted. Interestingly, he does From all sides, the French language is [cassette recording], 1985), a now elderly not report discriminatory remarks or be- cited as a deterrent for the Dutch to settle gentleman who, before fi nally settling haviour during his army service. Further- in this province. For the workers, crafts- in Quebec in 1952 (immigrating for the more, at no time did the labelling hamper men and small businessmen, the mechan- second time), landed in Alberta in 1912 his employment opportunities. Without ics, the barber and the taylor, this must and spent several happy years there and making the claim that this example is in indeed have been somewhat of a problem. in British Columbia. He had left Holland any way typical of the Dutch immigrant Still, the possibility of settling in an in fear of a war, and joined his brother who arrived before World War II, it does English speaking part of the province or of who was a sharecropper near Calgary. serve to underline the importance of bring- Montreal must have been at least as great Our respondent, at that time 22 years old, ing the proper requisites when trying to before World War II as it was after. fl uent in four modern languages (including build a new future abroad. With extensive English and French), with an engineer- language skills, professional qualifi cation However, at that time, Dutch immigrants ing diploma from a German school, had (as a mechanic suitable to the demands of were generally agriculturists rather than no diffi culty fi nding work. First he was a an industrialising nation, adaptable, of an city-bound craftsmen and industrial work- mechanic in Calgary, Kelowna, and Van- optimistic nature, and from an ethnic ori- ers. Just before the outbreak of World War couver, and in 1915 enrolled as a private in gin considered next best to British stock, II, Dr. Black, director of colonisation for the Canadian Forces. He fought in France this immigrant could weather the inconve- the CNR, characterised the Dutch as fall- and Belgium, ended up in Germany, had nience of name calling. It also illustrates ing into two groups: market gardeners and an honourable discharge, returned to Hol- the important role relatives play in the farmers. For the former he considered the land to marry and intended to bring his choice of fi nal destination. best areas to be Holland Marsh (just north wife out to Canada. She disagreed with his of Toronto), Edmonton, and Winnipeg, plans, however, and he brought up a family Part of the immigration experience is the while for the latter the mixed farming ar- in Holland instead. Upon being widowed, situation met immediately upon arrival. eas of Ontario, the area around Edmonton, he remarried and was able to realise his Unlike after World War II, there was no and New Brunswick were suitable in his dream of settling in Canada for good. extensive network of “fi eld men” (church view (Ganzevoort, 1975, Report by Consul Once again heading for the West, he ended representatives) who met the immigrant Luden, Montreal, 20.5.19381. Concretely, up staying in Montreal where a brother and smoothed the way. In any case, Dutch the West offered opportunities that the could assist him in fi nding employment Protestants tended to avoid the Catholic East could not or would not match: free or (U, Tape I, side 1, 0:15). environment of Quebec. The Dutch Ro- cheap land, free placement services, etc. man Catholic Church was reluctant to (Ganzevoort, 1975: 177). This gentleman was able to compare his encourage Dutch emigration to Quebec reception by Canadians at various times “because of a suspicion that French-Ca- All these factors combined to make the in this century. In 1912 he was called “a nadian Catholicism shared the liberalism Dutch stay away from Quebec, and it is foreigner” (cf. Petersen, 1955, p-128 ff.), of French Catholicism” (Ganzevoort, only well into the 1950’s when there is a in 1952 a “displaced person”, while at 1975:33). relative change in this situation. present there is no label at all: he feels Making a Living

The Netherlands Consul General in Mon- One prominent businessmen, upon meet- attribute that is striking among successful treal, Mr. J.A. Schuurman, in a letter dated ing Consul General Sevenster (1946- pre and post war people interviewed. March 26, 1927, complains that “At least 19521, was told: “It is a pleasure to see in Montreal, among several hundred Dutch a Dutchman who does rather well” (J. Interviewee N (J. Lowensteyn [cassette there are perhaps a dozen who improved Lowensteyn [cassette recording], 1985, N, recording] 1985), an experienced engineer themselves through emigration. The rest Tape I, side 2, 1:45). who spoke several languages, includ- more or less cope, mostly they did not go ing English and French, was sent out by down which, after all, is not the purpose of The obviously marginal situation that so a Dutch company in 1933, to set up and emigration” (Ganzevoort, 1975, Consular many Dutch found themselves in during manage a Canadian subsidiary. He stayed letter no.855, 1927). the pre-war years is in marked contrast in that position until his retirement, and in In other letters that year, the Consul Gen- with their present day situation in Quebec. those years saw the company grow to the eral refers to the need to know French for Undoubtedly, the diffi cult economic times largest in Quebec in its particular fi eld. Al- those who intend to work in the construc- of the 1930’s played an important part in though the foreman was Dutch, N rejected tion industry in Eastern Canada (Gan- this. It is interesting to note that the few the hiring of Dutch workers on a perma- zevoort, 1975, Consular Letter no.729, persons interviewed who had settled here nent basis, considering it “bad policy”. He 1927) and to the large percentage of metal before World War II, themselves had done once hired two Dutchmen who promptly workers and electricians among those who quite well. The factors that accounted for thought they occupied a preferred position came to see him because they are unem- their success seem to have been: profes- (N, Tape I, side 1, 39:40). ployed and without means (Ganzevoort, sional skills, language skills, and shrewd 1975, Consular letter no.1324). business sense. It is especially the latter A similar sentiment was expressed by

- 16 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

V, an ex-steward on board trans-atlantic his mother English. After having worked zevoort, 1975). liners who, after working as a waiter and in England for seven years, he became head-waiter for a short time after his ar- assistant to Anthony Fokker, and later During the period June 1, 1924 to May rival in 1927, became restaurant manager representative and manager of the Fokker 31, 1925, one hundred persons registered in downtown Montreal. He was a stable company in the U.S. Conversion of the at the Consulate (plus one who died). Of employee, staying at one restaurant for ten single engine Fokker F7 into the highly these, 37 returned to Europe, 5 moved, 5 years, at another for twenty years. He had successful Fokker Trimotor was his brain- were deported, and 6 left for the U.S.A. been educated at a hotel school in Holland child, and was executed notwithstanding Thus, at least 53 out of 100 were not suc- as well as at the Berlitz language school the strong doubts of Anthony Fokker cessful in Quebec or even Canada after and had been taught, among other things, (Halford, 1979:68). two or three years. There were only 5 not to hire personnel of the same national- agriculturists among them. For 9 no oc- ity, as “it makes for friction with the rest Interviews with M, Noorduyn’s Ameri- cupation was listed. Another 39 had an oc- of the staff ” (V, Tape II, side 2, 35:30). can-born widow, and with Y, one of his cupation other than farming. Of the other This did not prevent him from helping ex-employees and currently the president 47 some were still in Canada, although not his countrymen to fi nd jobs elsewhere of Noorduyn Norseman Aircraft Ltd., all of them were successful. Some must and he claims the Consulate often called give a wealth of background information have left Canada, and the Consul felt that upon him for this purpose (Tape I, side 2, about Noorduyn as a person and as an in time more or them would return (to the 16:40). entrepreneur. Y insists that Noorduyn “did Netherlands). He stressed that this was the not make a fortune out of the company”, Montreal and not the Canadian situation. Both gentlemen, now retired, and in good but he seems to have lived well, with a (Ganzevoort, 1975, Netherlands Consul health, the fi rst married, the second a wid- home in upper Westmount, his son in General, “Notes re chances of non agricul- ower, live comfortably in such “English” Lower Canada College, and the family at turists emigrating to Canada.”, dated July areas as Town of Mount Royal and Pointe ease with the upper crust (“his mother was 6, 1927) Claire. a Churchill”) (II, Tape I, side 1, 42:00). Al- though there may have been one or more The reason that so few farmers were found The brother of interviewee U is another Dutch among his workers, there seems among the “unsuccessful” is probably not Dutchman who did very well for himself. to have been no particular preference for only that agrarians were often more suc- An electrical engineer, he arrived in the Dutchmen among the many nationalities cessful than others, as reported by Consul early thirties, having left his wife and represented. The team that designed the General Schuurman (Ganzevoort, 1975, children behind. His diplomas were not original Norseman apparently consisted Consular letter no.855, 19271, but par- valid here, so he could not work in his own of people from Canada, the U.S. and ticularly because Quebec offered so few fi eld. The only kind of work he elaborated England. Noorduyn did employ his Dutch agricultural jobs (see Table V). upon was his brother’s post-war involve- niece at one time (Y, Tape I, side 1, 42:00). ment in the development of two fi fty acre Figures for the year 1924 show approxi- lots in the Eastern Townships. He built We fi nd Noorduyn hustling money from mately two thirds (1173) of all Dutch im- four houses, made two lakes, and rented or all sources including Sir Herbert Holt, U’s migrants to Canada that year to be agrar- sold the property to Dutch people. Now in brother dabbling in real estate, V success- ians. The others are spread over various his nineties, U’s brother divides his time fully “playing the market”, and N solidly occupations, least in Mining (3), most in between winters in Florida and summers entrenched in second place in a constantly Mechanical (174). Looking at the province in his apartment in downtown Montreal. growing company. They belonged to the of destination of these 1821 persons (1215 For years, every third winter has been set handful of Dutch who had done well 1. men, 322 women, 284 children under aside for a trip to Holland (U, 3.3.1983, Most of the rest had a much harder time of 14), it becomes clear that Quebec was Tape I, side 1, 39: 10). it. The following report by the Netherlands not particularly unpopular, since almost Consul General illustrates this (Gan- 10% (171) chose to settle here (see Table Then there was Bob Noorduyn, aircraft designer, who moved to Montreal from the Table V United States to form Noorduyn Aircraft Available Agricultural Jobs, by Province, March, April, May, 1925 Limited. In the Journal of the Canadian Aviation Historical Society he is remem- Province March April May Nova Scotia 14 21 26 bered as follows: “When Bob Noorduyn New Brunswick 5 9 10 died in February of 1959, he left behind Quebec 23 42 37 him an aeronautical legacy that will ensure Ontario 1,026 1,647 851 his name being long remembered in the Manitoba 1,187 1,694 1,584 aviation world. This legacy is, of course, Saskatchewan 1,687 4,048 1,256 the Norseman bush plane which, in its Alberta 998 3,740 2,207 way, is as much a design classic as the British Columbia 176 182 149 ubiquitous DC-3” (Halford, 1979:68). Robert B. Noorduyn was born and bred Statistics supplied to the Dutch Consulate, Montreal, by Employment Service Canada. in the Netherlands. His father was Dutch, (Ganzevoort, 1975:203)

- 17 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

VI1 (Ganzevoort, 1975, Consular letter able comparison must have been the cause did so for language reasons (1972:236). no.983150, 1925). of many subsequent westward moves. On the other hand, the same study states Assuming that the proportions of available Dutch employers were among those who that 59% of Dutch employers claimed no agricultural jobs by province in 1924 were demanded long hours and paid small preference for Canadian or Dutch employ- similar to 1925, and taking into account wages, hence many immigrants chose to ees where the level of competence was the high ratio of agriculturists to others work for Canadian employers. A contribut- equal (cf Greek employers 15%, Slovaks among Dutch immigrants (about 2:1), a ing factor to this trend was the apparent 24%) (p. 237). The overall effect would comparison between Table V and Table understanding on the part of the new- be a quickening of integration in Cana- VI shows that Saskatchewan and Alberta comers that the road to prosperity, if not dian society of the particular immigrants did not attract the Dutch proportionate to survival, demanded learning English (or involved, and of the Dutch community as the number of agricultural jobs available, French). This had already been impressed a whole. while Quebec drew more than perhaps upon them by the Emigration Societies in expected. It is likely that the type of farm- Holland, who organised courses for that Table VIII ing most common in the West (large-scale purpose, (in English, no French reported) Population of Quebec, 10 Years crop growing and ranching) did not appeal and it was underscored by their experience and Older, Dutch Origin by Mother to the Dutch who were more used to small upon arrival (Ganzevoort, 1975:271). Tongue, 1921 intensive dairy farming or market garden- Mother tongue ing. In fact’ for them the type of farming If one assumes that the vernacular is available in Quebec, dairy and mixed, most easily and frequently learned in the English only 718 was much more suitable - if only the jobs workplace, then table VIII would appear to English and French only 165 would have been there. support Ganzevoort’s contention that the French only 8 Dutch chose to work for Canadians rather Dutch and English 143 Table VI than for their compatriots, as the number Dutch and French 15 Dutch Immigrants to Canada’ by of Dutch who speak neither English nor Dutch, English, and French 114 Province of Destination 1924 French is negligible. Dutch only 2 Total 1,165 Nova Scotia 26 Table VII New Brunswick 3 Source: Dominion Bureau of Statis- Prince Edward Island 1 Wages Paid to Taylors Working as tics, Ottawa. Canadian Census 1921 Quebec 171 Custom-Taylors (Canada, 1928) Ontario 850 Manitoba 357 City Weekly Wages Working Saskatchewan 120 (Can$) hours/week The role of language in the Quebec labour Halifax 30 48 Alberta 252 market should be examined briefl y. In the Moncton 30 54 British Columbia 41 case of the Dutch it seems that the neces- 1 ,821 Quebec 30-37 54 Montreal 30-40 49-54 sity to learn French was indeed a deter- Source: Statistics provided by Depart- Ottawa 30-35 48-53 rent. At least in the urban centres it meant ment of Immigration and Colonisation Toronto 35-40 44-56 learning an extra foreign language, since (Ganzevoort, 1975:201). London 30 48 English was required anyway to deal with Winnipeg 30-40 40-50 suppliers, bosses, and various institutions. Calgary 30-35 44 The type of work sought by or available Montreal being the largest city in Canada Edmonton 30-35 44 to the immigrant who arrived during the at the time should have attracted profes- Vancouver 40-45 44 inter war years required the knowledge sionals , industrial and service workers and of French, in the construction industry in Source: Ganzevoort, 1975, appendix tradespeople. A report by the Citizenship particular. There appears to have been no to Consular letter no. 4558, 1928 Branch of the Department of Citizenship general tendency for the Dutch to settle and immigration states that the Quebec in an exclusively French area where they Dutch were well above the average for all would not have required a knowledge of Dutch in Canada in years of schooling. For The trend on the part of Dutch employees English (see Table VIII). example in 1941 in Quebec, 48.5% of the to seek out Canadian employers dovetailed It must be kept in mind that the entire Dutch population had received 9 years of nicely with the Dutch employers’ tendency Dutch-born population (including children schooling compared to 25.5% in Canada not to favour hiring their compatriots (as under 10) in 1921 amounted to 314, most as a whole (Canada 1951:70). However, also exemplifi ed by our persons inter- of whom had arrived before World War I. not only did these people run into the viewed). This is consistent with fi ndings in Thus, most of the above non-Dutch speak- problem of unemployment , but the avail- later years. Chimbos (19721, for example, ing “Dutch” were probably descendants of able job east of Toronto tended to offer in a study involving Dutch, Greeks, and Loyalists. wages which were on the low side, while Slovaks in an Ontario city, reports only working hours were generally high. An ex- 6.9% of Dutch immigrants working for ample is given in Table VII. This unfavour- Dutch employers, and only 66% of these

- 18 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn Community Life The presence of such small numbers of Consul General, Montreal, personal com- might have been the forerunner of the Hol- Dutch in Quebec during the fi rst half of munication, July 7, 19831. land-Canada Society which existed at least this century was not conducive to the during the war years. V cooked Dutch formation of ethnic institutions. Neverthe- Ganzevoort (1975) mentions that the Con- food for the dinner parties organised by less, there were some, especially in the sul General was considered a pillar of the this club to celebrate important Dutch Montreal area. community, and he must have seemed for- events such as the Queen’s Birthday, St. In the fi rst place there was the Netherlands midable indeed (p. 203), The importance Nicholas, and Leiden’s Ontzet (Liberation Consulate. Already in 1856 conditions of his post combined with the natural pres- of Leiden from the Spaniards in 1572). He warranted the appointment of an honorary tige of the diplomat among the class-con- said these were well attended, although the Vice-Consul for that part of the province scious immigrants of the period, as well as number of 300 persons mentioned by him, situated west of Quebec City. Located in the paucity of highly placed and infl uential probably referred to such dinner parties Montreal, the Vice-Consulate came under persons in the Dutch community, must after the war when there were more Dutch the Consulate General in Toronto, the have made him a key person that people in immigrants living in Montreal (V, Tape I, only one in Canada, which was eventu- distress would turn to. On the other hand, side 2, 25:151. ally answerable to the Dutch Embassy in if the current situation gives any indication London (U.K.). The above was the result of how it might have been during the inter It is unlikely that the small Dutch commu- of an agreement between the Netherlands war years, many Dutch may never have nity of the inter-war years was served by and Great Britain to admit consular agents registered with the Consulate, especially if more than one such society. In any case, V in the ports of each other’s colonies and they did not face major health or employ- could not recall any other Dutch institution overseas possessions (Consul General, ment problems, or if they intended to or support structure, formal or informal, Montreal, personal communication, March move on to the United States. Thus, the for newly arrived immigrants such as 3, 1983). Consul’s view of the Dutch in Quebec may came into being after World War II, nor have been coloured darker than necessary, could any of the other persons inter- Consular responsibilities for the Canadas, and his remarks made earlier must be seen viewed. In fact, V himself began providing later Canada and Newfoundland, seesawed in that light. some of these services. His involvement in between Toronto and Montreal. By 1895, fi nding employment for Dutch immigrants or even earlier, a Consulate General for Much less clear than the history of the referred to him by the Consulate or others Canada was apparently established in Consulate is the history of other institu- has already been mentioned earlier. His Montreal. However, in 1902, responsibil- tions. Not surprisingly, there were no other involvement was with the Sailors’ ity reverted again to the Consul General Dutch churches. It was unlikely that the Institute. His own extensive experience as in Toronto. This lasted until 1922 when a few hundred immigrants, divided among a sailor, from age 13 to age 31 (interrupted career Consul General was appointed in many denominations, were in a position to only by several years compulsory military Montreal, who soon was given respon- form one or more congregations. Residen- service during World War I) as well as sibility for Canada and Newfoundland. tial concentration, then as now, must have his wife’s connections with the seafaring Evidently, Ottawa began to gain in impor- been weak. One person interviewed knew world (her father was a ship’s engineer) tance in the early 1930’s but not enough to of a few families in Verdun, another knew were instrumental to this. Being communi- warrant the transfer there of the Consulate some Dutch people in the Town of Mount ty service minded, V responded positively General, al though the Montreal Consul Royal. There is no report of a Dutch en- to a Dutch sea captain’s request to “look General himself seems to have resided clave, however small, in Montreal, which after one of his boys” who had to be left there. Instead, a Special Envoy and Minis- is another factor discouraging institution- behind in a Montreal hospital. From this ter Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary was alised bonds. time on the person at the Sailors’ Institute appointed in Ottawa in 1939, without this who normally undertook this task referred affecting the territory of the Montreal post There is at least one report of an asso- cases of Dutch sailors to the V’s, and in (Netherlands Consul General, Montreal, ciation, called “Door Eendracht Sterk” the process became fast friends with the personal communications, March 31, (Strength through unity). Established by couple. The contact was established in 1983, July 7, 1983). Dutch professional people in Montreal, 1934 and V estimates that he and his wife its aim was to give information and aid “took care” of about 30 “boys” in the next Even though Ottawa’s role grew in im- to Dutch immigrants (Ganzevoort, 1975: six years. Taking care means that the V’s portance during and after World War II, 203). It is not clear if this was the same would visit the patient as soon as they it took until 1952 before a realignment society referred to by V (J. Lowensteyn heard of a case, provide small amenities, of territorial responsibility took place [cassette recording) 1985) when inter- interpreter services, contact the patient’s that would move the centre of gravity viewed. He could not remember the name, family and, between release from hospital from Montreal to Ottawa. In that year the and variously called it the Netherlands and his next sea voyage, provide transpor- Montreal post was demoted from Consul- Society,”Je Maintiendrai” (the motto of tation and social outings. In short, the sort ate General to Consulate, and its territory Dutch Royalty and a popular name for of thing a minister might have done (V, became limited to Quebec, the Maritimes Dutch Clubs), the Dutch Club, etc. It Feb. 26, 1983, Tape I, side 2, 6:00). and St. Pierre and Miquelon (Netherlands

- 19 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

Summing up, one can say that the Dutch . Neither of these two Dutch Calvinist had decreased from 47.0% in 1921 to community in Montreal stood out more for sects were formally present in Montreal 42.7% in 1947. Variation between prov- what was lacking than for what it had to (Canada, 1951:49). inces was considerable, e.g. in 1947 the offer. Consider the following: proportion of fathers who had married out- (3) Montreal was not the only city lack- side their own group was 82.5% in Ontario (1) In the 1920’s the Emigration Central of ing a Dutch newspaper which could have and 21.1% in Manitoba. Overall, they had Holland had appointed representatives in been an important means of maintaining a preference for women of British stock. Toronto, Hamilton, and Winnipeg, whose bonds within the group. Not until the Although the Report states that the Dutch task it was to assist with immigrant place- post-war period would a Dutch language showed only a slight tendency to inter- ment (Hartland, 1959:1541. These repre- press begin to appear anywhere in Canada marry with persons of French origin, and sentatives assisted by Advisory Boards (in (Canada, 1951:49). that mainly in Quebec, the fi gure quoted Toronto and Winnipeg) would have been a of 18.1% of Dutch fathers in Quebec focal point in any com munity. In Montreal The small size and weak structure of who had married French women in 1947, there was no such focal point. the Dutch community in Quebec would seems surprisingly high. The explanation have restricted the opportunity of marry- may be that it concerns mostly descen- (2) Host pre-World War II Dutch adhered ing within the group. The above quoted dants of Loyalists, farmers in the Eastern to Canadian churches, particularly the report states some conclusions regarding Townships, who now mix freely with their United Church (followed in order by the intermarriage, based on information found French neighbours. Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Pres- in the Annual Reports on Vital Statistics byterian, and Lutheran Churches). How- (Canada, 1951:62-64). For example, the In any case, the high rate of intermarriage ever, the Reformed Church in America Dutch in Canada show a marked tendency can be seen as both a result of, and con- and the Christian Reformed Church each to marry outside their own group. Across tributing to, the weak community structure with a smaller number of adherents, had Canada the proportion of Dutch fathers of the Dutch in this province. an important role in the ethnic community who married women of the same group The World War Two Years The fi rst four decades of the twentieth production and consequently in number of Seamen’s Home on Notre Dame Street. V century had been characterized, insofar employees at the Noorduyn Company. In recalls that, on a busy night, 40 to 50 men as Dutch immigration to Quebec was 1939, only 130 people were employed. By would be present (V, Tape II, side 1, 8:35). concerned, by: 1943 their number had swollen to a peak of 11,500 (CAHS Journal, 17, 3, 1973: The ladies of the committee would visit 1 relatively low numbers of immigrants; 70-72). These represented, as mentioned any sick seamen and assist the others with earlier, many nationalities. their shopping. In the meantime, the V’s 2. mostly working class immigrants, and continued to invite small groups of sailors some agriculturalists; Old institutions were strengthened or to their home or to take them to a friend’s reorganized and new ones arose to meet farm for a Sunday picnic, (see photo s in 3. relatively high level of success among special wartime needs. Thus, Red Cross V’s collection) in addition to “looking the latter, and a low success rate among services were extended to include a Dutch after the sick boys” as before. Clearly, the the for mer; section. Its main task seems to have task the V’s had set for themselves (and consisted of the preparation of gift bags had executed since 1934) was overlap- 4. a laissez-faire attitude overseas towards for “the boys on the front”. The sewing of ping with the task the Consul’s wife was emigration; these bags and fi lling them with candy and empowered to do through both the Red handmade socks kept 17 to 30 ladies busy Cross committee and the “Nederland ter 5. only sporadic support from within the at regular sewing and knitting bees (V, Zee” Foundation. This could easily lead to Dutch community in Canada on an ad- Tape II, side 1). competition and confl ict which, according hoc basis. to V, happened indeed. He remarks that Also, the foundation “Free Holland on the his wife felt snubbed by the Consul’s wife The war years (1939-1945) clearly form Sea” (Nederland ter Zee) was established who, in fact, had usurped her position. But part of this period as immigration was to aid and entertain the seamen who called no one could forbid the V ‘s to visit sick virtually at a stand-still. However, the war on foreign harbours. Documents held by sailors and with Miss Bates of the Allied wrought important changes on the Cana- V show that the Montreal branch received Seamen’s Home as their trusted communi- dian economy which touched everyone its funding through the New York offi ce of cation line, they often beat the Red Cross including the Dutch in Quebec. the Foundation. Activities took place under ladies to the seamen’s bedside. the supervision of Consul and Mrs. Luden, For one thing, the war production brought aided by a committee of 5 or 6 ladies from Also, V paints the picture of a lonely Con- employment which gave great relief to the Dutch community, including V’s wife. sul’s wife waiting, with coffee and beer immigrants and native Canadians alike. Several nights a week they held “open ready, to receive the sailors on Sunday A prime example is the sharp increase in house” in a rented room at the Allied night and being annoyed when they came

- 20 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn in late (i.e. after opening time), fresh from In addition to gaining from a buoyant war mittees, and of monies to organise events a day in the country with the V’s. economy and the demand for its involve- with, were scarce resources sought after by ment in the expanded institutional work, more people than could be accommodated. To what extent class difference played the small Dutch community benefi ted This is the likely explanation of friction, a role is not clear. But it seems not too from the presence in Ottawa of Princess jealousy, distrust, and ugly gossip that V far fetched that V, himself from a work- Juliana of the Netherlands and her family, refers to with some bitterness, even after ing class background, but now with the who resided at Stornoway (now the offi cial so many years. Class, religion, and person- freedom, the motivation, and the means residence of the Leader of the Opposi- ality differences tend to all come into play to entertain and help “the boys” was quite tion). Frequently, (monthly according to in such a situation. popular around the harbour front, but V) the Princess and her entourage would not necessarily equally appreciated in visit Montreal and particularly the Sunday War time related community groups the more refi ned consular circles. Mat- Night Open House for the seamen. The appeared all over the country, not only ters seem to have been smoothed over at Princess’ simple taste was much appre- in Montreal. By the end of the war, they the departure halfway through the war, of ciated (she poured her own coffee, for mostly disappeared, and that is what hap- Consul and Mrs. Ludens when V’s wife instance). pened here too. However, Canada’s indus- was asked to take over the presidency of trialisation had taken great strides during the Montreal branch of “Nederland ter All sorts of events surrounding the royal the war and the government was able to Zee” from the Consul’s wife. In time, she presence gave rise to social occasions to keep the momentum going when the war received a decoration from the Dutch Gov- which at least part of the community was was over. The accompanying tremendous ernment for her efforts in this capacity. invited, e.g. visits by Queen Wilhelmina, post-war immigration wave would more The captains and sailors never forgot the and the birth and baptism of Princess than rejuvenate ethnic communities all V’s committee work. It was likely on their Margriet. The Holland-Canada Society over the country, the Dutch community of recommendation that the Holland America held commemorative services for fallen Montreal not excepted. Line in the mid-fi fties offered the couple a Dutch servicemen which were attended by free trip to Holland, First Class, on one of royalty. 1 It should be noted that only about one their luxury liners (Documents held by V percent of the population of Dutch origin and inspected by author). However, the sudden availability of presti- recorded in 1901 was born in the Neth- gious invitations, of positions on com- erlands. The rest was presumably born in Canada or the United States.

Noorduyn Norseman

- 21 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn The Post World War Two Period Demographics Introduction safeguard the principle of “Kinderweelde” 1967. But never again would the intense (large families;). The Catholic move- movement of the fi fties, when in one year World War II was truly a watershed in ment Familiale Actie (Familial Action) (1952) well over 21,000 Dutch entered Canadian immigration history. The war promoted this view through its magazine Canada, be approximated. and its aftermath had created vast num- “Ons Boerenerf ” [Our Farm Yard] (Cath. bers of homeless and disillusioned people Netherlands Immigration Centre corre- Those Dutch who are living in Quebec looking for an opportunity to start a new spondence, MSR 2286, File II). now are primarily the immigrants of the life. Europe was devastated, and even with fi fties and their descendants. They also in- American aid, the rebuilding process took The other issue was economic, and had clude descendants of Loyalists, especially many years. Furthermore, after several to do with trade development . Having in the Eastern Townships. military actions, the Netherlands had by lost its colonies in the post-war years, the end of 1949 virtually lost all its East the Netherlands was obliged to look for In this chapter demographics, immigra- Indian possessions (now Indonesia), and other export markets, and the prospect of tion experience, economic, and social thereby also lost an outlet for part of its having the country massively represented conditions of the various waves of settlers surplus population. Meanwhile, the Cold in young nations with growing markets from the Netherlands will be analysed, War began having a demoralizing effect on became progressively more attractive. In beginning with the war brides, followed many. Across the Atlantic Ocean lay lands 1958, the quarterly “Emigratie” [Emigra- by agriculturalists (the Netherlands Farm of “milk and honey”, plentiful farmland, tion] was launched and pushed this point Families Movement) and,. several years freedom from rationing, and an abundance regularly. This magazine was published later, the large infl ux, the majority of of nylons and cigarettes. by the Emigration Board with fi nancial which consisted of urban dwellers. assistance from the Intergovernmental The decision to emigrate is to a large de- Commission for European Migration in Differences in the immigration experi- gree infl uenced by conditions on the home Geneva (I.C.E.M.). ence of preand post-war Dutch immigrants front (the push factor). These may be of a are analysed, fi rst as it relates to Canada, political, economic, or social nature. In the All the above issues combined help and then more specifi cally as it relates to Netherlands, except for fears engendered explain widespread support for costly Quebec. by the Cold War, economic and social fac- government assistance programmes for tors predominated. As Beijer (1961) puts emigrants that were established over time. it succinctly: “emigration is regarded as Demographics the liberation of an active personality from As can be expected, the emigration move- the shackles preventing its unrestricted ment was very much infl uenced by the War brides development” (pp. 309-310). economic situation in Canada (the pull factor). Hofstede (1964:168) sums up the In Holland, the liberating Allied Forces, Many of the emigrants, and by no means post-war Canadian economy and relates mainly Canadians, represented free- the farmers only, were concerned with lack it to the Dutch emigration pattern, as fol- dom, health, and wealth. Repatriation of of space back home and with the multitude lows: the troops was slow, and by the end of of regulations which are a by-product of November 1945, almost 70,000 men still overcrowding. By the same token, Dutch Up to 1953 the economy showed annual remained in the country, although most authorities saw emigration as their main increases. In the Fall of that year the fi rst of these left during the next few months tool to relieve overpopulation. There were, signs of friction appeared. Since 1954 “un- (Kaufman & Horn, 1980: 141). During the however, other issues involved. employment Canada” was a stereotyped “wild summer of ‘45”, Canadian soldiers concept held in the Nether lands. and Dutch women got along famously, One of these was of a religious, or rather 1955 saw a spectacular economic recovery. aided not in the least by the changing missionary, nature. Settlement all over Emigration fi nally followed in 1956. code of social and sexual behaviour of the world of people with entrepreneurial Expansion slowed down in 1957. Dutch women. Especially in the protestant qualities (this includes agriculturists), and 1959 saw a revival. The following years Western and Northern parts of the country, a zest for work, was seen as the fulfi llment there was a slight increase in departures. the hardships of the last year of the war of God’s will, particularly by the orthodox In 1960 a new recession coincided with had put women in the role of provider and Calvinists (see, for example, L’s remarks labour shortages in the Netherlands, pro- hunter for food. Their men were poorly quoted later on). The Christian Emigration ducing a further drop in emigration. dressed and emaciated from months or Central (CEC) worked extremely hard to From that year on, emigration to Canada years of hiding or working in labour recruit emigrants for Canada which it con- remained at a low level, hovering mostly camps. The Canadian soldiers looked most sidered an ideal environment for Calvin- between 1000 and 2000 a year, except for attractive by contrast. A Dutch journalist ists. Catholics saw the wide open spaces the period 1966-1968 which saw a slight is quoted by Horn as having commented: of Canada and Australia as a means to upswing with a peak topping 4000 in

- 22 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

Table IX farmers of the Netherlands. Between the Immigration to Canada, by Province of Destination. two countries an arrangement was ham- Dutch by Ethnic Origin (excl. Immigrant5 from U.S.A.), 1946-1950 mered out, known as the Netherlands Farm Families Movement. Screened in Holland, Province 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 principally by the Netherlands Emigra- Maritimes (Nfl d, P.E.I, N-S., N.B.) 252 168 245 189 404 tion Foundation, the families were placed Quebec 207 140 293 535 479 in Canada with the help of the Settle- Ontario 843 1860 4785 4097 4093 ment Service of the Immigration Branch Manitoba 181 303 1358 716 495 (Canada, 1951:30a). Saskatchewan 233 146 717 275 236 Alberta 226 246 1523 1293 1036 The fi rst group of farmers and their British Columbia 204 327 1245 677 654 Yukon/ N.W.T. ----- 2 3 ----- 7 families arrived in Montreal on June 27, 2146 3192 10169 7782 7404 1947. From then, until 1950, after which non-farmers began to be admitted as well, Source:. Canadian Censuses 1946-1950, cited in Sas (1957:64). well over 20,000 Dutch immigrants settled the Canadian countryside. An address by “Dutch men were beaten militarily in tributed over the country more randomly Minister of Citizenship and Immigration 1940, sexually in 1945” (Kaufman&Horn, than the later infl ux of Dutch immigrants, W. Harris to the Winnipeg Chamber of 1980: 137). assuming a more or less even regional rep- Commerce given in January 1951, con- resentation of Canadian servicemen in the tained the following remark: Horn makes the observation that many re- Forces on hand in the Netherlands during lationships between Dutch women and Ca- and after liberation. One of the most successful immigration nadian men were undoubtedly of a passing projects since the end of World War II has nature. The offi cial policy of the Canadian Although it is dealt with here in the been the continuing movement to Canada government was to “dissuade members of context of immi- gration history, it must of Netherlands agricultural families. We the Canadian Army from marriage in for- be noted that, as far as the Canadian have received more than 21,000 fi ne Dutch eign lands” (Kaufman & Horn, 1980:142). Government was concerned, the issue immigrants since 1947, and have plans But when reasonably satisfi ed that a basis of war brides was considered a military which will, we hope, bring an additional for a happy marriage existed, consent was matter (Kaufman & Horn, 1980: 162). The 10,000 to 12,000 during 1951... (cited given by the Commander involved. Thus, women were already Canadian citizens by in Tuinman, 1952:2)The census of 1951 the Canadian government eventually paid marriage and were, therefore, not consid- reported 3,129 persons of Dutch origin liv- passage to Canada of 1,886 Dutch war ered to be immigrants. ing in Quebec compared to 2,645 in 1941. brides and 428 children (cf 45,000 British, The increase of less than 500, accounts 649 Belgian, and 100 French war brides). for several hundred war brides and a small Moreover, an unknown number of Dutch Netherlands Farm Family number of agriculturists and their families, women married Canadians after 1946 as a Movement most of whom settled south of Montreal. result of their meeting at time of liberation On the whole, Dutch farmers avoided (Kaufman & Horn. 1980: 142). By the end of the war, the Canadian Quebec or, after initially attempting Government was devoted to a policy of settlement there, appeared to have moved Regarding push and pull factors, Horn economic expansion. Rapid industrial de- away later on. An example is Hr. de W., says: “Gratitude and sexual attraction velopment, the result of demands of a war interviewed for the Multicultural History combined to drive Dutch women into economy, had taken place. The expected Society of Ontario. Upon being shown a Canadian arms” (Kaufman & Horn, oversupply in the labour force after the fi lm about Canada, Hr. de W. decided to go 1980:137). He speculates that the excite- war did not occur, as the level of industrial there. He found a sponsor in Woodstock, ment of moving to a new country, and production was kept up by switching to the Ont., who subsequently changed his mind. apparent economic status (which some production of other goods. Later, the Kore- Thus Hr. de W. arrived in Montreal with- soldiers may very well have infl ated to an War gave industry more impetus. Thus, out a job, but within a few days found one make themselves look more appealing), the Canadian Government proceeded to in Aylmer, Que. He had intended to buy a are some of the reasons behind the haste enunciate an active immigration policy. farm, and as he thought the country to be observed among girls to marry Canadi- very nice, would not have minded to stay ans (p. 142). Language and particularly The general trek to the cities had cre- in Quebec, but “it was not as easy there as religion may have played an important role ated a demand for agriculturists. At the they had made it sound”. After a year Hr. in the choice of partner too. It is unlikely same time, the Netherlands was search- de W. moved to Sudbury, presumably for that they chose their husbands on the basis ing for outlets for its surplus population, economic reasons. He worked for INCO of place of residence or destination in the particularly farmers, and those who had and never made it back into farming, or new country, or on the basis of economic come back from the colonies after the war. for that matter, to Quebec. status of a given region. Consequently Canada appeared as an attractive desti- these war brides can be expected to be dis- nation to both the Government and the Interestingly, Hr. de W. claims to have re-

- 23 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn ceived the following advice from Canadian Table X army personnel in 1945: “If you are not a Population of Dutch Ethnic Origin. Canada and Provinces, 1941-1981 fi sherman, don’t come to Newfoundland, and if you’re in Quebec, go to Ontario or to the West” (De Wit [speaker], June 22, 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1982). Canada 212,863 2164,267 429,679 425,945 408,240 Nfl d. 0 176 462 670 680 When de Department of Colonization of P.E.I. 494 677 1,288 1,245 1,335 the Province of Quebec and the Canadian N.S. 23,834 20,819 25,251 14,845 13,500 National Railway offered fi nancial as- N.B. 4,539 5,920 7,882 5,365 4,400 sistance to Dutch market gardeners who Que. 2,645 3,129 10,442 12,585 8,055 wished to settle in the province’s interior, Ont. 73,001 98,373 191,017 206,935 191,125 such as de Val d’Or district, only four Man. 39,204 42,341 47,780 35,305 33,870 families had accepted by the spring of Sask. 35,894 29,818 29,325 19,040 17,215 1951 (Canada, 1957: 37). Alta 20,429 29,385 55,530 58,570 65,060 B.C. 12,737 33,388 60,176 70,530 72,285 While the stated reason, that cultural and Yukon 46 155 349 515 395 language barriers in the interior are too N.W.T. 40 86 177 340 315 formidable to overcome, may be true, a contributing factor to the scant response Source: Canadian Censuses 1941-1981. may be that the number of Dutch vegetable growers in Canada as a whole was consid- As in the pre-war years, Ontario continued erably smaller than the number of other Other characteristics of this post war to be the most popular destination, and farmers, making the chances of a positive migration were (1) the comparatively low Quebec one of the least popular ones. The response so much smaller too (Tuinman, numbers of immigrants entering Canada Dutch share these preferences with other 1956:185). Another reason for the unpopu- who moved on to the United States, which immigrant groups. According to the 1961 larity of the northern regions appears to be Richmond contends is probably due in part census, 55% of all post-war immigrants the short growing season. In Ontario, too, to the tightening up of United States’s im- were resident in Ontario, while only 16% relatively few Dutch settled in the North. migration regulations and quota controls were resident in Quebec (Richmond, (1967:254), and (2) the low rate of perma- 1967:257). nent return to country of origin. Hofstede The large infl ux (1967) estimates this for the Dutch to be As can be seen from Table X, the big no more than ten percent in the early post infl ux occurred in the 1950’s. With little war years, “. . . in most cases it is the wife benefi t of chain migration due to a weak The number of Dutch immigrants both who had been unable to make the adjust- population base and lack of supporting numerically and as a proportion of total ment “ (p. 53). ethnic institutions, the Dutch in Quebec immigration to Canada had traditionally more than tripled in numbers between been low. Before 1948 the annual number had never been above 3000 Table XI and the proportion rose very slowly Population of Dutch Origin in Canada, Ontario and Quebec, from 0.06% in 1901 to 4.27% in and CMA’s within these Provinces, 1951 and 1971 1947. The following year, however, saw a steep increase to 6,997 persons, CMA’s in Ontario CMA’S in Quebec mostly as a result of the Netherlands 1951 1971 1951 1971 Farm Families Movement. Hamilton 4,626 17,690 Chicoutimi 125 Kitchener 4,445 Montreal 2,035 9,045 In the latter half of 1950, Canada London 1,971 11,330 Ottawa-Hull (Que.)* 465 Ottawa-Hull (Ont.)* 1,545 6,995 Quebec 50 320 lifted restrictions on immigration Ste. Catharines 9,150 of non-agricultural workers, with Sudbury 1,320 dramatic result. The next year 19,130 Thunder Bay 2,125 Dutch immigrants entered, repre- Toronto 26,998 44,425 senting 9.48% of the total number Windsor 1,836 2,875 of immigrants to Canada (Tuinman, Total CMA’s 36,976 100,455 Total CMA’s 2,085 9,955 1950:85). One can speak of a veritable Total Ontario 98,373 206,935 Total Quebec 3,129 12,585 emigration explosion. On the other hand, as Petersen (1955) points out, * In 1951, Ottawa was reported as one CMA located in Ontario. In 1971, the Ottawa- the rate per thousand population in the Hull area was reported as one CMA with an Ontario part and a Quebec part. Netherlands was hardly higher than during the 1930’s (p. 115). Source:. Canadian Censuses, 1951 and 1971

- 24 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

1951 and 1961, and increased almost tic over the years. The division of CMA the 1951 census, almost two thirds of the fi vefold between 1941 and 1971. By com- populations into “urban core” and “fringe” Dutch population of Ontario lived outside parison, Ontario’s Dutch population nearly underscores this as well (see table XII). CMA’s, whereas in Quebec the reverse was doubled and nearly tripled respectively. true. In 1971, the Dutch living in CMA’s in Table XII Ontario constituted less than half of their Population of Dutch origin, Mon- Even though the absolute numbers still total number in that province, as compared treal-Toronto (1971) remain small relative to settlement in the to 80% in Quebec. other provinces, there is clearly a sudden Montreal Toronto upswing in the popularity of Quebec as As a result of changes in Canadian im- Total 9,045 44,425 a destination. Table XI may help explain migration policy, greater numbers of urban Urban core 8,260 32,010 this phenomenon. Census metropolitan Dutch were attracted, but Quebec already Fringe 785 12,420 areas (CMA’s) would represent a predomi- had a more urban Dutch population than nantly urban population. According to Source: Canadian Census, 1971 Ontario, and maintained this characteris-

Montreal 1960 Place Ville Marie under construction

- 25 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn The Immigration Experience

The immigration experience of post-World that economic expansion had brought, (G.S.B.E.G.) War II Dutch immigrants to Canada dif- they now had the option to visit the home fered vastly from that of their predecessors country on a more or less regular basis. No Including the latter, which was small, earlier in the century and in Loyalist times longer was emigration the defi nitive break these bodies operated 216 emigrant reg- on several important points: with the past it used to be. Relatives too istration offi ces by 1955 (Hofstede, 1964: could cross the ocean on reasonably priced 77). The Minister of Social Affairs and (1) For the fi rst time both sending and charter fl ights, which helped to further Public Health appointed regional employ- receiving countries took an active interest maintain contact with the homeland (J. ment offi ces as public registration organs in the emigrants’ welfare. The laissez-faire Lowensteyn, 1980). for emigration as well. By 1955, there attitude of governments made way for were 84 such offi ces in the Netherlands. state involvement of varying intensity, in (8) Post-war immigration was made up Prospective emigrants were free to register virtually all aspects of the immigration mostly of families, in contrast to the at either public or private registration of- process: information, recruitement and pre-war situation when many men would fi ces (Hofstede, 1964:78). selection, transportation, reception, and go it alone until they felt conditions were placement. right to bring out their families. It should (11) Immigrants arrived in Canada better be noted that accommodation for the then prepared than their pre-war counterparts. (2) In contrast to the often negative image generally large Dutch families was hard1y On the whole, they had not received the of pre-war Canada, the country was now available in the West before World War XI sort of biased information that used to be seen in a very positive light, not least due and even after the war. This was perhaps provided by agents of the CPR and other to the warm feelings left for the Canadian one reason that the post-war Dutch headed such organizations. Language classes were “liberators” and to reports of plentifulness for Eastern Canada in large numbers. available before departure, and emigrants of land and consumer goods, both sorely It was a little easier to fi nd living space were urged to leave with as much knowl- lacking in the Netherlands. there, even if it was only a converted hen- edge as they could muster. house. (3) Screening procedures were much (12) While pre-war immigrants were improved. Thus, in general those who (9) Host immigrants brought their furni- mostly left to fend for themselves upon claimed to be farmers actually had that ture with them, and some of them even a arrival, the post-war immigrant was of ten background, in contrast to pre-war “farm- pre- fabricated house or barn. The “kist” welcomed by a “fi eldman” of his church or ers” who very often did not have the right or crate containing their belongings religious organization. The Christian Re- experience and could not make a proper fi gured highly in stories about post-war formed Church was best organized in this living in Canada as a result. immigration. It gave the settlers a head- area, followed by the Reformed Church of start since an immediate cash outlay for America. (4) While in the pre-war years suitable household goods was kept to a minimum emigrants were often not interested in and one could concentrate on saving for The Roman Catholic Church was least moving away, skilled and motivated people the purchase of livestock etc. organized. Supported by Catholic emigra- were typical of the post-war movement. tion authorities in the Netherlands, and (10) Not only the Dutch Government some Canadian bishops, the initiative of a (5) At this time, opening up the West was had become active in the fi eld of emigra- Dutch priest in London led to the estab- no longer Canada’s primary concern. tion after the war, private agencies also lishment of the Central Bureau of Catholic Repopulating the countryside was. The strengthened their position. They were, Netherlands Immigration in Ottawa which war effort and continuing industrial expan- as was the norm in the Netherlands (and “was closed soon after in 1957 because sion drew people to the cities, and Canada still is to a certain extent), organized along the Catholic church authorities in Quebec became very interested in welcoming the confessional lines. An Emigration Board disagreed with its purpose” (Van Stekelen- committed Dutch farmers to fi ll the gap. was set up which acted as the central organ burg, 1983:73). Reference is made here to for promoting unity between government the Canadian Catholic hierarchy’s opposi- (6) Starting in the 195O’s, further indus- concern with emigration and the work tion to promote immigration of a special trial expansion required ski1led workers done by the private organizations, which nationality group. and professionals that Canada could not by the middle of 1952 had received offi cial supply. A completely new class of immi- recognition. These private bodies, acting The Société Canadienne d’établissement grants began arriving here. as registration off ices, were the following: rural (SCER) in Montreal, was originally Central Catholic Emigration Foundation set up for the resettlement of Quebeckers (7) Rapid technological change in air in the West. The SCER, however, was un- transport had another profound effect (K.C.E.S.) willing to fi nd sponsors for Dutch farmers, on immigrants: as soon as they began to Protestant Emigration Board (C.E.C) most of whom were Catholics. Therefore, fl y, distances shrank. As immigrants also General Emigration Board (A.E.C.) in the beginning, these farmers had to profi ted from the high standard of living Calvinist Foundation for Aid to Emigrants rely on individual efforts by such diverse

- 26 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn people as “(agricultural attache Tuinman able to the immigrant. Its professed aim ness, there was no Dutch priest or doctor of the Dutch Embassy, ‘old-timers’, the of “interpreting newcomers and older available, and only after two years did she Knights of Columbus, war-brides, priests, Canadians to one another and assisting meet another war bride. In the 1950’s all and . . . protestant organizations.” (Van their mutual integration” refl ected the this changed and there were Dutch church Stekelenburg, 1980:20). veering away in Canada from the pre-war services, and Dutch parties to go to. assimilationist view in the direction of (13) The Christian Reformed Church today’s mu1ticulturalism policy (Petersen, Another interviewee, K, met a lot of Dutch (C.R.C) in particular made an effort to 1955: 156-7). war brides while working for the Dutch locate its followers in the proximity of Consulate from 1949 on. K claims many a C.R.C. Church, much to the dismay (17) In marked contrast to earlier times, were disappointed and upset although of Canadian authorities who were vehe- post-war Dutch emigration and immigra- she also met many who were happy (K, mently opposed to “colonies”, and wished tion spurred a great deal of research, espe- Tape I, side 1, 30: 10). From all accounts assimilation, or “integration” as it was cially on the aspect of integration. For the it appears that the war brides or any other called after the war, to proceed as quickly pre-war period statistics and personal his- immigrants who arrived before 1951/52 as possible (Canada 1951:30). tories are hard to come by, but a number had virtually no one of Dutch origin, nor of solid studies saw the light in the decade any form of ethnic community support, to (14) The large number of Dutch immi- following World War II. These studies (e.g. fall back on. grants to Canada was conducive to the Beijer, Hofstede, Petersen, Tuinman) were growth of many community organizations. not from the hands of New-Canadians Netherlands Farm Families Contrary to the pre-war situation, a wide themselves. This had to wait until the late Movement variety of institutions emerged, including 1970’s when theses and books began to the above-named two Protestant churches, appear written by Dutch immigrants most The number of Dutch that settled in Que- credit unions, travel agencies, real estate of whom had received their university edu- bec in the post war years prior to 1951 is companies, newspapers, and social clubs cation in Canada and who had lived here not as large as the number of Dutch who and associations. The churches depended for decades. The emigration experience of from 1946 to 1950 claimed Quebec as on funding from abroad (the U.S.A. and Dutch-Canadians is beginning to become their destination. Of these 1654 (see Table the Netherlands). Other institutions were well documented. Remarkably, the experi- IX) about a third are assumed to have either self-supporting or received tangible ence of the second generation is hardly moved elsewhere, since the population and intangible help from various sources. touched upon. The fi eld is wide open for of Quebec grew by only 1094 persons in studies of economic and cultural adjust- the decade 1941-1951 (Table X). Taking (15) A market for Dutch goods emerged ment of this Canadian born generation. into account that immigration during the among immigrants as well, and many war years was negligible, that the above companies began exporting Dutch prod- Like the rest of Canada, the province of number included perhaps several hundred ucts to Canada and/or set up branch plant Quebec received its share of the various war brides, and that most agriculturists operations. All of this aided the newcom- “waves” of immigrants. Because of dif- came with young families or as singles, ers in maintaining contact with the culture ferences in language and culture, and the the number of units that settled in this of origin. paucity of other Dutch immigrants in this province may have hovered around 300. province, the immigration experience was There is, however, no evidence that so (16) On the Canadian side a tremendous different here than elsewhere. many Dutch farmers settled here at that effort was made to integrate the immi- time. Interviews, reports from priests, and grants. The process of integration was War brides personal observation, support the notion divided into three, often overlapping, that perhaps half of these people have areas: (a) economic, (b) linguistic, (c) The problems that war brides had in set- settled as farmers. The rest would appear social. Responsibility for these areas was tling in Quebec are illustrated by the his- to have changed occupation. in the hands of the federal government, the tory of J (J. Lowensteyn [cassette record- provinces, and private agencies, respec- ing] 1985) who married a fully bilingual An interview with X (J. Lowensteyn [cas- tively. Federal Immigration offi cials were French- Canadian. Ironically, she recalled sette recording] 1985), who was one of responsible for placement of the immi- British troops warning the Dutch popula- those early settlers, revealed that chain grant. Quebec had also its own coloniza- tion against Canadians, especially French- migration had taken place. In fact, our tion scheme to settle immigrants on their Canadians. respondent was referred to as “the god- agricultural land (Petersen, 1955: 156-7). father”. He claimed to have been instru- Upon her arrival here she spoke no French mental in bringing out fi fteen or so other Of the private agencies, the principal one and only a few words of English. The Dutchmen, most of whom became farmers was the Canadian Citizenship Council couple’s backgrounds were similar: both or nurserymen and who, like himself, which not only published a variety of were Roman-Catholic and both came from brought over Dutch wives, and raised size- pamphlets on the Canadian way of life, large, lower middle class families. In the able families in a francophone environ- but, through its member organizations early years, when the need was greatest ment. All these people stayed in close attempted to coordinate all services avail- due to language diffi culties and homesick- contact, aided by a common faith (Roman

- 27 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

Catholicism) and common regional back- All these factors contributed to the con- P was a multilingual enterprising young ground (the Westland market gardening centration of Dutch in Ontario, particu- man who had seen Canada during the war region west of the line Rotterdam-Delft- larly, if the accumulating effect of chain years, met his wife here, and got mar- The Hague.) They settled just south of migration is taken into account. ried in the United States. Upon receiving Montreal (X, Tape I, side 1, 06:30). an honourable discharge from the Dutch The large infl ux Navy in 1946, he decided to seek a future Further south, in the area between Mon- in Canada. “Such an industrializing treal and the American border (the Eastern From the second half of 1950 on, other country should have room for someone Townships), small concentrations of Dutch than agriculturists began to be admitted, like me”. He had the same problem as Q: dairy and mixed farmers can be found. But and that made a great difference, particu- his money was frozen overseas. Further- Quebec’s pull for agriculturists was far larly to Quebec. While absolute numbers more, he encountered the problem of lack outweighed by the pull of Ontario. There remained relatively low, the proportional of rental accommodation in Montreal were pragmatic and ideological reasons for increase of Dutch to this province was in 1946, but he soon met someone who this. Dr. A. Tuinman, agricultural attache phenomenal, from 3,129 in 1951 to 12,585 helped him fi nd suitable space. His father at the Netherlands Embassy, describes in 1971. Quebec industry was developing had a high rank in the Dutch Navy and this how, in 1947, the Canadian Immigra- rapidly in that period and the aeronau- brought him easy entry with the Consul tion Service was not yet in a position to tics, engineering and chemical industries, and others who counted in the Dutch com- provide placement services to the Dutch hotels, and transportation companies, to munity. Nevertheless, he had to start at farmers, some 1100 of whom arrived name a few, were scouting overseas for what he calls “not a real job”: announcer from Holland that summer. The Dutch trained and/or highly educated and mul- at the CBC International Service. After government took responsibility for their tilingual personnel. French language and three months he had found something placement but needed help. The province culture was no barrier at that time as most more to his liking. Over the years he of Ontario made paid personnel avail- immigrants integrated in the anglophone worked his way up to senior executive with able for this purpose, hence that is why so community which was already geared to large companies and frequently was called many of these farmers settled there (1956: serving immigrants. Management, techni- upon to help newly arrived immigrants. P 185). Furthermore, the pull of Ontario cal and service personnel could normally recalls that he used to advise Dutchmen to (and the Western provinces) combined get by with English only. Montreal also come over alone and bring wives out later with the push coming from the Christian had a reputation as a more lively and cos- (P, Tape I, side 1). Emigration Central in the Netherlands mopolitan city than “Toronto the Good”, which actively recruited those of Calvinist which was a point of attraction for some. H, a priest, came to Canada (his second persuasion: choice, after South America), after being The experience of some of the people that ordained. He had missionary aspirations Right from the start, the focus was on were interviewed (J. Lowensteyn [cassette and was sent to Canada without knowing Canada. They promoted this land, ripe recordings] 1985) for this study, illustrate his destination. He was placed in a local with opportunities, as the future home of the problems or, relative to other ethnic Quebec parish to learn French, and by Calvinists gripped by the emigration fever. grows, the lack of problems encountered making a real effort he was able to deliver One of the main reasons was the existence upon arrival. What follows is a brief intro- his fi rst sermon in that language 6 to 8 here of a staunch ally the Christian Re- duction to some of the interviewees. weeks later. He lived with his Dutch con- formed Church (VanderMey, 1983: 54). freres in poverty those fi rst years, but it did Q is a multilingual musician who, before not matter, “because we came to serve, we Christian Reformed Churches were to coming to Canada in 1950, had travel had a calling” (H, Tape I, side 1). be found in Ontario and the West. There led and worked all over Europe. Due to were none in Quebec which, as a Catholic restrictions by the Dutch government, Z. now a multilingual, elderly widow, province, was shunned by Calvinists in he could not get money out of Holland arrived in 1952 with her husband, a any case. but brought out antiques and furnishing businessman, and the two youngest of instead. Another problem was that he her fi ve children. A married daughter had Another pull factor was sponsorship. could only obtain work after six months’ gone ahead. The two older children lived Immigrants had to be sponsored by a membership in the Musicians’ Union, but in South America. The family moved to a Canadian farmer who guaranteed employ- that without work he could not maintain suburb where they had set up a construc- ment and housing for a certain period. himself. He managed to get an introduc- tion company. Respondent met one or two French-Canadian farmers would more tion to the well-known pianist John New- Dutch ladies there but interacted mostly likely request a French-speaking farm- mark, who helped him along. Q gave some with Canadians. “There was not much hand. Interviewee R (J. Lowensteyn [cas- private lessons until he received his Union community life yet in the town, except sette recording3 1985) noted that lots of Card and could begin to perform (Q, Tape for neighbourly parties.” The family had Belgians, some Swiss, Germans and Dutch I, side 1, 0:lO). He calls the 1950’s “pio- always been quite wealthy and despite came about 25 years ago (R, Tape II, side neering times” in Canada in his fi eld and some fi nancial setbacks, they owned a car 1, 19:45). is proud to have been associated with them and sent their sons to the best schools. Any (Tape I, side 2, 16:55). problems related to immigration seem to

- 28 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn have been of a personal nature, such as was called to Montreal where he found homesickness and differences in adjust- an entirely different congregation consist- One can detect a common thread in these ment to Canada by the family members (Z, ing of engineers, teachers, tradespeople, case histories: Tape I, side 1, 0:15). and accountants, rather than labourers with a rural background and no more than 1. Language is generally not a problem as T, a minister with the Christian Reformed elementary school education (K, Tape I, many are multilingual. Church (the “Dutch church”) had origi- side 1). 2. Those with only ‘school English’ or nally been least interested in Canada as a ‘school French’ were prepared to study destination. He believed church life there L, a former shopkeeper, came to Canada hard, and consequently, learned fast. was 25 years behind. However, when he in 1953 to evade the many government 3. They brought the skills, capital, en- was called to serve in a western Canadian regulations of his home country. But terprising spirit, and ambition that were city, he accepted. He had to preach at religion played a part too. He thought the useful and welcome in Canada. least fi fty percent in English, which was Lord had a task for him. “Faith and prayer 4. If they missed the more developed diffi cult for him at fi rst. His congrega- are the things that brought me.” He had culture of Europe, they were at least able tion was generally poor, living in chicken taken English courses in Holland, so “had to adjust to this state of affairs by giving of coops and shacks, much as their Ukranian no problems with language”. Neverthe- their own talents; in the majority of cases neighbours did. Large families had come less, when studying to improve his English the issue did not arise, however. without subsidies and had had to borrow (he went on to take marketing courses at 5. Host respondents did not have any con- money to emigrate. Lack of English led Sir George Williams College), he lost his nections here before arrival. but they were to isolation for many of them, and also to hair temporarily as a result of the tension. able to make them quickly since there lack of communication with their children. Although he did not know anybody in were no serious language problems. He saw much mental stress. T coped with Canada, the Christian Emigration Central his own mental stress which apparently had found him and his wife work as a T sums up the situation in Montreal: “peo- had to do mostly with the lack of sophis- couple, chauffeur/cook, which paid well ple gave the impression of having ‘moved’ tication of the modern urban life he had enough for them to save $1600 in one year rather than ‘immigrated’” (T, Tape I, side been used to in Amsterdam. In 1960 he (L, Tape I, side 1, 0:15). 1, 28:OO). Making a Living War brides status, some of them considerably (pp.64- recordings3 1985). 65). An estimated fi fty percent of Dutch Little can be said about the economic farm families who arrived in Canada in S immigrated with her farming family conditions of war brides as they are not the period 1947to January 1, 1952, owned (mother, three sisters of 19, 14, and 13, singled out for statistical purposes. One or had shares in a farm by the end of that one brother, 17) in 1953 when she was 16 can only assume that they are more or less period (p. 70). years old. An aunt was already living here. randomly spread out in terms of income She worked elsewhere while the rest of her and social class. This would tend to be There is no reason to believe that in family ran the small farm they had bought. supported by the many interviews David Quebec, which had excellent farm loan She found the fi rst years very hard, harder Kaufman and Tom Huller conducted with facilities, the situation would be worse. than expected. Nevertheless, they were war brides (Kaufman & Horn, 1980). Unoffi cial reports regarding the status of able to move into a larger farm with gov- Quebec farm families come from priests ernment help a few years later, while her serving the almost exclusively Catholic married sister took over the old farm (S, Netherlands Farm Family Dutch rural families south of Montreal. Tape I, side 1, 0:15). Movement Various reports by priests in the late 1950’s R came onlyonly in 1958 togethertogether with his mention 45 families in the area between cousin. They arrived under the auspices of It is clear from the discussion in the Clarenceville and Knowlton, and 12 farm- the Young Farmers Programme, a scheme preceeding section that, although Dutch ers near Sherbrooke, and turn-outs at Mass set up in the late 1950’s to boost the farmers did well across Canada, the Neth- or social events of 200 persons in the for- sagging emigration of Dutch farmers by erlands Farm Family Movement did not mer, and 130 in the latter area. One Dutch making them acquainted with an emigra- make a great impact in Quebec, because of priest, who was in contact with all these tion country through a trial stay of nine their small number. families, reported four cases of hardship in months. They had to pay for their out- one year; three due to fi nancial problems, bound passage but were guaranteed work Tuinman (1952) reports that fi nancial one due to illness (C.C.A. Blommesteyn, at a certain wage level to enable them to improvements had taken place in 65 out personal communication, 1985). An save for the return trip. R thought about 60 of a sample of 70 farm families who had unknown number moved to Ontario, but persons per year arrived. He guessed that been in Canada 13-24 months. All subjects those who stayed seem to have done well 25-30% settled permanently as farmers (R, in a sample of 22 who had been here 37- or even very well as the following inter- Tape I, side 2, 2:OO) 48 months, had improved their fi nancial views indicate (J. Lowensteyn [cassette

- 29 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

R and his cousin had askedasked for an ex-ex- As the only Dutch member of the local it must be remembered that the majority of tension to their stay and used this time Syndicate of Farm Management (“those Dutch in this province are urban dwellers. to travel across Canada to fi nd the best farmers are real businessmen”) R travelled In fact, in 1951 it was reported that “Que- place to buy a farm. They were attracted to the U.S.A. to 1earn about more effi cient bec is outstanding as the only province by the mixed farming in the East, and R production methods. He, his wife, and his in which the urban proportion was much commented that, while farm incomes in son are taking computer courses given by higher than the rural” (Canada, 1951:40). Ontario were higher, farm prices in Que- the Syndicate. Although in 1981 this is no longer the bec were lower. Ontario has better climate case, among the Dutch in Quebec the and soil and in the 1950’s it had also a Other Dutchmen in the area are also urban element still represents 80% com- better organization to produce and sell a very involved in Quebec and Canadian pared with 63% across Canada (Census larger variety of crops than Quebec. But society. R’s cousin is a cash crop farmer 1981). Most of this change appears to be in the intervening years, conditions have who has been a councillor for six years, accounted for by the changes in occupa- changed and Quebec farms now produce a and mayor of a small community in the tional entrance status that took place when large variety of crops, but farm prices have Eastern Townships for eight years. For Canada opened its borders in 1950 to a va- risen too (Tape I, side 1, 39:50). years he had been president of the Sugar riety of occupations. Whereas the propor- Beet Growers Association of Quebec. R’s tion of agriculturists of the total number of R has a thrivingthriving 100 hectare farmfarm with brother-in-law is involved with the Cham- Dutch immigrants in Canada in 1949 was 220 head of cattle and, by virtue of his ber of Commerce of a larger town. Both still 87.5%, this dropped fairly quickly to social contacts (he organizes an annual men travelled extensively in Canada and 22.1% by 1954 (Tuinman, 1956:183). spring picnic for Dutch and Belgian East- the U.S.A. A Dutch friend was, at the time ern Townshippers) he knows many Dutch of the interview, president of the Holstein During the decades 1951-1971, the Dutch farmers. At the time of the interview Association of Quebec, another friend was population in Quebec increased by 9,456 (Spring 1983) he thought perhaps 10 or a judge, and a third Dutch friend or ac- persons, that of Montreal by 7.010 (see 12 Dutch families live in the Chateauguay quaintance was president of the Vegetable Tables X and XI). Most came with all the Valley (Tape I, side 2, 09:40). Growers Association of Canada (Tape II, requisites required to be successful im- side 2, 38:20). migrants able to make a good living. They R is a director of the local Union des Pro- had a comparatively high level of educa- ducteurs Agricoles and estimates that 50 Priests and offi cials of the C.I.S. report tion, professional and language skills. of the 350 members are new Canadians, in a similar vein on the situation in rural most of them French speaking Belgians, Quebec in the fi fties. Table XIII shows that there was no illiter- the others Flemish, Swiss, and Dutch. He acy among the Dutch in Montreal in 1971. contends that European farming methods Correspondence from R with the C.I.S. And as most post elementary education had been well ahead of the ones used in and reports from priests and offi cials con- in the post-war Netherlands involved the Canada 25 years ago, and that the new- fi rm R’s own story, his contentions about teaching of several languages (generally comers had acted as trail-blazers and role the situation in rural Quebec in the 1950’s, Dutch, English, French, and German), the models for Canadian farmers. “They put and the position of the immigrants in it proportion of individuals with at least a on a lot of fertilizer. They built many silos (C.C.A. Blommesteyn, personal communi- basic understanding of the local language and farms. Contractors did 85% of their cations, 1985). must have been very high, as in 1971 only work for new-Canadians.” Energy and 4.1% had no more than grade school. It ambition respondent’s explanations for is possible, of course, that this percentage this boom. “This is why the gap between The large infl ux was originally higher, as some might have Ontario and Quebec narrowed so much... upgraded themselves since their arrival. Some farmers brought money from over- Notwithstanding the interesting position of But the effort required to earn a living, seas, others borrowed a lot at the Caisse the Dutch farmer in the Quebec economy, working in a new language, and getting Populaire. As soon as the bank understood settled in the new environment would that the farmer was a businessman, they Table XIII offered to lend money!” (Tape II, side 1, Distribution of Education Among Selected Ethnic Groups in Montreal 1970 19:45). EDUCATION British French Dutch Jews Greeks Italians R and his wife both agreeagree on the crcrucialucial With Degree 8.7 4.3 13.6 12.2 2.9 1.8 role the wife plays at the farm, and claim 1+ yrs Univ. 9.9. 4.6 13.6 12.8 5.4 3.4 that today those farmers that are successful High School 72.4 69.7 68.4 64.0 41.0 40.4 have wives who are actively involved, e.g. Grade School 8.4 20.3 4.1 7.5 46.5 49.4 No Schooling 1 1 -- 3 2 4 by keeping the books, following husbands Total number 290.000 1.113.680 5.570 77.545 26.955 99.925 to meetings, etc. She herself had always worked hard alongside her husband from 15 years and over and not attending school the beginning (Tape I, side 1, 40:00). Source: Statistics Canada. Special Report No. 6001-00175 AC- 2B-1971

- 30 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

Table XIV considering that those with grade school Occupational Concentration of Dutch in Montreal 1971-1981 (Males Females) and no schooling combined accounted for only 4%. One explanation could be that OCCUPATION % of Total Males % of Total Females many of the Dutch factory workers occupy 1971 1981 1971 1981 supervisory positions such as foreman. Personal experience of the author indicates Managers/Admin. 14 22 4 7 that this might be a possibility. It may also Professionals 22 23 23 25 be that these Dutch factory workers were Clerical/Sales/Service 30 24 60 58 Factory 14 15 2 4 employed in high-tech industries. The data are not refi ned enough to detect such Total number 2.840 1.830 1.195 1.140 distinctions (See Table XIV).

Source: Census 1981. Special Dissemmination Report, 64511300-2B-1981 Census. One can get some idea of the upward Tables compiled by E. Gavaki, Concordia University. mobility that has taken place since the 1950’s from the records of the Christian likely have precluded that for all except a George Williams College (later Sir George Reformed Church. In 1979, the congrega- few. Nevertheless, the head of the Dutch Williams University - then Concordia tion of the C.R.C. was mostly made up of section Catholic Immigrant Services in University) was a leader in this fi eld and engineers, maintenancemen, tradespeople, Montreal wrote to his superiors in the attracted many new-Canadians, Dutch and accountants, a pilot, scientists, a doc- Netherlands, in 1957: “Poor knowledge among them, who had been deprived of tor, a businessman, university professors, of English or French among the Dutch is easy access to a university in their home college and high school teachers, and, the their greatest problem. It is my impres- country. L’s story gives a good illustration. largest group, management personnel. sion that less than 25% can understand or Even then, it was usually only a minority This compares favourably with the cross respond to an employer” (C.I.S. corre- who were in the position and who had the section of occupations listed on the Act To spondence, MSR 4743, Box 1, Cremers to fortitude to upgrade their formal education Incorporate The First Christian Reformed van Campen, July 24, 1957). signifi cantly later in life. It is therefore as- Church: engineers, tradesmen, offi ce sumed that the 1971 fi gures largely refl ect clerks, accountants/bookkeepers, a sales- The author of the report does not specify, the distribution of education among the man, a plant superintendant, a chemist, but it is entirely possible that those with Dutch upon arrival, that is, no illiteracy, a and a number of lower ranked occupations “school English or French” were in this majority that completed high school, and (CRC 25th anniversary Al bum, 1979:12). unenviable position at fi rst. However, their a relatively high proportion with at least basic language education will have helped some university education. The high income level among the Dutch them to improve rapidly, and quickly in Montreal is refl ected in the pattern of move from an initial low status job into Data compiled by E. Gavaki (19851 residential concentration, although “con- one commensurate with their level of show that in 1981 the Dutch of Montreal centration” is probably too strong a word education. Richmond found in his cross- had improved their level of education. to use. Of the 9000 Dutch in the Montreal Canada study that “It was evident that in Those with grade school education only CMA in 1971, one third lived on the West those national groups with an average or dropped slightly to 3.5% and those with Island, a comfortable middle class, mostly above average level of education, such as high school dropped from 68.4% to 62%, anglophone, area. The rest was spread out the German, Scandinavian, and Benelux whereas those with one or more years of over other anglophone areas of the CMA groups, about two-thirds were fl uent...” university increased their proportion from (LaSalle, Verdun, St. Laurent, and West- (1967: 142). In any case, Reitz found that 13.6% to 19.5%, and those with a uni- mount mainly), and some off-island areas knowledge of English upon arrival had versity degree went from 13.6% to 15%. (Laval and the South Shore) (J. Lowen- only a temporary infl uence on job status. These changes are on the one hand a re- steyn, 1981:2&I. LaSalle and Verdun are Language knowledge is linked to educa- fl ection of the life cycle of the community, of ten considered blue-collar communities, tion which is the important variable (1980: and, on the other hand, show a 171). continuing upward mobility. Table XV Average Income of Dutch in Montreal, 1971-1981 The phenomenon of educational upgrad- The existing pattern of occu- (Males Females) ing after immigration is much more likely pational concentration among Males Females to have existed at higher educational Montreal Dutch is what can 1971 1981 1971 1981 levels, where the immigrant had already be expected with such high enough command of the language to levels of education (see Table Average Income 9.280 22.116 3.721 10.330 study other subjects in it and where of ten XIII). Among males in 1971, % of total 69% 67% 685 78% the employer would pay for the course. managers, administrators, and Particularly in Montreal we know that professional s account for 36%. 15 years and over and not attending school many immigrants availed themselves of What is perhaps somewhat the opportunity to take part time evening surprising is the high propor- Source: Census 1981. Special Dissemmination Report courses leading to a university degree. Sir tion of factory workers (14%), 6451-1300-2B-1981 Census

- 31 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn while Montreal’s wealthiest tend to live Table XVII in Westmount. The Dutch are thus spread Population of Dutch Origin, Aged 15 Years and Over, by Education, In- across the whole spectrum of community come, and Occupation. Canada, Selected Provinces, and Montreal, 1971 types, except inner city slums and (hardly) francophone areas. Montreal Quebec Ontario Canada Canada less Ont. & Que. For the Dutch in Montreal, high level of EDUCATION education and occupation is related to high Univ.level 28% 24% 8.4% 9.6% 16% Grade 11 67% 64% 42% 44% 43% income. Tables XVI and XVII compare this group with (a) other ethnic groups OCCUPATION in Montreal, and (b) Dutch elsewhere in Prof. /Mgr/Admin. 33% 30% 15% 19% 14% Canada. On both counts the Montreal Cleric./Sales/Serv. 39% 35% 30% 32% 32% Dutch score very high. In relation to other ethnic groups, entrance status and lifestyle INCOME of the group are part explanations of this Average Total $ 5.581 $ 5.193 $ 4.115 $ 3.929 $ 3.666 phenomenon. As North Europeans they were highly preferred immigrants (Reitz, Source: Statistics Canada. Special report no. 6001-00175AC-2B-1971 1980) the Dutch in Montreal, or such prestigeous quickly and start improving their socio- While discrimination and prejudice form and infl uential positions in their profes- ecomic condition with a minimum of an enormous barrier for some ethnic sion as some of the Dutch farmers have delay. They were also among the earliest to groups, and are troublesome aspects of in this province. Still, there are reports of arrive after World War II which means that daily life for others, the post-World War II prejudice. There was U who at the time by 1971 many were at or close to the peak Dutch immigrants seemed to have little to of his second immigration in Canada, in of their earning power. worry about. One can hardly speak of dis- 1952, remembers being called a “displaced crimination in practical terms if the group person” (a derogatory term). In relation to the Dutch elsewhere in Cana- has attained such high economic status as da, the Dutch in Montreal and, indeed, in Another interviewee, L, still feels Quebec, are in a particularly high position Table XVI like a immigrant: “People let you with respect to education, occupation, and Total Average Income of Selected Ethnic Groups know you’re different”, and thinks income. This likely refl ects primarily the in Montreal, 1971 it is his heavy accent. He talks of low proportion of agriculturists in this discrimination but, at the same province, including the absence of Menno- Ethnic Origin Total Average time, wonders if he is too sensitive nites. Even though Dutch (and Mennonite) Population Total Income (L, Tape I, side 1, 1710). farmers tend to be highly skilled and very Greek* 29,005 3,291 successful in their fi eld, their income and Italian 110,460 3,638 Neither man was held back eco- education levels tend to be on the low side, Jewish 91,065 5,733 Dutch 6,345 5,581 nomically at any time, and both are bringing the average down. For example, Portuguese 9,470 3,182 now comfortably off in their retire- Harry Cunliffe, a Canadian immigration Negro/West Indian 4,975 3,787 ment years. offi cial well acquainted with post-war im- migration from the Netherlands, referred *) Includes 2% of Greek population of Province of to “the simple, unlettered folk who came Quebec living outside Montreal. As urban people, armed with a cer- in the early years” (personal communica- tain amount of education and skills tion, May 6, 1983). These were the agri- Source: Statistics Canada. (including language skills), they culturists who settled mostly in Ontario Special Report NO. 6001-00175 AC28-1971. were able to establish themselves and the Western provinces.

- 32 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn Community Life Characteristics of ethnic Moberg calls it “vertical pluralism”, which spite of doubts prevalent among Dutch and institutions he explains as follows: “The nearest Eng- non-Dutch alike, some form of community lish cognates of this are the concepts sub- does exist. Which part of the Dutch collec- Characteristic of the Dutch ethnic institu- cultures, pluralism, ‘unity in diversity’, tivity is involved and how this community tions is that they do not appear to have special interest groups,. pressure groups. is organized will be explored. as their aim the perpetuation of a Dutch Woven into one, adding an ideological culture or Dutch values beyond the immi- and religious twist, one might come near grant generation, although this may have an understanding of the term” (cited in The Netherlands Farm Family been the case in the past. Rather, on the Hofstede, 1964:74- 75). Movement one hand, they concern themselves with the maintenance of religious values (which Understanding this aspect of Dutch society Of the farmers, those in the Eastern may, or may not, have a Dutch component) is necessary if one is to make sense of Townships were the only ones numerous and, on the other hand, they cater to a organization and processes in any Dutch enough to even think in terms of organiz- certain nostalgia which seems to be on the ethnic community. An interesting illustra- ing themselves. Although there may have increase with the aging of the population. tion of how the system of “verzuiling” been the odd non Catholic among them, affected emigrants’ behaviour before we have only been able to fi nd reports of Another characteristic is their openness to departure is shown in Table XVIII. Emi- group activities by Catholic farmers. They non-Dutch participants. grants were free to register at one of the gravitated for their religious sustenance private registration offi ces or at designated toward Dutch missionaries in Granby and In all these respects, institutions refl ect ac- government manpower offi ces. As Table Sherbrooke. curately the behaviour of individual Dutch XVIII indicates they were guided by immigrants as indicated by their limited religious convictions, and Calvinists felt From C.C.A. Blommesteyn, now retired, use of mother tongue, and their high rate more strongly about this than any others, but formerly with the Catholic Immigrant of intermarriage. followed by Roman Catholics. Services in Montreal, the following infor- mation was obtained. Breton (1968) found in his study done in Although some grumbling within the com- Montreal that the Dutch were among those munity might have had to do with class or From about l954 on, the Seminaire Apos- with a low level of institutional complete- personality differences, it was of a minor tolique in Granby has been very active ness. Many Dutch themselves, as well as nature and completely overshadowed by in the surrounding area. By 1958 there outsiders, question whether one can speak the religious differences. were three priests who divided their work of a “community” at all. among about 45 families between them. There was no evidence of any political One Sunday a month, an average of 80 For both cultural and economic reasons division, whether inspired by country of Dutch and Flemish immigrants would one would indeed not expect a strongly origin or by country of immigration. gather in the parish church of Standbridge- developed community to exist. As Re- East for mass, followed by some social- itz says: “Cultural similarity means the It is perhaps surprising that, in spite of izing. The priest would then spend the rest group has less cultural interest in group the largely negative infl uences mentioned of the day visiting a number of families. formation. It also means that there is less above, community institutions did and still Such trips averaged 180 kilometers. The likelihood of discrimination, and this may do exist, with new ones arising and old manifest aim of these visits was “to make reduce the economic basis for cohesion” ones being revived. This suggests that, in the church present to the new life of the (1980:62). Table XVIII

The Dutch are linguistically, physically, Number of Emigrant Departures (Male Heads of “Units”) from the Netherlands to and in many other respects quite similar to All countries in 1960 and First Half of 1961, Via Various Registration Offi ces those of British stock. K.C.E.D C.E.C. A.E.C. R.A.B. Total A further characteristic is fragmentation. (Cath.) (Calvin.) (non.denom.) (gov’t) =100% x No one organization can speak for the 1000 whole community. This is true for Mon- Roman Catholic 49 3 15 33 4.05 treal, for Quebec, and for Canada. The Dutch Reformed 1.5 32 39.5 31 3.04 strongest division is still along religious Calvinist 0.5 72 9 18.5 1.02 lines, with the orthodox Calvinists almost Others 1 29.5 35.5 34 0.35 completely separate from the rest. In this No religious the situation in Canada resembles the one denomination 2 10 45 43 1.67 in the Netherlands as exemplifi ed in the phenomenon of “verzuiling” (zuil =pillar). Source: Hofstede, 1964:

- 33 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn immigrant in Canada”, however, questions committee, these events have a somewhat by the “fi eldmen” of the Christian Re- on education, farm contracts and employ- formal structure, with mass in Pike River, formed Church (C.R.C.). ment were discussed and some material as- followed by a luncheon and dance at the sistance was provided as well. The priests Club Belge in Sabrevoix. The C.R.C. was the fi rst to actively sup- were available too in cases of distress or to port the emigration movement. Theirs perform weddings and baptisms. On the other hand, R’s family does not was a missionary effort. They wished to maintain informal traditions such as establish new congregations and sepa- In the summer, a social event might be celebrating birthdays or St. Nicholas in the rate schools in Canada. To this end they organized following mass. An invitation Dutch way (Tape I, side 2, 31:lO). strived to concentrate Dutch immigrants to such a day on June 13, 1958, states the in certain areas, particularly in southwest- expectation that the gathering will be of Interviewee X told of a quite strong in- ern Ontario, southern Manitoba, southern value particularly for those who would like formal contact among a group of farmers Alberta, and the West Coast where the C. to get to know a wider circle of Dutch- and horticulturalists living just south of R. C. already had a foothold from before speaking young men and girls. A year Montreal. They maintain certain Dutch World War II. The Canadian government earlier, the social had drawn an attendance customs in a informal manner. Birthdays was against this policy of concentration of 90. It was later reported ruefully that and anniversaries (the author attended a as it thought it would delay integration “à cause de la défense de danser dans 25th wedding anniversary at which some (Canada, 195l:5l). With the support of the une maison de communauté réligieuse, le 70 persons, mostly from the area, were Home Missions Committee of the C.R.C. but de cette journée n’a pas été atteint.” present) are celebrated in the Dutch tradi- in the U.S.A., they established an Immi- Nevertheless, this opportunity for social tion with a get-together of as many as 30 gration Committee with the presidency in contact in the region must have been ap- family members and friends. In addition, Alberta and the secretariat in Trenton, Ont. preciated. By 1960 attendance had risen to they attend the occasional mass organized Fieldmen were appointed to assist with 200 persons. by a Dutch immigrant priest from Mon- the placement of immigrants and supply treal. But “grown children are no longer aftercare. At some point the summer social was dis- interested in that.” (X, Tape I, side 2, continued, probably when it had fulfi lled 28:0). This may be as much a by-product Except where noted, the source of the fol- its function of forging enduring relation- of growing secularization as it is of any lowing history of the C.R.C. in Montreal ships among the young, and when families lack of interest in ethnicity. is the First Christian Reformed Church then became occupied with child rearing 25th Anniversary Album published by the activities. But after an interval it was The informal, but quite frequent and C.R.C. in 1979. revived, this time not by the religious, but intense, contact of this group contrasts by the lay community, and for a nostalgic strongly with the infrequent, but more In Montreal, Mr. Albert de Jonge initiated rather than romantic purpose (C.C.A. formal, activities of the Eastern Townships C.R.C. church services in 1952, fi rst at a Blommesteyn, personal communications, farmers. Propinquity may play a role here, Presbyterian church on Cote Ste. Cath- 19851. as well as the greater homogeneity of the erine Road, later at the YMCA on Park Southshore group. X had brought many of Avenue. At the end of that year there were The following information is gleaned from these people over, and they tended to hail enough families to warrant the arrival of a interviews with respondent R (J. Lowen- from the same region of the Netherlands home missionary, the Reverend G. Andre. steyn [cassette recordings] 1985. (the “Westland”). In 1954, the church was organized. And in 1956, the congregation of about 40 At the 25th anniversary of the priest The Large infl ux families, called a minister, the Reverend who had married R, R and some friends John Vriend. The church was incorporated decided to organize a party in apprecia- Although small numbers of farmers con- that year and moved to premises of the tion of all his hard work, especially on tinued to come in over a period of years, Livingstone Presbyterian Church on de behalf of immigrants. They got 150 people the bulk of Dutch immigration to Quebec l’Epee and Jean Talon Streets. together. At popular request they kept was of an urban nature and concentrated in the event going for many years. In 1982, the Montreal area. In these years various young people societ- there were 160 persons present. In 1983 ies and a discussion group for adults came attendance was up to 200 (attended by A priest in Quebec City made reference to to fruition. The question arose also, how author) R could not understand why Dutch about 100 Dutch people living there with quickly the old language (Dutch) should or Flemish people who live close by, and whom he had had some interesting get- be abandoned in favour of English (French who still have language problems (they togethers (C.C.A. Blommesteyn, personal was never seriously considered), and a immigrated only three or four years ago) communication, 1985). On the whole, class in English Church Language was do not attend while old timers come from however, any organized community life given. 160 kilometers or more away (R, Tape I, took place in Montreal. side 2, 41:40). In 1960, Reverend Dr. N. Knoppers ar- The earliest formal private support to rived from Edmonton, to minister to some Although organized by a self-appointed Dutch immigrants in Canada was supplied 75 families with, as he remembers, an

- 34 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

Table XIX interest among the young people. Still, a Dutch Intermarriage Statistics Canada, Selected Provinces, and Montreal, 1971 great many church related organizations remained healthy, such as Sunday school, MONTREAL QUEBEC ONTARIO CANADA TOTAL cubs, scouts, Calvinettes, OinC’s (One in LESS LESS CANADA Christ), and the Young People’s Society. MONTREAL ONTARIO AND Outsiders have been brought into the QUEBEC church, apparently mostly as a result of Dutch husbands Number Number Number Number Number intermarriage. Although the majority of married to of families of families of families of families of families the members is still of Dutch origin, about 16 other national origins are represented as Wives of 835 310 26.395 22.870 50.410 well. And so are other denominations, in- Dutch origin 39.1% 36.5% 56.4% 49.4% 52.5% cluding the Coptic Church, the Tiv Church of Nigeria, Roman Catholic, Anglican, Wives of 1.300 545 20.375 23.475 45.680 Lutheran, and many other faiths. non-Dutch origin 60.9% 64.1% 43.6% 50.6% 47.4%

Source: Statistics Canada, Special Report No.6OOl-213-1971 The rate of intermarriage among C.R.C. adherents appears to be still well below average earning power of about $75 per among the visiting dignitaries. Although the general rate for the Dutch in Montreal week, not a great deal, even then. It was, the Queen and Prince belong to the Dutch (see Table XIX), indicating the retardent therefore, most ambitious of him to make Reformed Church (Canadian equivalent : effect in this respect of a close knit church plans to build a church. Reverend Knop- Reformed Church of America, or R.C.A.), community. pers counted on the drawing power of the which already existed in Montreal at the new church to concentrate his scattered time, they attended Sunday service at the Political change in Quebec has touched the fl ock in one area, thereby facilitating the C.R.C. Perhaps this is not surprising as C.R.C. too. The outreach programme in a development of a strong church com- both in Montreal and in Canada the C.R.C. neiqhbouring community, where Sunday munity. When the new church was built is a larger and more infl uential body than services had been held in a school since in the newly developing community of the R.C.A. The opposite is true in the 1975, fell by the wayside when, 18 months Dollard-des-Ormeaux, many, if not most, United States, as well as in the Nether- later, the bulk of worshippers left the reportedly moved to that municipality lands (Canada, 1951:50-51). province as part of the exodus that took and to neighbouring Pierrefonds, where place when the Partie Quebecois came into reasonably priced housing could be had (J. Reverend Knoppers and other C.R.C. power. Lowensteyn [cassette recordings3 1985, T, members were al so deeply involved with Tape I, side 1, 23:00, 35:45). EXPO 67, both with the Dutch Pavilion The Church worries about its future. It can and the Sermons from Science Pavilion. only expect declining membership due to The fundraising campaign for the build- decrease in birthrate, departure of mem- ing, for which the congregation as an When Reverend Knoppers left in 1968, the bers to other provinces, and little infl ux exception was allowed to solicit from all church was virtually leaderless for the next from English Canada (where the majority C.R.C. congregations, under the slogan two years except for a brief period when of C.R.C. members live) to this increas- “Romanist Montreal needs a Calvinist a temporary minister came. From August Witness”, was apparently effective and the 1970, under the Reverend Dirk Hart, there Table XX stylish, modern building was inaugurated was renewed enthusiasm. The congre- Religious Affi liation of Dutch-Canadians, on January 17, 1964. gation grew till the church overfl owed, Montreal, 1961 largely due to an infl ux of members from Religious affi liatio % of population Other activities related to the C.R.C. were other parts of Canada. New Bible study the church choir, the “Back to God Hour” groups were started. The groundwork Roman Catholic 37.6 radio broadcasts, and various missionary was also laid for Emmanuel High School. United Church 25.4 “outreach” programmes in the area around Elsewhere in Canada, so-called Christian Anglican 12.0 the church and among the seamen visit- Schools abound, but here, the Christian Presbyterian 6.8 ing Montreal. One of the student interns Reformed community was too small to Baptist 1.6 from Calvin Seminary (Grand Rapids, MI. support a school by itself. Together with Mennonites -- Other 16.2 ) eventually became harbour chaplain of likeminded churches on the West Island Montreal. A musical group was formed in it could, however, be done, and the school Source: Royal Commission on Bilingual- 1964 to bring the gospel to ships, old folk was offi cially opened in Dorval in 1975. ism and Bculturalism, homes, hospitals, and youth rallies. Book IV: The Cultural Contribution of the On the other hand, of the three choirs in Other Ethnic Groups, p. 320. During EXPO 67, Queen Juliana and existence in 1969, one discontinued in Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands were 1970, and another in 1975, due to lack of

- 35 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn ingly French environment. The suggestion to 50 families were members of the church content of the message is not as important was tentatively put forward (in 1979) that and religious services were held in a as the perception of competition, with the services, now held entirely in English, school in St. Laurent. By the early 1970’s, R.C.A. seeing itself as the weaker party. might eventually be conducted in French people began leaving Quebec for politi- Facts appear to support this perception at to further the church mission, “whether or cal and economic reasons. The pastor was least in Montreal where the R.C.A. went not Quebec will ever become an indepen- then called to Ontario and eight years of under, while the C.R.C. is still holding its dent country is for us, ultimately, quite part-time ministry began. When Reverend own. irrelevant.” (Rev. M.D. Geleynse in C.R.C. Guinta arrived in 1978 there were 20 fami- 25th Anniversary Album, 1981:62). lies left. This included only four families Aside from churches and church related of Dutch origin, with the rest being of organizations, there were, and are, a Another Church of Dutch origin which, Egyptian, West-Indian, Austrian, English, number of voluntary associations and for a time, was a presence in the Dutch and French origin. Within two years this other institutions catering to the Dutch of community, was the Reformed Church in had increased to 27 families, but a new Quebec. Those that could be traced are America (R.C.A.). It should be remem- formula had to be found to maintain and described below. bered, however, that even in the 1960’s increase the small congregation which was when these ethnic churches had their heavily dependent on fi nancial support Information about such institutions in ex- heyday, their importance in the com- from the Classis of Cambridge (Ont.) and istence in the early years after World War munity must not be exaggerated as most the denomination in the United States. II is rather scant. Documents in possession Dutch belonged to Canadian denomina- of the Netherlands Consulate in Montreal tions (see Table XX). The R.C.A. is the The solution found was to change the R. mention a Holland Canada Society in North American equivalent of the liberal C. A. into a Community Church . The operation during and immediately after Calvinist Dutch Reformed Church in the church building was already being shared World War II. Correspondence dated Netherlands, where it is one of the largest with a Greek Orthodox congregation. The February 1949 shows this society had then denominations. It had not been as active new role would be emphasized by chang- lost its vitality and attempts were made to in the immigration movement as the more ing the name from Maranatha Church establish a new organization. The Consul- orthodox Calvinist Christian Reformed to Roxboro Community Church. The ate also has minutes of a meeting he1d on Church. Initially, the R.C.A. took little Ladies’ Guild and Junior and Senior Young May 5, 1949, by the Dutch club “Je Main- interest in immigration affairs. In a report People’s groups had a community orienta- tiendrai” (Consulate General, personal prepared in 1951 by the Citizenship tion anda Senior Citizens group was in the communication, May 31, 19831.) Branch of the Department of Citizen- making. The Sunday School was taught by ship and Immigration, it was suggested an Anglican (Rev. F. Guinta, personal com- One report makes mention of the “Neth- that it was the zeal with which the C.R.C. munication, July 7, 1983). erlands Club of Montreal, a social club recruited immigrants and members that which has been established for some made the Reformed Church rethink its However, the diffi culties proved too great years” (Canada, 1951:&O), This appears laid-back attitude around 1949. It is likely to be overcome. A few years later the to be l’Association neerlandaise de Mon- that Dutch Reformed immigrants, see- building was sold and the R.C.A. in Mon- treal “Je Maintiendrai” 3which obtained ing the effi cient welcoming service of the treal ceased to exist. its letters patent on October 29, 1958 and C.R.C. fi eldmen began asking for similar which was dissolved on June 14, 1963. support. Also, the R.C.A. lost a number The R.C.A. in general has a close and Two other, informal clubs, the Luncheon of its members to the C.R.C. In any case, cooperative connection with the United Club and the Soccer Club Hercules disap- help was on the way, and local Canadian Church, but relations with the C.R.C., peared around the same time (De Ruijte, churches began to be established while a always of a competive nature, are called 1971:33). fi eld service similar to that of the C.R.C. “rather strained” (Canada, 1951:53). was being set up (Canada, 1951:30). A draft constitution of the Nederlandse On this subject, however, the Reverend Studiekring (Netherlands Study Circle) It took until 1962 before church services Guinta claimed in the interview that rela- dated January 17, 1948, was found among were being offered in Montreal. The tions were cordial. He was even scheduled consular documents. The Circle’s purpose R.C.A. in Montreal was offi cially orga- to preach at the C.R.C. one Sunday. On was to maintain a consciousness of Dutch nized in November 1963, and on October the other hand, he thought that things had culture in the Dutch community. By the 12, 1966, the former St. Barnabas An- gone sour in the past, particularly during summer of 1949 the Netherlands Envoy in glican Church in Roxboro was offi cially EXPO 67. He mentioned an invitation to Ottawa received word that the Study Circle dedicated as the Maranatha Reformed Queen Juliana to visit the R.C.A. during had ceased to exist due to the departure of Church (De Ruijte, 1971:33). her visit to Montreal that allegedly had its most active members, including three gone astray at the Consulate. He had also who had a doctorate (Consulate General, During an interview the author conducted heard that the R.C.A. minister at the time personal communication, May 31, 1983). in the summer of 1980 with the Reverend had not been invited to the service. Unfor- F. Guinta, then pastor of the R.C.A. in tunately, no documentation could be found One of these “most active members” was Montreal, he told how in the early years 40 to back up these claims. However, the interviewee P who then held an executive

- 36 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn position with Canada Car & Foundry. He about once a month at someone’s home, tion available for the following years). It related that the study group was based and they are open exclusively to men is not known if this perhaps refl ected a on common interest. It was for men only (businessmen, professionals, artists), ex- changing membership (outside members (“women provided cookies”), but they cept on special occasions when wives are or non-Dutch spouses). “never excluded anybody”. The men invited also. discussed their own fi eld of business, and For all the work involved with registering the atmosphere was informal. “After nine On August 24, 1962, a new group, the passengers, voluntary associations were o’clock the whiskey came out.” (J. Lowen- Catholic Dutch Canadian Association allowed (according to airline regulations) steyn [cassette recording] 1985, P, Tape I, (C.D.C.A.) received its provincial charter. to claim some expenses and/or charge side 1, 20:15). Its purpose was to assist Dutch Catholics a small administration fee. This was with settling in Canada and to maintain advantageous for the organizations most The Consulate mentioned seven names of contact among them, mainly through reli- of which operated under severe fi nancial persons who belonged to the Studiekring. gious and recreational activities, as well as restraint. Moreover, the travel agents There may have been a few more mem- to give fi nancial and other support to the who were allowed to book these charters bers, but it seems that the Dutch intellec- Dutch Mission in Montreal. They orga- or groups often wished to express their tual and business elite at that time was still nized a Sinterklaas party for children on or gratitude by splitting commission with very small. around December 5th which became soon the association or its representative, or by very popular well beyond the Catholic making some contribution in kind, e.g. Interviewee K remembered all sorts of de- community. free trips. All of this would have been ille- tail about a Dutch Chamber of Commerce gal, of course. The books of the C.D.C.A. which was located in the same building Except where noted, this and the follow- show no evidence of such practices. as the Consulate. It had a staff of two, but ing information about the C.D.C.A. (later when one left, he was not replaced. “The the D.C.A.) was derived from the fi les of For the passengers the charters offered Secretary was paid by [some agency in] the Association, which were kindly made most attractive rates and the association Holland.” She thought the Chamber had no available for research purposes ( D.C.A. membership and/or administration fee members. It organized regular luncheons. fi les, 1962-19801. was a small price to pay. As a result, many Eventually, the Chamber folded due to membership lists gave a false impression fi nancial diffi culties, and its Secretary then In the fi rst few years the Association of associations’ vitality in those years, became Commercial Consul. Interviewee stayed close to its Catholic roots with with most members being completely referred to the “slump of those days before meetings on church premises, discussion inactive. For example, an Annual General the gas was found in Holland. She had to evenings with a Dutch priest, a church or a Special meeting might have attracted take a ten percent salary cut herself in the choir, etc., in addition to social activities no more than one or two dozen mem- late 1950’s “ (K, Tape II, side 1, 37:lO). like bowling, bridge, and dances. Its news- bers. This was indeed the case with the letter De Nieuwe Weg (The New Road) C.D.C.A. The Department of Citizenship and Im- is still being published today (Note: at the migration (Canada, 1951) reported that the time this thesis was written. It has since In 1968 church authorities insisted that the Netherlands-Canada Society in Montreal folded [P.L.]). An offi cial of the Catholic C.D.C.A. come under direct control of the had been instrumental in establishing a Immigrant Services was the C.D.C.A.`s Church. At the Annual General Meeting of Dutch Chamber of Commerce. No date fi rst president. This was the period that Sep. 14, 1968, those who felt they should was given. This Society was a branch of transatlantic and charter fl ight regulations be free to determine the Association’s the Netherland-Canada Society (Verenig- demanded that passengers be members activities won out handily over those pre- ing NederlandCanada) in The Hague, the of a legitimate non-profi t organization, pared to follow Church directives. The As- Netherlands, which was formed to provide and the C.D.C.A. fi lled this requirement. sociation then changed its name to Dutch potential emigrants with information In 1962, a group fl ight was attempted but Canadians Association and secularized its about Canada. The Chamber of Commerce failed. However, in the following three aims and purposes as laid down in the con- was there to supply information on trade years they managed to get groups together stitution. It also meant that the Association between the two countries to interested of around forty passengers, almost all was no longer acting as a support structure persons (p. 60). Dutch. Then came three years with little for the Dutch almoner who from then on success in this regard and no passengers limited his role to that of spiritual leader Around 1960, an informal group call- at all during 1967 (EXPO year). In the fall and was no longer involved in the social ing itself the Borrel-en Bitterbal- of 1968, a new committee member was aspects of the community. lenclub (borrel=alcoholic beverage; elected who appeared to be very active. A bitterbal=Dutch appetizer), came into winter fl ight met with little success, but On December 4, 1968, a similar, although being to provide businessmen a bimonthly the number of passengers that travelled on non- denominational association, the opportunity to get together over a drink summer fl ights the next few years more Netherlands Society of Montreal (N.S.), (De Ruijte, 1971:33). This informal club than doubled. Non Dutch names began to or La Société néerlandaise de Montréal still exists, its name simplifi ed to Bor- make inroads on the passenger lists: about was founded. (At this point the C.D.C.A. relclub. The get-togethers now take place 10% in 1969, 25% in 1970 (no informa- had not yet changed its name or constitu-

- 37 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn tion). Its publication “van Weerskanten” organization that wished to do so.) formed at the local level, unlike in Toronto (From Both Sides) did not survive. By where more than thirty local organizations then the Dutch population of Montreal had Little evidence was found of any social are united under the umbrella of the Dutch grown to about 8000 as numerous as it work on the part of the N.S., whereas the Canadian Association of Greater Toronto ever would be, mostly made up of growing D.C.A. had a social service committee, (VanderMey, 1983:491). families and the majority of them non- and also used its monthly publication to Catholic (see Table XIII). There was likely ask for donations of furniture, clothing, From the late 1970’s on, a number of other room in the community for a non-Catho- and jobs. organizations have been founded: the Can- lic, non Christian Reformed body. To what ada-Netherlands Chamber of Commerce extent the possibility of organizing charter From December 1969, the D.C.A. operated (1978), Neerland Art Quebec (1980), and fl ights played a role in the formation of an Encounter Centre on premises leased a Montreal chapter of the Canadian As- this society is not recorded. It is a distinct from a service club on Dorchester Boule- sociation for the Advancement of Nether- possibility since the two associations were vard. Film and social evenings were held landic Studies (CAANS) (1980). later seen to be sparring over this issue once every two weeks and a collection of and it may also have played a role in their several hundred Dutch language books The Canada-Netherlands Chamber of attempts to amalgamate. were stored there by the Dutch Library of Commerce (Quebec Chapter) was formed Montreal. on the initiative of three businessmen. The secularization of the C.D.C.A., now One was a former executive member of the D.C.A., opened the door to negotia- On Jan. 14, 1973 the D.C.A. requested a “Je Maintiendrai”, one a recent immigrant tions regarding amalgamation with the Local Initiatives Programme (L.I.P.) grant from the Netherlands, and one the General Netherlands Society (N.S.). A lot of wran- from the Department of Manpower and Manager for Canada of K.L.M., himself gling followed, with the N.S. objecting to Immigration for the project “Dutch Cana- not even of Dutch origin. Partially funded having a member of a religious order on dian Research and Promotion”. Appended by the Dutch government, the Chamber the proposed joint executive committee, to the request was the following statement: organized luncheons and published a quar- and the D.C.A. accusing the N.S. of an terly Bulletin. Only in the last few years is undemocratic attitude since the member in Too many ethnic associations are inter- it beginning to realize its aim to promote question had been duly elected. ested in folklore only: national dances, trade between the Netherlands and Canada singing, accordeon playing etc. We rather more fully by organizing incoming trade Under these circumstances it is no wonder stress the New Canadians’ impact in all missions and doing Canadian market that the amalgamation never took place. spheres of Canadian life, i.e. their partici- research for Dutch business fi rms, in addi- However, to this day the two associations, pation in Canadian economics, politics, tion to its socio-educational activities. The while cooperating in many ways, have education, arts, etc. and hereby using their Chamber operates with a part-time staff of not been able to come to an agreement, own resources, added to those they fi nd in three. The only Dutch Chamber in Canada, although the priest has left long ago. Canada. We feel that this is a more impor- it has about 90 members, a majority of tant way to contribute to Canada. whom are from the Montreal region and of In 1971, both associations were said to Dutch origin. have “social services of all kinds and The project was never realized probably organize cultural and recreational events... as a result of the departure of its main Neerland Art Quebec was established for Each of them organizes, or cooperates in, a proponent. the express purpose of organizing exhibi- dance at least once annually. These dances tions of Quebec Artists of Dutch origin. are open to the entire Dutch-Canadian Unlike in Ontario, where the Dutch have It has succesfully organized several of community of the area. Both are also in- established credit unions (mostly to aid such exhibitions in Montreal, sometimes volved in social services to help people in farmers) a cooperative Medical and Hos- embellishing it with an ambitious cultural need, in various ways. Both organize mod- pital Society, and Christian Homes for Se- programme of concerts and fi lms. Between erately priced group and charter fl ights to nior Citizens, no such services are found exhibitions, “rijsttafels” (the elaborate Amsterdam. Sports events, picnics, car in Quebec, although both D.C.A. and Indonesian meal adopted by the Dutch) rallies, etc. have al so taken place.,” (De N.S. have attempted to establish a credit are offered to the Dutch community-at- Ruijte, 1971:32). union. More recently, the community was large. About 100 persons take part in each polled by persons who are or used to be meal. Of the main organizers, one is con- In practice, however, the (Dutch) Queen’s involved with some of the above men- nected with the N.S. and with the planned Birthday dance was organized by the tioned organizations, to see if there would Foundation for a Senior Citizens Home, N.S., the Sinterklaas parties for children be interest in building a Senior Citizens one with the D.C.A. and its publication De and adults, as well as the Carnival dance Home. The response was encouraging and Nieuwe Weg, and one with the Chamber were more the domain of the D.C.A., even a Foundation which will prepare requests of Commerce and the Borrelclub. Between though on paper it might have looked dif- for government assistance is in the process them they have also made the fi rst serious ferently. (There was, for example, the Sin- if being established. effort to prepare a comprehensive mailing terklaas Commitee Reg’d which planned list of Dutch Canadians in the Montreal re- the Sinterklaas party together with any No umbrella organization has ever been gion. At last count they had located about

- 38 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

fi fty percent of them (assuming three per- fi zzled out after having held only a few sons per family). It appears that Neerland meetings (D.C.A. fi les 1962-1980). Dutch stores have, over the years.. includ- Art Quebec is either the catalyst of or the ed bakeries, a butcher, and a delicatessen. expression of increasing cohesiveness in Insofar as the printed media are concerned, Most of them have been sold to non-Dutch the Dutch community of Montreal. no Dutch newspapers and periodicals or closed. Dutch specialty foods, house- are now published in Quebec, with the wares, and souvenirs are still sold at The CAANS-Montreal tries to organize activi- exception of De Nieuwe Weg, the mimeo- Dutch Mill, a delicatessen store. It was ties of a more academic nature, which, graphed quarterly of the D.C.A., and the once estimated that perhaps a third of all of necessity, appeals to a much smaller Bulletin, the quarterly publication of the Dutch in Montreal patronize the store at crowd. In addition to many lectures, the Canada-Netherlands Chamber of Com- one time or another. Chapter organized several conferences and merce. Both of them have an essentially a War Art exhibition on the occasion of the local circulation. 40th anniversary of the liberation of Low 1A good overview can be obtained from the Countries by Canadian troops. A number For a number of years during the 1950’s, personal accounts given in Chapter 9, “New of articles by Montreal Chapter members Montreal had its own newspaper, the Homes” in Albert Van der Hey,To All Our appeared in the Canadian Journal of Neth- Nederlandse Post, but now many Dutch Children, Paieda Press Ltd., Jordan Station, erlandic Studies, published by the national Quebeckers read Dutch language pa- Ont. (1983) offi ce of CAANS. pers published in Ontario or B.C. Exact circulation fi gures by province are not 2 Cf also with level of intermarriage in Two other CAANS-Montreal activities available but an educated guess would put Ontario, a province where the C.R.C. is have an impact well beyond the Dutch or it at about 400 for the combined papers, strongly represented. Flemish communities: a Dutch language which include De Hollandse Krant (B.C.), course for adults, and (primarily) Dutch De Nederlandse Courant (Ont.), Hol- 3 “ Je Maintiendrai” is the motto in the Neth- language television programmes on Cable landia Nieuws with its English language erlands’ coat-of-arms. TV. A few of the programmes are docu- companion The Windmill Herald (B.C. mentaries in English but even the others and Ont.), Calvinist Contact (Ont.), and are visually interesting enough to appeal The Pioneer (Ont.). The last two papers are to a wider public. Films and tapes are organs of the Christian Reformed Church provided by agencies in the Netherlands and the Reformed Church in America and Belgium. The language courses are repectively. attended by spouses or grown up children of Dutch-speaking Canadians, or young The circulation fi gure of 400 should not people who wish to study in Belgium or be underestimated because the Dutch the Netherlands. Usually no more than a customarily pass on or exchange reading dozen students are enrolled but there is a matter. As many as fi ve families may share continual demand for the course. a paper (J. Lowensteyn, 1981/82:27).

At the national level, an interesting Only De Hollandse Krant addresses itself development took place in 1970, when to those who have long complained of the a national federation of Dutch-Canadian heavy emphasis placed in Dutch Canadian organizations was founded under the name communities on church related matters. Dutch-Canadian Committee, of which the It appears that this monthly is doing very D.C.A. was a member. This grew out of well indeed, offering a counterbalance to “Operation Thank You Canada” in which the strongly organized protestant sector of Dutch community organizations from the Dutch-Canadian community. It is half across the nation got together to present and half fi lled with news from the Neth- Canada with a gift (a Flentrop organ for erlands and nostalgic articles and letters the National Arts Centre in Ottawa) on the produced in Canada. occasion of the 25th anniversary of the liberation of the Netherlands by Canadian In the 1950’s there was a weekly half hour troops who formed an important part of long Dutch radio programme on a multi- the Allied forces. The intense emotions lingual station. It faded away after some felt at the time of liberation is something years and was only revived in 1970’s by that most Dutch immigrants, who were old a person already active in the Borrelclub, enough at the time, still remember, and it the Chamber of Commerce and Neerland is probably the only thing capable of cut- Art. This time the programme alternates ting across religious and social divisions. weekly with its Flemish counterpart. It is Alas, the Dutch- Canadian Committee supported by advertising.

- 39 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn Discussion In the Introduction two issues relating to Quebec were not well-off and there was a the Dutch of Quebec hard. Between 1971 the Dutch in Quebec were raised: (a) the high rate of departure to other provinces, and 1981 the population dropped by desirability of a well-researched history to the the United States, and to the country about one third. Nevertheless, later in the of this ethnic group, and (b) the question of origin. With so few resources at their decade a revival of community activities of the enormous underrepresentation of disposal, it is no wonder that there is no took place. That time the emphasis was Dutch in the Province of Quebec. evidence of particular interest in maintain- on cultural and educational matters as ing original values, religion, or folkways. well as commercial interests. Nostalgic A History of the Dutch in Quebec The post-World War II situation contrasts feelings are becoming stronger not only sharply with the above period. After an here but across Canada as evidenced by An attempt has been made to fi nd as many initial slow start, immigration to Quebec the contents of the Dutch-Canadian press. pertinent details as possible. This was began to pick up, notably when regula- The attempt to build a Senior Citizens particularly diffi cult for the period up to tions allowed for the entry of those with Home must be seen in that light too, as the middle of this century, largely because occupations other than farming. Although the initiative did not come from the needy of the small number of settlers involved, compared to other provinces Quebec who might have had economic reasons for which led to lack of institutions, a primary still harboured few Dutch, their number building such a home. source of community records. Some el- soon became suffi cient to sustain various derly interviewees were able to help bridge community organizations. Relatively high Intermarriage rates are high and the Cana- the gap somewhat. levels of education allowed upward mobil- dian-born generation is only sporadically ity until by 1971 the Dutch of Montreal involved, except in the C.R.C. where they For the post-World War II period, research (where most of them lived) were one of the are quite active. was much more fruitful, although still most highly placed ethnic groups in terms diffi cult as institutional records were at a of education, occupation, and income. Immigration from the Netherlands has premium. The best organized institution been slight since 1968 and is now almost in this respect, the Christian Reformed In spite of their tendency to integrate negligible, although some of these more Church, has few adherents in Quebec. quickly and for many to fade away into recent arivals have rejuvinated the com- Also, many Dutch have integrated so well the general population (primarily on the munity by their activities and enthusiasm. that they are hard to trace. For this period, anglophone side), they were now numer- Nevertheless, the Dutch of Quebec can be however, there were many interviewees ous enough to maintain institutional seen as a one generation community that who could recall the early years for which bonds. From organizational records and never made any serious attempt to pass on there was little documentation. interviews the picture emerges of a grow- its language or culture to its young again ing community that, in the 1950’s was except in the orthodox Calvinist context. As for the earliest period of Dutch primarily concerned with preserving reli- On the other hand, they feel nostalgic settlement in Quebec, of those among gious values and providing opportunities about their background, take pride in their the United Empire Loyalists, the paper for social intercourse. When in diffi culty, achievements and are eager to share that concentrated on establishing their Dutch immigrants could turn for assistance to which they treasure with society-at-large. ethnicity. The data show that Dutch char- their church or to relatives and friends. Virtually the whole community is veering acteristics were present upon arrival, dis- For those that had contact with neither for away from an origin-specifi c to an interest- appeared rather quickly until, at this time, example overworked and abused nannies specifi c orientation. This is formally true Dutch Loyalists’ descendants are indistin- there was only the Consulate, and it could of the C.R.C., CAANS, and the Chamber guishable as a group. Some individuals, not give practical aid. Later in the decade, of Commerce, and informally for the however, take pride in their Dutch ances- voluntary organizations began to provide associations where Dutch and non-Dutch try, and spend time and effort researching social events, geared to the generally spouses and friends mingle easily, and their history, maintaining burial plots, and young population. the language used is as often English as it collecting artifacts. is Dutch. Only the radio programme, the In the 1960’s, as young families were Dutch language press, and the Borrelclub, Dutch immigration in Quebec during the bringing up their children, car rallies and and to a certain degree the TV programme period of 1900-1945 was quite insig- outings came to an end but Sinterklaas are inward-looking as they are only open nifi cant. The 1941 census shows less parties for children were well attended. to whose who speak Dutch. Without the than 3000 souls across the province; the With the Dutch population at its peak size, unlikely prospect of a strong infl ux of consul reported a few hundred families in church buildings were erected or bought Dutch immigrants, these institutions are Montreal; no residential concentration is and church related organizations fl our- ultimately doomed. evident; and there appeared to be only one ished. Especially the C.R.C. was and is voluntary organization. The Consulate, on well-organized, whereas the R.C.A. and Perhaps the community as a whole shows the other hand, had a high profi le as for a Dutch Catholic organizations had a rela- an innate sense of survival by altering time its territory consisted of the whole of tively weak and only temporary impact. language use and opening up to Canadian Canada. With some exception the Dutch in society. In the end this may be the best, Political circumstances in the 1970’s hit the only, strategy to pass on some of the

- 40 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn values they hold dear. cal matter together with lack of economic The sudden increase in Dutch popula- opportunities. Religion was perhaps a Underrepresentation of the tion in Quebec shown in the 1901 census contributing factor, but in this period not Dutch in Quebec (Table III), is best accounted for by inter- a decisive one. For example, in the case nal migration (from New Brunswick). But of the sugar beet growers in Ontario, there The question was asked “Why did so even then, the increase of Dutch in Ontario were many Belgians involved, who, with- few Dutch settle in Quebec?”. It is true was much greater (more than 3000 against out doubts were of the Catholic faith. Even that there are relatively few Dutch in this about 800 in Quebec), which shows the among the Dutch sugar beet growers, too, province, and there are fewer now than greater attraction of that province com- there may have been Catholics. there were some years ago. At one time, pared to Quebec. This can be explained however, there was quite an infl ux, notably in terms of religious congeniality if it is Dutch immigration to the Montreal area. The infl ux was by assumed that a large proportion of the On- after World War II no means as large as in Ontario, even if tario increase came from New Brunswick one disregards the agriculturists of whom protestant Loyalist descendants. After World War II, the push factor in the so many went there. The explanation that Netherlands, an element that had not been language and culture were the main infl u- Immigration directly from the Netherlands very strong until then, played an impor- ences is far too simplistic. A great number to Quebec was very limited. To Ontario tant part in Dutch emigration. There was of push and pull factors have played a role and the West it was much higher, even if a defi nite “emigration climate” as Beijer and still do so. The different “waves of the absolute numbers were still very small calls it (1961:310). But modern Dutch immigrants” as they were presented in this (see Table IV). Religion was no longer emigrants were cautious and wanted to paper, will be reviewed in this light. the sole explanation although it may have fi nd out what their chances were of real- been a contributing factor. In the fi rst izing their aspirations elsewhere. Govern- place there was the lack of pull by Quebec Early history ments and private emigration agencies because of its opposition to immigration, provided information. Hofstede found that especially from non-French speaking non-offi cial information was considered During Loyalist times, the “immigrants” countries. But even in French speaking were deliberately steered towards what is to be of greater value by 48% and of equal countries, including France where poor value by 17% of his sample population now Ontario. Had Governor Haldimand peasants would have liked to emigrate to and other decisionmakers not objected to (1961:43). Presumably much of this infor- Quebec, a recruiting system was all but mation was obtained from relations (rela- their settling in Quebec, we might have non-existent (Petersen, 1955: 122). This seen, following Ashton’s argument (see tives or others) in the immigration country contrasted sharply with English-Canadian as the presence of such relations were page 21), a much larger presence of them efforts in attracting agriculturists: in the along the American border, with a propor- found to exert a powerful infl uence on the fi rst place from Britain, and, alternatively, decision to emigrate (Frijda, 1961:82). tionately larger number of Dutch origin. from other North European stock. This Argueably this would have made little dif- Wentholt found that this presence was a suited the Canadian and Dominion Sugar factor in the decision to emigrate in 65.5% ference in terms of maintenance of Dutch Refi nery Company in Ontario which ethnicity, as even in Ontario their much of the cases in his study (1961:200). Que- was formed at the turn of the century. It bec, then, was clearly at a disadvantage in larger numbers “melted imperceptibly into required farm labourers who were familiar the Canadian scene” (Canada, 1951: 5). comparison with other parts of Canada, in with sugar beet growing and it actively particular Ontario. Although these studies helped in recruiting these from the Neth- talk of “emigration countries” and not of It would have shown up in the census erlands and Belgium. This, in turn, led to data and might have resulted in a possi- provinces or regions, it stands to reason chain migration. In 1926 as many as 3000 that relations already living here would bly stronger support of “Dutch heritage” immigrants, mostly Dutch, were working projects. give information about their own experi- for the company (Canada, 1951:20; Sas, ences and their own environment, and not 1957:97). Thus, insofar as Quebec was concerned, about some province they did not know. the push factor was of a political nature, No such economic opportunities were and insofar as Ontario is concerned, the The same disadvantage befell Quebec found in Quebec (see also Table V), nor when Dutch journalists went on fact-fi nd- pull factor at that time seems to have been was there the benefi t of chain migration. of an economic nature (land grants). ing trips across Canada. Their schedule Also, no reputation grew on which it was would refl ect settlement patterns of the possible to build, as happened in Ontario Dutch immigration Dutch, and major emphasis was placed and elsewhere where the Dutch were found on Ontario while Quebec received scant prior to World War II to be hardworking and skilled farmers. attention. Such reports would have com- pounded the lack of knowledge about In surveying Dutch immigration during Insofar as Quebec is concerned, one must Quebec. In the opposite direction, with the fi rst half of this century, much the conclude that, at least prior to World War Dutch visiting their relatives in the Nether- same pattern can be detected, if for differ- II it was not so much a matter of choice lands, the same thing would happen. Virtu- ent reasons. that kept the Dutch away, as it was a politi- ally all the stories (some of which would

- 41 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn appear in the newspapers) concentrated on with loans if they found the farmer busi- community structures at the time of high the heavily settled areas of Ontario and the nesslike. Farms were also cheaper than in immigration, the pull of the R.C. Church Western provinces. Ontario. But most farmers had to work for must have been weak. several years to save up for the purchase Then there is the bias against French Can- of a farm and earnings were higher in The large upswing in urban immigra- ada and French Canadians that came out in Ontario than in Quebec. The chance of set- tion to Quebec that began in 1951 when the advice given to some interviewees. tling near relatives, ex-neighbours, Dutch Canada opened its doors to occupations churches and other community organiza- other than agriculturists was evidently not An important push factor also was the tions, was much greater in Ontario too. in response to the hard working Christian work of the Dutch emigration agencies, Reformed agencies and the more lax Ro- and more in particular of the Christian Language and loneliness were problems man Catholic ones. As the fi gures in Table Emigration Central (C.E.C.). It displayed for Dutch farmers in Quebec, not only XX show, in 1961 as many as 37.6% of the a fervor that was, certainly in the begin- in the north where a settlement scheme Dutch in Montreal were Roman Catholics. ning, unmatched by the other agencies, for market gardeners failed, but also in The number of Christian Reformed was and it by-passed Roman Catholic Quebec the south except in those instances where included in the category “other”, but in altogether. This is clearly refl ected in Table chain migration took place. This is quite the 1981 census they are mentioned as a VIII where the big jump in arrivals in the evident from interviews with S, R, and separate category. With 280 of them they early post-World War II years 1947/1948 X, all of whom had brought out varying represented 5% of the Dutch population of takes place in Ontario and the Western numbers of others. Montreal, probably in the same range as provinces, where the Christian Reformed that applicable in 1961. The larger propor- Church gave its full support to the C.E.C.. Opportunities to fi nd employment in tion of Catholics and smaller proportion of industry if farming did not work out, or to Calvinists in Quebec refl ects much closer Language also plays a role in the push supplement the farm income with indus- the pattern that exists in the Netherlands factor. Dutch emigrants made a real ef- trial earnings were also found to be greater than does the pattern that exists elsewhere fort to have at least some knowledge of in Ontario than in Quebec. Mr. de W. took in Canada. the language upon arrival. In Hofstede’s advantage of that when he left farming to sample population of 1000, thirty-two per- go to work for INCO, but to R and S this Petersen observes that “Orthodox Calvin- cent claimed to have a good knowledge of was no advantage. Said S: “That is not ists (like pietists in any country) were pre- the language and forty-three percent had the point of immigration! We could have dominantly of the lower class” (1953: 39). studied it seriously. It must be remembered done that in Holland too!” (J. Lowensteyn Those were the people that made up the that courses in the Netherlands were given [cassette recording] 1985, S, Tape I, side fi rst wave after World War II, the farmers for the benefi t of all emigrants, not just 1, 36:05). who 1anded largely in Ontario. Those were for those going to Canada. English was also the people who made up T’s congre- required in all emigration countries (Aus- The pull factor of the Roman Catholic gation in the West which he contrasted so tralia, New Zeal and, Canada, the U.S.A., church both in rural and urban Quebec sharply with the one in Montreal. These and South-Africa), except in Quebec. And seems to have been relatively slight. In were not the people who, on the whole, even there English was perhaps suffi cient, fact, the Church did not mind where came to Montreal. Not even as part of the or at least an asset. So it is understand- people went as long as they were inte- Christian Reformed Church. So, while part able that the “language for emigrants” grated in a Catholic parish. The presence of the explanation of the small size of the was synonymous with English. Even if of a Dutch priest, judging from the role Dutch group in Quebec is the underrepre- perhaps some French course was given this person played in the lives of the inter- sentation of Calvinists, another explana- here or there, it can be assumed that most viewees, was an important one. But unlike tion is the strong attraction of Montreal for Dutch immigrants arrived here relatively the Christian Reformed fi eldman who got the higher educated relative to the lower unprepared to speak French and positively tremendous support from his church agen- educated Dutch. inclined to learn English, the language of cies, the Dutch priest found himself in a “Tommies”, “Yankees” and most of their tenuous position. He had to be careful not The increase in employment opportuni- Canadian “liberators”. to step on the terrain of the parish priest ties (excluding farming) during the period under whose care the immigrant came, 1941-1961 was not as great in Quebec as As mentioned earlier, a knowledge of and funding was always a problem. He it was in Ontario. Neverthless, signifi cant French was required more by agriculturists could not display the same activity as the expansion took place here also, and in than city dwellers. The farmers inter- C.E.C. fi eldman, and for the backing of an all sectors of the economy. Why then did viewed, who had lived here for some time, immigrant agency such as the Netherlands Quebec not attract a greater proportion of were fl uent in both French and English. Catholic Immigrant Services he had to Dutch immigrants with a lower education? wait until the late 1950’s. It was only in Pull factors in Quebec were very weak 1962 that the Catholic Dutch-Canadian Research shows that Dutch immigrants indeed as far as farmers were concerned. Association was established in Montreal did not, on the whole, settle in Quebec as Farms were available, and as interviewee with as its task to help the local almoner a result of recruitment practices of C.R.C. R described, the banks would come across fi nancially and otherwise. Without such fi eldmen, or other church agencies.

- 42 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn

With the factor “relations” being such an the news about any successes booked in Immigrants who were dependent on the exceedingly important one, the lack of this province would not easily get through. Canadian Immigration Service to match “old-timers’, and early arrivals, especially Whatever fear bred of ignorance might job requirements with the immigrant’s farmers, is a further explanation of the have existed in the rest of the country (and qualifi cations’ were subject to offi cial above phenomenon. Even among Dutch in the Netherlands) about this francophone policy to avoid the formation of national farmers a certain proportion left the land, and catholic province, could only have “colonies” and to favour an equal distribu- and those would have become the working added to the problem. tion across the country. However, this was class relations who could have attracted probably offset by the political consider- others. This was a virtually non-existent In conclusion, one can sum up the fol- ation to accommodate Quebec’s desire for group in Quebec. lowing factors that contributed in varying francophone or latino immigrants rather measure to the dearth of Dutch in this than North-Europeans. Another way to learn about job oppor- province: tunities, given that the private agencies Thus the evidence points largely to settle- were not particularly active in Quebec, is For agriculturists: ment in response to a) presence of rela- through a business network. Many engi- tions, and b) job opportunities. neers and other highly qualifi ed personnel • political and religious constraints, lead- were being recruited in Europe by the ing to the lack of a base needed for This tends to be underscored by the expe- companies themselves, notably the aero- chain migration; riences of the 16 immigrants interviewed nautics and chemical industries, consulting • lack of agricultural jobs (before World for this study. Only one (rural) immigrant engineers, hotels, and transportation com- War II); relied on the Canadian Government Im- panies. They would, in turn, attract others, • higher wages in other provinces, notably migration Service (1949), one (urban) was bookkeepers, nannies, etc. Ontario, the other destination for mixed directed here by the Christian Emigra- and dairy farmers; tion Central (1953), and one (rural) by For this kind of person the cosmopolitan • the diffi culty of the French language the Catholic Immigrant Service (1959). atmosphere of Montreal held attraction which had to be learned in addition to The rest came because of relations or job rather than fear (of having to learn two English; opportunities in about equal measure. The languages, for instance). These were also • unfamiliarity with Quebec. sample is too small to draw any defi nite the people who did not require (for lan- conclusions from these results, but the guage or employment purposes) the help For urban immigrants: tendency is nevertheless clearly there. of church or voluntary associations. But as these institutions were slow in form- • political constraints; Hofstede remarks that opportunities are ing, the channels of communication which • avoidance by Calvinists; relevant to potential immigrants only if might have helped in attracting more im- • poor organization on the part of Catho- they know about them and that supposed migrants to Quebec were in turn under- lic agencies; lack of a base for chain mi- opportunities are as signifi cant as real ones developed. Church newspapers, visiting gration which was particularly felt by (1952:9). dignitaries, etc. had less reason to con- the working class population who had centrate on this region, and consequently to rely on relations and the networks provided by private agencies to fi nd jobs.

CN Images of Canada Gallery:

Dutch immigrants in transit Montreal, Québec, Canada 1951

- 43 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn References Anderson, A.B., & Frideres, J.S. (1981). Ethnicity in Canada: Montreal: Author. Theoretical Perspectives. Toronto: Butterworth. Ashton, R. J. (19741. The Life of Henry Ruiter 1742-1849. Curran, P. J. (1957). Education in New Amsterdam. De Halve Chicago: Frank H. Woods, 550 East Deer Path, Lake Forest, Il. Maen, L (2). 60045. De Ruijte, F. (1971). Dutch-Canadian Community in Montreal. Beijer, G. (Ed.). (1961). Characteristics of Overseas Hi grants. De Nieuwe Weg [mimeograph], 9 (4), pp. 32-36. Montreal: The Hague: Government Printing & Publishing Offi ce. Dutch Canadian Association [Mrs. V. Sondermeyer, 60 10th Ave., Bird, F.B. (1979). Ethnic Group Institutions and Intra-Group Roxboro, Que., H8Y 1J9] Communications. Unpublished Manuscript. Concordia Univer- sity, Department of Religion, Montreal. De Wit, J. (speaker), 1982. Cassette Recording No. DUT- 8857WIT. Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontario. Breton, R. (1968). Institutional Completeness of Ethnic Com- munities and the Personal Relations of Immigrants. In Canadian Dutch Canadian Association, Montreal. 1962-1980 fi les. Private Society; Sociological Perspectives, Toronto: Macmillan. inspection.

Canada, (1951). Canadian Citizenship Branch, Department of Emigratie (1958-1962). [Quarterly] The Hague: Raad van Emi- Citizenship and Immigration, Research and Publications Divi- gratie [Emigration Board]. sion. Ethnic Groups in Canada: IV Dutch Canadians. Ottawa (mimeograph). Frijda, N.H. (1961). Emigrants Non Emigrants. In G. Beijer (Ed.), Characteristics of Overseas Migrants, (pp. 51 142). The Canada. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. 1880-1881 Census Hague: Government Printing & Publishing Off ice. of Canada. Ganzevoort, H. (1975). Dutch Immigration to Canada,, 1892- Canada. Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Ottawa. 1941 Census of 1940. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto. Canada. 1951 Census of Canada. 1961 Census of Canada. Halford, R.G. (1979). The Saga of the Norseman. Canadian Avia- Canada. Public Archives of Canada, Ottawa. Manuscript Divi- tion Historical Society Journal , 17, 67-72. sion. Records of Land Grants, Eastern Townships, vols. 167-438. Hartland, J.A.A. (1959). De geschiedenis van de Nederlandse Canada (1969). Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Bicul- emgratie tot de tweede Wereldoorlog. [The History of Dutch turalism. Report. Vol. 4, The Cultural Contributions of The Other Emigration till the Second World War]. The Hague: Emigratie Ethnic Groups. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer. Dienst.

Canada. Statistics Canada, Ottawa. 1971 Census of Canada. Hofstede, B. P. (1964). Thwarted Exodus: Post-War Overseas 1981 Census of Canada. Migration from the Netherlands. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Canada (1979). Statistics Canada. Special Report No. 6001213- Hofstede, B. P. (1967, Spring/Summer). Those Who Went and 1971 Census. Montreal Ethnic Research Project, Sociology & Those Who Stayed: Dutch Post-War Overseas Migration. Delta, Anthropology, Concordia University, Montreal. pp. 42- 54.

Canada (1985). Statistics Canada. Special Report No. 64511300- Isajiw, W.W. (1979). Defi nitions of Ethnicity. Occasional Paper. 2B-1981 Census. E. Gavaki, Sociology & Anthropology, Concor- Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontario. dia University, Montreal. Kaufman, D. (Ed.) & Horn, H. (1980). A Liberation Album: Catholic Immigrant Services. Correspondence 1957-1967. Un- Canadians in the Netherlands 1944-45 . Toronto: McGraw Hill published manuscripts. Ontario Archives, Toronto. Ryerson.

Catholic Netherlands Immigration Centre. Correspondence 1958 Kenney, A. P. (1977-78). Religious Artifacts of the Dutch Colo- 1961. Unpublished Manuscripts. Ontario Archives, Toronto. nial Period. De Halve Maen, LIII (4).

Chimbos, P. (1972). A Comparison of the Social Adaptation of Kenney, A. P. (1980). Albany’s Lady Historians. De Halve Maen, Dutch, Greek, and Slovak Immigrants in a Canadian Community. LV (3). I.M.R. 6, 230-244. Kralt, J. (1981-82). Netherlanders and the Canadian Census. Christian Reformed Church (1979). 25th Anniversary Album. Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies, III (i, ii), 40- 43.

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Lowensteyn, J. (1981-82). Dutch Ethnicity in Montreal: Its Per- sistence, Meaning, and Uses. Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Ruth, J.E. (1982). Quebec Loyalist Background and Documen- Studies, III (i, ii), 24-33. tary Sources. Connections, June 1982.

Lowensteyn, J. [Interviewer (1985). The Dutch of Quebec [sound Sas, A. (1957). Dutch Migration to and Settlement in Canada, recording]: Oral History Project. Montreal: Concordia University 1945-1955. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Clark University. Libraries, Oral History Montreal Studies. Thomas, C. (1866). Contributions to the History of the Eastern Lowensteyn, P. (1983). The Role of the Dutch in the Iroquois Townships. Montreal: John Lovell. Wars. Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies, IV (ii), V (i), 5-13. Tuinman, A.S. (1950). Drie jaar emigratie naar Canada [Three Years of Emigration to Canada]. Landbouw Wereldnieuws [Agri- Hagee, J. (1983). A Dutch Heritage 200 Years of Dutch Pre sence cultural World News], 10 & 11 The Hague: Ministry of Agricul- in theWindsor-Detroit Border Region. Toronto: Dundurn Press. ture, Fisheries, and Food.

McLeod Arnopoulos, S. & Clift, D. (1980). The English Fact in Tuinman, A.S. (1952). Enige aspecten van de hedendaagse Quebec. Montreal: McGill-Queens University-Press. emigratie van Nederlanders naar Canada. [Some Aspects of the Netherlands-Canadian Settlement Scheme]. The Hague: Ministry Moir, J.S. (1978). Robert McDowall and the Dutch-Reformed of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food. Church Mission to Canada, 1790-1819. De Halve Maen, LIII (2). Tuinman, A.S. (1956). The Netherlands-Canadian Migration. Noyes, J.P. (1907). The Missisquoi German or Dutch: The Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografi e. [Journal for Second Report of the Missisquoi County Historical SocietyNew Economic and Social Geography], 47 181-189. Typ., St. John’s, Quebec. VanderMey, A. (1983). To All Our Children. Jordan Station, O’Dwyer, P. (1975). City Council President Views the Early Ont.: Paieda Press. Out of print. For other texts on Dutch im- Dutch. De Halve Maen, LI (1). migration, go here.

Penney, S. & Willenken, R. (1977). Dutch Women in Colonial Van Stekelenburg, H.A.V.M. (1980). Dutch Roman Catholics in Albany: Liberation and Retreat. De Halve Maen, LII (1). North America. Unpublished manuscript.

Petersen, W. (1955). Planned Migration: The Social Determi Van Stekelenburg, H.A.V.M. (1983). Tracing the Dutch Roman nants of the Dutch-Canadian Movement. Berkeley: Univer sity Catholic Emigrants to North America in the Nineteenth and of California Press. Twentieth Centuries. In H. Ganzevoort b H. (Eds.), Dutch Immi- gration to North America (pp. 57-83). Toronto: The Multicultural Reitz, J.G. (1980). The Survival of Ethnic Groups. Toronto: History Society of Ontario. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. Wentholt, R. (1961). Characteristics of Dutch Emigrants. In G. Richmond, A.H. (1967). Post-War Immigrants in Canada. To- Beijer (Ed.), Characteristics of Overseas Migrants, (pp.l45- 278). ronto: University of Toronto Press. The Hague: Government Printing and Publishing Offi ce.

Three young Dutch immigrants arrive in Quebec City aboard a ship, 1947

- 45 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn Appendices Interview Guide 1. How many years have you been in Canada? most of them are Dutch, or most of them are from other 2. Are you a Canadian citizen? Since when? ethnic groups? 3. Do you plan to become a Canadian citizen.? 28. Are you a member of any clubs, or other groups of 4. a. Do you have close relatives in Canada? extra-curricular interest.? b. Where do they live? 29. Do you belong to any Dutch organizations? c. Do you see them often, sometimes, or never? a. in Canada 5. If you have married children), are they married to a Dutch b. in Holland spouse, an English-Canadian, French Canadian, or one of Why, or why not? another nationality? 30. Do you read any Dutch newspapers or periodicals? Which 6. Why did you immigrate? one(s)? a. Economic reasons: 31. Did you acquire any new skills, hobbies, or education during b. New life: your life in Canada? c. New opportunities 32. Were the skills that you brought with you from Holland d. Housing: useful to you in your new life? e. Other (specify): 33. Since your arrival have you learned more than you already 7. On the whole do you feel fairly satisfi ed or dissatisfi ed with knew about Canada’s history, literature, system of govern- your life in Canada? ment, political parties, languages (English, French) ? a Fairly satisfi ed: 34. Since your arrival here, on how many occasions have people b. Dissatisfi ed: visited you from Holland? And for how long? 8. Would you say that on the whole you are satisfi ed or dis- 35. a. How many times have you been back to Holland? satisfi ed with your present accommodation? Could you have b. How long, on average, was each visit? expected to live in similar quarters if you had stayed in The c. Did you go alone or with members of your family? Netherlands? 36. a. Have your children been to Holland? 9. Except for possible holidays, would you like to spend the b. How many times, how long each time? rest of your life in Canada? Why? 37. Did your children make Dutch friends, did they become 10. On the who1e would you say that you are satisfi ed or dis close to Dutch relatives? satisfi ed with your living in Quebec’? 38. What is your children’s knowledge of Dutch? Do they speak 11. Indicate how you feel about your life in Canada at the it, read it, write it, or understand it? present time. 39. Do they have any Dutch-Canadian friends? 39. Has your 12. Are you glad or sorry you left Holland? Dutch background ever helped or hampered you in procur- 13. Would you feel at home if you went back to Holland? ing employment.? In what way? 14. Are you ever homesick for Holland’? 40. How do your children consider your Dutch background? 15. Do you celebrate family birthdays and anniversaries? And their own Dutch background? a. How? a. Does it interest them? b. Do you have a birthday calendar? b. Are they ashamed of it? 16. Do you read more frequently in English (French) or in c. Are they indifferent about it? Dutch? d. Do they talk about it in derisive terms? 17. Do you use the English (French) language at home? e. Do they consider it an asset for themselves? 18. If you had your way, would you eat Dutch food, Canadian f. Do they describe themselves as Canadian, Dutch, or food, or food from some other ethnic group, most of the Dutch-Canadian? time? 41. Would you say that you brought your children up 19. Do you think Canadians are treating you as their equal? a. about the same as you were brought up 20. Do you think the people of Quebec like you’? b. quite different (explain) 21. Do you think they like you more or less than an English 42. Do you follow any Dutch customs at home, e.g. : person.? a. eating your bread with fork and knife? 22. Do you expect that this country will have a good future? b. celebrating St. Nicholas? 23. Do you expect your future to be good? In what way? c. baking “oliebollen” on New Year’s Eve? 24. Did you receive all your education in Holland, some there d. others? (specify) and some in Canada, or all of it in Canada? 43. What customs did you lose that in your eyes were of value? 25. What was your level of education upon arrival in Canada? 44. In what respect is life in Canada better than in Holland? 26. What religion, if any, did you profess in Holland? Has that 45. In what respects is life in Holland better now than in changed? Canada? 27. Would you say that most of your friends are Canadian,

- 46 - A Social History of the Dutch in Quebec by Johanna H. Lowensteyn Appendix: The Dutch Community in Quebec since 1986 by Peter Lowensteyn (in progress) Since the study was written by my wife in 1986, the Dutch community in Quebec has Table XXI: Selected Quebec Cities followed a path that could be foreseen at that 1996 2001 Decline time. Immigration from the Netherlands had declined drastically by the mid 1980’s, while Canada 133.805 128.670 - 3.8% the descendants of the Dutch immigrants in Quebec Province 4.320* 3.895* - 9.8% Quebec continued to move away to other parts Montreal 2.825** 2.560** - 9.3% in Canada, although no longer on the scale as Chicoutimi 10 seen in the late 1970’s. Quebec City 115 35 As a result the social institutions began to Sherbrooke 65 dwindle and it is surprising that a few of them Trois Rivieres 15 30 are still operating today. *including 665 Flemish *including 665 Flemish **including 400 Flemish and 15 Frisian **including 370 Flemish SOME STATISTICS and 10 Frisian Ontario 71.675 69.655 - 2.8% In Canada, the 1991 Census shows, 19,915 Canadian spoke Dutch at home, while 146,420 Source: Statistics Canada, 1996 Census Nation tables had Dutch as mother tongue. This shows a Source: Statistic Canada, 2001 Census of Population considerable level of integration. In 1971 there were 146,690 Canadians (0.7%) mother tongue to one of the offi cial languages According to Dutch mother tongue the statis- who gave Dutch as mother tongue. In 1991 the in comparison. People in language groups with tics of the following years show a further shift absolute number had remained more or less many recent immigrants to Canada had a far away from the Dutch heritage. the same with 146,425, but now it constituted greater tendency to use their mother tongue at only 0.5% of the total population, although home than people in language groups in which Tables XXI and XXII show that while the the Dutch were still in the top ten. In 1996 the immigration has declined during the past 25 decline in Canada can be seen in terms of death category “Netherlands (Dutch)“ was no longer years of fi rst generation immigrants and further inte- one of the top ten. In 2001 the numbers further Table XXIII: Rate of language shift, main gration of the second generation, the stronger declined. mother tongue groups other than English decline in Quebec also shows a departure from or French, Canada 1996 that province. Table XXIII shows the rate of shift from Rate of language shift

Table XXII: The ten largest groups with a mother tongue other Mother tongue than English or French, and all Aboriginal languages(1) 1971 Punjabi 147,260 0.5 Chinese 15.5 Mother tongue Netherlands (Dutch) 146,425 0.5 Italian 50.6 Greek 132,980 0.5 German 71.2 German 558,965 2.6 Spanish 27.4 Italian 538,765 2.5 Aboriginal Languages 190,160 0.7 Portuguese 36.8 Ukrainian 309,890 1.4 Polish 37.9 Netherlands (Dutch) 146,690 0.7 1996 Punjabi 15.6 Polish 136,540 0.6 The Dutch disappear from the top ten. Arabic 30.9 Greek 103,725 0.5 Ukrainian 76.5 Chinese 95,910 0.4 Netherlandic languages 143,705 Tagalog (Pilipino) 36.2 Magyar (Hungarian) 87,465 0.4 Dutch 133,805 Dutch 87.2 Portuguese 85,845 0.4 Flemish 6,985 Greek 36.0 Yiddish 50,320 0.2 Frisian 2,920 Source: Statistics Canada, 1996 Census: Aboriginal languages 178,545 0.8 2001 Mother tongue, home language and knowledge of languages 1991 Netherlandic languages 137,870 Mother tongue Dutch 128,670 The table shows that with an 87.2% language Flemish 6,015 shift, the Dutch have the highest rate, followed Italian 538,695 2.0 Frisian 3,190 by the Ukrainians and the Germans. With such Chinese 516,875 1.9 a percentage shift there is not much hope for German 490,650 1.8 Source: Statistics Canada: 1996 and 2001 the survival of the Dutch language in Canada. Portuguese 220,630 0.8 Censuses: Mother tongue, home language Ukrainian 201,320 0.7 and knowledge of languages, December, Table XXIV shows that only a small percentage Polish 200,395 0.7 1997 of Dutch immigrants speak neither English nor Spanish 187,615 0.7 French, a strong indicator of integration.

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Table XXIV: Knowledge of Offi cial Languages while 50% could still speak it fairly fl uently. They maintained some Dutch tradition as 50% TITLE claimed to celebrate birthdays and anniversa- Total Knowledge English French English Neither ries with some Dutch traditions. They still eat of offi cial only only and French English traditional Dutch food often (30%) or some- languages nor French times (60%), while they follow certain Dutch tradition often (15%) or sometimes (60%). 1996 Whereas 50% stated that they were brought Netherlandic 143,700 129,610 305 13,235 550 up the same as their neighbours, another 50% languages considered their upbringen to have been quite Dutch 133,805 121,625 155 11,530 495 different from their non Dutch neighbours. Flemish 6,985 5,195 150 1,600 35 None of them had mostly friends of Dutch ori- Frisian 2,920 2,795 0 105 20 gin, while only 30% of them spoke Dutch with their parents frequently. Of their children 70% 2001 spoke no Dutch at all. None of them belonged Netherlandic 137,875 123,715 235 13,460 460 to a Dutch organization in Canada. Of them languages only 5% spoke Dutch at home and they rarely Dutch 128,670 116,430 120 11,680 445 (35% or never (55%) read Dutch books, news- Flemish 6,015 4,285 115 1,610 0 papers or periodicals or followed the Dutch Frisian 3,190 3,005 0 170 15 news via the Internet.

Statistics Canada, 1996 and 2001 Censuses However 50% had visited the Netherlands four times or more, while 55% claimed that citizens. On the other hand, only 20% regu- they were bringing up their children with the TWO QUESTIONNAIRES larly spoke Dutch at home and 26% still read aim of maintaining certain Dutch values and in Dutch. Only 37% belonged to any Dutch traditions. Of them 55% still saw themselves as My own limited research in 2005 of the Dutch association in Canada and only 3% belonged to either Dutch-Canadian or Dutch-Québéquois. in the Montreal region shows a similar picture an association in their home country. Only 13% 35% of them had gone to the Netherlands of high integration. stated that their friends were mostly Dutch. as part of their education and 55% wouldn’t mind living in the Netherlands for a few years, One questionnaire (PDF - 20KB) was given They were in general very satisfi ed with their although none would want to live there for to those born in the Netherlands and who lives in Canada and had no plans of moving the rest of their lives. They had (often 60%) presently live in the Province of Quebec, and back to the Netherlands, although many visited contact with their cousins in Canada, but only who for most of the time since their emigra- the home country frequently (67% ten times or 20% had sometimes contact with cousins in the tion to Canada have lived in this Province. (30 more), while visitors from the home country Netherlands. They themselves had often (30%) respondents) came to see them (57% ten times or more). or sometimes (35%) contact with relatives in Another questionnaire (PDF - 20KB) was given They still read occasionally Dutch newspapers the Netherlands. Of them 85% were interested to those born in Canada of Dutch Parent(s) or followed the news via the Internet (27% in their Dutch background and 85% considered who presently live in the Province of Quebec often, 67% sometimes). it to have been an asset. and who have lived for most of their life in this Province. (20 respondents) They had improved their level of education in As far as leaving the province is concerned, The questionnaires were designed to evaluate Canada as 50% received their education in the only 20% answered “may be”, the rest planned the level of integration. Netherlands as well as in Canada. Upon arrival to stay and considered their future to be good their level of education had been as follows: here (95%). QUESTIONNAIRE 1: elementary 13%, high school 33%, univer- Their level of education was high, with 20% sity 53%, while their level of education was having fi nished high school and 80% univer- First generation Dutch immigrants in the Mon- at present: elementary 3%, high school 20%, sity. treal region, both urban and rural show a high university 76%. Although the sample may have level of integration and of their children only been somewhat skewed toward the higher level The conclusion for the future of the Dutch 7% had married a spouse of Dutch origin. of education, other statistics show that the level community in Quebec is clear. As the fi rst of education of Dutch Canadians in Quebec generation Dutch immigrants begins to dwindle However, they also maintain some Dutch was high, as was their level of income. and as no signifi cant numbers of new Dutch cultural traditions, such as during birthdays immigrants are entering the province, and as and anniversaries (86%), occasionally eating Of them only 17% had all of their children the second generation shows a minimal interest traditional Dutch food (87%), while they also living outside of the province, while 33% had in maintaining Dutch institutions, the continued celebrated Dutch traditional holidays (often all of them still living in the province. It does existence of such institutions is only a question 33%, sometimes (47%). They had brought up seem as if the “great exodus” has considerably of time. their children with some of the Dutch values slowed down. and traditions (very much so 27%, somewhat An interesting article by Michiel Horn, called 57%). They claimed that 63% of their children QUESTIONNAIRE 2: “Identities are not like hats”: Refl ections on were interested in their Dutch background and Identity Change, Dutch to Canadian appeared 53% considered it an asset for themselves. The children of fi rst generation Dutch Cana- in the latest issue of the Canadian Journal of dians show an even grater level of integration. Netherlandic Studies (XXVI, i). His observa- Of them, 33% were still Dutch citizens and of Only 10% was married to a Dutch spouse. tions run parallel to the ones mentioned above. those 66% had no plans of becoming Canadian Only 5% could still write fairly well in Dutch,

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COMMUNITY LIFE fees to CAANS, which have been paid since Montreal. 1984, were paid up till 2007 incl. The Dutch Canadian Association was maybe The Dutch Consulate General organizes a re- the most important and oldest of the Clubs in The “Borrel Club” (Dutch speaking profession- ception to celebrate the Queens Birthday. It is, the Montreal area, but it too fell victim to the als and businessmen) and the “Dames Borrel of course, also involved in Dutch cultural and dwindling interest of the Dutch community. Club” (ladies) as well as CAANS continue to business representations in the province which Virginie Sondermeyer provided me with the fulfi ll a certain demand. attract members of the Dutch community. following information: In November 1987 the last issue of the The “Borrel Club” still meets regularly. There also is a “Netherlands Business Network Association’s magazine “De Nieuwe Weg” Montreal” which is open to all individuals in was published. The Association’s main activ- The more informal “Dames Borrel Club” was the Montreal business community who have a ity, the organization of the yearly Sinterklaas started by Louise Hegenbarth. Since a few specifi c relationship with The Netherlands. This Dans, came to an end with the last dance on years Willie Lubbers and Virginie Sondermeyer organization also maintains a web site. December 3rd, 1988. The membership list try to have two or three get togethers a year, became a list of Dutch people in the Greater depending on whether they can fi nd ladies who Furthermore, Paul Frenay is still running a Montreal area which was regularly updated. are willing to host the Club at their home. Aver- partially Dutch language programme on cable From 1988 till 1991 help and fi nancial support age attendance: 22. television called Jase Café. was given to the Cooperative d’Habitation Neerlandaise de Montreal Metropolitain also In January 2004, several Dutch ladies came to When one looks at the membership of the known as “l’Orangerie”. In the 1990’s, The the formation of a Luncheon Club. A criterion above mentioned institutions, one sees a con- Dutch Canadian Association together with for participation is that one speaks Dutch, siderable overlap, with several members being The Netherlands Society organized the yearly although the speaker during the luncheon may fi rst generation immigrants. What this holds for well be English speaking the future remains to be seen. and the chosen subjects are wide-ranging. Average at- There is also a senior citizens housing co-op tendance: 18. as a member/tenant controlled non-profi t orga- nization in operation called NETHERLANDS There is also a group called MONTREAL at 200 Ernest, Apt. 34, Dollard- “Dutch Treat” for new arriv- des-Ormeaux, Quebec, H9A 3H7. als and persons who like to keep their Dutch language The First Christian Reformed Church of Mon- skills, which holds informal treal is still in operation at 52 Joseph Paiement, once a month get togethers. Dollard des Ormeaux, QC. The present pastor is Jake Boer. However, the focus of the church CAANS is at present the has always been on the Christian Reformed only Dutch formal institu- faith, not on maintaining Dutch ethnicity, and tion still in operation in although some of the members are still of Montreal, but the association Dutch background, the church is no longer a changed considerably over “Dutch” church. Canada Day Parade in Montreal in 1996, the years since 1986. As from l.t.r.: Janny, Ilka and Wanda Lowensteyn mentioned in the main the- © Peter Lowensteyn, 2006 sis, lectures at the academic “Koninginne Dans” as well as several concerts level were given in English or French but only and fi lm evenings. On July 1, 1996, a dona- attracted a limited audience. To change that, the tion of $100 was given to a group of about 10 members of the executive introduced Dutch as persons of Dutch descent to participate for the the main language of the association after the fi rst (and last) time in the Canada Day Parade original founders of CAANS-Montreal were no in Montreal. A truck carried sound equipment, longer on the executive. Dutch songs were played, bicycles and partici- CAANS Montréal, Vereniging voor Neder- pants were “decorated” in red, white, blue and landse en Vlaamse Cultuur (CAANS-Montreal, orange. The last rental period (Oct.31, 2000- Association of Dutch and Flemish Culture) Oct.31, 2001) of the Association’s P.O. Box 385 as it is now called, is still very active and in Roxboro was paid. Mail, from then on, was organizes monthly (September-June) lectures, sent to the home address of one of the members movie showings, as well as two yearly poetry of the Board. In December 2005, the remain- readings. Some of the events are organized ing members of the Board (Angie and Onno in cooperation with and supported by the Kruller, Marian Arts, Virginie Sondermeyer National organization of CAANS or the Dutch were present. Henk de Langen was not present) Consulate General. The association attracts an decided to close the bank account of the DCA average of 30 to 40 people, mostly of Dutch before bank costs would whittle down to zero and Flemish background, to its events. (Lecture the amount left (a little under $700). Two dona- Programme from September 1999 till June tions of equal amounts were made to “Dans La 2006 {in Dutch - PDF 60KB}) Rue” Montreal, an organization serving youth A similar change from English and French to on the street and the “West Island Palliative Dutch as the main language took place in other CAANS lecture by the Dutch author Care Residence” in Kirkland, QC. Membership CAANS Chapters, but not as rigorously as in Abdelkader Benali

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