Reinventing Malaysian Identity Through Multicultural Nationalism: Kee Thuan Chye’S We Could**** You, Mr Birch and Huzir Sulaiman’S Atomic Jaya

REINVENTING MALAYSIAN IDENTITY THROUGH MULTICULTURAL NATIONALISM: KEE THUAN CHYE’S WE COULD**** YOU, MR BIRCH AND HUZIR SULAIMAN’S ATOMIC JAYA

BY:

MOHD AZHARI BIN MOHD SIRAT@SIRAT

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies)

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia

MAY 2013 ABSTRACT

Malaysia is a multiethnic society with diverse cultural traditions. People from the three main races – Malays, Chinese and Indians – live here side by side with those of various indigenous tribes. However, even with more than 50 years of experience as a sovereign nation, the issue of multiculturalism, or the plurality of ethnicity and culture is still debated in the country. Following the May 1969 tragedy, the call for national unity between the races has become more insistent as people from all backgrounds realise the crucial need for integration between the races. In the field of local English language playwriting, playwrights such as Kee Thuan Chye and Huzir Sulaiman are well known for their efforts in promoting the construction of one unified national identity for all citizens of Malaysia in their works. Therefore, this study deals with a question of how these two playwrights have approached the issues of race and multiculturalism in their plays and how these two issues are represented in their work. Apart from that, this study also deals with on the discourse of cultural underpinnings of multicultural politics; approaching the subject through the post-colonial theory of multicultural nationalism. It is hoped that this study will provide us with a better understanding of the issue of national identity in Malaysia in the post-1969 tragedy through the selected English language plays.

ﺧﻼﺻﺔ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ

ﺗﻌﺘﱪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺎ ﳎﺘﻤﻊ ﻣﺘﻌﺪد اﻷﻋﺮاق ذو ﺗﻘﺎﻟﻴﺪ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة . ﻳﻌﻴﺶ اﻟﺸﻊ ب بأﻋﺮاقه اﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔاﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ - اﳌﻼﻳﻮ واﻟﺼﻴﻨﲔواﳍﻨﻮد- ﲜﺎﻧﺐ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﻢ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻣﻊ ﻗﺒﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺴﻜﺎن اﻷﺻﻠﻴﲔ. وﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﲬﺴﲔ ﻋﺎﻣﺎ ً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺎ ﻛﺄﻣﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ ذات ﺳﻴﺎدة ﻓﺈن ﻗﻀﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻮعﻳﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﰲةاﻟﺘﻌﺪد اﻟﻌﺮﻗﻲ واﻟﺜﻘﺎﰲ ﻣﺎزاﻟﺖ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﺗﺜﲑ اﻟﻜﺜﲑ ﻣﻦ اﳉﺪل ﰲ اﺠﻤﻟﺘﻤﻊ . ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﺄﺳﺎة ﻣﺎﻳﻮ1969، أﺻﺒﺢت اﻟﺪﻋﻮةإﱃ اﻟﻮﺣﺪة اﻟﻘﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﺑﲔ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ اﻻ ﻋﺮاق أﻛﺜﺮ إﳊﺎﺣﺎ ً ﺣﻴﺚ أرك اﻟﻨﺎس ﲟﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺧﻠﻔﻴﺎﻬﺗﻢ اﳊﺎﺟﺔ اﳌﺎﺳﺔ إﱃ اﻟﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﲔ اﻷﺟﻨﺎس . وﰲ ﳎﺎل اﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ اﳌﺴﺮﺣﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻷﳒﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻓﺈن ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺎ ً ﻣﺜﻞ ﻛﻲ ﺗﻮان شي ُوح ﻇﲑ ﺳﻠﻴﻤﺎن ﻗﺪ اﺷﺘﻬﺮوا ﲜﻬﻮدﻫﻢ ﰲ دﻋﻢ ﺑﻨﺎء اﳍﻮﻳﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻣﻴﺔ اﳌﻮﺣﺪة ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻮاﻃﲎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺎ ﰲ أﻋﻤﺎﳍﻢ. وﻟﺬا ﻓﺈن ﻫﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺗﺘﻨﺎول ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ هذان اﻟﻜﺎﺗﺐان ﻣﻊ ﻗﻀﺎﻳﺎ اﻷﺟﻨﺎس وﺗﻌﺪد اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت ﰲ ﻛﺘﺎباﺗﻪم وﻛﻴﻒ ﻗﺪﻣﻮا ﻫﺬﻩ اﻟﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﰲ اﻋﻤﺎﳍﻢ. اﱃ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ذﻟﻚ ﺗﺘﻨﺎول اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ أﻳﻀﺎً ﺧﻄﺎب اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﰲ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﺎﺳﺎت ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت ﻣﻘﱰﺑﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ اﳌﺮﺣﻠﺔ اﻹﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎرﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﻌﺪد ة اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت. واﳌﺄﻣﻮل أن ﻫﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺳﻮف ﺗﻘﺪم ﻓﻬﻤﺎً أﻓﻀﻞ ﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ اﳍﻮﻳﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﰲ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺎ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ب ﻋﺪ ﻣﺄﺳﺎة 1969 ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ اﳌﺴﺮﺣﻴﺎت اﳌﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺔ اﳌﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﳒﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ.

iii

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies).

...... Mohammad A. Quayum Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies).

...... Aimilla Mohd Ramli Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies).

...... Zahariah bt. Pilus Head, Department of English Language and Literature

This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies).

...... Mahmood Zuhdi Ab. Majid Dean, Kuliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Mohd Azhari Bin Mohd Sirat@Sirat

Signature………………………….. Date…………………………

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

REINVENTING MALAYSIAN IDENTITY THROUGH MULTICULTURAL NATIONALISM: KEE THUAN CHYE’S WE COULD **** YOU, MR BIRCH AND HUZIR SULAIMAN’S ATOMIC JAYA

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Mohd Azhari Bin Mohd Sirat@Sirat.

...... Signature Date

For my mother Tijah Binti Yusof

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful,

Alhamdulillah, all praises to Allah for answering my prayers, and for giving me the strength and the will to continue on despite my feeble moments wanting to give up and throw in the towel, thank you so much Allah.

My utmost appreciation goes to my beautiful and lovely wife, Azira Binti Ujod whose love and encouragement has been the beacon of inspiration as I hurdle all the obstacles in the completion of this thesis. To my father, Mohd Sirat Bin Patmo and my late mother, Tijah Binti Yusof, my brothers and sisters who have given me their unequivocal support throughout, as always, for which my mere expression of thanks likewise does not suffice.

I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. Mohammad A. Quayum, for the patient guidance, encouragement and advice he has provided throughout my time as his student. I have been extremely lucky to have a supervisor who cared so much about me and my work. Your unselfishness and unfailing support have truly inspired me to be a better student and a better person.

This thesis would not have been possible without the guidance, supervision and the support of several other individuals who in one way or another contributed and extended their valuable assistance in the preparation and completion of this study. To them, especially Bahiroh K. Amath, your kindness means a lot to me. Thank you very much.

Alhamdulillah.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... ii Abstract In Arabic ...... iii Approval Page ...... iv Declaration Page ...... v Copyright Page ...... vi Dedication ...... vii Acknowledgement ...... viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Statement of the Problem ...... 3 1.2 Research Objectives ...... 5 1.3 Scope of Study ...... 6 1.4 Literature Review ...... 6 1.4.1 English Drama/Theatre in Malaysia ...... 6 1.4.2 Criticism on Kee Thuan Chye ...... 8 1.4.3 Criticism on Huzir Sulaiman ...... 11 1.5 Theoretical Framework ...... 13 1.5.1 Multicultural Nationalism ...... 13 1.6 Significance of the study ...... 16 1.7 Limitations of the study ...... 16 1.8 Methodology ...... 17 1.9 Organization of Chapters ...... 18

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 20 2.0 Introduction...... 20 2.0.1 Nationalism ...... 21 2.0.2 Multiculturalism ...... 22 2.0.3 Multicultural Nationalism ...... 24 2.1 Multicultural Nationalism in Malaysia ...... 27 2.2 Multicultural Nationalism in Malaysia Post-1969 Era ...... 30 2.3 Challenges in Constructing A National Identity Based On Multicultural Nationalism In Malaysia ...... 35

CHAPTER 3: KEE THUAN CHYE’S WE COULD ***** YOU, MR BIRCH ..... 41

CHAPTER 4: HUZIR SULAIMAN’S ATOMIC JAYA ...... 57

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ...... 72 5.1 Recommendations ...... 78

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 82

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

For decades, Malaysia has been characterised as a multiethnic society because of its rich diverse cultures and traditions. People from the three main ethnic groups, the

Malays, Chinese and Indians live side by side with various indigenous and non- indigenous groups. Even though Malaysia is a sovereign nation, it continues to experience issues regarding disunity amongst its people. In other words, issue pertaining to ethnicity continue to be a contentious matter. Such ethnic factionalism has evidently affected the development of national identity in Malaysia.

The sense of superiority of one ethnic group over another has resulted in one of the most devastating incidents in Malaysia’s history. The calamitous 13th May 1969 riot was the end result of internal conflicts between the various ethnicities in the country. Shamsul A. B. (2006) argues that the root cause of the violent riot between the ethnic groups was significantly caused by the identity contestation which was in the forms of language, economy and culture. Following this tragedy, the country experienced changes in its approaches toward national integration.

In the immediate aftermath of the 1969 ethnic riots, the call for the government to construct and introduce an ideology that propagates unity and inculcate cultural pluralism in pursuit of national integration is apparent. The aim of nation building and the ideology of constructing a single unified multicultural identity, infused with strong morals and ethical values became a priority for the government. According to

Wan Nurhasniah (2011), this process is an effort by the Malaysian government to develop the spirit of patriotism and solidarity in order to create a nation where people

1 share a common identity. Gellner (1983: 38) concurs that for a given society to persist, it must be one in which its people “can breathe and speak and produce the same culture.” Consequently, policies such as the Education Act of 1967, the National

Language Bill of 1967, National Cultural Policy of 1971, Vision 2020, and the latest concept of 1Malaysia are implemented to fundamentally strengthen the process of unity amongst the races.

These policies have impacted several aspects of the Malaysian culture. One of the many affected is the Malaysian English language based literature. The same aspiration of wanting to see Malaysians living in a multicultural identity is agreeably shared by the local English-based writers. Nor Hashimah Isa (2009) comments that literature published after the independence period is important, particularly as it depicts the strains and cultural conflicts experienced by the three major ethnicities. In addition, she observes that stories published by Malay and non-Malay writers alike, each from different educational backgrounds and culture, gave powerful insights about racial relations and tensions through their personal experiences. In the field of English language drama and playwritings, local playwrights such as Kee Thuan Chye and

Huzir Sulaiman are well known for their intrinsic viewpoint of the necessity to unite all races in Malaysia. These playwrights, a Chinese and a Malay by descendent, created their own versions of reality of the ethnic relations in Malaysia. Their works reflect deeply on Malaysia’s on-going efforts of forging a national identity.

This thesis attempts to investigate Kee Thuan Chye's and Huzir Sulaiman's approaches to the issue of nation building in Malaysia post-1969 and their attitude towards reinventing the Malaysian identity as a multicultural society in their respective works.

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The 13th May 1969 factional dispute between the three principal ethnic groups in

Malaysia was indeed an urgent wake up call for all Malaysians about ethnic relations in the country. However, even with the shift of policies and the request towards supporting the vision of multicultural nationalism, the relationship between these ethnic groups remains controversial. S. Husin Ali (1975) explains that the bonds that bind the three major ethnic groups together are weak and fragile. He continues that within a common politico-geographical unit, the Malays and non-Malays still maintain separate ways of life, both socially and culturally, and have shown very little signs of integration. To Kennedy (1970), this social separation creates difficulties in the way of forging a national unity. Lee Hock Guan (2000) notes that, the struggle to accept other ethnic diversity in Malaysia post-1969 carries on with the communities’ struggle to understand and accept the uniqueness of other ethnic groups’ element of cultural identity, the share of political power and the distribution of wealth. He emphasises that, as members of distinct and self-conscious cultural communities, the

Malays, Chinese and Indians are very inclined to identify and treasure their respective culture and religion.

The persistence of certain groups within these ethnicities to aggressively champion the rights of their culture, eventually created more roadblocks for this young nation to move forward. This is echoed by the fourth Prime Minister of

Malaysia, Mahathir Mohammad (1970: 39) when he confesses, “The Malays wanted

Malaya for the Malays while the Chinese demanded citizenship by right of birth”. Jae

Hyon Lee (2005) describes that the successful mobilisation by the ethno-cultural nationalists of the Malay community in UMNO prevented the first Prime Minister,

Tunku Abdul Rahman from pursuing multicultural nationalism after the independence.

Rehman (1993) argues that Malaysia has been carrying too much baggage between the races. The lack of bond or distrust between the ethnic groups in Malaysia proves to be detrimental towards its progress in developing into a unified multicultural nation.

In the field of local literature, the relationship between the growth of English writings in Malaysia and the implementation of post-1969 national policies for nation building are significant in understanding the challenges faced by the local English language playwrights in advocating multiculturalism. Therefore, in an attempt to examine the approach of local English language playwrights towards the issue of nation building through the concept of multicultural nationalism, it is essential to deconstruct Kee Thuan Chye’s We Could **** You, Mr Birch (1994) and Huzir

Sulaiman’s Atomic Jaya (1998). Both playwrights portray the subject of multicultural nationalism in its truest sense through the representations of characters like Birch,

Lela, Mastura and Kuntum in Kee's play. On the other hand, Huzir Sulaiman’s Atomic

Jaya depicts the life of multicultural Malaysia through characters such as Dr. Mary

Yuen, General Zulkifli, Dr. Saiful and Dr. Ramachandran.

Huzir’s Atomic Jaya is chosen because it narrates on Dr. Yuen’s struggle for an identity as a Chinese Malaysian physicist who was trained in a top American university and research centre. She returns home to attend her well-heeled grandmother’s imminent demise but somehow ends up working with the government’s nuclear organisation alongside her multiethnic associates. On the other hand, Kee’s

We Could **** You, Mr Birch takes the readers to a whole different period as it chronicles the event that happened in Perak during the British Empire’s interference in the Malay state during the late 19th century.

It is hoped that the findings of this study will trace the similarities or differences in the writers’ handling of the issues of multiculturalism in Malaysia. The

4 study maintains that social integration and national identity can be cultivated regardless of the many differences among races, languages, cultures, traditions and religions.

1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

This study explores the approaches of Kee Thuan Chye and Huzir Sulaiman towards the issue of nation building and their personal perspectives towards multicultural nationalism. Therefore, the main objective of this thesis is to analyse the theme and identity of the selected characters of both texts as they represent the reality of a multicultural lifestyle in Malaysia.

As to draw the construction of these characters’ identities, it is imperative to compare the similarities between their imaginations and realities, beliefs and practices, and how they present themselves to their societies and towards one another.

Moreover, this study explores the effects of the implementation of national policies in 1971 such as the New Economic Policy (NEP) and the National Cultural

Policy (NCP), and the challenges these playwrights faced in advocating multiculturalism in Malaysia.

This study is concluded by verifying the link between all aspects mentioned before so as to add to the post-colonial repertoire; consequently providing textual reference for those who intend to grasp better understanding on this subject in the future.

1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY

The scope of this study is confined to Kee Thuan Chye’s We Could **** You, Mr

Birch and Huzir Sulaiman’s Atomic Jaya. Both plays comprehensively present the values of a multicultural lifestyle and its influences on the nation building process in

Malaysia towards a multicultural society. In addition, they represent the major ethnic groups in characters, and the multicultural theme discussed is relevant to the discourse of multicultural nationalism.

1.4 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter is divided into three sections in which readers are provided with the literature review. The first section covers the history of English language drama and theatre in Malaysia. The second section focuses on the works of Kee Thuan Chye and

Huzir Sulaiman respectively. Lastly, reviews and criticism conducted by other scholars on both playwrights are also included in this section. A brief biography on

Kee and Huzir is provided to give the readers the insights on several factors that influenced their works and perspectives towards the issues discussed in this thesis.

1.4.1 English Drama/Theatre in Malaysia English theatre in Malaysia found its way into the local community through the migrants. According to Ghulam Sarwar Yousof (2010), the oldest theatre groups in

Malaysia, the Kuala Lumpur Theatre Club and Penang Players, were both established by the English expatriates after World War II. Rowland (2005) claims that the English language theatre during pre-independence Malaya operated mainly in urban, middle class environment and involved mostly the middle to upper class multiethnic practitioners. However, she also asserts that in view of the fact that most English

6 theatre productions during this period were led by expatriates and the plays were predominantly written by English authors. The main characters were also played by family members of expatriates, reducing the local actors to play the minor characters.

Fernando (1972) compares the early days of English language-based theatre in

Malaysia as being similar to those of other British colonies around the world. The

British government influenced the establishment of English theatre by including it in the school curriculum. Regarding this, Rowland claims that the British-introduced school system was evidently responsible for fostering amateur actors and actresses through a curriculum that included the study of Shakespeare and other Western playwrights (2005).

During the early 1960s, the emergence of the local English language playwrights and theatre activities became more apparent with the active involvement of local theatre activists. To Rowland (2005), two prominent local theatre activists from the Elite Institution Drama Society were playwright Edward Dorall and director

Krishen Jit. In addition, in 1962 theatre activism flourished in University Malaya

(UM) as staff and students established the Literary and Dramatic Association

[LIDRA] (Yousof, 2010). They were heavily engaged with various written literary works, including plays. This early development then helped local activists to achieve a greater participation in the English theatre scene as described by Fernando (1972).

It was only after the independence of Malaya that a rejection towards the monopoly of expatriates took place when the Malaysian members of the Malaysian Arts Theatre

Group (MATG), such as Syed Alwi and K. Das began to proactively participate in the local English language theatre scene. This rejection marked the beginning of

Malaysian theatre practice led by locals in both the management of groups and artistic direction of plays.

Years later, the 13th May 1969 tragedy brought the development of Malaysian

English theatre to a standstill. Viewed as endorsing colonial imperialism, western values and anti-government sentiments, the government chose to suppress the development of English language-based literature, including drama and theatre. In turn, they focused more on performing arts in Bahasa Melayu (Malay language) through the Education Act of 1967, the National Language Bill of 1967, and the

National Cultural Policy of 1971. Rowland (2005) illustrates that under the combined power of the three policies, English language theatre was greatly marginalised, despite people believing that their efforts in creating a Malaysian theatre practice, albeit in

English, were part of the national cultural agenda. Ghulam Sarwar Yousof (2010) shares the sentiment and says that the decision taken by the National Cultural

Congress after 13th May, had consequently forced some of the most talented local playwrights and theatre activists to discontinue writing, like Edward Dorall; and to an extreme case of emigrating the nation, such as Lee Joo. However, despite the enforcement of these policies and several years of inactive involvement among

English language drama activists in the industry, English language theatre continues to expand tremendously post-1969. A new generation of playwrights and theatre activists gradually entered the local English theatre scene (Yousof, 2010). Of these, two of the most prominent new crop of talents in the English language drama community in Malaysia is Kee Thuan Chye and Huzir Sulaiman.

1.4.2 Criticism on Kee Thuan Chye In the introduction to Kee Thuan Chye’s We Could **** You, Mr Birch (1995), Robert

Yeo describes Kee as being the second generation of postcolonial and independent

English language playwright in Malaysia. In an interview with Kee Thuan Chye,

8 published in MalaysiaKini.com (2007), Lim Kit Siang, a famous seasoned politician portrays him as a stubbornly patriotic writer, journalist, editor, playwright and an occasional actor. As a playwright, Kee is best known for An Old Man Died Today

(1973), 1984: Here and Now (1985), The Big Purge (1988), We Could **** You, Mr

Birch (1994) and The Swordfish, Then The Concubine (2006). Apart from these plays, he is also credited for writing books such as March 8: The Day Malaysia Woke Up

(2008), March 8: Time for Real Change (2010) and No More Bullshit: Please, We Are

All Malaysians (2012).

Kee began to write plays in the early seventies. Robert Yeo (1994) analyses

Kee’s work and concludes that they are heavily influenced by the absurdist mode similar to Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco and Harold Pinter. Surprisingly, Yeo mentions that the plays Kee wrote during his early writing years did not reflect the tumult within him and his country yet. They only served as apprentice plays in which he was perfecting his skills, searching for appropriate themes and characters, and probing the authentic theatrical language. However, after the events of 13th May

1969, constitutional amendments, and the frequent use of the Internal Security Act

(ISA), Kee’s work became heavily politicalised. As Yeo recalls in Kee’s paper presented at the seminar on English in Southeast Asia, entitled “Digging into the

Diaphragm” (1994), he narrates:

Then in the late 70’s, I moved to Kuala Lumpur and saw more sharply the contradictions that had arisen in the “new” society. Racial politics had brought about widespread social polarization. The immigrant races were further relegated to margins. In 1978 the chauvinistic of the well placed Malay literatures advocated that only literature written in Malay could be considered “National literature” and whatever was written in other languages would merely be “sectional” or “communal” literature (10).

Yeo (1994) then points out the multicultural theme in Kee’s plays and his multiracial effort. One example can be observed in the success of gathering his cast and crew of 1984: Here and Now and We Could **** You, Mr Birch. Everyone worked together and supported one another as a unified team regardless of their ethnic background, with a goal in mind to artistically craft and stage a play. This effort is a strong example of the potentiality and possibility of having shared values and tolerance across the diverse cultures in Malaysia.

In his interview with Lim Kit Siang, the dramatist explained his political awakening. He said it began on the day he graduated from Universiti Sains Malaysia

(USM). At that time, he was incapable of pursuing his Masters Degree because of the

NEP, which affected his life as he was economically unable to afford his study unless he finds a job. And even as the top student in his class, his application for a scholarship was rejected and was given to someone else. Then, Kee dwelled further about his involvement as a political writer and how his works were influenced by the various events that surrounded him, which subsequently led him to discuss in details on the key topic of change in Malaysia towards becoming a multicultural society. His statement is parallel to an article that he wrote in an online news portal

MalaysiaToday.com (2010) entitled “I am Malaysian First” where an analysis focusing on his penchant for a unified multicultural society in Malaysia is apparent.

In the article, Kee states that he is indeed proud to call himself as “Malaysian first and

Chinese second.” He further declares that even if he were to tell other Chinese

Malaysians about his feeling, he is convinced that nobody will shun him.

In a thesis written by Watt (2005) entitled “De-Mastering Historical Narrative in Robert Yeo’s The Eye of History and Kee Thuan Chye’s We Could **** You, Mr

Birch”, the author examines the work of two Southeast Asian dramatists who made

10 their own kind of indeterminate history. The idea of nation building should be viewed at a different angle from a historic perspective. Watt analyses the works of Yeo’s The

Eye of History (1992) and Kee’s We Could **** You, Mr Birch (1994). In his research, Watt concludes that the dramatists’ portrayal of the subject of history is similar to that of the postmodern, and that the “medium is the message and that any kind of seemingly authoritative voice ought not to go unquestioned, especially in expressive arts” (1992: 89). He further compares:

Yeo’s The eye of History (1992) and Kee’s We Could **** You Mr Birch (1994) are both historical fantasies drawing from historical “certainties” which they undercut which undercut, devalue, deconstruct. Both plays ultimately present the idea that history is as much fiction as fact, and that as it is presented, can hide more than it reveals (89).

Another relevant example is a dissertation entitled “Postcolonial Moments in

Language Politics: Case Studies on Multilingual Performances”, by Wan Li-Chen

(2011). To her, multilingual performance which addresses the language politics in relation to inter-racial, cross-gender, and border-crossing issues are pertinent to the ongoing history of post-colonialism in Malaysia. She uses Kee’s 1984: Here and Now to address the distinction of ethnicity and add complexities to ethnicity as sociolinguistic identity makers.

1.4.3 Criticism on Huzir Sulaiman Huzir Sulaiman experienced the 1990s wave of new drama and theatre talents in local

English playwriting scene in Malaysia. In Carmen Nge’s essay “Theatre in Malaysia: the Contemporary Situation” (2003), she describes the flourishing young talents and the creation of new and exciting theatre companies. During this period, Huzir was very active in theatre scenes and, later, in 1996, he established a theatre company called Straits Theatre Company. There, he excelled in writing full-length plays,

11 comprising mostly satire and comedy, like Atomic Jaya (1998) and Election Day

(2002).

In Holden’s essay, “Communities and Conceptual Limits: Exploring Malaysian

Literature in English” (2009), he discusses generally the history of generations of

English-written literature in Malaysia. Huzir Sulaiman, along with Karim Raslan,

Dina Zaman and Amir Muhammad, is an author who belongs to the fourth generation of local English language writers who experienced the impact of social policies constructed in post-1969. Holden explains that this generation of writers differed from the previous generation of writers in Malaysia because they were culturally more related to centres of cultural production, such as the United States, United Kingdom and Australia. Furthermore, Holden suggests that although they were nominally

Bumiputera (the Malays), they were also from culturally hybrid backgrounds and work in a variety of languages. Ghulam Sarwar Yousof (2010) agrees by stating that effects prior to the hiatus of 13th May and the absence of English works in Malaysia after the implementation of several national policies that downgraded the English language, a new generation of English language writers emerged, including Huzir

Sulaiman.

In a thesis entitled “The Politics of Drama: Post-1969 State Policies and Their

Impact on Theatre in English in Malaysia From 1970 to 1999” by Rowland (2005), the author concludes that the 1990s presented the best opportunity to test changes in the states’ position on issues relating to language, culture and education had in fact affected the shape and form of theatre practice in Malaysia. Rowland further explains that the steady growth of literature writings in English language by local writers at that time assisted Huzir and other young local writers to write expressively more on multiculturalism and politics. Rowland states that Atomic Jaya also explored the

12 impact of the NEP through the central character, Dr. Mary Yuen, the rise of “crony capitalism in the country’s privatisation drive” (2005: 167).

On the other hand, Rejendran (2007) applies Krishen Jit’s staging of Huzir

Sulaiman’s Election Day as a devised multicultural and multilingual theatre. In her essay “Multicultural Belongings on the Contemporary Stage: Krishen Jit’s Theatre of

Identity in Malaysia” (2007), she argues that contemporary experimental theatre in plural postcolonial societies can be critically complex in performing identity because it can be multiple, overlapping and intertwined. She emphasises that these performances consciously resist essentialist frames of fixed and singular identities through dialogical unorthodox frames of staging by incorporating different verbal and performing languages. This defied a compartmentalisation of Malaysian theatre along cultural and linguistic lines. For this reason, just like in his play Election Day, Huzir’s

Atomic Jaya correlates the distinctive cultures. Besides that, it also creates opportunities for performers and spectators to reflect on and also participate in conscious and commonly experienced intersections of culture.

1.5 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 1.5.1 Multicultural Nationalism The tension between the acceptances of national policies has been an important issue in contemporary political debates in many commonwealth nations. For these nations, the struggle to construct a strong national identity draws on the questions of which national ideology should be implemented. As the theory of multicultural nationalism is used to analyse the selected plays, it is necessary to first understand the subject briefly. Multicultural nationalism is an ideology that propagates respects and upholds a sense of equality for all its citizens regardless of their ethnicities and social

13 backgrounds. In return, the citizens, regardless of their milieu, must be bound by the state’s law and pledge their utmost loyalty to the constitution of the state. According to Brown (2000):

They seek a national community within which disadvantaged ethnic minorities can be guaranteed the rights and resources necessary for the attainment of their full development (128-129).

By examining the above statement, it can be inferred that multicultural nationalism is an ideology that gives great emphasis for the state to recognise and protect the rights of everybody to coexist within its boundary. It promotes diversity among its citizens and rejects ethno-cultural approach as a national identity.

In multicultural nationalism, the role of the state towards its subjects is emphasised greatly. The state has the responsibility to uphold social justice for all its citizens and to assure that minority groups are not politically, economically and culturally marginalised. In doing so, the state must be neutral and indifferent towards any particular ethnic background. This is supported by Jae Hyon Lee (2005) when he claims that any nation that seek to adopt multicultural nationalism must consider itself as ethno-culturally neutral and actively recognise the differences among the ethnic groups. Miller (1995) suggests:

The state should not merely tolerate but give equal recognition to each of these identities. No special weight should be given to national identities indeed, such identities are somewhat, suspect, in so far as they are likely to be the product of political manipulation, whereas identities are stemming from gender, ethnicity, religious beliefs and so forth are to be celebrated as authentic expressions of individual difference (120).

Multicultural nationalism is best promoted and adopted in a state or community where several ethnic groups live together in a single nation, such as Canada, Australia,

Singapore and Malaysia. These commonwealth nations are ideal for the implementation of the ideology because historically, these nations received a large