DEVELOPMENT AND COOPERATION D+C

Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit E+Z

International Journal

ISSN 2366-7257 D +C Monthly e-Paper February 2018

national crisis international law sustainability Venezuela is plagued International Criminal China promotes by hyperinflation and Court investigates green growth and a humanitarian emergency violence in Burundi supports UN goals

Military and political power Title: Members of the Indonesian Army Special Forces Commandos march during a parade. D+C february 2018 In German in E+Z Photo: Tatan Syuflana/picture alliance/AP Photo Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit. Both language versions Focus at www.DandC.eu Military and political power Monitor Imperial reach Stemming the spread of non-communicable diseases | How big multinational After the Arab spring, Egypt’s military has gained corporations are promoting unhealthy eating habits | Paradigmshift in the EU’s unprecedented influence in politics and business. common foreign policy | Nowadays: Malawi and China are getting closer | Imprint 4 Ingy Salama, a journalist, assesses the armed Debate forces’ impact on daily life. Page 20 Presidential elections have worsened Honduras’ political crisis | Ahead of elections, Cambodia´s government has disolved the most important opposition party | Democracy versus authoritarianism Misguided tax reform in the USA | Letters to the editor 9 The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has a track record of enforcing demo- Tribune cratic principles and promoting peace. Nonethe- less, problems persist, according to scholar Francine Jácome Vladimir Antwi-Danso. In Eritrea, the former No end in sight to Venezuela’s crisis 13 liberation movement is in power and has estab- lished a totalitarian regime, as a refugee reports. Darleen Seda Pages 22, 24 Burundi’s exit from ICC must not lead to impunity 15

Berthold Kuhn A logic of its own China is serious about sustainable development 17 Violence has been haunting the DR Congo for decades. The regular army and various rebel mili- Focus: Military and political power tias are involved. Christoph Vogel, a researcher at Ingy Salama a Swiss university, explains why peace is hard to Egypt’s armed forces play a dominant role in politics and business 20 bring about. As Dirk Bathe of World Vision elabo- rates, child soldiers are common in the DRC. Interview with Vladimir Antwi-Danso Pages 26, 29 ECOWAS is an African beacon of democracy 22 Domestic power Diglel Fadi Pakistan’s military has far more political clout Why Eritrea has one of the world’s most repressive regimes 24 than its counterparts in India or Bangladesh. Christian Wagner of the SWP think tank told D+C Interview with Christoph Vogel the reasons in an interview. Journalist Edith Koe- Long-lasting crisis: in the DR Congo, the regular army and various militias soemawiria discusses the military’s current role in are perpetrators of violence 26 Indonesia, and scholars Siwach Sripokangkul and John Draper analyse the scenario in Thailand. Dirk Bathe Pages 31, 30, 33 The exploitation of child soldiers must end 29

Edith Koesoemawiria A paramilitary force? Indonesia’s government is involving soldiers in civilian development efforts 30 Frontex is a highly controversial EU agency with the mandate to protect Europe’s external borders. Interview with Christian Wagner Some consider it a paramilitary institution. This Why Pakistan’s military has more political influence than India’s 31 perception is distorted, argues Oliver Harry Ger- son, a jurist at Passau University. Page 34

Siwach Sripokangkul and John Draper In Thailand, the army considers itself the guardian of the monarchy 33 Peace building by military means Peace and development are interdependent Oliver Harry Gerson issues. For this reason, Tinko Weibezahl of Kon- Frontex is a controversial European border-security agency 34 rad-Adenauer-Foundation wants Germany’s Bun- deswehr to cooperate closely with civilian devel- Tinko Weibezahl opment agencies. Julia Maria Egleder of Loyal, In crisis regions, development agencies and armed forces must cooperate 37 the magazine of the association of German reserve soldiers, assesses what role the five African coun- Julia Maria Egleder tries’ new G5 force will play in Mali – and how it What to expect of West Africa’s new G5 force 39 will interact with the UN mission MINUSMA. Pages 37, 39 D+C e-Paper February 2018 2 our view By force or by consensus Debate

Brute force can be the key to many things – power, money or influence. Those who can do so are often tempted to impose their views or will by violent means. By definition, armed forces are always in a position to exercise force. In principle, a nation’s military is supposed to protect it from foreign en- emies. Since World War II, humankind has seen far more military coups than cross-border wars. Africa, Asia and Latin America were affected in particular. Military dictatorships tend to be oppressive, traumatising citizens long term. Typically, however, they fail to fulfil their promises of progress and pros- perity. Eventually, people dare to speak up against repression, and in the long run, political power cannot be enforced only by gun barrels. Sometimes, armed forces are catalysts of change. During the two periods of military rule in Ghana under Jerry Rawlings, the fight against corruption Missing transparency was paramount, and Rawlings later handed power over to a civilian govern- Presidential elections in November have plunged ment voluntarily. In Venezuela, a military coup under Hugo Chávez initiated Honduras into a deep and worsening political social reforms to benefit the poorest. However, his party’s government failed crisis. Incumbent Juan Orlando Hernández ran to diversify the oil-dependent economy, and his successor is now acting in once more even though the constitution rules out an increasingly despotic manner (see essay p. 13). Libya’s first decades under a second term, and he was confirmed in office in Muammar Gaddafi’s rule were marked by big infrastructure projects and in- spite of procedural flaws. Human-rights activist vestments in health and education. However, he is a good example of military Rita Trautmann reckons that people will not rulers clinging to power for a long time and becoming just as cruel and corrupt accept his claim to power. Page 9 as the presidents or kings they have ousted. Sometimes the armed forces step in to get rid of a dictator and are hailed as saviours. A recent example is Zimbabwe, where the military toppled long-time autocrat Robert Mugabe. The problem is that the armed forces had Tribune helped him to stay in power for decades. It remains to be seen whether free and fair elections will now be held as promised. In recent decades, international peacekeeping efforts have made a dif- ference in many places, including South Sudan, Mali or the DR Congo. Troops from many different countries have been deployed as blue helmets by the UN. To some extent, such interventions shape the attitudes of the participating troops as they develop a deeper understanding of multilateral affairs and the relevance of good governance. In far too many countries, however, soldiers are still prone to acting like marauders who attack the very people they are supposed to protect. Germany has had bad experiences with militarism and dictatorship. When West Germany set up a new army a decade after the end of the Hitler dictatorship, a new term was coined: soldiers were defined to be “citizens in uniform”. This approach was new. It implied that soldiers not only had indi- vidual rights but also a duty to uphold the rule of law. German soldiers are not supposed to merely receive commands. If need be, they are expected to diso- Venezuelan abyss bey orders that breach human rights and constitutional principles. Last year, things have kept getting worse in Ven- ezuela. Inflation has spun out of control, the The German notion of “citizens in uniform” means that troops must not regime is acting in an ever more despotic manner, only be trained in the use of weapons. Their responsibilities as citizens matter and a severe humanitarian crisis is affecting ever at least as much. The concept changes the self-perception of armed forces. more people. Francine Jácome of the Venezuelan They do not see themselves as agents of war, but as protectors of peace. Once Institute for Social and Political Studies provides that is the case, citizens can embrace soldiers as equals and need not fear their an overview. Page 13 guns. No path to impunity You’ll find all contributions The International Criminal Court (ICC) is investi- of our focus section plus Sheila Mysorekar gating election-related violence in Burundi even related ones on is member of the editorial team of D+C though the country’s regime has cancelled its ICC our website – they’ll be Development and Cooperation / E+Z membership. As lawyer Darleen Seda elaborates, compiled in next month’s Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit. the essential point is that Burundi was ICC mem-

briefing section. [email protected] Images Photo, Llano/picture-alliance/AP Castillo/picture alliance/AP Ph otos: ber when the crimes occurred, so quitting the ICC is no path to impunity. Seite 15

D+C e-Paper February 2018 3 Monitor: conferences And studies

Preventive action (Work Improvement in Small Enterprises). WISE has been adopted in over 20 countries. Its approach is participatory, convening Employers’ strategic advantage owners of small businesses and addressing various health issues. The idea is not to pre- vent specific diseases, but to improve an en- terprise’s health situation in general. Non-communicable diseases kill 40 million brella organisation of civil-society initia- In low- and middle-income coun- people per year, and more than 80 % of those tives that deal with non-communicable dis- tries, most existing workplace health pro- deaths occur in low- and middle-income eases (NCDs), and the Novartis Foundation grammes focus on HIV/AIDS and tuberculo- countries. Interventions in the workplace can is the philanthropic offshoot of Novartis, sis, according to the NCD Alliance. However, help to prevent such suffering, as the NCD the Swiss-based pharmaceutical giant. The employers are said to be becoming increas- Alliance argues in a recent publication. booklet points out that reducing NCD risks ingly aware of the relevance of NCDs. Men- serves a company’s productivity. Merely tal health, diabetes, cancer and cardiovas- By Hans Dembowski offering employees fruit and vegetables or cular diseases are reported to range among inviting them to physically exercise during their top seven health concerns. Personal behaviour can have serious health brief breaks can make a difference. The authors appreciate holistic ap- impacts. The reason is that smoking, exces- According to the NCD Alliance, more proaches, and emphasise that reaching out sive alcohol consumption, unhealthy diets than two thirds of all multinational corpo- to employees’ families and communities is and physical inactivity are risk factors that rations run some kind of workplace health helpful. Ultimately, NCDs are a whole-of- increase the probability of the most impor- programme. On the other hand, only nine society issue, they argue, so many stake- tant non-communicable diseases, including percent of the world population are covered holders should assume responsibility. Em- ployers, however, are in a strategic position to initiate behavioural change since people spend much time at work and are strongly influenced by their work environment. For obvious reasons, the NCD Alliance wel- comes action taken by governments and non-governmental organisations. It also wants donor governments to pay more at- tention to NCDs. The publication states that NCDs are not diseases of affluence, but rather “a fast- increasing burden”. Obesity, for example, is a global issue, with 1,9 billion people being overweight. That number is twice as high as the number of undernourished people. According to the NCD Alliance, up to 30 % of Africans suffer from hypertension, a condi- tion for heart attacks and strokes. As NCDs cause premature deaths – often after ex- tended periods of illness – they compound problems of poverty and marginalisation.

Links Today, twice as many people around the world are overweight than are undernourished: ILO: WISE (Work Improvement in Small Nicaraguan market vendors. Enterprises). http://www.ilo.org/travail/whatwedo/projects/ WCMS_119287/lang--en/index.htm cardiovascular, respiratory and mental ill- by workplace health programmes. The share NCD Alliance and Novartis Foundation: Tackling nesses as well as cancers and diabetes. is even smaller in developing countries, and noncommunicable diseases in workplace A recent “call to action” urges employ- a mere one percent in Africa. settings in low- and middle-income countries. ers in low- and middle-income countries to The NCD Alliance wants more to hap- https://ncdalliance.org/sites/default/ motivate staff to adopt healthy lifestyles. pen. The study points out that even informal files/resource_files/Tackling%20 It was launched by the NCD Alliance in co- businesses can adopt sensible approaches noncommunicable%20diseases%20in%20 operation with the Novartis Foundation. and praises the International Labour Organ- workplace%20settings%20in%20LMICs_WEB.

The NCD Alliance is an international um- ization (ILO) for a programme called WISE pdf Koene/Lineair Ph oto: Ton

D+C e-Paper February 2018 4 Monitor: conferences And studies

Non-governmental organisations The chapter on advocacy vocacy, awareness and access is the longest with 18 chapters, to health care than their coun- while the shortest (access) has terparts in rich nations, where Rising to a global health only the three chapters men- the public health-care infra- tioned in the list above. structure is stronger. Activists According to the NCD Al- in developing countries are challenge liance, key success factors in- particularly prone to address clude meaningful involvement policymakers, for example in of people with NCDs, sustain- campaigns for the labelling and able fundraising strategies and deterrent taxation of unhealthy Civil-society organisations have brella organisation of more joint interventions of several food and beverages. (dem) a role to play in making socie- than 50 national and regional stakeholders. Media outreach ties handle non-communicable NGOs involved in NCD matters. is appreciated too. Link diseases (NCDs) appropriately. Late last year, the NCD Al- The authors point out that NCD Civil Society Atlas – National Their activism must contribute liance published the NCD Civil the NCD movement is young in and regional NCD alliances in to raising awareness, improving Society Atlas. It takes stock low- and middle-income coun- action. access to health care, advocat- of recent developments in all tries, and that civil-society https://ncdalliance.org/sites/ ing for action and holding poli- world regions, focusing in par- organisations there tend to be default/files/resource_files/ cymakers as well as health-care ticular on Asia, Africa and Latin more active in the fields of ad- NCDAtlas_Web.pdf providers accountable. In low- America. The four “As” (advo- and middle-income countries cacy, accountability, awareness the NCD movement is young – and access) are dealt with sys- and growing. The recently pub- tematically. lished NCD Civil Society Atlas ●● The section on advocacy gives an overview. includes chapters which dis- cuss public mobilisation for Non-communicable diseases healthy food regulations in (NCDs) make poor people suf- Peru, support for national alco- NCD CIVIL SOCIETY fer in particular. They nor- hol policy in Nepal and cooper- mally do not understand their ation with state agencies to pro- condition, only become aware mote sensible diets in Zanzibar. of it late and then lack access ●● In regard to account- to relevant services. At the ability, benchmarking efforts same time, NCDs affect soci- to track and advance regional NATIONAL AND REGIONAL NCD ALLIANCES IN ACTION ety as a whole and thus require NCD action in East Africa, the a whole-of-society response. monitoring of NCD commit- Patients deserve support for ments in the Caribbean and adopting lifestyles that reduce shadow reporting on anti-obe- the impacts of hypertension or sity programmes in Brazil are diabetes, for example. Preven- discussed. tive action in terms of healthy ●● Examples of awareness diets or physical exercise make raising include the creation of sense too, as they make most a journalists forum in Tanza- NCDs less probable. nia, a media campaign in sup- Various stakeholders port of Jordan’s smoking ban from businesses (see main and the training of children, story) to faith-based organisa- who are affected by NCDs, as tions or government agencies peer educators in India. should take interest in the mat- ●● Better-access initiatives ter. Vibrant civil-society activ- are assessed in regard to cancer ism helps to make that happen. care across the Caribbean and Accordingly, coalition building health services in rural Malawi is important, argues the NCD and vulnerable urban commu- Alliance, an international um- nities in Bangladesh.

D+C e-Paper February 2018 5 Monitor: conferences And studies

nutrition countries, and the incidence is especially high in emerging markets such as India, ­China, Mexico and South Africa. According Big Food causes suffering to Kruchem, this pandemic is completely overwhelming society and health-care pro- viders in the countries concerned. Countless people in developing and newly industrial- A handful of corporate giants like Nestlé, ising countries suffer from diabetes-related Unilever, Mars and Danone control the global complications such as cardiovascular dis- food and drink market. In his latest book, ease, strokes and amputations. Patients Thomas Kruchem calls this kind of multi­ tend to lack access to medical treatment. nationals “Big Food” and argues that they are Chronically underfunded governmental actually making people sick even though health systems scarcely have the resources they claim to be promoting a healthy lifestyle. merely to treat acute illnesses. Kruchem denounces giant corpora- By Dagmar Wolf tions for roping international aid organi- sations (NGOs) into their schemes. In des- Big Food’s core business and main source perate need of funding, many NGOs have of income is junk food, industrially manu- agreed to problematic partnerships with factured and processed food. The products the multinationals and end up facing seri- include lots of “empty calories” from fat and ous conflicts of interest. Food giants seek sugar, excessive amounts of salt as well as to reap the benefits of the “good reputa- artificial flavours and colours. With junk- tion” of organisations such as UNICEF food sales stagnating in industrialised and the World Food Programme (WFP), for countries, Kruchem says companies are example. Big Food is also systematically now aggressively marketing their products co-opting board seats at the WHO and the in emerging and developing nations. FAO in attempts to broaden its influence Kruchem accuses the corporate giants on global health and nutrition policy, the of deceiving consumers. Their beguilingly author says. attractive packaging, misleading TV com- Kruchem identifies the Global Alli- mercials and nutritional claims appeal to ance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) as one parents’ desire to raise their children well, of Big Food’s most powerful confederates but actually encourages people to buy food that has opened the door to promising mar- that makes non-communicable diseases kets in poor countries. Created in 2002 and more likely. Advertising suggests processed funded in part by the Gates Foundation, its foods are healthier than food prepared from mission is to fight malnutrition by focusing fresh ingredients at home, which is plainly on nutrient-enriched food products. This not true. Big Food also promotes processed approach has given industry the green light food as better tasting, essential to a modern to market junk food enriched with dietary lifestyle and a convenient time-saver. It is supplements as “healthy”. often cheaper than fresh foods. Big multinational corporations promote Kruchem wants all kinds of stake- The substantial rise in junk food con- unhealthy eating and drinking habits in holders to contribute to a concerted effort sumption has dramatic impacts on global developing countries: sales stall in New Delhi. to push back against Big food. He sees roles health, as Kruchem explains in his book for consumers, civil-society organisations, “Am Tropf von Big Food” (Addicted to Big governments, UN organisations, health- Food). Obesity levels have risen alarmingly. care providers, educational institutions and According to the World Health Organiza- and muscle development, and dramatical- scientists. tion (WHO), the number of overweight chil- ly increases a child’s susceptibility to dia- dren has increased more than tenfold in the betes, cancer and cardiovascular disease as last 40 years; 124 million 5- to 19-year-olds an adult. Obese and overweight children Book are obese, and an additional 213 million are also wrestle with psychological issues, Kruchem, T., 2017: Am Tropf von Big Food overweight. The share of overweight chil- such as low self-esteem, social exclusion – Wie die Lebensmittelkonzerne den Süden dren will continue to rise with the expan- and depression. erobern und arme Menschen krank machen. sion of Big Food. Worldwide, the diabetes rate has near- Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. (Addicted to These children face a range of health ly quadrupled between 1980 and 2016. To- Big Food – How food multinationals are risks, the author emphasises. Excess day one in eleven adults is diabetic. Eighty conquering the Global South and making the

weight has a negative impact on skeletal percent of those affected live in developing poor sick.) Ph oto: Stefan Mauer/picture-alliance/dpa

D+C e-Paper February 2018 6 Monitor: conferences And studies

Foreign policy foreign policy. Relevant topics include mi- gration and cyber security, for example. The aspiration is to use military, civilian as well Paradigm shift in the EU as economic instruments. The Security Union is mainly driven by the European Commission and aims to deepen European cooperation in security The European Union’s Common Foreign and enable Europe to stabilise and transform its matters. Among other things, the EU has Security Policy (CFSP) is currently undergo- neighbours as well as defend its interests in established a counter-terrorism centre at ing a paradigm shift, argues a new research European and global politics. However, the Europol, tightened gun laws and adopted paper published by the German Institute for EU did not manage to settle and contain con- a counter-terrorism directive. International and Security Studies (SWP). flicts in its European, Near Eastern and Af- The Defence Union is a project of for- Instead of stabilising and transforming rican neighbourhood. In the meantime, ob- eign and defence ministers who want to neighbouring countries and regions, the servers claim that the CFSP has become an coordinate member states’ defence efforts focus is now on building the EU’s own resil- instrument of a few powerful member states. more closely. For example, the creation of ience in the face of crises. Building up resilience against internal a European Defence Fund is supposed to and external threats is now the overarching enable joint investments in research and de- By Monika Hellstern CFSP goal. That is spelled out in the EU’s velopment. new Global Strategy of June 2016. The strat- Effective defence of EU territory has Observers are surprised by the increased at- egy interprets resilience as the ability to de- always depended on cooperation with tention the CFSP is getting, writes Annegret fend the EU against attacks, repair damages NATO. As Bendiek shows, however, both in- Bendiek, a researcher at SWP in Berlin, in and build structures that are less vulnerable stitutions strive to stabilise other countries, a recently published research paper. Espe- to threats. According to Bendiek, this focus so their actions should complement each cially the Common Security and Defence on its own security is driving a more con- other. Additionally, they plan to work to- Policy (CSDP) has seen major reforms and servative approach to foreign and security gether in the defence against cyber attacks. reform proposals. Internally, efforts to make issues. According to Bendiek, the emerging EU institutions more efficient by gradually Though many observers criticise the Security and Defence Union will thus be- replacing the need for unanimity with quali- strategy’s failure to define structures and in- come increasingly powerful, tackling typi- fied majority voting are underway. struments, efforts to implement the strategy cal domestic issues such as migration, cyber Bendiek explains the CFSP revival are underway. Matters have been acceler- security or counter-terrorism. For example, with several political and legal dynamics. ated by the UK’s decision to leave the EU. In- with its operation EUNAVFOR MED, also They include external factors like: deed, the EU is working on boosting policy known as Sophia, the EU is taking military ●● the return of war to Europe as Russia coherence, as Bendiek writes, in terms of: action against smugglers in order to stop hu- annexed Crimea, ●● the Security Union, man trafficking and illegal arms transports. ●● the threat of terrorism and ●● the Defence Union and Bendiek recommends four areas for ●● the looming US withdrawal from ●● EU-NATO cooperation. further reform: Europe. While the Security Union and the De- 1. The EU should adopt a “white The old paradigm was too ambitious, fence Union are formally separate, a “com- book” on security and defence to define says Bendiek. Established in 1993 by the prehensive approach” will be taken to issues European interests and clarify strategic Maastricht Treaty, the CFSP was supposed to that lie at the intersection of domestic and questions. 2. The president of the commission (currently Jean-Claude Juncker) should Federica Mogherini, also be made the top policymaker for for- the EU high eign policy and security affairs, so the office representative for of the high representative (currently Federi- foreign policy and ca Mogherini) would become redundant. security affairs, with 3. Decisions should be taken by ma- Jean-Claude Juncker, jority voting rather than consensus. the commission 4. The European Parliament should president. have oversight over the CSFP.

Link Bendiek, A., 2017: A paradigm shift in the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy: From transformation to Resilience. https://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/

products/research_papers/2017RP11_bdk.pdf Ph oto: picture-alliance/dpa

D+C e-Paper February 2018 7 nowadays D+C correspondents write about daily life in developing countries

sity of Science and Technology and the Gaining from presidential villas. ImprINT Following a China-Africa summit in D+C Development and Cooperation closeness to China South Africa last year, China said its com- Vol. 45, 2018 mitment to Africa will be to “implement D+C is the identical twin of the German edition E+Z Internet: www.DandC.eu cooperation in the fields of industrialisa- D 12 107 ISSN 0721-2178 China has been accused of ripping Africa tion, agricultural modernisation, infra- D+C Development and Cooperation is funded by Germany´s Federal in general – and Malawi in particular – off structure, finance, green development, Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and commis- its resources such as timber and minerals. trade and investment facilitation, poverty sioned by ENGAGEMENT GLOBAL. D+C does not serve as a But the Malawian government argues that reduction and people’s welfare, public governmental mouthpiece. Our mission is to provide a credible forum of debate, involving governments, civil society, the private sector and the country has benefited a lot from the health, people-to-people exchanges as academia at an international level. D+C is the identical twin of E+Z close ties with China. well as peace and security,” with a total Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit, the German edition.

Many people criticise that China of $ 60 billion in financial support in the ENGAGEMENT GLOBAL gGmbH only wants to exploit African countries’ next three years. Service für Entwicklungsinitiativen Tulpenfeld 7 natural resources. But Rejoice Shumba, But in Malawi, agriculture, health D-53113 Bonn spokesperson of Malawi’s Ministry of and education still lag behind despite Phone: +49 (0) 2 28 2 07 17-0 Fax: +49 (0) 2 28 2 07 17-150 Foreign Affairs maintains that this is China’s promises. Shumba argues that www.engagement-global.de not true in the case of Malawi. “Natural “there are many variables which affect Advisory board: resources are a source of income. We de- Malawi’s economic development. For Thomas Loster, Prof. Dr. Katharina Michaelowa, cide ourselves how much should be sold. instance, Malawi relies heavily on agri- Prof. Dr. Dirk Messner, Petra Pinzler, Hugh Williamson Whenever Malawi decides to sell any of culture, but we are hard-hit by climate- Publisher: its natural resources, it sells to the highest change effects.” FAZIT Communication GmbH bidder,” Shumba says. According to official statistics, in Executive directors: Peter Hintereder and Hannes Ludwig

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a new international airport. They will Opinions expressed by authors indicated in bylines do not necessarily be financed with loans from Exim Bank reflect the views of ENGAGEMENT GLOBAL, the publisher or the editor and his team. Individual articles may be reprinted provided the of China and implemented by China source is mentioned and two voucher copies are sent to the editor Gezhouba Group. unless copyright is explicitly indicated. This does not apply to the photographs published in D+C Development and Cooperation and E+Z Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit. The editors request that no Raphael Mweninguwe unsolicitated manuscripts be sent. However, they do welcome proposals along with abstracts that serve to outline submissions. is a freelance journalist based in Malawi. Prices (incl. mailing charges): single issue: € 2.20 raphael.mweninguwe@ annual subscription, Germany: € 14.00 hotmail.com annual subscription, world: € 18.00

D+C e-Paper February 2018 8 Debate: opinions

Elections of emergency and a curfew. The police and armed forces killed more than 30 persons. Three weeks after the election, the No transparency election commission officially announced that Hernandez had won. The opposition contested the result, but the powerful elite – including the church, the military and Honduras’ crisis has been escalating after the During the campaign, opportunities business leaders – fast expressed support controversial presidential election in Novem- were not equal. The oligarchy controls all for Hernández. ber. Juan Orlando Hernández, the incumbent, major media, so even Hernández’ critics ex- Election observers from the EU and was declared the victor even though the con- pected him to win. To everyone’s surprise, the OAS (Organization of American States) stitution does not permit a second term and however, the first projection showed that noted that the vote counting has been seri- the election was marred by serious flaws. Nasralla was leading by five percent. None- ously flawed. The OAS proposed a rerun of Before a general strike was announced on theless, Hernández declared that he had the election, but Hernández stated that the 19 January, at least 31 protestors were killed won that night. Nasralla claimed victory OAS was interfering in domestic affairs. according to Amnesty International. too. The truth is that Honduras does not The election commission was in a jam. simply need a new election; the country’s By Rita Trautmann Then its computer system failed, and no democracy needs a comprehensive reboot. more results were announced. Three days Unfortunately, the OAS is unlikely to act in The election was controversial even before later, with the system up and running again, a stringent manner, and some members, it took place. The reason was that Hernán- data showed Hernández leading by a small including the USA, have actually accepted dez ran in spite of the constitution ruling margin. Public frustration was widespread, Hernandez’ triumph. out a second term (see my comment in D+C/ and rumours spread fast. On 27 January, Hernández was sworn E+Z/D+C e-Paper 2017/04, p. 15). He was According to the ruling party, the in for a second term. The event was marred able to do so because he managed to bring votes in rural areas – in particular the region by huge protests. Opposition leaders had the Supreme Court and the election com- where Hernandez is from – could only be rallied people to express their anger. At the mission under his control. There no longer counted late. However, it hardly seems cred- same time, the opposition leaders are con- are separate branches of government in this ible that rural votes made the difference. sidering to forge an alliance against Hernan- Central American country. For Hernandez to overcome Nasralla, all dez in the parliament. In order to prevent Hernández’ re- citizens of the president’s home department The election and its aftermath have election, the centre-left PINU party and would have had to have cast their ballots for shown that Honduras is neither really in- the LIBRE party of Manuel Zelaya, a former him. That was not the case. Forged docu- dependent nor a true democracy. The US president, who was ousted by the military, ments were found soon. administration wants the country to serve joined forces. Salvador Nasralla, a former People expressed their anger in peace- as strategically relevant partner in Central sports reporter, was the candidate of their ful protests, but there was occasional riot- America, expecting it to support Washing- “alliance against dictatorship”. ing too. The government declared a state ton unconditionally. In this context, it is of minor relevance that the Hernández gov- ernment is evidently involved in illegal drug trade. A new trend is that people have been becoming politically more aware in recent weeks. A large share is younger than 30 years, and this generation will keep fighting for a better future.

Rita Trautmann is a social anthropologist who worked in Honduras for the Deutscher Entwicklungs­ dienst, which has since been merged with GIZ. She took part in election monitoring on behalf of Honduras Delegation, a network of European human-rights groups. [email protected] Blog: http://hondurasdelegation.blogspot.de/

Juan Orlando Hernández is set to stay president of Honduras. search/label/Delegation2016 (in German) Photo Ph oto: Castillo/picture alliance/AP

D+C e-Paper February 2018 9 Debate: opinions

Democracy democracy”. The European Union considers the ruling to be arbitrary, and as a result, the election “cannot be seen as legitimate”. The The path is been cleared EU and the USA withdrew their support of the election. Cambodia does not depend on EU and US support however since it enjoys for Hun Sen support from other powers as well, includ- ing the government’s “best friend” and big- gest foreign donor China. Beijing immedi- ately pledged more money to fill the gap. Ahead of general elections, the Cambodian of all kinds are commonplace. This time, There is little reason for hope that true government has dissolved the main opposi- however, Hun Sen seemed to fear the oppo- justice and democracy will prevail soon in tion party CNRP (Cambodian National Res- sition more than before. In 2013, the CNRP the small Southeast Asian country. Kem cue Party). The reason is that the opposition – a merger of the Sam Rainsy Party and the Sokha, the head of the CNRP, was arrested had been catching up with the ruling Cambo- Human Rights Party – already was a serious in September on charges of treason for al- dian People’s Party (CPP) under long-term competitor of CPP. It got 44.5 % of the vote legedly conspiring with the USA to over- Prime Minister Hun Sen. This is a big blow to compared to the CPP’s 48.8 %. Municipal throw the government (see my blog post of 6 democracy in a struggling country. elections yielded a similar result in 2017. September 2017). He faces up to 30 years in To be on the safe side, Hun Sen’s gov- prison. In the aftermath, many senior party By Katja Dombrowski ernment made the Supreme Court dissolve members fled the country in fear. After the the CNRP in November on the grounds of CNRP dissolution, Kem Sokha said through Cambodian politics is quite straightforward: plotting a revolution. The main opposition his lawyer that he was unlikely to seek re- the Cambodian People’s Party (CPP) is the party thus lost all of its elected representa- lease from pre-trial detention because he ruling party, the prime minister is called tives at the local and national level; 118 of had “no faith” in the country’s court system. Hun Sen, and the opposition is an ambi- its officials are banned from politics for five In a new year’s address he called for free tious but rather hopeless undertaking. It’s years. The party‘s seats in parliament were and fair elections, national unity and non- been this way for decades. In power since distributed to other parties. Senior CNRP violence to solve the political crisis. 1985, Hun Sen is the world’s longest serv- members have filed a Supreme Court com- The authoritarian regime is cracking ing prime minister – and he has no plans to plaint against the decision, but that is prob- down on other critical voices too. Media give up this position that, apart from power, ably just part of the party’s death struggle. outlets were shut, among them the English brought him huge wealth. Charles Santiago, the chairman of language Cambodia Daily. NGOs are being Nominally a democracy, Cambodia the ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human intimidated and threatened. One of them regularly holds general elections, and the Rights, called the dissolution of the CNRP is the Cambodian Center for Human Rights next ones are due in July. “Irregularities” “the final nail in the coffin for Cambodian (CCHR) that Kem Sokha had founded in 2002 “to promote and protect democracy and human rights in Cambodia”. It’s been a long and uphill struggle. Even imprisonment is not a new experi- ence for Kem Sokha: he was arrested in December 2005 ahead of senate elections in January 2006 and imprisoned for harm- ing the government. After broad protests, at national and international levels, he was set free ahead of the visit of a high-ranking US diplomat. Today, Hun Sen’s authoritarian rule is more consolidated than ever. He doesn’t hide his will to run Cambodia for many more years. He is only 65 years old. That would give him 28 more years if he follows the example of former Zimbabwean Presi- dent Robert Mugabe, who was forced to hand over the baton at age 93 in November last year (see comment by Henning Melber in D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2017/12, p. 12). For the time being, the path for Hun Sen has been

Kem Sokha after his release from prison in January 2006. This time, he faces up to 30 years in jail. cleared. Ph oto: kd

D+C e-Paper February 2018 10 Debate: opinions

Bad governance be avoided, so it is dangerous to draft re- forms in haste. Inviting public responses to draft legislation is a good way to avoid mis- Democratic procedures serve a takes. Democratic procedures serve a pur- pose, and using shortcuts and bypasses is an expression of arrogant hubris. purpose As the Economist also pointed out, “the whiff of self-enrichment does not help”. President Trump has unprecedentedly kept his tax returns secret, so one cannot pre- In December, Republicans in the US Con- the USA needs public investment in infra- cisely say how the new tax regime will affect gress showed the world how not to make tax structure, but less tax money means even his billionaire’s wealth. He says it will hurt policy. Even the Financial Times and The less scope for funding. him, but that is probably a lie. He owns the Economist, which are not run by left-wing The doublespeak was amazing. Dur- kind of businesses that benefit from the re- activists, disagreed with their tax-cutting ing the election campaign last year, Trump form. Moreover, the reduction of the estated frenzy. claimed that high stock-market indices tax will one day substantially boost his chil- indicated a dangerous bubble, and that in- dren’s inheritence. By Hans Dembowski creasingly good employment data were fake By the way, the reform proposals flew news. The trends have not changed, but he in the face of Trump’s campaign promises. Just like President Donald Trump himself and his Republican friends now claim that The beneficiaries will not be the middle often does, the tax reform reminds observ- the data prove that they are doing wonder- class and even less the people who are suf- ers of bad governance in much poorer coun- ful work. They have a habit of shifting goal- fering the adverse impacts of globalisation. tries than the USA. This legislation will dramatically increase the national debt and exacerbate problems of inequality. Lawmak- More money for ers did not assess options diligently, but Barron, Eric, Tiffany avoided the regular process that would have and Ivanka Trump. involved the opposition party and various interest groups. Their secretive arrogance meant that no one could get a clear under- standing of the reform impacts. Some tax cuts were temporary, others permanent, and various exemptions will disappear. Republican leaders pledged ab- surd things. No, the tax cuts will not pay for themselves by triggering spectacular growth that leads to additional tax revenues. This promise neither worked out when the Reagan administration made it in the 1980s nor when the Bush administration did so 20 years later. Republicans posed as deficit hawks posts, but – apart from taxes – have failed to On the contrary, it is foreseeable that Repub- when Barack Obama was president, but pass any major legislation. licans will now want to cut social-protection now they have decided to let the national Competent journalists have pointed spending to rein in the debt. debt grow by up to $ 1.5 trillion in ten years. out these and many other shortcomings. All summed up, this is the kind of When Obama took office, the economy was It is obvious that something is going seri- legislation one would expect from an arro- depressed, but they opposed fiscal stim- ously wrong when the pro-business Finan- gant autocrat in a poor country. The elite uli. Now that the economy is close to full cial Times and the Economist disagree pro- will become still more privileged, and per- employment, they feel the need to boost foundly with tax cuts. sonal benefits accrue to the president and growth. Among other things, the Economist his family. Republican legislators paid no Company profits are currently quite bemoaned the Republicans’ effort to rush attention to what resources the govern- high, however, and most of that money is through legislation without appropriate ment needs to pay for the services it is sup- being invested in financial assets. There is public deliberation: “A robust and factual posed to deliver. Even before they passed no reason to believe that, as Republicans debate is essential to good policymaking.” the tax reform, conservative Senator Orrin claim, yet higher profits due to tax cuts will This aspect cannot be over-emphasised. By Hatch began to argue that they had run out be used for the job-creating expansion of its very nature, tax legislation is complex. of money to spend on health care for poor

production capacities. On the other hand, Loopholes and unintended side effects must children. Ph oto: Theiler/picture-alliance/newscom

D+C e-Paper February 2018 11 Debate: opinions

ter: “Investment is key to decent tural adjustment was about in Letters to the editor work agenda”, D+C/E+Z e-Paper the 1980s. Labour laws were 2017/11, p. 12. changed, the labour market I found the focus section on for- was deregulated, laws on min-

DEVELOPMENT AND COOPERATION D+ C mal and informal employment ing, oil exploitation, invest- ENTWICKLUNG UND ZUSAMMENARBEIT E +Z most interesting and generally ments and many other issues

International Journal consider the contributions to were reformed. The conditions ISSN 2366-7257 D +CMONTHLY E-PAPER November 2017 be inspiring, substantial and were made ever more favour- worth reading. In particular, able to investors. Over dec- I appreciate the elaborations of ades, the country was opened ROHINGYA COOPERATION CLIMATE CHANGE Global silence Why India is How climate-smart in view of an important agriculture can Ndongo Samba Sylla who man- and its market totally liberal- genocidal action partner provide solutions aged to assess the economic sit- ised. All doors were opened to uation concisely on two pages, investors, but still they didn’t spelling out both major labour come.” Every single statement market challenges as well as the in the letter could be proven outlines of an alternative devel- wrong like this, but I will stop opment paradigm. here. Accordingly, I found the Eva-Maria Bruchhaus, Cologne letter to the editor shocking. It is frustrating to see so-called experts coming up again and Oriental slave trade again with judgments that are Colonial legacy not based on much knowledge, Re.: Kehinde Andrews: “We’re if any knowledge at all. I won’t looking at really big numbers”, Creative policymaking I feel compelled to add deal with every misstatement, D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2016/11, p. 30, that one should always take but only with the letter’s favour- and Hans Dembowski: “An era Re.: Reinhard Woytek, letter: “In- into account all international able assessment of structural of darkness”, D+C/E+Z e-Paper vestment is key to decent work dimensions in this era of glo- adjustment policies in 1980s 2017/10, p. 6. agenda”, D+C/E+Z e-Paper balisation. Rich nations are and 1990s. The author com- I find it striking that debate on 2017/11, p. 12. known to poach health profes- pletely disregards the devastat- reparations only focuses on The Indian experience of the sionals from the developing ing impacts of those policies. the western slave trade. The past three decades shows that world, so would it not be only Let me just quote one so-called oriental slave trade, market liberalisation indeed fair if they assumed respon- African voice on the matter. which served to recruit troops facilitates private investments, sibility in a spirit of global Moussa Tschangari, the hu- for Indian sultanates and work- but that in itself does not stem solidarity to plug gaps thus cre- man-rights activist from Niger, ers for Arab countries, is never the social plague of poverty. In- ated? One such step may be to stated in the most recent news- mentioned, even though it is es- novative approaches are need- allow developing countries to letter of medico international: timated that a large number of ed, as Reinhard Woytek’s letter use generic drugs rather than “The greatest challenge is to Africans were captured and sent fails to acknowledge in suggest- insisting on pharmaceutical form a government that is able east as slaves from the 8th cen- ing that solidarity would only corporations’ patented drugs to stop the decline. (…) That tury on. (One source is: Roland ever amount to subsidising which are often priced at ten can only be done if one under- Oliver and Gervase Mathew, state-owned corporate behe- times the actual cost and are stands how Niger got into this eds.: History of East Africa, Ox- moths. India’s Mahatma Gan- therefore unaffordable for the situation. The main reason is ford: University Press 1963.) dhi National Rural Employ- citizens of developing coun- the misguided structural poli- Moreover, the facts in ment Guarantee Act, ensuring tries. cies that destroyed public ser- the review of Shashi Tharoor’s 100 days of paid work at the Dr. A.K. Ghosh, Kolkata vices in health care, education, book about British imperialism legal minimum wage for jobless food supply and ultimately all in India do seem quite familiar. men and women is an example other sectors of fundamental I’m surprised that Karl Marx is of creative policymaking that Disregarded impacts relevance.” not mentioned at all. He point- made a difference in some of As for the statement, ed out everything discussed in the country’s most backward Re.: Ndongo Samba Sylla: “Why that foreign investors will cre- the article as early as 1853 in the agrarian areas. Also, condition- the western model does not work“, ate jobs once the free market New York Daily Tribune (June al cash transfers proved useful D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2017/10, reigns, his response is: “Don’t 5/issue 3804). in Latin America. p. 24, and Reinhard Woytek, let- forget the reforms that struc- Klaus von Freyhold, Bremen

D+C e-Paper February 2018 12 Tribune: in-depth analysis

National crisis the extent to which the crisis worsened in 2017. Poverty and malnutrition, particularly among children, are on the rise, and deaths Venezuela on the brink from starvation and medication are increas- ing. Accusations of election fraud in all three of last year’s elections provide the In the past year, the crisis in Venezuela has cial institutions consider the situation in clearest illustration of the political decline gotten worse across the board. Hyperinfla- Venezuela a partial default and predict that the country has experienced in the past tion, trends towards a military dictatorship things will get even worse this year. six months. Grave doubts were cast on the and a humanitarian emergency dominate the The sanctions that the US and Canada demo­cratic legitimacy of those in power. lives of the people – and that has interna- imposed against public officials and certain The trouble began with the election of the tional implications. transactions have provided the government members of the Constituent Assembly. The with a perfect excuse. It calls the measures opposition did not take part in the election By Francine Jácome “economic warfare”, painting itself as a vic- and therefore criticised it as unconstitu- tim. A first set of EU sanctions was intro- tional. Venezuela has been unable to meet all of duced in January. Travel bans were imposed its international payment obligations since on seven members of the government, the manipulated results hyperinflation began in October. Politically, National Electoral Council, the Supreme it is moving closer and closer to a dictator- Court and the Constituent Assembly and According to the top election authority, ship, with the military becoming ever more their assets frozen. over 8 million people cast their ballots in powerful. The people are suffering a hu- The economic crisis has had enor- the Constituent Assembly election, but the manitarian crisis due to a shortage of food mous consequences for the lives of peo- opposition thinks that number is much and medication. Other serious bottlenecks ple all over the country. Due to the lack of smaller. Voter turnout has never been that are evident in health care moreover (see food and pharmaceuticals, the quality of high, not even during the best days of Hugo my comment in D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2017/07, life has deteriorated dramatically. Then Chávez, the previous president. Smartmat- p. 10). came inflation. The Encovi (Encuesta sobre ic, the company that provided the voting The situation has international con- Condiciones de Vida en Venezuela) survey, machines and software since 2004, con- sequences. On the one hand, the num- conducted by the leading independent uni- firmed that the results were manipulated. ber of migrants has risen sharply, and versities in Venezuela, found that in 2016, The majority of opposition parties the impact is felt in particular in the 82 % of all households were poor and 52 % took part in the gubernatorial elections on border areas near Venezuela, Colombia were extremely poor. The survey also re- 15 October. However, they complained of and Brazil, as well as in other countries vealed the extent of malnutrition: 72 % of a number of irregularities, most of which in the region. On the other hand, the in- respondents reported unwanted weight loss have been accurately documented. The ternational community is exerting in- and 30 % claimed to eat merely twice a day surprising result was that 18 governorships creased pressure on the government of or even less. went to the ruling party and only five to the Nicolás Maduro, which it perceives as Moreover, social inequality has sharp- opposition. a dictatorship that is openly violating ly increased. All relevant indicators show Based on the accusations of election human rights. Because of such pressure, fraud, which also concerned the misuse parts of the opposition are now negotiat- of a specially issued pro-government ID – ing with the government, though it is com- Carnet de la Patria – by the ruling Partido pletely unclear where these talks will lead. Socialista Unido de Venezuela (PSUV), the While inflation already stood at over oppositional alliance Mesa de la Unidad 2,600 % in 2017, it is expected to hit any- Latest developments Democrática (MUD) decided not to take part where between 5,000 % and 10,000 % in in the December mayoral elections. Conse- 2018 if no economic countermeasures quently, the ruling party took power in the At the end of January, Venezuela’s are taken. Oil production has declined as overwhelming majority of municipalities. Constituent Assembly announced a result of poorly maintained facilities and The dominance of the governing par- presidential elections will be held on a lack of new investments. The entire sec- ty, coupled with election fraud, have led to 30 April. They were originally set to tor has virtually collapsed. Since oil makes increasing political apathy among the oppo- take place at the end of this year. The up about 95 % of the country’s exports, the sition. The opposition leaders who founded Supreme Court excluded the opposi- government has fewer and fewer resources the “Soy Venezuela” alliance in September tion coalition MUD from contesting in at its disposal. have openly encouraged such disenchant- the elections. The negotiation process As of November, the government and ment. However, it seems that the govern- between government and opposition the state-run oil company PDVSA have been ment is strategically trying to undermine thus looks obsolete. unable to service their external debts on trust in the electoral system and divide the time, if at all. Important international finan- opposition.

D+C e-Paper February 2018 13 Tribune: in-depth analysis

Another important factor is the con- the military. The question has been raised situation, the Constituent Assembly and the duct of the Constituent Assembly. It has whether Venezuela is becoming a new kind Truth Commission. declared itself to have full powers and has of military dictatorship. By mid January, several meetings had assumed important jurisdictions. It has also The latest example of this trend is the taken place, but the negotiating parties were become an instrument of political persecu- appointment of a general from the Guar- unable to reach an agreement. It seemed tion, starting with the unlawful removal of dia Nacional Bolivariana – a branch of the extremely doubtful that the parties would the attorney general, who was replaced by armed forces – to head both the Ministry of agree on economic and political reforms a functionary with close ties to the govern- Energy and the PDVSA. He has no knowl- that might lead to a reorganisation of the ment. edge of or experience in the oil business and governing bodies and restore democracy to As of the end of 2017, the Assembly’s is not qualified to lead the industry out of the country – especially given the humani- greatest achievement was charging the its current crisis. But in the power struggle tarian crisis. leaders of the state-run oil company with among the ruling elite, he has paved the way The fundamental question is whether corruption. Venezuela’s current govern- for other members of the military to take the main cause of the current situation can ment is indeed considered to be the most over the country’s most important sector. be traced back to divisions within Venezue-

Children receiving a free meal at a soup kitchen in Caracas funded by the opposition.

corrupt that the country has ever had. The Pressure from the international com- lan society between those loyal to the gov- recent allegations may however stem from munity has set in motion a negotiation pro- ernment versus the opposition, or to a small an internal conflict within the ruling party cess that the government calls a “dialogue”. elite that has abused its institutional and rather than a genuine desire for justice. It is being moderated by José Rodríguez military power to keep its hands on the Even though the Constituent Assem- Zapatero, the former prime minister of reins, despite the fact that the majority of bly does not officially have the power to Spain, and Danilo Medina, the president of the people want change. legislate, it nevertheless passed “a constitu- the Dominican Republic. Upon request from tional law against hate and for peaceful co- the opposition, other participants include Francine Jácome existence and tolerance”. This law opens the the foreign ministers of Chile and Mexico as is the executive director of door to suppress opposition voices. well as representatives from Bolivia, Nicara- and a researcher at the Another factor is the growing role that gua and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Venezuelan Institute for the military is playing in the most important According to reports, the agenda will ad- Social and Political Studies areas of government. Over 30 % of the cabi- dress, among other things, political rights, (INVESP).

net are either active or retired members of political prisoners, the economic and social [email protected] Images Ph oto: Llano/picture-alliance/AP

D+C e-Paper February 2018 14 Tribune: in-depth analysis

International law involved in committing these crimes. The youth wing is known as the “Imbonerakure”. ICC Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda issued Don’t let them off the hook a first statement on 8 May 2015 and then ran a so-called preliminary examination. In or- der to formally investigate and charge sus- pects, the prosecutor needs the ICC’s approv- The International Criminal Court (ICC) has experiencing severe violence since April al, which was issued in the recent decision. asserted its jurisdiction over crimes commit- 2015. The crisis was triggered when Presi- Nkurunziza, who stayed in power after ted in member states. It has started investi- dent Pierre Nkurunziza announced that he controversial elections, wanted to avoid an gations of election-related violence in would run for a third term in office in spite ICC case. Therefore, Burundi declared its Burundi even though that country hastily of constitutional term limits. Burundi saw withdrawal from the Rome Statute, which cancelled its membership after the crisis widespread demonstrations, and the gov- is the legal basis of the ICC, on 26 October when leaders understood they were going to ernment’s response was a brutal crackdown. 2016. The withdrawal came to effect a year be prosecuted. According to human-rights groups, govern- later. The big question thus is whether the ment forces killed more that 1,000 people ICC has the authority to investigate and By Darleen Seda and displaced over 400,000. Masses fled to prosecute crimes committed in Burundi. neighbouring countries. The Court has jurisdiction over war On 9 November 2017, a pre-trial chamber of Allegations of murder, torture, rape, crimes, crimes against humanity and geno- the ICC formally authorised Prosecutor Fa- enforced disappearances and persecution cide. More recently, crimes of aggression tou Bensouda to initiate war-crimes inves- caught the attention of the Office of the Pros- have been added. According to the principle tigations into the situation in Burundi. This ecutor of the ICC. The crimes were allegedly of territoriality, this jurisdiction is limited to is a response to ongoing violence resulting committed by state agents and other groups the territory of its member states. Burundi’s from a constitutional crisis in the small Cen- who were implementing state policies. Apart government argues that the ICC has lost its tral-African country. The decision has put from the Burundian National Police, some authority to investigate and refuses to co­ the ICC in an unprecedented situation. units of the Burundian army and the nation- operate with the ICC. Located south of Rwanda with a popu- al intelligence service as well as members The ICC, which is based in The Hague, lation of about 10 million, Burundi has been of the ruling party’s youth wing were also disagrees however. It argues that it has juris-

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D+C e-PaperEigenanzeige Februar Twitter.inddy 2018 3 29.01.2018 14:15:22 15 Tribune: in-depth analysis

diction over all crimes allegedly committed Magufuli have condemned the decision by while Burundi was a member state to the the ICC to commence investigations into Rome Statute. The ICC view is that, once Burundi. According to them, the ICC is thus a state has accepted its jurisdiction, it re­ undermining regional peace initiatives. mains bound for as long as it continues to be Burundi Museveni’s statement matters in particular a member. Essentially, this jurisdiction runs Bujumbura since he chairs the East African Commu­ from the time a state ratifies the Rome Stat­ nity (EAC), a regional community with six ute to at least one year after a withdrawal members (Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, South notification. The acceptance of such juris­ Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi). diction thus remains unaffected even when Earlier, the African Union (AU) had a state withdraws. adopted a non-binding strategy calling for Consequently, the ICC retains author­ its members to collectively withdraw from ity to investigate and prosecute crimes the ICC, accusing it of unfairly targeting committed up to and including 26 October will certainly be very difficult for Prosecutor African leaders. The drive for the collective 2017 when Burundi officially stopped being Bensouda and her team to gather evidence withdrawal from the Rome Statute waned a member state. Moreover, the Court stated unless Burundi’s government cooperates. soon, but the decision to open investiga­ explicitly that Burundi remains obliged to The ICC’s Kenyan experience exem­ tions in Burundi could restore these calls. comply with its decisions and cooperate plifies the difficulties of non-cooperation. While some African leaders have personal fully with its investigations. After the post-election violence in 2007/08, reasons to fear the court, the vast majority The decision of the ICC is much wel­ current President Uhuru Kenyatta and his of African people not only appreciate that it come. Given the catastrophic political and deputy William Ruto were both charged has an important role to play, but actually humanitarian situation in Burundi, the inter­ with crimes against humanity before the want impunity to end. national community cannot stand back and ICC. During the election campaign, both In view of such expectations, the ICC watch the suffering continue. The victims promised to cooperate with the court, but has made the right choice. To allow states deserve an institution that will – regardless after assuming office, they took a different and their leaders to escape responsibility for of political implications or special national approach. They started agitating against the past crimes simply by withdrawing from the interests – uphold the ideals of international ICC. Witnesses were intimidated and with­ statute would have been the wrong signal. justice. After all, the ICC was founded with drew their testimony in later stages. The the explicit mandate to end impunity. prosecutor became unable to collect reliable Darleen Seda That said, the hopes that the investiga­ evidence, and both cases collapsed. a Kenyan lawyer who tions alone will be effective are slim. This is Burundi’s neighbours are not support­ specialises in human rights probably the reason that the Court empha­ ing the ICC. Ugandan President Yoweri Mu­ and international criminal law. sised Burundi’s obligation to cooperate. It seveni and his Tanzanian counterpart John [email protected]

Burundian refugees in Rwanda in 2015. oto: Kagire/picture-alliance/AP Photo Ph oto: Kagire/picture-alliance/AP

D+C e-Paper February 2018 16 Tribune: in-depth analysis

SDGs directing economic policies towards more sustainable production and consumption. The exposure to extreme air pollution and China’s efforts growing knowledge on resource degrada- tion has advanced new visions of growth in China focusing more on sustainable de- velopment. Chinese citizens have become After the election of Donald Trump as presi- 2016 was a landmark event for China’s en- increasingly sensitive about health threats dent of the USA, China has seized several gagement and leadership role with regard to from pollution. Journalists covered pollu- opportunities to reaffirm its support to global sustainable development. tion issues and produced investigative sto- agreements on sustainable development ries about “cancer villages”. Environmental and climate change. Mainstreaming of green- Domestic factors issues have made headlines, particularly af- transition policies into various policy areas is ter January 2013, when air pollution reached under way in China. Which domestic and The concept of sustainable development record highs in Beijing. Media with interna- global factors explain China’s commitment to intertwines with many concepts and terms tional outreach and global index projects, the sustainable development agenda? that are frequently used in the People’s such as the Yale University’s Environmental Republic of China, including “ecological Performance Index, covered China’s air, wa- By Berthold Kuhn civilisation”, “green development” and ter and soil pollution and its degradation of “eco-marxism”. The policy of ecological natural resources. China has made significant contributions to civilisation has been incorporated into the The widening social gap is another the process of advancing the 2030 Agenda Communist Party of China’s (CPC) Charter driving factor for China’s commitment to and the agreement on the 17 sustainable at the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. It the SDGs according to many experts. Chi- development goals (SDGs). It has overcome serves as a reference framework to develop nese provinces display significant dispari- its image as a “hardliner in international visions of modern ecological socialism and ties in terms of economic performance and negotiations” which was attributed to China also highlights specific Chinese characteris- social services. Large income disparities ex- in the context of the UN climate-change tics of green development. The term green ist in particular between the urban and ru- conference in Copenhagen and its staunch development has been elevated to the rank ral residents, between different regions and support to the principle of common but dif- of a top policy priority in the context of the among the urban and rural residents them- ferentiated responsibilities. It means that 13th Five Year Plan (13 FYP) 2016 to 2020. It selves. Income gaps narrowed after 2000 developed countries should take the lead in has been chosen as one of five themes to de- but the trend has recently stopped. emission reduction and provide support in scribe policy priorities, reforms and targets In China, intergenerational justice is terms of finance and technology to develop- in the field of environmental and climate a crucial element of sustainable develop- ing countries, while developing countries policies. ment. China is facing challenges in the era should apply this financial and technologi- China’s ecological crisis and growing of population ageing. According to the UN, cal support to mitigate or adapt to climate social disparities have led to a prolifera- China is ageing more rapidly than almost change. The G20 summit in Hangzhou in tion of concepts addressing the need for re- any country in recent history. China’s de-

Young men enjoying a bicycle ride on the beach in the low-carbon city of Xiamen in South- West China. China is recently experiencing a bicycle and outdoor activity boom. Ph oto: Kuhn

D+C e-Paper February 2018 17 Tribune: in-depth analysis

pendency ratio for retirees could rise as high Housing and Urban-Rural Development all UN. More recently, China has deployed mul- as 44 % by 2050. have smart-city programmes. tilateral initiatives as member of the BRICS Migration continues to be a major China’s engagement in international (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Af- social challenge. China has gradually in- environmental politics dates back to its first rica) group and a regional powerhouse in troduced a series of insurances and social- participation in a UN summit in 1972. After Asia, including the establishment of the protection schemes of which the main pil- the country regained its seat as a permanent BRICS Bank and the Asian Infrastructure In- lars are a pension system, a medical-care member of the UN Security Council, the vestment Bank, two new multilateral devel- system and social-assistance schemes Stockholm conference on the human envi- opment banks. China also greatly extended targeting elderly and poor people. A large ronment provided an opportunity for the its cooperation with Africa through the Fo- number of migrant workers cannot access People’s Republic to substantiate its claim rum for Africa Cooperation. Moreover, it has social services near their workplace in the for a leading role within the UN. contributed to integrating perspectives and cities. interests of developing countries into vari- China’s aspiration in the field of in- Global factors ous global agreements. novation and technology is another driving China’s most outstanding foreign-pol- factor for its commitment to sustainable China’s success in achieving specific mil- icy initiative is currently the Belt and Road development. China aims at avoiding the lennium development goals (MDGs) and Initiative (see D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2018/01, middle-income trap by moving away from performing well overall can be seen as an p. 6). The strategy proposed by President Xi an economy that is based on high pollut- enabling factor for its commitment to the Jinping focuses on China’s contribution to ing industries to more technology-intensive Agenda 2030. The UN’s process-oriented connectivity and cooperation with Eurasian and service-oriented growth. Green growth approach to the sustainable-development countries. The Joint Communique released driven by innovations is a leading theme of agenda and the elaboration of 169 targets after the Belt and Road Forum in May 2017 China’s 13 FYP. Sustainable development and 232 indicators correspond well with noted that the parties involved are deter- is seen as a trend stimulating innovations China’s own policymaking approach based mined to prevent the degradation of the in the fields of renewable energy, radical on target- and indicator-oriented Five Year planet, to manage natural resources in an resource productivity, green chemistry, in- Plans at central and provincial level. The equitable and sustainable manner and to dustrial ecology, green nanotechnology and process-oriented approach of the SDG achieve comprehensive, balanced and sus- others. framework provides China with sufficient tainable development of economy, society China’s pro-active urbanisation strat- time and dialogue opportunities to subse- and environment. egy and the promotion of smart-city devel- quently integrate international initiatives Finally, China’s new outstanding role opment is embedded into government poli- and commitments into national policy in promoting sustainable development and cies but also driven by a dynamic private frameworks. climate policies has to be seen in the context sector. The smart-city concept is based on China’s south-south cooperation is of its wider foreign and security policy ob- technological innovation, in particular in also an important aspect in its promotion jectives. The support to agreements on sus- the field of connectivity. In China, smart of the SDGs and climate policies. China has tainable development and climate policies cities are core elements of digital moderni- traditionally played a leading role in south- are opportunities for China to highlight its sation strategy. The Ministry of Science and south cooperation, mainly in the context of engagement in global affairs. Such commit- Technology, the Ministry of Industry and the Group 77, the largest intergovernmental ments help China to divert attention from Information Technology and the Ministry of organisation of developing countries in the sensitive issues, such as protest movements in Hong Kong, the conflict in the South China Sea, the North Korea issue and trade conflicts with other nations.

Berthold Kuhn The 2030 Agenda for is a political scientist and international cooperation Sustainable Development advisor. He works as an adjunct professor at the University of Berlin and as consultant. He was At the United Nations Sustainable De- versal goals. From a legal perspective, twice a fellow of the University Alliance for velopment Summit on 25 September the goals represent soft international Sustainability at Peking University. 2015, world leaders adopted the 2030 norms. However, they still offer a power- [email protected] Agenda for Sustainable Development ful reference framework for national and www.innovateco.de which includes a set of 17 SDGs to end local policies as well as international co- poverty, fight inequality and injustice operation. Some of the SDGs correspond and tackle climate change by 2030. well with climate policy frameworks, in Link Targets and indicators have been set to particular goal 13 on “climate action”. Environmental Performance Index, 2016: further define and monitor these uni- (bk) http://epi.yale.edu/

D+C e-Paper February 2018 18 Ph oto: Dai Kurokawa/picture alliance/dpa

A Mai Mai militiaman in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Currently there are about 120 rebel groups in the country.

Military and political power A nation’s army is a tool of state authority. Its duty is to protect the country from foreign enemies. In many countries, troops can also be deployed as reinforce- ment of the police to guarantee internal security. Many authoritarian regimes rely on military force to stay in power, suppressing members of the opposition as well as people regarded as criminals. In some countries, the military itself or one of its former leaders runs the government. In many places, the national military is more dangerous than foreign enemies, and in civil wars, regular troops tend to cause similar harm as insurgent militias do. Since World War II, humankind has seen more military coups than cross-border wars. Africa, Asia and Latin America were affected in particular. Military and political power

Military empire

egypt Cairo

After the Arab spring, the Egyptian military After Sadat’s assassination in 1981, has gained unprecedented influence. It Hosni Mubarak became president. He too enjoys the support of many citizens who was a general, and he preserved the military’s view the military as a saviour that restored role as a leading institution in political and stability and security. The armed forces economic life. Mubarak liked to appoint re- maintain tight control of politics and the tired military generals in key administrative economy, benefiting from financial assis- positions. In 1986, his government exempted The upheaval of 2011 initiated another tance from Gulf monarchies. the imports of the Ministry of Defence and phase in the militarisation of Egypt. Huge the Ministry of State for Military Production demonstrations demanded “bread, free- By Ingy Salama from taxation. And in 1997, Mubarak issued dom and social justice”. President Mubarak a decree that gave the military the right to resigned, and the Supreme Council of the President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi’s asserts that manage all undeveloped agricultural land. Armed Forces (SCAF), a group of top mili- the share of military-owned enterprises does As before, expanding the military’s tary leaders, took power. The police with- not exceed two percent of the Egyptian GDP role in business was considered to be so- drew from the streets, and people welcomed today, but the figure seems too low if one cially responsible because markets would the soldiers who were deployed visibly in considers the military’s many privileges. Pre- be provided with goods at reasonable prices. Cairo and other places. While the police cise figures, however, are hard to come by. Indeed, the military sometimes interfered were considered to be corrupt servants of The military is a “black box”, with little infor- to alleviate people’s suffering. In 2008, for the discredited regime, the armed forces mation given about its hierarchy, budget and instance, when there was a bread shortage, were celebrated as guardians of stability. impacts on public life. According to “Law Mubarak called on the armed forces to in- The media, moreover, reported that the mil- 313”, any news about the armed forces can crease production in military bakeries. itary was lending the government substan- only be published after authorisation grant- ed by the director of the military intelligence. Traditionally, the armed forces in Egypt are a source of national pride among Egyptians: In 1952, a group of military of- ficers under the leadership of Gamal Ab- del Nasser – known as the “Free Officers” – overthrew the king and established the republic. Ever since, the armed forces have seen themselves as guardians and lead- ers of national development (see my essay in D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2017/02, p. 23). During his presidency, Nasser (1956-1970) national- ised several enterprises and laid the ground for industrialisation under the custody of the military. The construction of the High Dam at Assuan and the nationalisation of the Suez Canal were vivid examples of the emerging role of the military in domestic politics and economy. Nasser was succeeded by Anwar el- Sadat (1970-1981), who invited foreign inves- tors in an open-door policy. He reduced the number of military officers in key positions, but nonetheless ensured that the armed forces kept a privileged role in economic af- fairs. More military-controlled enterprises were established. The idea was that they would provide the armed forces as well as

domestic markets with affordable goods. Control of the Suez Canal gives Egypt’s armed forces political influence and financial clout. Ph oto: picture-alliance/piranhadestination

D+C e-Paper February 2018 20 Military and political power

tial amounts of money in order to sustain influence and financial clout. Accordingly, Despite the regime’s apparent tight con- the economy. the armed forces rejected Morsi’s plans. trol of the country, there seem to be clashes in At the same time, the military refuted the deep state. El-Sisi has been purging the any criticism of its business empire. General El-Sisi’s rise to power intelligence service, so more than 100 officers Mahmoud Nasr, speaking on behalf of the have been expelled from it. In mid-January, defence ministry, declared in 2012 that the In 2013, Morsi was toppled in a bloody mili- El Sisi dismissed the head of the intelligence military would “never surrender the mili- tary coup, and General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi service and made his chief of staff, Major tary-controlled projects to any other author- rose to power as the head of a military junta. Genreal Abbas Kamel, its interim leader. ity”. In his view, the projects were not state- Hundreds of Muslim Brothers were killed. In the meantime, discontent is grow- owned assets but resulted “from the sweat of In 2014, el-Sisi wore his uniform when he ing in other state bodies. El-Sisi has been the Ministry of Defence and its own special announced he would run for president, and criticised in public by several military lead- projects”. later resigned from the military to campaign ers for handing over two islands in the Red During the Arab spring, labour unrest as civilian. He won the subsequent election, Sea to Saudi Arabia and renouncing Egypt’s rocked Egypt. Sit-ins and strikes were com- but the Muslim Brothers, who had won previ- claim to them. Lieutenant General Ahmad mon. The SCAF quelled these strikes. Pro- ous Egyptian elections, were barred. On the Shafik, moreover, has tweeted a strongly testers were dispersed, and many were ar- other hand, Morsi had become increasingly worded statement against el-Sisi when rested. unpopular because he did not alleviate the Egypt failed to stop Ethiopia’s Renaissance In 2012, Mohamed Morsi of the Muslim hardships people were facing, but was seen Dam upstream on the river Nile. Generally Brothers, who had long been suppressed, to subordinate the state to his faith-based or- speaking, however, public criticism of the was elected president. Nasser had outlawed ganisation. Massive protests had demanded regime has become rare. Egypt’s media are them, claiming they were involved in an his downfall, and many Egyptians thus ap- not free (see box below). assassination attempt in 1954. The stance preciate el-Sisi’s tough stance towards the The el-Sisi regime has built a system of of Sadat and Mubarak was the same. Many Muslim Brothers. The media frames it as the restrictive laws and coercive means, crush- Muslims Brothers were imprisoned. military siding with the people. ing its opponents. Its huge economic empire In attempted co-optation, the new con- Today, el-Sisi’s government depends is exempted from taxes and dominates the stitution granted the military legal immunity on financial assistance from Gulf countries. public and private sectors at a time of ram- and protected it from public scrutiny. Morsi’s The influence of the military has kept grow- pant economic crisis. The human-rights relationship with the military soon became ing under his rule. For example, el-Sisi cham- situation has kept deteriorating, and the strained, however, when he announced plans pions two mega-projects with direct military freedoms of speech and expression are re- to develop the Suez Canal corridor with the in- involvement: the expansion of the Suez stricted. tention of turning it into a lucrative industrial Canal and the construction of the new capital area in partnership with India without con- city. In 2015, his government allowed officers Ingy Salama sultation with the Ministry of Defence. For from the military, police and intelligence is an Egyptian journalist and Egypt’s military, the Suez Canal was always of service to start private security agencies. At media specialist. She is major business interest. It controls the Canal the same time, military-owned enterprises based in Germany. and, as a result, enjoys considerable political remain active in all economic sectors. [email protected]

owned Ahram newspaper re- lished company called “Eagle Controlled media ported. Capital” acquired all his shares. ONTV, a popular private “Eagle Capital” is a private TV channel which used to air equity fund owned by the Since the ousting of President journalists were arrested. The critical comments against the General Intelligence Service. Mohamed Morsi in Egypt in influence of the regime on regime of former President Hos- According to the World Press 2013, the regime of Abdel Fatah the media expanded sharply ni Mubarak in the 2011 uprising, Freedom Index 2017, which was el-Sisi has dealt with the me- thanks to businessmen with has been taken over by the bil- compiled by Reporters without dia in two ways. On one hand, links to the military. For in- lionaire businessman Ahmad Borders, Egypt is one of the it formed “media arms” inside stance, the private TV channel Abu-Hashima who is closely countries that give journalists the media system by building Al-Hayat was taken over by connected to President el-Sisi. the least scope for independ- alliances with the news outlets a security company called “Fal- Abu-Hashima also owned 50 % ent coverage. Of 180 countries in Egypt. On the other hand, con”. Falcon’s CEO is a former of a media production compa- assessed, Egypt ranks 161st. It is the regime crushed the criti- senior military intelligence of- ny called “Egypt for cinema”, marked black on the map of the cal media by blocking websites ficer and a former head of the producing pro-military films. international non-governmen- and banning programmes that radio and TV regulatory body. Then, in a sudden move late tal organisation – just like Chi- expressed critical views. Many That, at least, is what the state- December 2017, a newly estab- na, Iran and Saudi Arabia. (isa)

D+C e-Paper February 2018 21 Military and political power

they cooperated well among one another. A mixed bag To some extent, the West African experience with autocracy and civil strife may have played a role. Obasanjo himself was a for- mer military dictator. There can be no doubt that approaches they took reflected debate In West Africa, regional cooperation on mili- a military intervention. In 2009, ECOWAS in multilateral settings at that time. Unfor- tary matters has helped to enforce demo- had threatened to use the brigade to forci- tunately these leaders did not have the same cratic principles and reduce civil strife. In this bly remove from power Laurent Gbagbo, impact at the pan-African level, where they sense, the Economic Community of West who refused to acknowledge that he had lost basically served as reference points. African States (ECOWAS) is setting exam- the presidential elections in Côte d’Ivoire in ples that are relevant for the entire continent. 2009. There too, French troops intervened, What is being done to instil a democrat- According to Vladimir Antwi-Danso of the and ECOWAS would have supported them ic culture within the armed forces of the Ghana Armed Forces Command & Staff Col- had Gbagbo not been apprehended fast. ECOWAS countries? lege, serious challenges persist nonetheless. Civil-military relations in almost all the Democratic norms seem to be more deep- ECOWAS countries have been realigned to Vladimir Antwi-Danso interviewed by Hans ly entrenched today in West Africa than in conform to the norm of civil oversight of Dembowski any other African region. Why has ECOWAS the military. The immediate post-independ- been more assertive in this respect than ence era saw a situation where civil-military ECOWAS was formed as a regional econom- other regional organisations in Africa? relations was one of co-optation. The mili- ic organisation, but it became internationally It is true that the democratic credentials are tary was virtually an adjunct of the ruling best-known because of its interventions in more pronounced in West Africa than in parties. Today, the military is subjected to civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone. How any other part of Africa. This is due, in large parliamentary oversight. In Ghana, for in- did that happen? Yes, ECOWAS was established in 1975 with the formal aim of promoting economic co- operation among its 15 members, which shared similar socio-economic conditions. The historic trajectories of colonial rule, administrative cultures and language were different, however, so there were hiccups. The regional body was soon confronted with many political crises, ranging from civil war to various military or constitutional coups d’état. This forced ECOWAS to fully embrace the security agenda as a core business. Eco- nomic integration cannot thrive amidst in- stability. In 1989, ECOWAS signed a defence pact and established the regional force ECO- MOG – the ECOWAS Monitoring Group – to deal with insurgencies in Liberia and Sierra Leone. The ECOMOG was instrumental in peace enforcement and peacekeeping op- erations in Liberia and Sierra Leone.

What were the long term impacts? In December 2016, four elected presidents (on the left: Muhammadu Buhari of Nigeria and Ellen Well, the ECOMOG helped in post-conflict Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia, on the right: Ernest Bai Koroma of Sierra Leone and John Dramani reconstruction, contributing to efforts for Mahama of Ghana) told Gambia’s autocratic leader Yahya Jammeh (centre) that his time was disarmament, demobilisation and reinte- over. Due to elections, Johnson Sirleaf and Mahama are no longer in office today. gration (DDR). They were also active in both Guinea Bissau and the Republic of Guinea. Collective force was similarly used to re- part, to a new elite that emerged at the turn stance, the military budget is subjected to store democracy in cooperation with French of the millennium. These leaders included parliamentary debate and approval. The troops in Mali after the military coup of Abdoulaye Wade in Senegal, John Kufuor in parliament may summon the minister of 2012. Last year, Gambia’s long-serving presi- Ghana, Olusegun Obasanjo in Nigeria and defence who must then answer legislators’ dent Yahya Jammeh finally accepted elec- Mamadou Tandja in Niger. They carried the questions. Public audits are made of de-

toral defeat shortly after ECOWAS started torch of democracy high in West Africa, and fence management and procurement. Gen- Ph oto: picture-alliance/dpa

D+C e-Paper February 2018 22 Military and political power

No, the military leaders were soon deeply implicated themselves. The fact is they did not understand Africa’s set of problems and did not diagnose them well. They fell vic- tims to the imperatives of the inequitable global division of labour. They were cap- tives to the very ills – corruption especially – which were the basic accusation against ci- vilian rule and which they vowed to uproot.

Is the era of military coups over in West Af- rica? It is actually difficult to say emphatically that it is over, since the ingredients for coup- making are all still prevalent – basically the question of bad governance. The big issues ECOWAS are corruption and profligacy, cronyism and imprudence in economic governance. More- over, conspiratorial coups tend to emanate from middle-level officers and below, not the top brass. So coups are still possible. But I agree that ECOWAS has certainly made it erally speaking, the military is designed to It is true that peacekeeping has become more difficult to stage them – and to prevail be an institution of democratic governance. a source of wealth both for the soldiers and in power afterwards. The coup in Mali in for the participating countries. But I do not 2012 was reversed fast. Has the mindset of the military top brass see that as the main reason why there is no changed accordingly? coup mentality among the top brass of the To what extent are the armed forces of In West Africa today, the top brass is gener- West African armed forces. After all, troops ECOWAS nations involved in pan-African ally oriented towards the consolidation of from authoritarian-rule countries do service peacekeeping? democracy. I think that the absence of coup as international peacekeepers, so national The armed forces of ECOWAS have coop- mentality among them has to do with three governance is not a pre-condition for be- erated on tackling and reducing tensions interlinked forces: coming involved in missions. within their own region, but they are not ●● In international arena, coups are un- involved collectively outside West Africa. popular. Coups used to have patronage from Would you say that West Africa has learned The African Union (AU) has two overarch- either the East or the West blocs of the Cold the lessons of military dictatorship and civil ing mechanisms that were established to War divide. Today, the UN condemns coups. strife? strengthen democratic governance and Besides, several of the regional bodies have That would be over-optimistic. It is a mixed attain peace and security; namely, the Af- protocols that prohibit the unlawful change bag. The top-brass may have learned some rican Governance Architecture (AGA) and of government. The African Union adopted lessons, but I doubt that their insights have the African Peace and Security Architecture one in 2001, and ECOWAS did so in 2004. taken deep root in society in general. Global (APSA). ECOWAS has heeded to the call by ●● Many of the top brass are now highly dynamics were what drove democratisa- the AU, as part of the APSA, to establish educated, so their appreciation of the global tion in the first place. Under pressure from a Standby Force. True, it was to have been order has grown, and they understand the within and from the international commu- established by 2010. The date was shifted need for the consolidation of democracy. nity, especially after the end of the cold war to 2015. It is still yet to be fully established. ●● The military is more engaged in do- and the demise of communism – and with it, Some collective exercises have been held by mestic roles such as ensuring security and monolithic types of governance – there was the joint forces of ECOWAS in Nigeria, Benin non-conventional assignments including a return to civil rule all over Africa. But we and Mali, all in preparation towards the full peacekeeping and engagements in low-in- are back to square one. Bad governance and realisation of the AU Standby Force brigade. tensity conflicts. Their training and orienta- corruption are common. The abuse of state tion reflect that focus. resources and institutions is the order of the day. We still witness cronyism, clientelism, Vladimir Antwi-Danso International organisations emphasise good exclusivism, vengeance politics, profligacy, is the dean and director of governance and their peacekeeping mis- vote-rigging et cetera. These are the things academic affairs at the Ghana sions can be career opportunities – does that triggered coups in the past. Armed Forces Command & that mean that the top brass has personal Staff College (GAFCSC) in incentives to not topple their own govern- But the military dictators never solved the Accra. ments? problems. [email protected]

D+C e-Paper February 2018 23 Military and political power

and accepted the idea of Eritrean sovereign- Thousands flee every month ty. Eritrea thus became a sovereign state in 1993. Afewerki became its president, and the EPLF became the People’s Front for Democ- racy and Justice (PFDJ), the nation’s only political party. When armed insurgents win a civil war, they and no independent non-governmental or- Meles went on to become Ethiopia’s tend to establish authoritarian regimes. Eri- ganisations since 2001. Religious freedom prime minister. Afewerki and Meles later trea is a depressing example. The military remains severely curtailed.” fell out, and a brutal war was waged along mindset that was shaped in the conflict is In 1993, after 30 years of violent con- the border in the late 1990s. Both sides lost still prevalent. flict (see box, p. 25), Eritrea achieved its in- thousands of soldiers. According to esti- dependence from neighbouring Ethiopia. mates, the monetary costs of war amounted By Diglel Fadi Until 1942, Eritrea had been an Italian col- to about $ 1 million per day for both coun- ony and was run by Britain after the Italian tries. Of course, the bloodshed did nothing Eritrea has been a one-party state ever since forces were beaten in the 2nd World War. In to reduce poverty, but the related propagan- the liberation forces attained independence 1952, it was annexed by Ethiopia, official- da helped the governments to bolster their 26 years ago. It has never held a presidential ly as part of a UN-sanctioned federation. power domestically. election. All the governors, mayors and oth- Ethiopian governments – whether under Afewerki has declared that the libera- er political leaders are members of both the emperor Haile Selassie or later under the tion war claimed 65,000 lives of Eritreans military and the party. The regime relies on communist dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam and that 16,000 died in the border conflict brute force as well as a vast spying network. – did their best to suppress the independ- of the late 1990s. International observers It pays supporters inside the country and ence movement. reckon that there were many more Eritrean beyond its borders to surveil dissidents – Mengistu was overthrown in 1991. At casualties in both conflicts. and anyone who might become a dissident. the time, Isaias Afewerki, the leader of the Under Afewerki, a constitution was Human Rights Watch, the interna- Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF), drafted, but it was never implemented. tional NGO, reports: “Eritreans are subject was an ally of Meles Zenawi, the leader of His regime runs the country as if it were to arbitrary arrest and harsh treatment in the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Dem- an army. The commanders’ mindset was detention. Eritrea has had no national elec- ocratic Front, an alliance of rebel move- shaped in war. The leaders have done well, tions, no legislature, no independent media ments that were based in various regions but their troops have kept living in pov- erty. In 1994, the Afewerki government in- troduced a compulsory “national service”. Its training camp Sawa is an army camp. Every year, 10,000 to 25,000 high-school students are recruited, and they undergo military training in Sawa for a period of six months. For all youngsters, the 12th year of school takes place here. The service has no time limit, however, and the women and men drafted do not know for how long they must serve. Some are not set free before their 50th birthday. Human Rights Watch reckons that “several thousand people” flee from Eritrea every month to escape the na- tional service. The programme was initially based on the idea that the country needs cheap man- power to build infrastructure. The trainees are forced to build roads, for example. It has long become clear, however, that the service reflects the regime’s military ideology. Many Eritreans think that the national service is simply a means to protect the current lead- ers. The regime does not tolerate criticism Eritrean refugees rally in Addis Ababa at the AU head office, demanding that President Isaias even among its ranks. After the turn of the

Afewerki face justice. millennium, a group of 15 politically active Hailu/picture-alliance/AA Ph oto: Minasse Wondimu

D+C e-Paper February 2018 24 Military and political power

EPLF members expressed their frustration are now the majority. The military no longer tions have become a joke. In 2015, the ruling with how the nation was developing. They has a distinct ideology apart from the desire party won every single seat in the Ethiopian called for free elections. They are known as to stay in power. The youth in its ranks see parliament. The sad truth is that the rebel the G15, and 11 of them are still in prison. no hope in the future. movements that toppled Mengistu did not Three have fled to the USA, and one has re- Most Eritreans feel that the victory in liberate the people, but basically empow- canted and rejoined the regime. the war for freedom has been robbed by the ered their top leaders. The freedom fighters won independ- current dictatorial regime. Former freedom ence thanks to their determination, unity fighters feel they have been betrayed by the and patriotism. However, that spirit has government which is unwilling to acknowl- Diglel Fadi long since died, and the regime has lost its edge their sacrifice and lets them suffer in is the pseudonym of an Eritrean refugee credibility. The current Eritrean military poverty. who wants to stay anonymous for reasons includes former freedom fighters as well Depressingly, things are not really explained in the essay. The editorial team of as Sawa camp trainees. For obvious demo- better in neighbouring Ethiopia, where D+C/E+Z is in touch with the author. graphic reasons, the youth trained in Sawa the human-rights record is bleak and elec- [email protected]

communist regime military as- the ELF in 1981. It proved to be 30 years of guerrilla warfare sistance, but its heavy military the stronger force in the long equipment would sometimes run. fall in the hands of the freedom During 30 years of armed Eritrea’s independence strug- Haile Selassie. However, things fighters. By 1978, the liberation conflict, the Eritrean women gle began as a clandestine did not improve when he was movement was believed to have played a key role. Women movement in the 1950s. The overthrown by the Marxist some 100,000 fighters. from various backgrounds had full-blown liberation war offi- revolutionary Mengistu Haile In the late 1970s, however, joined the struggle for inde- cially started in 1961. Mariam in 1974. Mengistu nev- ideological differences caused pendence. Some had joined A small number of Eri- er accepted the Eritrean peo- trouble within the ELF. Two willingly while others had been trean students who were living ple’s quest for independence. factions engaged in a bitter recruited forcefully from their in exile in Cairo created first He brutalised Eritrean people struggle. This conflict became villages. They became part of the Eritrean Liberation Front and built one of the most feared known as the “war of siblings”. the liberation movement by (ELF). The main architects of engaging in the battle field. this movement were Woldeab Some were assigned to be train- Woldemariam, Sheikh Ibra- ers, teachers or doctors; some him Sultan and Mohamed reached key military positions. Adem. Some 300 Eritrean stu- Music was of strategic sig- dents joined them to launch nificance for the Eritrean Lib- an armed struggle. The move- eration movement. The EPLF eritrea ment was largely a creation by recruited talented musicians

Muslim men who resented the Asmara who could boost the fighters’ Ethiopian presence in Eritrea. morale with patriotic songs and Radio broadcasting from Cairo dancing. The EPLF even man- was designed to reach out to all aged to set up a radio station in Eritrean people and to attract the mountains which broadcast the attention of the interna- information and music. tional community. As the number of fighters The ELF used guerrilla increased over the years, the tactics to attack Ethiopian military forces in Africa. In his The infighting was traumatic EPLF set up temporary mili- troops. The freedom fighters eyes, Eritrea would always be since loyalty is an issue of sur- tary camps. The training pro- were based in the bushes and a part of Ethiopia. vival for any clandestine move- gramme lasted from one month mountains. They had to move The Mengistu regime dis- ment. Rebel commanders ex- to six months, and it included constantly to escape the en- mantled local factories across pect unquestioning obedience the hard physical work of emy. The ELF neither had ad- Eritrea and ferried the parts from their underlings and are building trenches while being vanced military equipment nor to Addis Ababa. Eritrean men fast to “eliminate” those they attacked by the enemies. EPLF proper training. and women joined the libera- suspect to be traitors. In the fighters still had to move con- The freedom fighters tion movement in large num- end, the Eritrean People’s Lib- stantly, and they relied heavily

resented Ethiopia’s emperor bers. The Soviet Union gave the eration Front (EPLF) split from on camels. (df) Ph oto: xxx

D+C e-Paper February 2018 25 Military and political power

large, the largest country by area in sub- “The state functions according to Saharan Africa, and the infrastructure is extremely poor, which makes it difficult to access large portions of remote territory. its entirely own logic” In spite of much talk, the state has not col- lapsed, however. Its presence in daily life is visible and tangible. Even the smallest vil- lages normally have a police officer, a sol- dier or some other kind of state official. But In the Democratic Republic of the Congo There are actually very large differences the state functions according to its entirely (“Congo”), military violence has been part of within the army, partly because of its size, own logic. That is part of the problems that everyday life for years. Apart from the army, but also because of its heterogeneous com- have emerged after decades of misrule and there are many other violent actors causing position. Some units and commanders are violence. The collapse of the Mobutu re- suffering among the people. The presidential doing a fantastic job. They have integrity, gime and external events like the Rwandan election could spark a new conflict. Accord- are patriotic and do not commit any human- genocide and the flight of its perpetrators ing to the constitution, the election ought to rights violations. Then there is the exact over the border sowed the seeds of the cur- have been held at the end of 2016, but it still opposite. There is also a great deal in rent situation. Ever since, there has been has not taken place because the incumbent between, so it is very difficult to make a gen- a cycle of violent mobilisation and moments president, Joseph Kabila, does not want to be eral assessment. In statistical terms, it is when the brewing conflict boiled over. For voted out. A peaceful solution looks very true that the army is the actor committing example, the security situation usually de- difficult. Christoph Vogel, who specialises in the most human-rights violations in the teriorates after elections, such as in 2006 Congo studies at the University of Zurich, Congo, but it also has more fighters than and 2011. In both cases, strong rebel groups explains current dynamics. all armed groups taken together. It is hard emerged that had the power to move beyond to determine the precise number because local conflicts and also exert pressure on the Christoph Vogel interviewed by Sabine Balk official rosters are not up to date. Generally state. There have been other waves of vio- speaking, both the army and the police have lence following a similar pattern throughout What does the general situation look like at a large presence in public life in the Congo. the past 25 years. the moment with regard to the military and As they are usually not paid on time, it is the rebels in the Congo? actually quite common to see soldiers Why has the UN mission, MONUSCO, had Aside from the specific problems in east- moonlighting on the streets. They may be so little success thus far? ern Congo, which have been smouldering selling vegetables or other goods. They The UN mission and the broader ‘interna- for a long time, the situation in the en- recoup missing or delayed wages in other tional community’ have not found the right tire country is very critical at the moment ways too, for instance by levying real or fake answers to the crisis. For instance, most of because of the looming presidential elec- taxes on the streets. Such survival strategies the demobilisation programmes were well- tion. It is a source of great political tension. are tolerated by civilians to a certain extent, meant, but they ultimately failed. Some- Everyone is affected by the uncertainty it is as long as things remain balanced. times mistakes were made, and sometimes causing. The relevant actors include politi- there was a lack of political will. Demobili- cians from both the government and the Why are there so many rebel groups in the sation programmes are unbelievably diffi- opposition, as well as others like citizen Congo? cult to carry out. Moreover, the government movements and the Catholic Church, which Like in every conflict zone, a lot of factors has hastily integrated former rebels into the have always played an important role in converge in the Congo. There are a few army, thus creating parallel structures with- the Congo. No one knows what will happen basic issues. The country is unbelievably in the military. Some former rebel leaders in the next six to 12 months. People keep were made generals, but there was nowhere organising rallies, some of which have been near enough room for everyone, which violently suppressed, and there has been meant that many unsatisfied combatants no shortage of political intrigue behind the were left behind. The result was great frag- scenes. The result is more and more rest- mentation of the rebel groups, especially in lessness among political and military actors democratic republic the past four or five years. Ten years ago, one at the provincial levels – especially in the of the congo could identify 20 or 30 groups, today there historically unstable eastern part of the are about 120. country. Kinshasa What do the rebel groups want? What is the role of the regular army in the Many of the armed groups are think- Congo? ing more and more politically, even if From a bird’s eye view, it can be described their ambitions do not extend beyond the as ambiguous. It’s like a chameleon that local level. Many are fighting for “custom- changes colour to match its environment. ary power”, the power of traditional kings

D+C e-Paper February 2018 26 Military and political power

Many armed fighters do not wear standardised uniforms, but they all have weapons: child soldiers in Goma.

and leaders. Ethnic tensions matter too. for very opaque reasons. It is often very dif- tion is still rather superficial. You could con- Local elites often stir them up in political ficult to determine which group is responsi- duct an in-depth research project for each of machinations. Generally speaking, politics ble. Over the course of more than 25 years, those groups. Still, we review all of our data and the economy are closely interwoven. many rebels have learned to operate skilful- multiple times and cross-reference it with A narrative has emerged that the rebels in ly behind the scenes. Political puppetmas- other sources. The raw data was collected by the eastern Congo are primarily interested ters have also learned how to pull the strings a team of Congolese researchers operating in the region’s commodities. Unfortunate- in these conflicts without always being across North and South Kivu. ly, this fallacy renders it more difficult to seen. For 16 years, there have been panels of understand what is really going on. Advo- experts at the UN who do nothing but care- Do local people know who is attacking cacy campaigns tend to emphasise the issue fully research who is behind what action, them? of “conflict minerals”. The truth is that vari- including massacres and illegal operations. Combatants often cannot be identified by ous generations of combatants have had I worked on such a panel from 2016 to 2017. their uniforms, as numerous militias wear to finance their wars, and without a doubt Since last year, another project, called the the same uniforms as the regular army. The they relied in part on mineral resources. But Kivu Security Tracker, is compiling inven- reasons are the various phases of rebel inte- in regions without such resources, the re- tories of violence in the eastern Congo and gration into the army, the creation of new bels unlocked other sources of revenue, like tries to analyse who the drivers are. The pro- groups and the sale of individual uniforms. marihuana cultivation or illegal taxes. The ject is being led by the New York University- Of course, if a large group uses relatively groups have always been pragmatic when based Congo Research Group. new army uniforms and they all look the it comes to finding ways to finance their same, one could assume it is probably an operations. Warlords have definitely en- You have identified 120 rebel groups. How official army unit. Many armed fighters, riched themselves with raw materials, but did you go about it? however, have only an army jacket or pants Congolese and international entrepreneurs Because of the large number of groups, it and otherwise wear civilian clothing. The have done so to a far greater extent. Finally, takes a long time to identify them. Never­ language that the attackers speak often of- the wars did not start because of minerals in theless, it is still easier to say who these fers clues as to who they are, given that the first place. groups and their leaders are, and in what around 250 different languages are spoken regions they operate, than it is to research throughout the Congo, not counting dia- How difficult is it to identify the armed each group’s political ties and goals in great lects. Moreover, there is a variety of factors, groups in the Congo? detail. Our latest version of the map for the including behaviour and organisational Every act of violence and every clash has to first time includes brief biographies of every structure, that might reveal the combatants’

be investigated case-by-case. Some occur armed group. Unfortunately, the informa- identity. Generally speaking, victims and Ph oto: George Mulala/Lineair

D+C e-Paper February 2018 27 Military and political power

witnesses have a pretty good broader sense How can the Democratic Republic of the have had insignificant effects so far. A key of who their attackers are – whether, for Congo, with help from the international question is whether the elections that were example, they are a Congolese Mai-Mai mili- community, get a grip on the situation? recently set for December 2018 will actually tia or Rwandan rebels. I am convinced that serious demobilisa- take place. Even if it will not be that easy tion has to take place. International part- to properly organise them from a techni- Why are these horrific massacres of civil- ners could play an important role in such cal standpoint, doing so is definitely in the ians taking place? an operation. A credible reform of the range of the possible. The current political The worst thing, at this point, is the security sector is needed too, though its suc- climate, however, does not inspire much normalisation of violence. After some 25 cess would entirely depend on the attitude overall optimism. years of cyclical civil war, there is at least of the government. It is also very important one entire generation that knows little else to demilitarise the conflict, even though Link besides conflict and violence. That pre- illegal imports of weaponry have decreased Kivu Security Tracker: sents an enormous problem for the future. over the years. However, as of now there are https://kivusecurity.org With regard to the massacres, it is impor- simply too many arms in the country. We tant to precisely determine who the victims need a plan to confiscate and destroy them. Christoph Vogel and the perpetrators are, because there are Another important issue is the streamlin- is a researcher currently various motives and dynamics. I have the ing of reliable land rights and mining con- based at the University of sense that the number of violent incidents cessions et cetera in order to reduce related Zurich. He has been working has increased in recent years, but the num- conflicts. There must also be a way to have on conflict dynamics in ber of victims has declined in comparison a constructive influence on the current Central Africa for ten years, most recently as with the larger clashes of the 2000s. At political impasse. Unfortunately, the oppo- a member of the UN Group of Experts on the that time, there were large massacres that sition currently does not present a promis- Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2016 and sometimes claimed the lives of hundreds ing alternative to the government either. 2017. He shares insights at: of civilians. There are fewer such incidents The diplomatic toolkit has not helped much https://suluhu.org. today. either – US and EU sanctions, for instance, [email protected]

Camp Bolengo in the Goma region: recurring violence has displaced thousands of people. Ph oto: Hartmut Schwarzbach/argus/Lineair

D+C e-Paper February 2018 28 Military and political power

not only true of the DR Congo. While rein- Jobs instead of arms tegration programmes cannot guarantee children won’t be recruited as child soldiers or unskilled workers, they at least help them escape the vicious cycle of poverty and abuse. Children also learn how to talk about We must put an end to the exploitation of machine guns and even anti-tank guns and their experience, which they can then share children as soldiers. First good steps include mortars, which are all exported by German with other youngsters toying with the idea banning small arms, prosecuting those who companies, find their way to crisis areas via of escaping the hunger pangs of daily life by conscript children and improving reintegra- third countries. In 2016, sales of small arms “volunteering” for a militia. They are gener- tion. amounted to € 47 million. This is a trifling ally unaware of what awaits them there. amount compared to the overall German It will take much more than the steps By Dirk Bathe arms exports totalling around € 7 billion detailed above to stop the insanity of using euros. But since child soldiers are generally minors in armed conflict. It would be impos- In the eastern part of the Democratic Repub- outfitted with – and trained to use – small sible to simply train all former child soldiers lic of Congo, World Vision, the internation- arms, a national export ban would be an as seamstresses, shoemakers and mechan- al NGO, runs a reintegration programme important statement and could serve as an ics. Even if we had the capacity, there would called “rebound”. Each year, the programme example for other countries. not be enough labour demand in local mar- supports 80 child soldiers and girls who had 2. Prosecute militia leaders. In 2012, kets. been forced into prostitution to join every­ Thomas Lubanga, the infamous militia Investment in infrastructure and pri- day, civilian society again. They receive boss from the DR Congo, was sentenced to vate sector initiatives are desperately need- psycho-social support, attend classes and 14 years in prison. He had been brought be- ed. Children can only hope for a productive learn basic vocational skills. At the end, fore the International Criminal Court (ICC) future if they have job opportunities. And each teenager is given a small sum so they at The Hague and charged with war crimes, any effort at reintegration that cannot offer can get started as shoemakers, seamstresses including the use of child soldiers. Unfortu- a positive outlook is doomed to failure. or mechanics. The programme is proving nately, trials of this kind – especially those The exploitation of children as soldiers successful and so far no participant has re- that result in a guilty verdict – are still the is big business. The militias use them to joined a militia. exception. They must become the rule. plunder villages. Governments in conflict- Rehabilitating 80 out of the thousands If militia bosses feared prosecution, they torn regions save money because they don’t of child soldiers and sex slaves is only a very would at least reduce the number of child have to train and pay as many legitimate sol- small start. And in many areas torn by war soldiers in their ranks. In December 2017, ders, so they have little interest in effectively and conflict, the number of children con- the ICC ordered millions in reparation pay- countering the use of child soldiers. Arms scripted by local militias is actually rising. ments to the young victims. Compensation exporters and private military organisations The international community can help stem is to come from a victims’ trust fund and be also profit from the use of child soldiers. the tide by taking some key first steps: invested in psychological support and job Insidiously, private “security firms” 1. Ban the export of small arms. training to promote rehabilitation. often recruit former child soldiers to serve A study co-published by World Vision 3. Improve reintegration. Projects as mercenaries. European and US compa- clearly showed that arms, such as pistols, like rebound are much too rare, and that is nies actively recruit unemployed ex-child soldiers because they are cheap, come fully trained and have nothing left to lose. In the reintegration They are then deployed in places like Iraq. programme A comprehensive ban on this type of re- “rebound” of World cruitment would be a good start, but it is Vision, former child still not enough. We need to censure those soldiers receive who exploit child soldiers around the world. training to become We have to ramp up pressure on the govern- carpenters. ments of the countries these security firms operate in, including the UK and the US. Exporting arms to Africa promotes the ex- port of child soldiers from Africa – and from many other regions torn apart by war.

Dirk Bathe is a media consultant for World Vision Deutschland.

[email protected] Vision Ph oto: World

D+C e-Paper February 2018 29 Military and political power

staple crop diversification. Both steps make High-risk balancing act sense. It would be wrong, however, to insist that farmers grow monocultures, rely on massive fertiliser inputs or buy genetically engineered seed from the US-based corpo- ration Monsanto. It must not be forgotten The military has always played an important sia’s military personnel are only human and that Suharto promoted a “green revolution” role in Indonesia. It was born in the people’s thus prone to mistakes. Put in positions of in the course of which many farmers got en- revolt against colonialism, but after inde- authority or forced to act under stress, they snared in debt and poverty. pendence a coup ushered in three decades are just as likely to become abusive as any Jokowi’s priority is to improve Indone- of authoritarian rule. Nonetheless, the cur- other persons around the world. sia’s economic outlook. Building infrastruc- rent government is now involving the armed Agriculture is a sensitive economic ture and food security are essential issues. forces in development-relevant sectors, sector. On some of Indonesia’s densely It is reassuring that the president appears to including agriculture. populated islands, the farms are quite small. have a grip on the military. He recently re- Moreover, masses of landless rural labourers placed top commander General Gatot Nur- By Edith Koesoemawiria depend on farm employment. In most agri- mantyo, who had shown political ambitions cultural areas, only two harvests per year are with air force chief Hadi Tjahjanto. The Air In 1965, General Suharto toppled President possible. Nonetheless, Jokowi’s government Marshal is known to be reform-oriented. He Sukarno, the leader of the independence is pushing for three harvests in the hope of has spoken out on fighting corruption and movement, and launched an anti-commu- fulfilling his target. making the military more professional. nist campaign that probably claimed more Two years ago, Jokowi gave the mili- The new top commander’s words must than 1 million lives and traumatised mil- tary a mandate to oversee agricultural pro- be followed up with action. Rogue soldiers lions. Human rights were not respected. duction. This policy could easily backfire. have been known to work illegally for big A popular uprising led to Suharto’s Indeed, tensions were reported from some private-sector companies and sometimes downfall in 1998, and successive govern- areas, including Aceh, a province with a his- exert violence on behalf of those paymas- ments adopted a “back to the barracks” pol- tory of unrest. In most cases, however, the ters. Reports of such misdeeds show that icy. Unlike the dictator, they did not want frictions seem to have been resolved amica- Jokowi is doing a high-risk balancing act. to involve the military in domestic affairs. bly. In some regions, a form of camaraderie More recently, however, President Joko was noted between the troops and farmers. Edith Koesoemawiria Widodo – commonly called “Jokowi” – has On the upside, Indonesia has not had is a freelance journalist. been taking a different approach. He sees to import rice for two years, and wheat im- scope for troops contributing to civic activi- ports have been reduced considerably. The ties, including agriculture. government is promoting digitalisation and [email protected] In 2014, soon after his inauguration, Jokowi promised to raise the military budget from one percent to 1.5 % percent of GDP if eco- nomic growth was strong enough. Last year, the military budget amounted to about 1.2 % or the equivalent of $ 8.2 billion. However, more money is at the armed forces’ disposal since they own many private-sector businesses. Many Indonesians appreciate Jokowi’s new approach to the military. Indeed, restor- ing self-sufficiency in food production looks like a worthy goal. Others are uncomfortable however. They recall that some in the mili- tary and the “babinsa” (non-commissioned officers in villages) served as the long arm of the Suharto regime across the country and carried out orders over-zealously. The core mandate of the armed forces is to protect the country from external forc- es. According to Nur Kholis, who heads the national Human Rights Commission, the government can also call on them if it con- siders internal security to be severely threat- President Joko Widodo (centre) wants the military to do more than protect Indonesia from

ened. It is obvious, however, that Indone- external threats. Ph oto: picture-alliance/dpa

D+C e-Paper February 2018 30 Military and political power

private-sector companies are Pakistan’s big- “If they are not told to shoot one gest business empire. For many years, the armed forces promoted the Islamisation of Pakistan. That was especially true under another, they get along well“ Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the military dic- tator of the 1970s and 1980s. On the other hand, more Pakistani troops have died fight- ing the Pakistani Taliban and other insur- gent groups than Western nations have lost Since 1947, Pakistan has lost four wars with the USA. More­over, it may yet block in Afghanistan. Today, Pakistan’s military against India. Three wars concerned Kashmir supply routes that US troops in Afghanistan too considers Islamist terrorism to be the and one the independence of Bangladesh. In use. Pakistan is also involved in a close part- nation’s greatest problem. spite of losing so often, Pakistan’s military nership with China, and its diplomats have wields considerable political influence. excelled in pitting the two superpowers­ The armed forces of Pakistan, India and Christian Wagner of the think tank SWP against one another in the past. If the re- Bangladesh have identical historical roots explains the reasons. lations with the USA deteriorate further, in Britain’s colonial army. However, only in however, Pakistan’s dependence on China Pakistan does the military constitute a state Christian Wagner interviewed by Hans Dem- is reducing the government’s foreign policy within the state. Why is this country differ- bowski options. ent? When India became independent in 1947, the In early January, US President Donald Trump Is it true that Pakistan’s military and secret Congress party formed a strong government announced his administration would cut service form a deep state which supports under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. military aid for Pakistan, accusing Islama- Islamist groups? The new constitution was adopted fast and bad of supporting terrorists and duplicity. I don’t think anyone in Pakistan would deny took effect in 1950. Nehru paid attention to Was his step wise? that the military and secret service play only letting civilians serve as ministers of The president’s tweet was deeply offensive a major role in national politics. To what defence, so the principles of civilian leader- and has worsened the bilateral relations. extent the military is still supporting Islami- ship and democratic legitimacy was firmly His accusation is not new, and it has been sation is less clear. Since 1947, the military entrenched. Pakistan did not have a strong straining the US-Pakistani relations for has run the government several times and party like the Congress, and Muhammad Ali quite some time. It is not clear, however, for several decades. It is a state within the Jinnah, its independence leader, died soon, whether Trump is backing off from Pakistan state that sets limits to what policymakers in 1948. Pakistan’s parties did not manage to or whether he is trying to put more pres- may do. Pakistan is what I would call a “gar- agree on a constitution. Controversial issues sure on this ally to cooperate more closely rison democracy”. It lacks civilian control of included how the different ethnic groups with Washington. In turn, Pakistan has an- the armed forces. The parliament does not would be represented and what the role of nounced it will stop sharing intelligence exercise any oversight. The military’s many the Muslim faith would be in state and so-

Pakistani soldiers parading in front of the tomb of independence leader Mohammed Ali Jinnah in Karachi. oto: bscholtterbeck/picture-alliance/AP Foto Ph oto: bscholtterbeck/picture-alliance/AP

D+C e-Paper February 2018 31 Military and political power

ciety. The military took advantage of the invasion of Afghanistan turned Pakistan In 2014, Mohammed Humayun Kabir wrote confusion, and General Ayub Khan grabbed into a front-line state of US foreign poli- in D+C/E+Z (January edition, p. 20) that the power in the first coup in 1958. cy. Washington and the Gulf monarchies many peacekeeping missions that Bangla- supported the military training of Islam- deshi troops take part in are relevant too. He Immediately after independence, and once ist groups in Pakistan who fought the Red mentioned several reasons. One was that more in the 1960s, the Indian Army beat the Army in Afghanistan. troops adopt international ideas of good Pakistani one in Kashmir. In 1971, the coun- governance on those missions. Another one try’s “eastern wing”, which was more than Bangladesh too has seen several military was that peace missions mean money and 2000 kilometres away from the western one, coups, and Muhammad Hussain Ershad career opportunities, so the generals don’t became Bangladesh in a bloody civil war. managed to stay in power for seven years. want domestic problems to get in their way. Why was the political influence of Pakistan’s Nonetheless, Bangladesh’s military does However, troops from Pakistan also par- military not reduced by those defeats? not have the kind of entrenched political ticipate in peacekeeping missions, and that In 1947, Islam was the founding principle clout that Pakistan’s has. Why is that so? does not seem to have an impact on their of Pakistan. However, the founding fathers’ In Pakistan, the military almost always leaders’ political attitudes. vision failed because of the ethnic diver- managed to co-opt one of the major politi- That is correct. Pakistan’s military, unlike gence between the Bengalis in East Pakistan cal parties, so it never faced a united civilian its Bangladeshi counterpart, sees itself as which formed the majority of the popula- opposition. Ershad’s rule ended when the a crucial political player. Accordingly, the tion and West Pakistan’s political, business two major parties formed an alliance against incentives of peacekeeping missions do not and military elite. The first democratic elec- him. In 1990/91, they rallied and ultimately change the officers’ mindset. It is actually tions were held in 1970, civil war erupted toppled his military regime. It also matters quite striking that India commits troops to a few months later, and Bangladesh became that Bangladesh is very homogeneous in peace missions too, and the blue helmets a new sovereign nation at the end of 1971. ethnic terms. More than 90 % of the people from all three countries normally cooperate From the perspective of West Pakistani lead- speak Bengali. The country – with the excep- very well when they are deployed together. ership, the country had split in two because tion of the Chittagong Hill Tracts – does not If they’re not told to shoot one another, they Islam had not been sufficiently emphasised. have the kind of ethnic tensions that haunt get along perfectly well in foreign countries. Accordingly, the Pakistani government pro- Pakistan. Moreover, Bangladesh’s first con- moted the Muslim faith in the following stitution emphasised a secular state. Islam years. However, ethnic tensions still mark was included in the constitution only un- Christian Wagner the country. The Punjabis are the largest der the military regimes after 1975. Finally, specialises in South Asian ethnic group, and the Sindhis, Pashtuns Bangladesh’s relations with India are much affairs at the German Institute and Balochs compete with them. After the better, not least because the Indian invasion for International and Security military coup of 1977, General Zia-ul-Haq helped the Bengali insurgents to defeat the Affairs (SWP). accelerated Islamisation. In 1979, the Soviet Pakistan Army in December 1972. [email protected]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the ousted top army leader after a failed Decades of military rule prime minister, was sentenced military campaign in the Kar- to death and executed in 1979. gil region of Kashmir. Mushar- Zia-ul-Haq promoted Islami- raf held onto power until 2008. Since 1947, Pakistan has been lege of 80,000 members who sation, turned against Muslim US Presi­dent George W. Bush run by military dictators three were merely asked whether minorities such as the Ahmadis initially considered him a close times. All three served as presi- they trusted him. He made or the Shias, and supported the ally in the fight against the Tali- dent for many years. Some- Pakistan a military ally of the Mujaheddin who were fighting ban, but later the US adminis- times they used flimsy elec- USA. In the mid-1960s, how- Soviet troops in Afghanistan. tration became more skeptical tions or bizarre constitutional ever, the Soviet Union brokered He aligned the country more because Pakistan’s military se- clauses to hide the autocratic a ceasefire in the short war he closely to Washington, but also cret service was obviously still nature of their rule. had waged against India. Khan pursued a nuclear programme. in touch with some Islamist Muhammed Ayub Khan had to resign in 1969 because Pakistan detonated nuclear test militant outfits. rose to power in 1958. He sus- of protests in West Pakistan as devices in 1998, ten years after Today, Pakistan has fallen pended the constitution which well as the growing independ- Zia-ul-Haq had died in a plane behind Bangladesh in terms of had been adopted two years ence movement in what was crash. human-development indica- earlier and ensured that the then East Pakistan and would Pervez Musharraf top- tors. Its military, however, is new one gave him ample pow- soon become Bangladesh. pled Prime Minister Nawaz much stronger – both in terms ers. He was confirmed in office In 1977, Muhamed Zia-ul- Sharif in 1999 just when Sha- of equipment and political in- as president by an electoral col- Haq grabbed power in a coup. rif had decided to fire him as fluence. (D+C/E+Z)

D+C e-Paper February 2018 32 Military and political power

The Thai military academy system The monarchy’s bodyguard emphasises that the King’s Guard and the Queen’s Guard are the elite units from which Thailand’s top commanders are drawn. Members of these units rise to important positions in the country and assume they Since its transformation from an absolute calls democracy. The difference, however, is are exclusively the King’s and Queen’s sol- into a constitutional monarchy in 1932, Thai- that the Thai military is also the bodyguard diers. Consequently, they believe that they land has witnessed 13 successful coups. The of the Thai monarchy. The Royal Thai Army are not subject to civilian control. Indeed, latest was in May 2014 and has severely lim- was established in the 1890s under the ab- Lieutenant Colonel Sanyalak Tangsiri, who ited Thais’ freedoms and liberties. The army solute monarch King Chulalongkorn to pro- was involved in the 2006 putsch, later said: sees itself as the guardian of the monarchy. tect the throne which, at the time, was syn- “We are ready to do what the King asks. We It lacks civilian control – and its rule is not set onymous with the state. are soldiers who belong to His Majesty.” to end any time soon. In addition, the monarch is by defi- This attitude means that Thai military- nition Buddhist. He is considered to be civil relations are essentially paternalistic. By Siwach Sripokangkul and John Draper a “chakravartin”, a Buddhist world conquer- The military retains the option to overthrow or. This is symbolised by the palanquin of civilian rule for reasons of national security. Two and a half years ago, the Thai army the Emerald Buddha, which resides in the It sees itself as a political force in its own overthrew the elected government of Temple of the Emerald Buddha in the Grand right, and that view was institutionalised in Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra in Palace in Bangkok. the 2008 Internal Security Act. The military an unbloody coup (see comment by Katja The absolute monarch was over- has oversight over the National Anti-Corrup- Dombrowski in D+C/E+Z e-Paper 2015/05, thrown in 1932. The same year saw the adop- tion Commission, the Department of Special p. 40). Since then, military dictator Gen- tion of Thailand’s first constitution, accord- Investigation and the Anti-Money Launder- eral Prayut Chan-ocha has been clinging ing to which the military served the state. ing Office (AMLO). General Prayut wrote its to power. Under his rule, hundreds of civil- The sovereign now was a constitutional “Twelve Core Values of Thai People”, which ians have been tried in military courts. The monarch who symbolised rather than ruled now pervade the education system. Indeed, junta has steamrollered any opposition, the country. However, the feudal ideology soldiers now train primary school children recently ratified a constitution that creates of the military directly serving the mon- – in military uniforms – with the goal of in- a majority-appointed senate and is working arch re-emerged under Field Marshal Sarit stilling discipline and obedience. on a 20-year plan involving permanent mili- Thanarat (1957-1963), a military dictator. To Ultimately, the Thai military operates tary oversight. combat communism, he linked the ideolo- as a feudal empire within a quasi-imperial Just like the militaries of countries gies of statism and of the sovereign-as-deity. state according to its own ideology. Well- such as Pakistan and Egypt, the Thai army The notions of the nation, the monarchy funded and capable of ample patronage, it regards itself as the guardian of sovereignty and religion as interwoven parts of a trinity grants itself a higher budget following every and guide for the implementation of what it define contemporary Thailand. coup, manages its own financial affairs, and even runs businesses, all without civilian oversight. It retains its own television chan- nels and radio stations, serving as propagan- da outlets. At present, ultra-nationalists want the military to start its own political party. Thailand’s perpetual military deep state is unlikely to exit the stage any time soon.

Siwach Sripokangkul belongs to the Research Group on Local Affairs Administration at the College of Local Administration, Khon Kaen University, Thailand [email protected]

John Draper is part of the same research group. Thailand’s King Maha Vajiralongkorn (center) and honour guard march at a ceremony for late King

Bhumibol Adulyadej in October 2017. [email protected] Ph oto: picture alliance/ZUMA Press

D+C e-Paper February 2018 33 Military and political power

It established a “European Border and Coast Coast guard or paramilitary force? Guard Agency” with the same short name as the agency it superseded: Frontex. The “old” Frontex often came under fire from critics. Human-rights and aid or- ganisations accused it of violating human Today, global trouble spots are close to the ion”, a body governed by European public rights with its push-back operations, some “safe haven” of Europe. Migratory pressures law. Its primary task is to coordinate the of which were said to breach international have grown with masses of people arriving operations of EU member states’ security refugee law. There is a serious conflict of from war zones and disaster areas. The irreg- agencies on the EU’s external borders. Fron- interests – refugee protection versus border ular immigrants take tortuous routes, either tex operates “on water, on land and in the protection. This tragic tension is evident on through Mediterranean countries or across air”. It forms task forces and organises large- the Mediterranean Sea. the EU’s continental borders. These routes scale joint operations. It also helps member As early as 2013, the Council of Europe cannot be effectively policed, so an agency states return irregular immigrants. spoke of human-rights violations by Frontex was created in 2005 for the management of In September 2015, the EU heads of and noted problems of transparency regard- operational cooperation at the external bor- state and government wanted the exter- ing operations and activities. It also found ders of the EU. It is called Frontex and is nal borders to be policed more intensively. a lack of democratic oversight, for example, most controversial. Accordingly, Frontex was given more op- with regard to the agreements concerning erational powers, and, despite stagnating border controls, interceptions and returns By Oliver Harry Gerson refugee numbers, its budget was steadily in- that Frontex negotiates with third countries. creased, rising from € 86 million in 2013 to Some civil-society groups even refer Frontex was not originally intended to op- € 254 million in 2016. Another consequence to Frontex as “Europe’s paramilitary arm” erate as a border police force; it was estab- of member-state solidarity was the adoption against migration from Africa. lished as an “Agency of the European Un- of Regulation (EU) 2016/1624 of 14.09.2016. That last criticism in particular is hardly accurate. First of all, it is linguistical- ly inappropriate. The negative connotations of the word “paramilitary” make it a term that should be used only with extreme care: “paramilitary” does not automatically mean “illegal”. Second, it ignores the agency’s institutional incorporation in EU law and international standards. Frontex only ru- dimentarily resembles a European border police force and certainly does not create a serious European military force. This is the case, because the EU is not a nation state with an integrated and fully harmonised policy on security and defence. Member states still have the responsi- bility to secure their own borders, so Frontex is merely a kind of law enforcement agency that is implementing the EU’s limited pow- ers in the field of border policy. Moreover, the agency’s incorporation in the institu- tional and legal structure of the EU runs counter to the presumptuous claim to ir- regular power that the word “paramilitary” suggests. It is true, nonetheless, that Fron- tex has undergone considerable change in recent years (see box, p. 35).

Greater operational powers

Frontex’s operational powers have been steadily increased. The agency now carries Many refugees reach Europe from Africa by crossing the Mediterranean. One of Frontex’s tasks is out substantive police duties and has its

to prevent them from doing so. own physical resources – including boats, Ph oto: Amoruso/picture alliance/Pacific Press Agency

D+C e-Paper February 2018 34 Military and political power

tive arm of government. The and in terms of staff. That Securing EU borders agency’s role was confined to agreement was followed by coordinating the activities of the new “Frontex Regulation”, member states’ border guards. which formally established the The full name of the agency was created in 2005. In particu- The creation of rapidly deploy- updated agency. A rapid reac- tasked with securing the ex- lar, its powers and capabilities able border force units (Rapid tion pool was created, enabling ternal borders of the European have been extended. Border Intervention Teams – Frontex to deploy as many as Union is “European Agency for RABITs) enabled operations to 1,500 border guards. The new the Management of Operation- Old model: analysis, coor- be carried out swiftly. From that “European Border and Coast al Cooperation at the External dination, support point onwards, Frontex was not Guard Agency” includes the Borders of the Member States only active at sea but also in- “old” Frontex plus the national of the European Union”. It is Originally, the agency’s activi- volved in surveillance work at authorities responsible for bor- commonly referred to as Fron- ties were almost entirely con- airports and along internal bor- der management, including tex (from the French “frontières fined to analysis, coordination ders. It was additionally given coast guards to the extent that extérieurs” = external borders). and support. With regard to the task of supporting EU mem- they carry out border control The agency carries out multi- illegal migration and cross- ber states’ return operations for tasks. The new Frontex re- national control and surveil- border crime, Frontex’s man- irregular immigrants. mains the same legal person as lance missions at sea, on land date was to gather information, the old one, with full continu- and at major airports. In recent evaluate data, assess risks and New model: European ity in all its activities and pro- years, a major focus of its work help prevent anticipated of- border and coast guard cedures. has been conducting sea pa- fences. The agency’s main tasks trols in the Mediterranean. The Frontex was not a police At the end of 2015, the EU mem- continue to be: tasks performed by Frontex force in an institutional sense ber states agreed to strengthen ●● the development of tech- have changed since the agency as it was not part of the execu- the agency both financially nical and operational strategies for implementing integrated border management, ●● intervention in situations where urgent action is required at external borders, ●● technical and operational assistance with search and res- cue operations at sea and ●● organising return opera- tions. In emergency situations, it can require member states to cooperate. In exceptional cases, it can take action with- out a member state’s request. The tasks also include carrying out vulnerability assessments for external borders and op- timising risk analysis. In this context, it is independent in terms of technical and opera- tional matters. It enjoys legal, administrative and financial autonomy. However, the Euro- pean Commission and the EU member states exercise super- vision on the agency through representatives on a manage- The British coast guard vessel HMC Protector – pictured in the port of Catania in Sicily – supported Frontex ment board that administers operations in 2017. Frontex’s affairs. (ohg) Ph oto: Nietfeld/picture-alliance/dpa

D+C e-Paper February 2018 35 Military and political power

helicopters and staff – to support national the Sea and the Geneva Convention) as well a united Europe is possible only if the secu- border patrols. But the criticism of para- as European law (EU legislation, the EU rity of its citizens is guaranteed, the EU’s ex- militarism would only be fair if the agency Charter of Fundamental Rights and second- ternal borders also need to be managed and conducted operations without sufficient ary legislation such as Regulation [EU] No. secured in line with the rule of law. authorisation. That perception is mislead- 656/2014 [External Sea Border Regulation]). The continent’s image is suffering, ing. The new Frontex Regulation instead Moreover, European fundamental rights either way. Is it a “Europe without borders” gives the agency a very broad mandate. and the European Convention on Human or a “Fortress Europe”? For a long time, Frontex has been legally mandated to Rights apply in full. Because of the acknowl- Frontex’s opaque public relations helped support border management. But even with edged extraterritorial effects of human- to shape that awkward latter impression. the new Frontex, the main responsibility rights law, operational units cannot offload At the same time, the old problem still for guarding the EU’s external borders con- their responsibilities even outside EU terri- persists for the new Frontex: a coast guard tinues to reside with the member states. At tory. service – whether paramilitary or not – ul- the same time, the agency is accountable to That Frontex has a clear legal man- timately addresses only the symptoms, not the European Parliament and the Council of date, however, has not solved all problems the cause of refugee movements. In any the European Union. Thus, it does not oper- – far from it. The main problem is that the case, furnishing Frontex with even more ate in a legal vacuum. On the contrary, mul- EU only really addresses the symptoms and operational powers should be viewed with tiple legislation applies in both geographical not the causes of migration. For good rea- scepticism. Concentrating too much power and legal terms to border management and son, Amnesty International highlights the in an agency’s hands without mechanisms the associated task of picking up refugees “humanitarian catastrophe” in the Mediter- of oversight risks opening doors to self- and other irregular migrants. ranean, where thousands of people a year authorisation. People from third countries have no drown in the attempt to reach an EU coun- fundamental “claim” to enter the EU. How- try in unseaworthy boats from North Africa ever, this does not mean that immigrating or Turkey. Frontex is neither the cause of Oliver Harry Gerson nationals of third countries have no rights this tragedy, nor is it the cure. is a lawyer and research at all. Border guards are required to observe associate at the University of minimum standards and must comply with Outlook Passau where he specialises international law. The situation at sea is in German, European and covered by various regimes of international It must remain possible for people to flee to international criminal law. law (for example, the International Law of Europe and find asylum there. But because [email protected]

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majority of them in Afghanistan. The cur- Joint efforts lead to success rent number is slightly over 3,500. Justifying military operations as be- ing in the nation’s own security or economic self-interest is not well received in Germany. Former Federal President Horst Köhler had Security and development are the two, mutu- is a tool at policymakers’ disposal, not a con- to resign after saying on a flight back from ally interdependent foundations of lasting stituency that the government caters to. At Afghanistan that, in emergencies, “military peace. Security requires successful develop- the same time, German policymakers who deployments are necessary to protect our ment, and development is impossible with- deal with foreign, security and defence af- interests – for example with regard to trade out security. This relationship should be fairs appreciate the Bundeswehr’s expertise routes”. This statement unleashed a storm reflected in the coordination of civilian and and advice. of protest. military approaches to solving international Since the end of the Cold War, Ger- crises. many has been assuming more responsibil- Crises are threatening Europe ity for maintaining international security. By Tinko Weibezahl Public discourse is increasingly shaped by To an ever growing extent, European secu- the rising numbers of refugees (particularly rity is indirectly being threatened by the In Germany, there is a notable lack of trust from Africa), the USA’s partial retreat from civil wars and crises that haunt Africa, for between the Bundeswehr and civilian de- global interventions and the perception of example. Refugee movements lead to illegal velopment actors. That is partly due to Ger- the number of armed conflicts increasing migration. Terrorism and organised crime man history. After the Nazi dictatorship, it internationally. Two decades have passed find safe havens in areas where states have was impossible to view German military in- since the Bundeswehr carried out its first failed. It is in Europe’s self-interest to pro- volvement abroad in a positive light. Public foreign mission in Kosovo. Nonetheless, tecting Africa’s natural resources and the perceptions were shaped by Nazi militarism Germans still seem unaware of the need for livelihoods of the people there. The multi- and the atrocities committed in Germany’s their country to take on a new role on the faceted challenges cannot be tackled in iso- name. Furthermore, during the Cold War, world stage. lated measures and the response cannot be the Bundeswehr’s responsibilities were lim- primarily of a military nature. Developmen- ited to national defence. International responsibility tal, diplomatic and military efforts must be For many decades, moreover, interna- designed and implemented in a coherent tional-development agencies paid little at- Shortly after taking office in December 2013, and coordinated fashion. tention to security issues. There were rather Ursula von der Leyen, the federal defence This is the lesson of the past ten years, few points of contact between the military minister, spoke out in favour of a stronger and it has shaped Germany’s responses to and aid organisations. To some extent, German military presence in Africa. The recent international crises to a considerable both sides are still working alongside one reasons were primarily altruistic. She said extent. In Mali, for instance, development another, rather than with one another. The in an interview: “From a purely humanitar- measures are being used to supplement problem is exacerbated by mutual resent- ian perspective, we can’t look away when the EU’s military training mission (EUTM ment, which does not originate in the target murder and rape occur daily.” Almost si- Mali), in which German soldiers are playing country, but is rooted in the competition of multaneously, at the 2014 Munich Security a significant role (please note comment by Germany’s Federal Ministry for Defence on Conference, Joachim Gauck, then federal Julia Egleder, p. 39). The UN stabilisation the one side and the Federal Ministry for president, argued forcefully that Germany mission MINUSMA combines the services Economic Cooperation and Development must assume more military responsibility of soldiers, police and civilians. While the on the other. Both sides tend to disparage in conflict regions. His views were endorsed Bundeswehr is contributing to the stabilisa- the expertise of the other, especially when it by Frank-Walter Steinmeier, who was for- tion of the country and building capacity in comes to the federal budget. This tension is eign minister at the time and has since suc- the armed forces, Germany’s development currently on display in discussions concern- ceeded Gauck as head of state. agencies are providing support for state ing the NATO goal of each country devoting Their stance earned praise from in- structures all the way down to the munici- two percent of its gross domestic product to ternational partners, but the reaction at pal level. Moreover, they are helping to im- defence and the UN target of committing home was mixed. Politicians and scholars prove the people’s prospects. In Berlin, the 0.7 % of gross national income to official de- responded positively, but the majority of relevant ministries are continuously coordi- velopment assistance. the people are opposed to additional Bun- nating their activities. The Bundeswehr is a model case of deswehr missions. In a survey of January The role of the military in up-to-date a democratically controlled military. The 2014, 45 % of respondents said that the Ger- security policy must not be limited to de- Federal Government is a civilian adminis- man military was already doing too much ploying soldiers for stabilisation or inter- tration. It commands the armed forces. Any and 30 % thought that the current level of vention missions. It must extend beyond military operation abroad must be author- engagement was “just right”. At the time military capabilities. The expertise and re- ised by the Parliament and justified to the of the survey, some 5,000 German soldiers lationships that the Bundeswehr has built public on a case-by-case basis. The military were deployed abroad, the overwhelming over decades of collaboration with security

D+C e-Paper February 2018 37 Military and political power

Soldiers of Niger attend a seminar held by the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung in Niamey.

forces in developing countries should in- corruption and plundering to the abuse of matters and training for soldiers, police form policymaking in foreign, security and human rights and even outright acts of ter- and officers for example. It is necessary development affairs. An interdisciplinary ror. All too often, the political elite uses the to raise awareness of the role of security approach is needed. We need long-term co- security forces to further personal or politi- forces within a democracy and the role of operation instead of the silo-mentality that cal goals. Such behaviour thwarts economic women in the army and police. Members is still all too prevalent in Germany’s mili- development. of the security forces must become “citi- tary, government agencies and non-govern- For a long time, German organisa- zens in uniform”, with an emphasis on the mental organisations. tions considered development cooperation first term. Everyone benefits when Ger- with security forces virtually impossible. many’s Bundeswehr, government agen- Destabilising security forces The truth, however, is that well-considered cies, foundations and non-governmental institutional cooperation can contribute to organisations cooperate closely on these In many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, significantly improving matters – both with matters. the security sector is not fulfilling its duties. regard to the security forces themselves and As a result, states can neither enforce the their relationship with the general public. rule of law nor guarantee security. The lack This is especially so when cooperation is not Tinko Weibezahl of fully operational and democratically- limited to strictly military issues. Therefore, is the director of Konrad- controlled state power is painfully obvious. the Bundeswehr and civilian German agen- Andenauer-Stiftung’s Security Accordingly, people often do not trust their cies have been involved in actively support- Policy Programme in country’s security forces, perceiving them ing security-sector reforms in various coun- sub-Saharan Africa. He is as a threat, rather than a stabilising factor. tries. a reserve officer in the Bundeswehr with the Depending on country and region, crimes Instruments of choice include advice rank of major.

committed by the armed forces range from on the wording of laws concerning military [email protected] Ph oto: Weibezahl

D+C e-Paper February 2018 38 Military and political power

and difficult the flow of information can be Pulling together inside a single, unified military mission. Na- tional idiosyncrasies and safety regulations often hinder coordination. The flow of information between MINUSMA and Barkhane has also been lim- Last year, five African countries – Burkina proach that success depends on, however, ited. There are few – if any – signs of coordi- Faso, Niger, Mauretania, Mali and Chad – remains to be seen. nation or even concerted action. This is in partnered to form the G5 Sahel Joint Force. It The track record of military coopera- part by design: Germany’s Federal Govern- is designed to join the other military mis- tion is not reassuring. Along with French ment has clearly stated its soldiers must not sions operating in Mali to promote regional troops, UN blue helmets are on the ground be involved in active combat. The German peace and stability. Coordination among as part of the MINUSMA peacekeeping mis- public is more willing to accept peacekeep- various stakeholders and a shared strategy sion. The 11,299 police officers and soldiers ing efforts like MINUSMA than anti-terrorist are needed. from 53 countries are supposed to: campaigns in the course of which German ●● monitor the peace between the gov- soldiers might be killed. By Julia Maria Egleder ernment and the rebels, The people of Mali are growing frus- ●● prevent a resurgence of the violence trated, however. They see little of the peace In November 2017, the G5 Sahel Joint Force and that has been declared. In the turbulent sent out its first deployment of soldiers to ●● protect civilians. north and increasingly in central Mali too, patrol the borders of Mali, Niger and Burki- Germany’s Bundeswehr is contrib- deadly Islamist attacks on villages are the na Faso. Up to 5,000 G5 Force soldiers will uting some 900 soldiers to the mission, order of the day, and so are forced conscrip- ultimately counter the spread of Islamic ter- primarily to provide surveillance in the tion and bribery at illegal checkpoints. The ror in hard-to-control desert areas. Gao region of northern Mali. But even in- public’s fury is increasingly directed at the In itself, the new peacekeeping force side MINUSMA, communication is erratic international troops who always seem to be is actually a good idea. More than a dozen and flawed at best. Reports from the Bun- absent when they are needed most. All in all, Islamist organisations, including Al Qaida deswehr’s fact-finding mission are often there are very few indications that involving in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and Ansar late to reach the field camps of troops from another military stakeholder like the G5 will Dine, are active in Mali and neighbouring Bangladesh, China or Burkina Faso, if they improve the situation on the ground. countries. Group affiliations tend to be flu- arrive at all. Such failure can generally be at- id, and the Sahara desert offers extremists tributed to incompatible systems of military Julia Maria Egleder the unlimited freedom of a vast and uncon- leadership and communication. German is a member of the editorial trolled space. Compounding problems, the forces share a camp with their Dutch coun- team of Loyal, the monthly Islamist extremists often join forces with terparts, and a fence separates them from magazine published by criminal networks of human traffickers and other nations’ blue helmets, even though Reservistenverband, the drug smugglers in the desert. all are part of the same UN peacekeeping association of German reserve soldiers. The security situation became more mission. This scenario illustrates how slow [email protected] complicated five years ago when Islamist- backed nomadic Tuareg rebels from north- ern Mali seized large swaths of the country. The French military intervened, halting the rebels before they could capture Mali’s capital city, Bamako. A tentative peace ac- cord has since been reached between the Mali government and the powerful Tuareg groups, but the situation remains unstable. Militant groups are splintering, with mem- bers joining terrorist outfits or crime organi- sations. Numerous international forces are involved in rising to the region’s security challenges. With the help of drones, fighter planes, helicopters and cargo planes, rough- ly 4,000 French soldiers have taken part in the “Barkhane” counter-terrorism mission. France strongly backs the G5 Joint Force. Whether the two counter-terrorism mis-

sions will really take the coordinated ap- Camp Castor in Northern Mali: German and Dutch soldiers are stationed apart from other troops. Ph oto: picture alliance/Britta Pedersen/dpa

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