I

72-15,332

YOUNGEN, Lois Joy, 1933- ATTITUDES TOWARD PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AS A FUNCTION OF THE APPROVAL MOTIVE IN FIRST-YEAR COLLEGE WOMEN.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1971 Education, physical

University Microfilms, A XEROX, Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan ATTITUDES TOWARD PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AS A FUNCTION OF

THE APPROVAL MOTIVE IN FIRST-YEAR COLLEGE WOMEN

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Lois Joy Youngen, B.S., M.A

* * * * *

The Ohio State University 1971

Approved by

71 Adviser School of Health, Iffjysical Education and Recreation PLEASE NOTE:

Some pages have indistinct print. Filmed as received.

University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express her sincere appreciation to those individuals who have assisted with this study and to all who have contributed to her professional development.

My appreciation is extended to Dr. Margaret A.

Mordy for her encouragement and guidance in this investigation. Special thanks is extended to the other members of my committee, Dr. Barbara A.

Nelson and Dr. Robert L. Bartels.

ii

I VITA

October 23, 1933 Born - Ragersville, Ohio

1955 ...... B.S., Kent State University, Kent, Ohio

1955-1956 . . . Graduate Assistant, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan

1957 ...... M.A., Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan

1956-1960 . . . Instructor, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan

1960-1971 . . . Assistant Professor, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon

PUBLICATIONS

"A Comparison of Reaction and Movement Times of Women Athletes and Non-Athletes." The Research Quarterly. XXX (October 1959), 349-355.

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Physical Education. Dr. Margaret A. Mordy, Adviser

Minor Field: Developmental Psychology. Dr. Philip M. Clark, Adviser

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii

VITA ...... iii

LIST OF TABLES ...... vi

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Statement of the Problem Specific Problems Hypotheses Basic Assumptions Definition of Terminology Limitations

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 16

The Approval Motive Influenceability and Attitude Change Attitudes Toward Physical Activity

III. METHODS AND P R O C E D U R E S ...... 43

Sample Need for Approval Procedures for Administration of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale Attitudes Toward Physical Activity Procedures for Administration of the Attitude Toward Physical Activity Inventory The Neutral Attitude-Assessment Condition The Experimental Attitude-Assessment Condition Statistical Procedures

iv I Chapter Page IV. DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS 68

Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale Results Attitude Toward Physical Activity: Total ATPA Inventory Attitude Toward Physical Activity as a Social Experience Attitude Toward Physical Activity as Health and Fitness Attitude Toward Physical Activity as the Pursuit of Vertigo Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Aesthetic Experience Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Ascetic Experience Subdomain Rankings and Comparisons by High and Low Need for Approval Groups Direction and Intensity of Subdomains by Sub-Samples Discussion Summary

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 120

Procedure Results Conclusions Recommendations for Further Study Significant Questions

APPENDIX A. Psychological Testing ...... 128

B. ATPA Inventory ...... 135

C. Letters to Subjects ...... 144

D. Raw Scores ...... 147

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 153

v f LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 1. Sample Distribution: Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (N = 632) . •...... 46

2. Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale Data for N = 632 70

3. Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitudes Toward Physical Activity: Total Inventory Score ...... 73

4. Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Differences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity— Total Inventory Score ...... 74

5. Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitude Toward Physical Activity as a Social Experience ...... 76

6. Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Differences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity as a Social Experience ...... 77

7. Jleans and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitude Toward Physical Activity as Health and Fitness ...... 80

8. Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Differences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity as Health and Fitness ...... 81

9. Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitude Toward Physical Activity as the Pursuit of Vertigo .... 84

vi t Table Page 10. Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Differences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity as the Pursuit of Vertigo .... 85

11. Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Aesthetic Experience .... 88

12. Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Differences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Aesthetic Experience .... 89

13. Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Ascetic Experience ...... 91

14. Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Differences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Ascetic Experience ...... 92

15. Rank Order Comparisons of Subdomains of Physical Activity for High Need and Low Need Groups by Neutral and Experimental Conditions and for Total Need Group .... 95

16. Summary of I? Ratios for Main Effect of Analyses of Variance for Attitude Sub- domains Between High and Low Need for ■ Approval Groups ...... 99

17. Summary of I? Ratios for First-Order Inter­ action Effects of Analysis of Variance for Attitude Subdomains: High and Low Need x Neutral and Experimental Condi­ tions ...... 115

vii t CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Professional literature in the field of physical education is replete with studies investigating attitudes toward physical activity. The bulk of this research per­ tains to physical activity as it is related to programs of physical education. These studies have attempted to identify the variables that are related to attitude inten­ sity; to investigate attitude change; and to isolate differences in attitude strength between groups.

Regardless of the specific focus of these investiga­ tions , there appears to be widespread agreement on the desirability of physical activity. And yet, one of the most inexplicable problems in physical education is the dis­ crepancy which exists between positively expressed attitudes and overt behavior. Of a more explicit nature are those attitude findings which defy explanation. Why should college students with extremely negative attitudes toward physical activity voluntarily participate with the same frequency as students possessing a very positive attitude?^-

i Jack Keogh, "Extreme Attitudes Towards Physical Education," The Research Quarterly. XXXIV {March, 1963), p. 33. * 1 Why would international track and field athletes exhibit 2 neutral attitudes toward physical activity? Why would

college women express favorable attitudes toward physical

education and indicate that they would be less likely to 3 participate unless required?

Being aware of the paucity of reliable findings

from the field of social psychology, which considers atti­

tude dynamics a primary focus, inconsistencies in the

results of attitude studies should not be unexpected. How­

ever, it is possible that in the physical educator's

practical approach to the study of attitudes he has

neglected to consider the psychological implications inher­

ent in these investigations. Morgan, speaking in a generic

sense, recognizes this problem.

Researchers in physical education have often dis­ cussed their findings to a certain point and then commented that the remainder were explained by "psychological factors." Such explanations are at best oversimplifications and at worst are grossly misleading.4

It is this writer's belief that the expression of

attitudes toward physical activity are, in part, a function

2 Richard B. Alderman, "A Sociopsychological Assess­ ment of Attitude Toward Physical Activity in Champion Athletes," The Research Quarterly. XXXXI (March, 1970), pp. 1-9. 3 Jack Keogh, "An Analysis of General Attitudes Toward Physical Education," The Research Quarterly. XXXIII (December, 1962), p. 244.

4William P. Morgan, "Selected Psychometric Con­ siderations," Quest, Monograph XIII (January, 1970), p. 5. of underlying psychological motives. Since a more defini­

tive measure of attitude toward physical activity is

desirable, it is assumed that by identifying and controlling

one psychological motive that is known to exert a powerful

influence on behavior, a more exact measure of attitude

strength may be achieved.

To this writer's knowledge, no study has been

conducted in physical education within this design which

utilizes a psychological motive as an independent variable

in the assessment of attitudes toward physical activity.

Research in the field of social psychology gives evidence

to the fact that psychological processes operating within

the "audience, recipients, or target population," can be 5 categorized and studied.

A review of the psychological literature indicates

that not only do individuals differ in motive strength, but

that specific motives operate differently in the sexes.

For the purpose of this study, it is necessary to identify one motivational variable that can be "brought into play" in a self-evaluative situation while being particularly

appropriate for use with women. The literature reviewed is best summarized by Anastasi in her book devoted to the study

5 Phillip Zimbardo and Ebbe B. Ebbeson, Influencing Attitudes and Changing Behavior (Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 19 69), p . 17. 4 of individual and group differences in behavior:

Throughout this survey of sex differences in interests, preferences, attitudes, and values, we have encountered repeated evidence of the greater social orientation of women. This sex difference appears early in life and continues into old age.®

It appears that a relevant motivational variable for use in this study would be one with social implications.

During the 1960's, Crowne and Marlowe postulated that the social-desirability "response set," a test-taking strategy of giving socially desirable responses to test items, was meaningful, goal-directed behavior aimed at 7 obtaining the approval of others. The Marlowe-Crowne

Social Desirability Scale was developed to measure individ- g ual differences in the social-desirability response set.

Individuals who give very favorable self-descriptions on 9 this scale can be interpreted as displaying this set.

Thus, the authors interpreted this desire to conform to social stereotypes as an index of the need to achieve

g Anne Anastasi, Differential Psychology: Individual and Group Differences in Behavior (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1958), p. 48jU 7 Douglas P. Crowne and David Marlowe, "A New Scale of Social Desirability Independent of Psychopathology," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXIV (1960), pp. 349-54.

8Ibid. g Douglas P. Crowne and David Marlowe, The Approval Motive (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 22. approval from others.10 The construct of need for approval

implies that:

(a) people differ in the strength of their need to be thought well of by others; and (b) for those whose need is higher, we could assume a generalized expectancy that approval satisfactions are attained by engaging in behaviors which are culturally sanc­ tioned and approved (and by avoiding those responses which are not).1!

The normative data reported by Crowne and Marlowe

indicate that females score higher on this measure than 12 males. Similar sex differences in this scale have been 13 found by Katkin. An interpretation of these findings

would lead to the conclusion that females reflect a greater

need for social approval than do males. This interpretation

does not preclude the existence of this motive in males.

The high need for approval individual of both sexes * is characterized as one who is quick to respond to the

implied demands of authority figures; sensitive to the modal

responses of his peers, and when he differs from this mode

he inhibits the expression of this difference and conforms

to group opinion; susceptible to attitude persuasion;

defensive and protective of a low self-esteem; cautious in

setting goals in a risk-taking situation; and constricted

10Ibid.. p. 27. 11Ibid.

12Ibid.. pp. 209-12. 13 Edward S. Katkin, "Sex Differences and the Rela­ tionship Between the M-C SD Scale and MNPI Indexes of Psychopathology," Journal of Consulting Psychology. XXX (1966), p. 564. , 14 and conventional in general response. The low need for

approval or approval-independent individual appears to be

the antithesis of the approval-dependent person, reflecting

a freedom from social pressures.

In reviewing the literature, the concept of social-

desirability has been used to refer to two phenomena. The

first is the rated social-desirability value of descriptive

statements, primarily used in personality questionnaires.

Recently the parameters of this concept have been extended

to include descriptive statements on semantic differential^ 17 and attitude scales. According to Ford and Meisels, "The

social desirability of a questionnaire item or semantic differential scale may be viewed as an index of the cultural

•attitude' toward the characteristic referred to by the 18 item or scale." Taylor suggests that the social-desir­

ability variable can be viewed as an "overriding attitude,

a single attitude that interacts with and sometimes masks 19 other attitudes."

14 Crowne and Marlowe, Approval Motive, pp. 189-90. 15T, . , Ibid.

■^Leroy H. Ford and Murray Meisels, "Social Desir­ ability and the Semantic Differential," Educational and Psychological Measurement, XXV (1965), pp. 465-75. 17 James Bentley Taylor, "What Do Attitude Scales Measure?" Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. LXII (1961), pp. 386-90. ^®Ford and Meisels, "Social Desirability," p. 473.

^Taylor, "Attitude Scales," p. 389. The second aspect of social-desirability that has

been studied is the test-taking behavior of the individual.

Based upon his findings, Taylor proposes that for some

individuals the tendency to endorse items in a socially

desirable manner is a generalized disposition. As such, it

would exert a major influence in many test-taking situa­

tions. 20

Based upon the assumption that high need for

approval males and females possess this generalized disposi­

tion to give socially desirable responses, Pervin and Lilly

found that high need for approval subjects, as compared to

low need for approval subjects, did rate themselves signifi- 21 cantly higher on a set of semantic differential scales.

In an investigation to explore the cognitive correlates of

the "high need for approval personality," Rosenfeld pre­

dicted that high need for approval subjects (males) would

use non-analytical strategy in assigning meaning to concepts

on the semantic differential. The results indicated that

this dimension had not been tapped. Apparently what had

been measured was strength of feeling about a particular

concept. Rosenfeld suggests that the "key axis of reference

in the life of a high need for social approval individual"

20Ibid. 21 Lawrence A. Pervin and Roy S. Lilly, "Social Desirability and Self-Ideal Self Ratings on the Semantic Differential," Educational and Psychological Measurement. XXVII (1967), pp. 845-53. , 8

appears to be related to what is socially desirable and 22 what is socially undesirable.

Salman, through a carefully designed study, tested

the hypothesis that high need for approval males were more

susceptible to the manipulation of their attitudes than

individuals less motivated toward approval from others.

The experimental design followed the standard procedure of pre- and post-attitude assessment. The results clearly

indicated that the attitudes of high need for approval

individuals can be altered. Of particular interest to this

investigator was the finding that the two groups, high and

low in need for approval, differed significantly on the 23 initial attitude measure.

The theoretical question of how people know what is

socially desirable remains an enigma. On an operational level, numerous investigations have indicated that there is consensus "on what _is socially desirable among groups presumably varying greatly in cultural background, social 24 position, and personality."

It is proposed that the approval motive is an

22 John M. Rosenfeld, "Some Perceptual and Cognitive Correlates of the High Need for Social Approval Person­ ality" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1963), pp. 82-83. 23 Arthur R. Salman, "The Need for Approval, Impro­ visation, and Attitude Change" (unpublished master's thesis, The Ohio State University, 1962). 24 Crowne and Marlowe, Approval Motive, p. 13. 9

appropriate psychological variable for use in this investi­

gation. Having established a theoretical base, we might

expect individuals who are high and low in the need for

approval to interact with attitude items related to the

social, health and fitness, vertigo, aesthetic, and ascetic

components of physical activity in a very different man- 25 ner. In a psychologically neutral attitude assessment

condition without any directly exerted social influence, we might expect the following: The attitudinal responses of

the high need for approval women should reflect, at least

in part, the social-desirability value of the attitude items. The attitudes expressed by low need for approval women should reflect a frank and honest answer. We might expect these interactions regardless of the environmental setting in which the attitudes are assessed.

Based upon Salman's findings, it seems plausible that high need for approval women would be more susceptible to persuasion than women less motivated toward approval from others. In terms of attitude change, Zimbardo and

Ebbeson indicate that "Ego-involvement with the consequences 26 of one's response increases the probability of change."

^5Gerald S. Kenyon, "A Conceptual Model for Char­ acterizing Physical Activity," The Research Quarterly. XXXIX {March, 1968), pp. 96-105. 26 Zimbardo and Ebbeson, Influencing Attitudes. p. 22. 1 10

Further validity of this approach as it is related to the

approval motive is stated by Crowne and Marlowe.

Expectancies regarding the evaluative consequences of behavior constitute another major source of influence on test responses. A considerable portion of the research on test dissimulation is, in fact, concerned with manipulating the subject's expect­ ancies regarding appropriate or inappropriate behavior in the test situation— that is, his expectancies of what will happen if he behaves in a given way.^7

For the high need for approval woman, public commitment

should be of great personal importance as a means of gaining

approval. In an experimental attitude assessment condition designed to emphasize the public aspects of the commitment,

ego-involvement should be maximized. We might expect the personal attitudes of the approval-motivated woman to be

suppressed in favor of presenting an image appropriate to her subculture. This procedure should give additional reinforcement to the disposition to give socially desirable responses. Moreover, this process should be facilitated by

attitude statements that provide maximum flexibility on the

agree-disagree continuum. Due to the added ego-involvement in this assessment condition, we might expect the high need for approval subjects' attitudes to differ significantly from those of the less-motivated and involved low need for approval subjects, and from their high need for approval counterparts in the neutral condition. In addition, we

27 Crowne and Marlowe, Approval Motive, p. 32. 11

might expect these results regardless of the environmental

setting in which the attitudes are assessed.

Freed to risk social alienation, the attitudes

expressed by low need for approval individuals should

reflect a frank and honest opinion. In responding, this

individual should rely on past experiences related to

physical activity without concern for the cultural or social

value of the attitude items per se. This frankness should

prevail regardless of the demands of the attitude assessment

situation.

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study is to compare, under two

assessment conditions, the attitudes toward five subdomains

which characterize the social-psychological phenomenon

called physical activity of college freshman women desig­

nated as high and low in need for approval-

Specific Problems

The specific problems of the study are:

1. To compare the total attitude scores between the high and low need for approval groups in the neutral

and experimental assessment conditions.

2. To compare the attitude scores between high and low need for approval groups in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions for each of the five subdomains of physical activity; i.e., (£) as a social experience, (2) as 12

health and fitness, (3) as the pursuit of vertigo, (4) as

an aesthetic experience, and (5) as an ascetic experience.

3. To compare the attitude scores between groups,

using a group method of data collection and an individual

method of data collection.

Hypotheses

1. There is a significant difference in the atti­

tude scores of high need for approval subjects in the

neutral and experimental assessment conditions for each of

the five subdomains and for the total attitude score.

2. There is no significant difference in the

attitude scores of low need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions for each of the five subdomains and for the total attitude score.

3. There is a significant difference in the atti­

tude scores of high and low need for approval subjects in the neutral and in the experimental assessment conditions for each of the five subdomains and for the total attitude

score.

4. There is no significant difference in the

attitude scores of subjects in the group method of data collection and subjects in the individual method of data collection.

t Basic Assumptions

1. Kenyon's Attitude Toward Physical Activity

Inventory: Form DW is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing attitudes toward physical activity of college women. Although a catharsis scale is provided within the inventory, it will not be used as a separate subdomain due to its unestablished validity.

2. The Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale is a valid and reliable instrument for measuring the approval motive in college women.

3. The sample of freshman college women is repre­ sentative of a regional subculture by virtue of common public school background, geographical location, and attendance at this institution.

Definition of Terminology

Attitude.— A latent or non-observable complex, but relatively stable, behavioral disposition reflecting both direction and intensity of feeling toward a particular 2 S object, whether it be concrete or abstract.

Attitude Toward Physical Activity Inventory: Form

DW.— Also defined as ATPA Scales. An inventory designed to assess attitudes toward six unidimensional subdomains of

28 Gerald S. Kenyon, "Six Scales for Assessing Attitude Toward Physical Activity," The Research Quarterly, XXXIX (October, 1968), p. 567. 14

physical activity: (1) as social experience; (2) as health

and fitness; (3) as the pursuit of vertigo; (4) as an

aesthetic experience; (5) as catharsis; and (6) as an 29 ascetic experience.

Motive.— Also defined as a need. A functionally

related set of behaviors directed toward the attainment of , 30 a goal.

Need for approval.— The need to be thought well of by others; the strength of this need differs in individ­ uals . 3*

Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale.— A scale which provides an indirect measure of the strength of an 32 individual's need for approval.

High need for approval individual.— Also defined as approval-dependent. Characterized by engaging in behaviors which are culturally sanctioned and approved while avoiding those which are not.

Low need for approval individual.— Also defined as approval-independent. Characterized by freedom from social

29Ibid., pp. 566-74. 30 Crowne and Marlowe, Approval Motive. p. 200.

31Ibid., p. 27.

32Ibid., pp. 23-27. 15 pressures in the expression of beliefs and other behaviors.

Neutral condition.— A psychologically neutral atti­ tude assessment situation. Characterized by informality, permissiveness, lack of authority, and anonymity.

Experimental condition.— A psychologically demanding and ego-arousing attitude assessment situation. Character­ ized by formality, rigidity, and authority accompanied by a verbal statement emphasizing the social consequences of the response behavior.

Group method of data collection.— A testing situ­ ation in which the attitude inventory was administered to high and low need for approval subjects in a group.

Individual method of data collection.— A testing situation in which the attitude inventory was administered to high and low need for approval subjects on an individual basis.

Limitations

Subjects were selected from a single freshman col­ lege population and therefore were representative only of that population.

It is assumed that psychological variables other than those tested cannot be controlled.

t CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

There has been little research reported in the physical education literature regarding the relationship

of personality constructs or variables to the assessment of

attitudes toward physical activity. Therefore, literature

relevant to each of the variables utilized in this study will be presented in the following order: the approval motive; influenceability and attitude change; and attitudes

toward physical activity.

The Approval Motive

A persistent problem in the history of personality testing has been the occurrence of the social-desirability response set. This set is defined as a test-taking

strategy in which "on any item the choice of acknowledging or denying some trait, feeling, or symptom is made by deciding which alternative would result in the most socially

favorable self-description."^ The first approach to the understanding of this phenomenon was to scrutinize the test

^Douglas P. Crowne and David Marlowe, The Approval Motive (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 12.

16 17 items to ascertain their potential social-desirability value. It was assumed that individual items could be placed on a social-desirability continuum. The results of numerous investigations have supported this contention.

The social-desirability value of personality items has been rated on a continuum by a variety of groups of different ages and nationalities. The most dramatic finding is that

"there appears to be widespread agreement on what i^s socially desirable among groups presumably varying greatly 2 in cultural background, social position, and personality."

Recognizing that a testing situation was a person-situation interaction, Crowne and Marlowe reasoned that an individ­ ual's motives and expectations should be of major importance in understanding the social-desirability response set. To test their hypothesis, they constructed a scale intended to measure individual differences in this variable. "Individ­ uals who depict themselves in very favorable terms on the scale can be understood as displaying a social-desirability 3 response set." According to the authors:

Our initial interpretation of socially desirable responding on the new scale was that people con­ form to social stereotypes of what is good to acknowledge concerning oneself in order to achieve approval from others.^

2Ibid., p. 13.

3Ibid., p. 22.

4Ibid., p. 27. 18

Thus, the approval motive was formulated in an effort to

explain one motivational determinant of test-taking

behavior.

Crowne and Marlowe couched their theoretical

formulation of the approval motive within the broader

framework of Rotter's Social Learning Theory. The theory

postulates that the probability of a behavior's occurrence

is a joint function of the individual's anticipation that

certain reinforcing events will result from this behavior,

and the value that the reinforcements have for the individ- i 5 ua l .

In their first attempt to empirically validate

their construct in a non-test-taking situation, Marlowe and

Crowne selected a conformity situation in which male sub­

jects performed a dull, repetitive spool-packing task. It

was hypothesized that high need for approval subjects, as

compared to low need for approval subjects, would express

more favorable attitudes toward the task on a post­

experiment questionnaire. As predicted, approval-dependent

subjects consistently expressed more favorable attitudes

than the approval-independent subjects.^

Using a verbal conditioning design, Crowne and

5Ibid., pp. 197-205. £ David Marlowe and Douglas P. Crowne, "Social Desirability and Response to Perceived Situational Demands," Journal of Consulting Psychology. XXV (1961), pp. 109-15. 19

Strickland found that approval-motivated subjects, male and

female, significantly increased their rate of "plural noun"

responses under conditions of negative and positive rein- 7 forcement. In a second verbal conditioning experiment, an

interview technique was used in which every positive self-

reference emitted by the subject was reinforced by the

experimenter. It was found that high need for approval

subjects produced significantly more self-references than Q the approval-independent subjects. These verbal condition­

ing studies are interpreted as demonstrating the sensitivity

of the high need for approval individual to perceived

situational demands.

Strickland and Crowne, using a simulated conformity

situation, demonstrated that approval-oriented females yielded to perceived group opinion significantly more often 9 than did low need for approval females. This finding was replicated in a study employing an experimental situation

7 Douglas P. Crowne and Bonnie Strickland, "The Conditioning of Verbal Behavior as a Function of the Need for Social Approval," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. LXIII (1961), pp. 395-401. g David Marlowe, "Need for Approval and the Operant Conditioning of Meaningful Verbal Behavior," Journal of Consulting Psychology. XXVI (1962), pp. 79-83. 9 Bonnie R. Strickland and D. P. Crowne, "Conformity Under Conditions of Simulated Group Pressure as a Function of the Need for Approval," Journal of Social Psychology, LVIII (1962), pp. 171-81. 20

in which the opposing majority were actually present.^

Of particular interest was the finding that the stronger

the pressure to yield, the greater the conformity demon­

strated by the approval-motivated subjects. Conversely,

the low need for approval subjects conformed less than usual

to this strong pressure manipulation.

Horton, Marlowe, and Crowne hypothesized that the

behavior of approval-motivated females, in the absence of

direct social pressure, would remain dependent on conven­

tional, stereotyped social norms. The low but statistically

significant finding was that high need for approval females,

as compared to low need for approval females, tended to

respond to a word-association test with culturally stereo­

typed words. ^

Barthel used a goal-setting task to further

investigate the cultural-anchoring hypothesis. He postu­

lated that in a dart-throwing task where directly exerted

social influences were absent, high need for approval males,

as compared to low need for approval males, would select a position of intermediate risk from which to perform. Assum­

ing that the behavior of approval-motivated individuals is

anchored in cultural norms, it was expected that these

10Crowne and Marlowe, Approval Motive, pp. 79-84.

1;LD. L. Horton, D. Marlowe, and D. P. Crowne, "The Effect of Instructional Set and Need for Social Approval on Commonality of Word Association Responses," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LXVI (1963), pp. 67-72. 21

subjects would vary little in their goal-setting behavior

from trial to trial. As predicted, there was a highly

significant tendency for approval-motivated subjects to

select an intermediate position from the target and to 12 restrict their range of movement.

Based upon these initial studies, approval-motivated individuals are characterized as persons who place a strong value upon the approval from others while possessing an extreme sensitivity to situational cues. These cues evoke expectancies concerning the possible success of behaviors as a means of achieving approval.

Little attention is given to sex differences in the initial studies. There appears to be little difference in the non-test-taking behavior of males and females with regard to the approval motive. However, there is evidence that women score significantly higher than men on the 13 Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. The use of only male subjects in specific studies and only female subjects in others raises some question regarding sex dif­ ferences operating within this construct.

The first study suggesting the operation of a

12 Christopher E. Barthel (unpublished research), in The Approval Motive, Crowne and Marlowe, pp. 93-95. 13 Edward S. Katkin, "Sex Differences and the Rela­ tionship Between the M-C SD Scale and MMPI Indexes of Psychopathology," Journal of Consulting Psychology. XXX (1966), p. 564. 22 defense process in connection with the approval motive utilized socially disapproved stimuli in the form of taboo words. Barthel and Crowne hypothesized that high need for approval females, as opposed to low need for approval females, would show the greater perceptual defense. The defense score was based upon the number of trials necessary to identify the taboo words. The results confirmed the . . 14 prediction at a highly sxgnxfxcant level.

The discovery of the defensive nature of the approval-motivated individual provided a new approach to interpreting high scores on the Marlowe-Crowne Social

Desirability Scale and promoted extensive research in this area.

In the attitude change study briefly mentioned in the first chapter, Salman demonstrated that high need for approval males were more persuasible than approval- independent males. After reviewing numerous research findings on the self-esteem-persuasibility relationship,

Crowne and Marlowe proposed that low self-esteem may be a 15 corollary to high need for approval.

In two studies designed to explore the defensiveness and vulnerable self-esteem hypothesis, a double classifica-

■^Christopher E. Barthel and Douglas P. Crowne, "The Need for Approval, Task Categorization, and Perceptual Defense," Journal of Consulting Psychology. LXVI (1963), pp. 547-55. 15 Crowne and Marlowe, Approval Motive, p. 130. 23 tion was used to categorize approval-motivated individuals.

Up to this time, investigations had relied on motive strength alone in explaining differences in behavior. The operational refinement consisted of the use of scores on the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale as an index of an individual's preference for certain reinforcements— social approval. A measure of goal-setting behavior was used as an index of an individual's generalized expectancy that social approval could be attained. Using this refine- 16 ment, subjects can be placed into four categories. The first study was a face-to-face conformity experiment. The results indicated that those high need for approval individuals who had a relatively low generalized expectancy of success in obtaining approval satisfactions were signifi­ cantly more conforming than subjects in all other classifi­ cations. An additional finding was that the defensive processes of the conformer tended to become more marked as his personal commitment increased. These results were 17 confirmed for both sexes.

Barthel used the double classification system in a replication of his earlier study of goal-setting behavior.

His design included the manipulation of acute levels of

1 6 Douglas P. Crowne and Shephard Liverant, "Con­ formity Under Varying Conditions of Personal Commitment," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. LXVI (1963), pp. 547-55. 24

self-esteem through the induction of success and failure.

The results indicated that high need for approval males

with a low expectancy of success demonstrated significantly

more goal-setting rigidity than males in the other three 18 categories.

Using motive strength alone as the index of approval

motivation, subsequent studies have found a significant

inverse relationship between the Marlowe-Crowne Social 19 Desirability Scale scores and anxiety scores. Katkin's

results indicated a significant negative relationship

between Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scores and 20 specific MMPI Scale scores for females but not for males.

Using a different experimental approach, Lefcourt found that

high need for approval subjects who reported that they were

low in anxiety gave fewer and more restricted responses to

projective tests than low need for approval subjects. A

18 Christopher E. Barthel, "The Effects of the Approval Motive Generalized Expectancy, and Situational Cues upon Goal-Setting and Social Defensiveness" (unpub­ lished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1963). 19 G. M. Fisher and R. A. Kramer, "The Relation of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale to the Catell Anxiety Scale," Journal of Clinical Psychology, XIX (1963), pp. 204-05; M. Boor and T. Schill, "Digit Symbol Performance of Subjects Varying in Anxiety and Defensiveness," Journal of Consulting Psychology. XXXI (1967), pp. 600-603. 20 Katkin, "Sex Differences," p. 564.

f 25 similar pattern was found when a threat was introduced into 21 the experimental situation.

The results of this series of studies suggest that when verbal stimuli are evaluated as a threat to a pre­ cariously balanced self-esteem, high need for approval individuals react defensively by scoring low on self-reports and giving restricted responses.

Although it has been established that females score significantly higher on the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirabil­ ity Scale than males, the literature indicates that behavioral differences are situation specific.

Influenceability and Attitude Change

Conformity

Conformity situations are quite diverse. According to McGuire, they share the common characteristic "of com­ municating to the subject the fact that a normative belief of some peer group or authority figure differs from his own 22 initial belief." The degree of change toward the norma­ tive position is then measured.

The empirical evidence indicates that across

21 Herbert M. Lefcourt, "Need for Approval and Threatened Negative Evaluation as Determinants of Expres­ siveness in a Projective Test," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. XXXIII (1969), pp. 96-102. 22 William J. McGuire, "The Nature of Attitudes and Attitude Change," in Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson, eds., The Handbook of Social Psychology (Reading: Addison- Wesley Publishing Company,,1969), III, p. 175. 26 conformity situations, females tend to be more conforming 2 3 than males. A study by Beloff is illustrative of this finding. This study was designed to determine the relation­ ship between two kinds of conformity, acquiescence and conventionality. Acquiescence was defined as yielding in a face-to-face situation. Conventionality was defined as agreement with attitudes and mores of a subculture. In addition to finding that women were more acquiescent than men, she found significant relationships between acquies­ cence and conventionality. For males, there was a relationship between these two variables with conventional­ ity measured by a politico-social inventory of attitudes.

For females, acquiescence was related to a measure of 24 aesthetic conventionality. Throwing some doubt on the total consistency of female compliance, McDavid found that item content was a major contributing factor. Using previously rated items, he found that on items judged to be neutral or feminine, females conformed no more often than males. On items judged as having more relevance for males,

2 3 Elliott McGinnies, Social Psychology (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1970), p. 124; David Krech, Richard S. Crutchfield, and Egerton L. Ballachey, Individual in Society (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962), p. 524; James 0. Whittaker, "Sex Differences and Suscepti­ bility to Interpersonal Persuasion," Journal of Social Psychology. LXVI (1965), pp. 91-94.

^4Halla Beloff, "Two Forms of Social Conformity: Acquiescence and Conventionality," Journal of Social Psy­ chology . LVI (1958), pp. 99-103. 27 25 females yielded to the majority with greater frequency.

In interpreting the sex differences in the con­ formity literature, numerous investigators indicate that culturally determined sex-role expectations prescribe passivity and compliance for females and initiative and independence for males.^

There appears to be a tendency to conclude that the disposition to conform is a personality trait of low magni- 27 tude. Vaughn qualifies his position by suggesting that this conformity trait is normally distributed in the population; therefore, specific situational cues will be a 2 0 major determinant of compliance. That conformity is situation-specific is also maintained by other investi- 29 gators.

In much of the literature dealing with conformity,

25 J. W. McDavid, "The Sex Variables m Conforming Behavior," in Social Psychology. McGinnies, p. 124. O g Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, Individual in Society, p. 524; Whittaker, "Sex Differences," pp. 91-94. 27 David Marlowe and Kenneth J. Gergen, "Personality and Social Interaction," in The Handbook of Social Psy­ chology. edited by Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson (4 vols.; Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1969), III, p. 619. 28 Graham M. Vaughn, "The Trans-Situational Aspect of Conforming Behavior," Journal of Personality. XXXII (1964), pp. 335-54. 2Q Beloff, "Two Forms," pp. 99-103; George Moeller and Mortimer H. Appelzweig, "A Motivational Factor in Con­ formity," Journal of Social Psychology. LV (1957), pp. 114- 19. a definitional distinction is made between normative social

influence and informational social influence. Informational

social influence refers to a situation in which the subject

accepts other individuals as sources of information for

evaluating his environment. Normative social influence

refers to a situation in which the subject is motivated by

the social rewards and punishments he may gain from a given 30 group. In operational terms, it is very difficult to

distinguish the degree of interaction between these two

variables.

In a study that might be classified under the rubric of normative social influence, Moeller and Appelzweig

found that the most conforming females in a face-to-face

situation were those measured high in the need for social 31 approval and low in self-approval.

It is apparent that social influence varies with

sets of conditions. Some of the factors that contribute to

these sets include: sex of the subject, personality char­ acteristics, social status, situation characteristics, and 32 the subject's past experience.

^°Arthur R. Cohen, Attitude Change and Social Influence (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1964), pp. Tll- 13. 31 Moeller and Appelzweig, "A Motivational Factor," pp. 114-19. 32 Cohen, Attitude Change, pp. 115-16. 29

Persuasibility

Persuasibility situations are defined as those atti­

tude change inductions where the person receives a prepared

message presenting arguments why he should or should not 33 adopt a certain conclusion on a particular issue. The

experimental design usually includes the administration of

a pre-communication measure of opinion and a post­

communication measure.

As with conformity, there appear to be sex differ­

ences in persuasibility. The research indicates that 34 females are more persuasible than males.

The addition of personality variables to the per­

suasibility design results in research findings that are

equivocal. The dynamic personality variable which has

received the most attention in connection with persuasibil­

ity is self-esteem. Those investigations using female

subjects are of particular importance to this investigation due to the defensiveness and self-esteem hypothesis related

to the approval motive.

One of the first investigations exploring general

33 McGuire, "The Nature of Attitudes," p. 176. 34 Irving L. Janis and Peter B. Field, "Sex Differ­ ences and Personality Factors Related to Persuasibility," in Personality and Persuasibility. edited by Carl I. Hovland and Irving L. Janis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959), pp. 55-68; Udai P. Singh, "Sex and Age Differences in Persuasibility," Journal of Social Psychology, LXXXII (1970), pp. 269-70. 30 persuasibility as well as the self-esteem-persuasibility relationship was conducted by Janis and Field. Using high school students, they found that the females were signifi­ cantly more persuasible than the males. Persuasibility was measured as the degree of yielding to written opinions on various neutral topics. In addition, a significant negative relationship was found between self-esteem and persuasibil­ ity for the male sample but not for the female sample.

They interpreted the results as indicating that the increased compliance shown by the females smothered the personality-persuasibility relationship. A cultural inter- 35 pretation was reported for the sex differences.

Questioning the results of Janis and Field, Cox and

Bauer designed a study to investigate the self-esteem- persuasibility relationship in a sample of middle-class housewives. Three classifications of self-reported self­ esteem were used: high, middle, and low. A standard experimental design was used. Their results revealed a curvilinear relationship, with the middle self-esteem group exhibiting the greatest amount of attitude change. The investigators concluded that the low self-esteem group reacted defensively to the situation and actually changed 3 6 in the opposite direction.

■^Janis and Field, "Sex Differences," pp. 55-68. 3 6 Donald F. Cox and Raymond A. Bauer, "Self- Confidence and Persuasibility in Women," Public Opinion Quarterly. XXIII (1964), pp. 453-66. 31

Silverman predicted that high self-esteem, as reported by subjects, and persuasibility were both mani­

festations of approval-seeking behavior. As such, they inhibited the finding of any relationship between the two variables with women subjects. His hypothesis was partially confirmed. A positive relationship was found between

Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale scores and self­ esteem as reported by the subjects. However, no relation­ ship was found between the M-C SDS scores and persuasibility scores. For the female sample, the major finding was a curvilinear relationship between self-esteem and persuasi­ bility. In contrast to Cox and Bauer, the most yielding females were those in the high and in the low self- confidence groups. ^

Nisbett and Gordon also reported a curvilinear relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility in a sample of college females. The experimental design and the communication were similar to those used in the previously reviewed studies. The results indicated that both high and low self-esteem females did not change as much as the middle 38 self-esteem group.

37Irwin Silverman et al., "Inter-Related Effects of Social Desirability, Sex, Self-Esteem, and Complexity of Argument on Persuasibility," Journal of Personality. XXIV (1966), pp. 555-68. O Q Richard E. Nisbett and Andrew Gordon, "Self-Esteem and Susceptibility to Social Influence," Journal of Person­ ality and Social Psychology. V (1967), pp. 268-76. 32

Although the results of this series of studies

differ, it appears that they have the following character­

istics in common: (1) all deal with the construct of trait

self-esteem which is also called self-confidence; (2) all use topics that are relatively free from ego-involvement;

(3) all use similar research designs; arid (4) other than a

cultural interpretation, all have some difficulty in presenting an interpretation of their results.

With topics that are personally relevant, there appears to be considerable evidence that attitudes that serve to bolster or protect a person's self-esteem are 39 highly resistant to change.

Determinants of persuasibility

According to Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, the modifiability of an attitude depends not only on the sex and personality of the individual but on the character­ istics- of the attitude itself. This includes the value the attitude has for an individual as it reflects a group 40 norm. To this profile, McGinnies would add the inter­ acting variables of communicator credibility, personal involvement in the issue by the subject, and the discrepancy between the initial attitudes of the subject and the posi-

39 Theodore M. Newcomb et al., Social Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, IncTj 1965), pp. 143-45.

40Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, Individual and Society, pp. 215-25. 33 41 tion advocated by the communicator. Thus, we have listed

a major portion of the variables that are operative in a

specific persuasibility situation. For the purpose of the

present investigation, we would add private versus public

commitment to the list.

Throughout the attitude-change literature, one

becomes aware of the infinite number of factors operating

with a given investigation. These variables differ by

definition, but at the operational level they differ in

intensity and degree of interaction. Those variables that

are salient to this investigation will be presented in this

section.

There appears to be empirical consensus that a weak

attitude located near the neutral point on an attitude scale

is more susceptible to change than an extreme attitude

located at either pole.^

An individual's susceptibility to persuasion is

influenced not only by the extremity of his attitudes, but

also by the degree of his personal involvement in the

specific issue. Operationally, extreme attitudes and

involvement are treated as a single variable. More extreme

attitudes, typically, are held with greater degrees of

^McGinnies, Social Psychology, p. 382.

^ Ibid.: see also, Newcomb et al.. Social Psychology. p. 89. 34 43 involvement than are less extreme attitudes. Approaching

the issue from a different perspective, the stronger the

attitude, the more the consistency observed among the 44 cognitive, affective, and action components. It is this knowledge that has lead attitude-change investigators deliberately to avoid using basic issues that involve deep personal commitments in their studies. Their approach relies upon selecting topics which have low personal rele- 45 vance and reflect little previously stored information.

It has been shown that attempts to change personally relevant attitudes in the direction advocated by a communi­ cation may produce shifts in the opposite direction. This 46 phenomenon has been called the “boomerang effect."

Communicator effects

Research findings have reliably established three primary attributes of an effective communicator or source.

43 Newcomb et al., Social Psychology, p. 50. 44 Donald T. Campbell, "Social Attitudes and Other Acquired Behavioral Dispositions," in Psychology: A Study of Science, edited by Sigmund Koch (7 vols.; New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1963), VI, pp. 159-62. 45 Carl I. Hovland, “Reconciling Conflicting Results from Experimental and Survey Studies of Attitude Change," American Psychologist, XIV (1959), pp. 8-17.

^6Carl I. Hovland, 0. J. Harvey, and M. Sherif, "Assimilation and Contrast Effects in Reactions to Communi­ cation and Attitude Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. LV (1957), pp. 244-52. 35

These dre identified under the general headings of exper- 47 tise, attractiveness, and power.

In studies using a communicator with high expertise

or credibility, it has been found that the greater the

discrepancy between the subject's initial position and that

advocated by the communicator, the greater the attitude

change— provided the issue did not involve a deep commit- 48 ment. Under conditions where there is some doubt regard­ ing the credibility or expertise of the communicator and when the subject is personally involved with the issue: the greater the discrepancy between the subject's initial position and that advocated by the communication, the higher 49 the resistance to change.

As a.dispenser of positive and negative reinforce­ ment, the power communicator or source has received considerable attention in the literature. In learning theory, he is defined as a model. In influenceability studies, he becomes the distributor of social approval and disapproval of both an implicit and explicit nature.^

^McGuire, "The Nature of Attitudes," p. 179. 48 Carl I. Hovland and H. A. Pritzker, "Extent of Opinion Change as a Function of Amount of Change Advocated," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. LIV (1957), pp. 257-61. 49 Hovland, Harvey, and Sherif, "Assimilation and Contrast," pp. 244-52. 50 Carl I. Hovland and Irving L. Janis, Personality and Persuasibility (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959), pp. 270-71. 36

Janis and Hovland state that social approval and disapproval

are major determinants of persuasibility regardless of the 51 source or the situation. Inevitably, the power of the

communicator must be weighed against the normative power of

those reference groups valued by the subject. As Cohen

states:

Many research findings which show that members of a group resist communications that run counter to the norms and values of the group and accept those sanctioned by it can be interpreted in terms of expectations of social approval or disapproval.52

The use of anonymity in experimental situations functions to reduce the normative social influences that may be operating within the individual's frame of reference.

When the individual knows that his judgments cannot be identified, he is less likely to conform to group expecta- 53 tions.

Much of the literature cited in this section could be interpreted in terms of normative and informational social influence. The degree of interaction between these two social influence variables must be considered in light of individual differences and situational factors.

51TIbid. U . ,

52Cohen, Attitude Change, pp. 39-40,

53Ibid., p. 111. 37

Attitudes Toward Physical Activity

The most extensive study of attitude toward physical

activity was also one of the first. This cross-national

investigation of secondary school students was conducted by 54 Gerald S. Kenyon. The purpose of this study was to

explore the behavioral and situational correlates of

attitude and activity involvement. Using the semantic differential approach, attitudes toward six subdomains characterizing physical activity were assessed. One of the behavioral correlates selected was the need for approval.

It was hypothesized that high need for approval subjects would express positive attitudes toward physical activity perceived as a social experience, as catharsis, and exhibit a less positive attitude toward physical activity as an ascetic experience. It was proposed that a similar rela­ tionship would appear in the nature of their activity 55 involvement. The investigator makes no distinction between the sexes in proposing this hypothesis. Those findings related to the United States female sample have been extracted for presentation. The female sample ranked the subdomains as follows in terms of attitude strength:

(1) aesthetic experience, (2) social experience, (3) health

54 Gerald S. Kenyon, Values Held for Physical Activ­ ity by Selected Urban Secondary School Students in Canada. Australia. England and the United States (Madison: Univer­ sity of Wisconsin Press, 1968) , p. §"I

^ I b i d . , pp. 41-43. W 38

and fitness, (4) catharsis, (5) pursuit of vertigo, and

(6) ascetic experience. All means reported for this sample

were above the actual test mean, thereby reflecting a positive attitude. The need for approval results are not

clearly defined by sex, but the tabular results indicate no

significant relationships between this construct and atti­

tudes toward any of the subdomains for the female sample.

However, the investigator states that attitude was found to be associated with body-esteem, need for approval, and self- Cg esteem. In addition, need for approval was found to be

significantly associated with the category of most desired primary participation. This category consisted of sports or other forms of activity in which students would like to participate if given the opportunity. In this category no distinction is made between the sexes.

In general, attitude was found to be a function of sex: males exhibited the most positive attitudes toward physical activity as the pursuit of vertigo and as an

ascetic experience; females were most positive toward the domains of social experience and aesthetic experience. No attempt was made to confirm or reject the hypotheses related to the approval motive.

Using the semantic differential approach, Delaplane found the attitudes toward physical activity of college

56Ibid., pp. 149-50. 39

freshman males and females differed with regard to specific

subdomains. Males were significantly more positive than

females in their attitudes toward the subdomain of vertigo.

The order in which the female sample ranked the subdomains

in terms of strength of their attitudes was as follows:

(1) aesthetic experience, (2) social experience, (3) cathar­

sis, (4) health and fitness, (5) ascetic, and (6) pursuit

of vertigo. The females in this sample reflected positive 57 attitudes toward all subdomains.

Alderman, in a recent study, assessed the attitudes

toward physical activity of a selected group of male and

female championship athletes representing ten different

sports. The semantic differential approach revealed very

little difference between the sexes in their attitudes

toward physical activity subdomains. The ranking of sub-

domains by the female athletes was as follows: (1) aesthet­

ic experience, (2) social experience, (3) catharsis,

(4) health and fitness, (5) ascetic experience, (6) the pursuit of vertigo. As might be expected, the attitude 58 strength of all subdomains reflected positive attitudes.

57 Nancy M. Delaplane, "A Comparison of Attitudes of Male and Female College Freshmen Toward Physical Education" (unpublished master's thesis, The Ohio State University, 1969). 58 Richard B. Alderman, "A Sociopsychological Assess­ ment of Attitudes Toward Physical Activity in Champion Athletes," The Research Quarterly, XXXXI (March, 1970), pp. 1-9. 40

In March, 1968, Kenyon reported his efforts to

construct a model characterizing physical activity as a

sociopsychological phenomenon. Based upon the assumption

that physical activity in its broadest sense could be

reduced to more specific components, several models were

formulated, empirically tested, and revised. The final

revision yielded six dimensions or subdomains from which

attitude scales were constructed. The six domains and their underlying rationale are: 59

1. Physical activity as a social experience— . . . was characterized by those physical activities whose primary purpose is to pro­ vide a medium for social intercourse; i.e., to meet new people and to perpetuate existing relationships.

2. Physical activity for health and fitness— . . . was posited that some physical activity can be characterized primarily by its contribu­ tion to the improvement of one's health and fitness.

3. Physical activity as the pursuit of vertigo— . . . is considered to be those physical experi­ ences providing, at some risk to the participant, an element of thrill through the medium of speed, acceleration, sudden change of direction, or exposure to dangerous situations, with the participant usually remaining in control.

4. Physical activity as an aesthetic experience— . . . physical activity is often perceived of as having aesthetic value for the individual— that is activities are conceived of as possessing beauty or certain artistic qualities.

5. Physical activity as catharsis— . . . perceived

59 Gerald S. Kenyon, "A Conceptual Model for Charac­ terizing Physical Activity," The Research Quarterly. XXXIX (March, 1968), pp. 96-105. 41

as providing a release of tension precipitated by frustration through some vicarious means.

6. Physical activity as an ascetic experience— . . . to undergo a kind of ascetic experience whereby physical activity . . . involves long strenuous, and often painful training and stiff competition demanding a deferment of many grati­ fications .

In a companion paper, Kenyon presents the validity

and reliability measures for his Attitude Toward Physical

Activity Inventory: Forms DM and DW. This inventory was 60 developed for use with college males and females.

Using the ATPA Inventory: Forms DM and DW, Mullins

investigated the attitudes of junior college males and

females who differed in race and socio-economic level. She

found significant differences between races but no signifi­

cant differences between socio-economic levels. Males

scored significantly higher than females on the subdomains

of pursuit of vertigo and ascetic experience. In general,

males exhibited more positive attitudes toward physical

activity than females, outscoring them on all subdomains

except health and fitness. The attitude data on the 62

white female subjects in the middle and upper socio-economic

levels revealed the following rankings: (1) health and

fitness, (2) social experience, (2) catharsis (tie),

(4) ascetic experience, (5) aesthetic experience, and

^Gerald S. Kenyon, "Six Scales for Assessing Attitude Toward Physical Activity," The Research Quarterly. XXXIX (October, 1968), pp. 566-74. 42

(6) pursuit of vertigo. (This listing was computed by this

investigator, using the per item test mean as the basis for

comparison.) The rankings of Mullins, using all the female

subjects, placed social experience first, ascetic experience

fifth, and the pursuit of vertigo last. With the exception

of the vertigo subdomain which was negative, all domains

hovered around neutral or slightly above with regard to 61 attitude intensity.

The results of these studies suggest that with

little variation, males possess a more positive attitude

toward the subdomains of vertigo and ascetic experience, while females possess a more positive attitude toward the

subdomains of social and aesthetic experience.

61 Martha Mullins, "Attitudes Toward Multidimensional Physical Activity as a Function of Race, Sex, and Socio- Economic Level" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1969). CHAPTER III

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The purpose of this study was to determine if

attitudes toward physical activity, as expressed by college

freshman women, were affected by the motivational variable, the need for approval. It was proposed that this underlying psychological state would function in a manner that would change the direction and strength of those attitudes expressed. A second question was asked: Having determined the initial strength of this motive, could it be experi­ mentally aroused to such an extent that it would produce an

additional fluctuation in the attitudes expressed by high need for approval subjects? It was expected that attitude scores of low need for approval subjects would not fluc­ tuate. In addition, it was proposed that the method of data collection would have no effect on attitude scores.

The approval motive was selected as the independent motivational variable. It was selected due to: (1) its appropriateness for use with females, based upon the premise that they are more socially oriented in their life-style 44

than m a l e s (2) its demonstrated effectiveness and predic­

tive utility in investigations using female subjects; and

(3) its basic inherent nature which provides for the possibility of fluctuations in behavior whether in test-

taking or non-test-taking situations.

Kenyon's Attitude Toward Physical Activity Inven­

tory: Form DW is the only instrument validated for use with college women that assesses the social and psycholog­ ical concepts related to "physical activity" in its broadest sense. Therefore, it was selected as the dependent variable for use in this study.

The Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale was given first, early in the school term. From this test, the sample was identified. The attitude assessment sessions occurred later in the term.

Sample

The subjects for the initial psychological test were all incoming freshman women who volunteered to partici­ pate in this study and were available for testing during

New Students Week of fall term, 1970, at the University of

Oregon, Eugene, Oregon. The experimental design called for the use of the top and bottom 25 per cent of the population taking the test. Therefore, from within the initial sample

^Anne Anastasi, Differential Psychology: Individual and Group Differences in"Behavior (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1958), p. 481. 45

of 632 freshman women, two additional groups of subjects

were secured, 177 subjects representing the high need for

approval group and 179 representing the low need for

approval group.

The high and low need for approval groups were

further randomly divided by using a table of random numbers

into two equal groups and randomly assigned to the experi- 2 mental and neutral testing conditions by tossing a coin.

This division provided the following potential number of

subjects in each of the following groups: High need for

approval + Neutral Condition = 89; High need for approval +

Experimental Condition = 88; Low need for approval + Neutral

Condition = 89; and Low need for approval + Experimental

Condition = 90.

From the potential number of subjects available, the following number were secured to complete the ATPA

Inventory: High need for approval + Neutral Condition = 51;

High need for approval + Experimental Condition = 55; Low need for approval + Neutral Condition = 53; and Low need for approval + Experimental Condition = 51. All information regarding sample size is indicated in Table 1.

In order to eliminate any bias based upon the past physical activity experiences of subjects, reference was made to a previously completed information sheet which gave o Allen L. Edwards, Statistical Analysis (New York: Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1946), pp. 340-41. 46 the subject's major field of interest and high school attended. From this information a total of fourteen sub­ jects were eliminated from the study. A copy of this sheet may be found in Appendix A.

TABLE 1.— Sample Distribution: Marlowe-Crowne Social Desir­ ability Scale (N = 632)

Attitude Toward Physical Activity Assessment Conditions

Subjects Neutral Experimental

Potential: High Need N - 89 N = 88 Low Need N - 89 N = 90

Actual: High Need N = 48 N = 49 Low Need N = 51 N = 48

Thus, the number of subjects completing the psycho­ logical test (M-C SDS) and the attitude inventory {ATPA) totalled 196. It should be noted that of this number, not all subjects answered all 54 items on the attitude inven­ tory. This action necessitated the elimination of some scores from one or two of the statistical analyses; however, due to the particular method of scoring the individual subdomain scales, it was not necessary totally to eliminate these subjects.

Of the 196 subjects used in this study, 160 were 47 from Oregon high schools, 16 from California high schools,

11 from Washington high schools, 3 from Idaho, 2 from

Nevada, and 1 each from Montana, Colorado, Hawaii, and Iowa.

The number of subjects from the State of Oregon constituted

82 per cent of the total sample.

Need for Approval

Instrumentation

Crowne and Marlowe devised the Marlowe-Crowne

Social Desirability Scale as a means of inferring the 3 strength of the motive, need for approval.

This 33-item true and false scale contains 18 items that represent "good" culturally sanctioned "things to say about oneself," but they are probably untrue of most human beings. An honest answer to these items would be indicated by marking them false; however, high need for approval individuals will tend to answer these items by marking them true.

The remaining 15 items in the scale represent behaviors that are "very human" and probably true of most people, but they are culturally "undesirable" traits. An honest answer to these items would be indicated by a mark of "true"; however, high need for approval individuals will

3 Douglas P. Crowne and David Marlowe, "A New Scale of Social Desirability Independent of Psychopathology," Journal of Consulting Psychology. XXIV (1960), pp. 349-54. 48 4 tend to answer these items by marking them false. This

instrument and its corresponding answer sheet may be found

in Appendix A.

In contrast to the approval-dependent individual's

modus operand!, the low need for approval individual will respond with honest and frank answers.

The degree of initial strength of the need for

approval is determined from the total score. With a total

of 33 possible points, 18 keyed true and 15 false, the higher an individual's score, the more he agrees with the

test key and the higher his need for approval. Therefore, high scores are representative of high need and low scores of low need. A copy of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desir­ ability Scale, under its assumed name, Personal Reaction

Inventory, is in Appendix A, with its accompanying answer sheet.

The Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale was validated against the Social Desirability Scale of the

Edwards Personal Preference Schedule and specific scales on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. Pearson product-moment correlations were computed between the two social desirability scales and the following MMPI and derived scales: K, test-taking attitudes; L, lie; F, valid­ ity and test-taking attitudes; Hs, hypochondriasis; D,

^Douglas P. Crowne and David Marlowe, The Approval Motive (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 21. 49 depression; Hy, hysteria; Pd, psychopathic deviate; Pa,

paranoia; Pt, psychasthenia; Sc, schizophrenia; Ma, manic;

Pr, prejudice; St, status; Es, ego; A, anxiety; and R,

repression. The Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale

was positively and significantly correlated (p.*£. .05 and

.01) with the K and L validity scales of the MMPI. The

correlation with the MMPI clinical scales was low and

insignificant with the exception of a significant negative

correlation with the Sc scale (p.^C.05). Since these correlations were low, the authors present the following interpretation:

These smaller correlations would be predicted if one were to view social desirability as account­ ing for a part of the test-response variance, but not all or most of it. The magnitude of these correlations more accurately reflects the amount of response-set variance which might plausibly be attributed to differences in the need to give socially desirable responses.5

Internal consistency and test-retest coefficients were obtained to determine the reliability of the scale.

The internal consistency coefficient for the final form of the scale was .88, using the Kuder-Richardson formula 20.

The obtained test-retest correlation coefficient was .88.^

According to Kerlinger, "While scale construction must always to some extent be a priori, the more personality measures are subjected to the tests of construct validity,

^Ibid., p. 27.

^Ibid.. pp. 24-25.t 50 7 the more faith we can have in them." The research sum­ marized in The Approval Motive and other investigations reported in Chapter II is presented as evidence of the

construct validity of this scale.

Procedures for Administration of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale

The psychological data were collected during New

Student Week of the fall term, 1970, at the University of

Oregon, using the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, which carried the innocuous title "Personal Reaction Inven­ tory." The 632 subjects were tested between the hours of

8:00 AM and 11:00 AM; and 1:00 PM and 4:00 PM on the following days: Tuesday, September 22; Wednesday, Septem­ ber 23; and until 1:00 PM on Thursday, September 24, in

Gerlinger Hall.

The testing was conducted in conjunction with the administration of skill tests to all incoming freshmen by the Women's Physical Education Department. It was felt that the most desirable procedure would be to secure volunteer subjects and administer the Social Desirability

Scale prior to the start of the skill testing. This pro­ cedure was followed to prevent any extreme psychological set, induced by success or failure in the performance

7 Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964), p. 483. 51

of specific skills, from affecting the psychological data.

As the students randomly entered the testing area,

they were met by an attractive and effervescent coed who was secured by the investigator to assist with this segment of the study. As she handed each student an information sheet containing an explanation of the proposed research project, she also solicited their assistance as subjects, gave them a verbal explanation of the intended project, and answered their questions. At this time it was emphasized that they might be selected to return for a second session.

Since students normally came in groups of two’s and three's, this procedure worked very well. In addition, there was a consistent flow of students into the testing area, which started early in the morning and lasted throughout the total two and one-half day testing period.

Volunteer subjects were directed to a smaller locker room area where they were met by another assistant who directed them to a chair while giving them the following materials: a "Personal Reaction Inventory"; an answer sheet which was stapled to a short information sheet; and a pencil. All written materials included in this testing procedure can be found in Appendix A. Subjects were requested to fill out the information sheet which was pri­ marily used to secure the subject's name and campus address, and not to put her name on the inventory answer sheet. The

33-item scale was completed by the majority of students in 52 ten minutes or less. In answering questions, the assistant, a graduate student, was informed not to give away the true nature of the investigation, but rather to tell any inquisi­ tive subject that the investigator wanted to find out if

Oregon freshman women's personal attitudes were related to their attitudes toward physical activity. This was a true statement although somewhat incomplete. Subjects were told that they were free to leave as soon as they were finished with the inventory, and they were directed out of the testing area through a side exit. The administration of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale was carried out by two women graduate students. The investigator was not present during this segment of the psychological test­ ing.

The results from the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desir­ ability Scale were tabulated for the 632 subjects involved, and from this total the top and bottom 25 per cent were identified as the extreme groups.

The procedures which followed the psychological testing will be described under the section related to procedures for the collection of attitude data.

Attitudes Toward Physical Activity

Instrumentation

Kenyon's Attitude Toward Physical Activity Inventory was conceived to measure the intensity and direction of 53

"feelings11 toward six subdomains or content areas which

characterize the social-psychological phenomenon called g physical activity. The six content areas identified as

dimensions or subdomains are as follows: physical activity perceived as (1) a social experience; (2) health and fit­

ness; (3) the pursuit of vertigo; (4) an aesthetic experi­

ence; (5) catharsis; and (6) an ascetic experience.

Form DW, which was developed for use with college women, was used in this study. This form contains a total

of 54 items which are subdivided into the following scales:

(1) 8 items representing social experience; (2) 11 items representing health and fitness; (3) 9 items representing vertigo; (4) 9 items representing aesthetic experience;

(5) 9 items representing catharsis; and (6) 8 items repre- g senting ascetic experience.

The inventory consists of 54 Likert scales. Each of the 54 items contains 7 choices ranging from very strongly agree to very strongly disagree. Of the total 54 items, 32 are positively toned and are scored as follows: very strongly agree = 7; strongly agree = 6; agree = 5; undecided = 4; disagree = 3; strongly disagree = 2; and very

g Gerald S. Kenyon, "Six Scales for Assessing Atti­ tude Toward Physical Activity," The Research Quarterly. XXXIX (October, 1968), pp. 566-74. g Instructions and Items for Form D of Inventory for Determining Attitude Toward Physical Activity, Document #9983, ADI Auxiliary Publications Project, Photoduplication Service, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 54

strongly disagree = 1. The remaining 22 items are nega­

tively toned and are scored in the reverse order with very

strongly disagree receiving a value of 7, etc.^ The highest possible total score is equal to 378, while the

lowest is equal to 54. The total ATPA Inventory test mean

is 216, while the per item test mean is 4. A copy of the

ATPA Inventory with its accompanying answer sheet may be found in Appendix B.

Validity of this instrument was established on selected strong and weak activity preference groups, which scored high and low, respectively, on each subdomain within the inventory. Kenyon states, "It was postulated that subjects expressing a strong preference for a particular type of activity (determined through the use of separate questions) would possess a positive attitude toward that activity." Comparisons were made by using t^-tests to deter­ mine if the difference between the attitude means of the strong and weak activity preference groups was statistically 11 significant. This statistical procedure was followed for each subdomain within the inventory. The validity of the inventory was established in each subdomain with the excep­ tion of the catharsis area. The author indicates that the

^Gerald S. Kenyon, personal letter.

'^Gerald S. Kenyon, "Six Scales," p. 570. 55 12 validity of this subdomain is dubious. Therefore, the

catharsis scale was not used as a separate subdomain in this study.

Reliability was determined by utilizing the test- retest method with women undergraduate students. Subdomain stability is reflected by the following Hoyt reliabilities: social experience = .72; health and fitness = .83; vertigo =

.86; aesthetic experience = .87; catharsis = -79; and _ 13 ascetic experience = .78.

Procedures for Administration of the Attitude Toward Physical Activity Inventory

The analysis of the psychological data yielded a potential sample of 177 high need for approval subjects and l 179 low need for approval subjects, representing the top and bottom 25 per cent of the population.

These two groups were randomly divided by using a table of random numbers. This procedure yielded four groups which were identified as follows: high need, neutral con­ dition; high need, experimental condition; low need, neutral condition; and low need, experimental condition.

All subjects in the high and the low need for approval, neutral condition, were contacted by letter informing them that they had been selected to participate

12Ibid., p. 572.

13Ibid., p. 570. 56

in the follow-up research project regarding attitudes of

freshman women at the University of Oregon. The time and

location were indicated in the communique. The form letter

used was hand-addressed and contained the first name (Chris­

tian name) of the subject in the salutation. It was hoped

that this personalized request would be most persuasive.

All letters were mailed to arrive one week prior to the

attitude assessment dates.

In addition, a list of all subjects was circulated

to all physical education teachers requesting that they

encourage any students on the list to attend the attitude

assessment sessions. This list was posted in the women's

locker room at various locations.

Two group attitude assessment sessions conducted

under neutral conditions were held at 6:30 PM on Monday,

October 26, 1970, and Tuesday, October 27, 1970, in a new

gymnasium area at Gerlinger Annex on the University of

Oregon campus. The time of 6:30 was selected as most

appropriate for on-campus students since it immediately

followed the dinner hour.

Data were collected on a total of 33 subjects on

Monday evening and 31 subjects on Tuesday evening in the

group sessions. These groups included both high and low

need for approval subjects.

Due to the small number of subjects attending these

group sessions, the remaining 40 subjects were secured by 57 personal contact. As a starting point, physical education

class lists were used to identify and locate these potential

subjects. Approximately 85 per cent of the potential sub­

jects were enrolled in physical education classes. Subjects were contacted by the investigator preceding, during, or after their physical education class. Assistance was given by members of the physical education staff in identifying potential subjects. During this contact, subjects made individual appointments to take the attitude inventory.

Over a period of three weeks, the remaining 40 subjects, including high and low need for approval women, were assessed.

Similar procedures were followed and similar prob­ lems were encountered in securing subjects for the experi­ mental attitude-assessment condition.

A form letter was sent to each potential subject, mailed to arrive one week prior to the group attitude- assessment sessions. Anticipating problems, the experi­ menter personally contacted a number of the subjects during the week prior to the assessment sessions while subjects were attending physical education classes.

The group experimental attitude-assessment sessions were held during the eighth week of fall term on the following dates: Thursday, November 19, 1970, at 11:30 AM, and 12:30 PM, and again on Monday, November 23, at 4:30 PM.

A total of 62 subjects responded to the attitude inventory 58

during these sessions. It was hoped that more subjects

would be secured by increasing the number of sessions

offered and utilizing hours during the day.

Following the previous pattern, as many of the

remaining subjects as possible were contacted individually,

primarily through their attendance in physical education

classes. In addition, approximately 40 subjects were con­

tacted by telephone. This task was given to a student

assistant.

To disguise the purpose of selecting two separate

samples for the neutral and experimental conditions,

subjects in this, the experimental condition, were told

that their services were necessary due to an insufficient

sample size.. In other words, to get reliable results, more

subjects were needed.

Individual appointments were made to give the

attitude inventory to as many subjects as possible. An

additional 44 subjects, including an approximately equal

number of high and low need for approval subjects, were

added to the experimental condition using this individual method of collection.

Data were collected on all subjects in the neutral

condition before moving on to the experimental-assessment

condition. If maximum experimental control was to be

achieved, it was felt advisable not to have two sets of directions and two sets of situational cues operating i 59

concurrently. The collection of all data was completed on

December 1, 1970.

It should be noted that a large percentage of the

total potential subjects were enrolled in physical educa­

tion classes. It seems reasonable to assume that this is

due to the fact that these classes are required, and to the

fact that most undergraduates, especially freshmen, are

advised to complete this requirement during their first two undergraduate years.

Copies of the letters sent to all subjects are

located in Appendix C.

The Neutral Attitude-Assessment Condition

Psychologically, this condition was characterized by informality, permissiveness, anonymity, and lack of

authority. The subjects that appeared for the attitude-

assessment session were met by the investigator at the door of the gymnasium area. The subjects appeared dressed to sit on the floor, a condition which had been stipulated in the letter they had received. Each subject was told that

she had been given a number symbol for identification purposes and also to preserve her anonymity.

The high need for approval subjects had been assigned numbers 001 through 177, while the low need for approval subjects were given numbers from 200 through 380.

Since these numbers were almost continuous from 001 through 60

380, there was no way in which the subjects could have known that the numbers actually represented two distinct

groups.

Each subject was given her number and directed to her previously numbered answer sheet. She was asked to

take an ATPA Inventory Booklet and a pencil, and to "find a spot," "any spot," on the floor. All materials needed for this session were spread across the gymnasium' floor.

Dressed informally, the investigator was casual and friendly as she outlined the task. Although the directions were delivered without benefit of a written script, every attempt was made to follow the outline as presented.

The following directions were given:

1. Hi! • I am Miss Youngen and first, I want to thank you for coming this evening.

2. The purpose of our "get-together," as you know, is to find out how you people, as freshmen, feel about physical activity.

3. I'm interested in knowing what you like about activity and what you don't like.

4. As you answer the statements, try to think in terms of all aspects of physical activity— not just physical education classes.

5. The directions are self-explanatory.

6. Any questions?

7. Oh! I almost forgot, your responses will not be seen by anyone other than myself--your physical education teacher won't see them, so make certain that you don't put your name on the answer sheet. 61

8 . O.K. You’re on your own. Feel free to leave as soon as you finish.

The procedure just outlined was followed for the

two group attitude-assessment sessions. As might be

expected, the most common question from the group was

"how were we selected?" and the most common answer was,

"at random," you know, "out of a hat."

High and low need for approval subjects in the

neutral condition, whose attitudes were assessed individ­ ually, followed procedures which were modified, out of

necessity. Each subject was met by the investigator in a predetermined area which was usually a free gymnasium.

Every attempt was made to find a quiet and undisturbed area where the subject could sit on the floor. The subject was

given a copy of the ATPA Inventory Booklet, a pencil, and

an answer sheet which had been numbered previously. The reason for the numbering procedure was explained. Each

subject received the same general directions as previously outlined, and every attempt was made to deliver the message

in the same casual and informal manner. Due to the nature of this total procedure, there can be little question that

informality was achieved.

It is the investigator's observation that the paper

and pencil characterization of the neutral attitude-

assessment situation was, in fact, achieved. 62

The Experimental Attitude-Assessment Condition

Psychologically, this condition was characterized

by formality, rigidity, and the presence of a degree of

authority.

A formally arranged lecture room was the setting

for the attitude-assessment sessions for the three previ­

ously mentioned groups of subjects. All chairs were

arranged in neat rows and all materials to be used by the

subjects were placed face down on each individual desk.

The subjects were met at the door by the investigator and

told to come in and be seated. After waiting an appropriate

period of time, the investigator, who was more formally

dressed than in the neutral condition, moved to the lectern

at the desk in the front of the room. The room was notice­

ably quiet at this point. The investigator introduced herself as Professor Youngen and indicated the purpose of

the study in a factual manner. The subjects present were

also told that, due to an inadequate number of subjects in

the first sample, they were part of a second sample which had to be drawn if the results were to be reliable. At this point, the investigator indicated that she would read the directions. She read as follows:

The statements on the attitude inventory before you are concerned with physical activity in its broadest interpretation, not physical education classes per se. [Pause.] You are asked to express how you feel about each statement. Many different and opposing points of view are presented. You may find yourself 63

agreeing strongly with some and disagreeing just as strongly with others. The best answer is your own opinion. [Pause.] Your responses will not be seen by your physical education teacher and therefore cannot be related to your grade in that area.

At this point the investigator stopped reading and addressed

the group with the following:

It is quite possible that the results from this study will be used for a feature article in the Emerald or the Register Guard. Some of you will probably be contacted for a personal interview, so be sure to put your full name on the answer sheet.

Are there any questions? If not, you may begin. When you have finished, just leave your answer sheet on your desk.

Every attempt was made to be serious and factual throughout

the assessment sessions.

As each subject left the room, the investigator preceded her to the door and stepped outside to thank her for her time and interest. This procedure was followed for all subjects.

Subjects in this condition whose attitudes were assessed individually followed the same basic procedures as in the neutral condition. When possible, the subject was provided with a desk either in a lecture room or the office of the investigator. Generally, the instructions regarding the purpose and use of the inventory scores were given verbally. Again, regardless of the environmental setting, every attempt was made by the experimenter to be serious and factual. Since the individual appointments were held 64

throughout the day, the experimenter was usually dressed

informally. Therefore, an exact duplication of the group

sessions was not achieved.

The attitudes of 44 high and low need for approval subjects were assessed in this individual manner.

Statistical Procedures

Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale

The statistical procedure for this portion of the investigation involved the use of extreme groups— namely, the top and the bottom 25 per cent of the population tested on the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Feldt has shown that the power of a t:-test is greatest if each extreme group consists of between 23 and 27 per cent of the popula- 14 tion tested on the independent variable.

The data from the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability

Scale were analyzed by using the standard statistical procedures of constructing a frequency distribution and calculating the median, quartile deviation, first quartile, 15 and third quartile. From these computations, the top 2 5 per cent and the bottom 25 per cent of the distribution

^L. S. Feldt, "The Use of Extreme Groups to Test for the Presence of a Relationship," Psychometrika, XXVI (1961), pp. 307-16.

1 *1 Henry E. Garrett, Statistics in Psychology and Education (6th ed.; New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1966), pp. 27-62. 65

population were defined. The top 25 per cent represented

the high need for approval extreme group and the bottom

25 per cent represented the low need for approval extreme

group.

In addition, the range, arithmetic mean, and

standard deviation of these data were computed for the

primary purpose of determining distribution normality,^

and also for the purpose of comparison with the normative 17 data reported by Crowne and Marlowe.

Attitude Toward Physical Activity

A three-way factorial analysis of variance was the

statistical method used to determine the independent and

interactive effects of the three independent variables on 18 the dependent variable, attitudes toward physical activity.

According to Clarke and Clarke, "Analysis of variance is used to test the null hypothesis that no true difference 19 exists among a number of means." Specifically, the three- way factorial analysis of variance tests seven statistical hypotheses for which seven _F ratios are computed, namely for

17 Crowne and Marlowe, Approval Motive, pp. 209-12. 18 Kerlinger, Foundations Research, pp. 227-29. 19 H. Harrison Clarke and David H. Clarke, Advanced Statistics: Supplement to Research Processes in Physical Education, Recreation, and Health. Eugene, Oregon, 1969, pT 27. (Multilithed.) ’ 66

these three effects: (1) the significance of the differ­

ence in attitude scores between high and low need for

approval groups; (2) the significance of the difference in

attitude scores between the neutral and experimental

assessment conditions; and (3) the significance of the difference between the group and individual data collection methods. In addition, F ratios are computed to determine

the interactional or differential effects of these three variables.^

For the purpose of this investigation, six three- way analyses of variance were computed, one using the total

Attitude Toward Physical Activity Inventory score, and one for each of the five attitude subdomain scores which were extracted from this total. The subdomains assessed were:

(1) social experience, (2) health and fitness, (3) pursuit of vertigo, (4) aesthetic experience, and (5) ascetic experience.

The significance of the F ratios was determined by 21 entering the appropriate table as specified. For each I? ratio, the column was entered with one degree of freedom.

This value was representative of the degrees of freedom for each of the following variances: (1) between need for approval groups, (2) between assessment conditions,

20 Kerlinger, Foundations Research, p. 228. 21 Garrett, Statistics, p. 566. 67

(3) between data collection methods, and (4) for all inter­ actions.

For the purpose of this investigation, all F ratios significant at the .05 level will be accepted and, when necessary, post hoc comparisons will be made.

Results were analyzed by analysis of variance, programmed for a 360/20-75 IBM computer using a Biomedical 22 Computer Program (BMD x 64). The purpose of this program is to estimate parameters and test hypotheses concerning a general linear model designed to use equal or unequal cell numbers. The output consists of an analysis of variance table.

A BMD 01D Program was used to obtain all other 23 descriptive statistics used in this study.

22 W. J. Dixon, ed., Biomedical Computer Programs: X-Series Supplement (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969). 23 * Ibid. I

CHAPTER IV

DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the

effects of two extreme levels of the motive need for

approval, under two situational assessment conditions, upon

attitudes toward five subdomains describing physical activ­

ity as expressed by college freshman women. The question

was asked, "Do individual differences in underlying psycho­

logical motive strength affect attitudinal response behavior,

and would this behavior fluctuate as a function of the two

situational assessment conditions, neutral and experi­

mental?" In addition, the differential effects of two data

collection methods were assessed.

Data for the total ATPA Inventory score and scores

for each of the subdomains characterizing physical activity

which were extracted from within the total ATPA Inventory

score, were subjected to a three-way factorial analysis of

variance. By use of this 2x2x2 design, it is possible

to ascertain the significance of the differences between:

(1) high and low need for approval attitudinal responses;

(2) neutral and experimental assessment condition atti­

tudinal responses; and (3) individual and group data

v 68 69

collection method attitudinal responses. In addition,

first-order and second-order interactions were computed.

The results of these six analyses reflect the primary focus

of this investigation. Descriptive statistics, including

the means, standard deviations, and results of the analyses of variance for the total attitude inventory and each sub- domain, will be presented in tabular form. For purposes of clarity, the results will be presented in the following order: (1) MC SDS data, (2) hypotheses and results separately for the total attitude inventory and each sub- domain, and (3) discussion of the findings.

Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale Results

The median, quartile deviation, first quartile, third quartile, range, mean, standard deviation, and standard error of the mean were computed for the distribu­ tion of 632 scores and are shown in Table 2. Evidence of distribution normality is demonstrated by the close prox­ imity of the mean (M = 14.67) to the median (mdn. = 14.52), and by the observation that the median lies halfway between the first quartile ( = 10.93) and third quartile (Q^ =

18.16). The standard error of the mean (SE = .13) was low, suggesting that the mean of the sample closely approximated the mean of the population.

The extreme need for approval groups were selected by using all subjects above the third quartile as repre­ 70

sentative of the upper 25 per cent of the distribution population and all subjects below the first quartile as

representative of the lower 25 per cent of this population.

TABLE 2.— Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale Data for N = 632

Mean = 14.67 Median = 14.52 Standard Deviation = 3.14 Quartile Deviation = 3.62 Standard Error = .13 First Quartile = 10.93 Range = 30 Third Quartile = 18.16 Limits— Low Need for Approval Group 1.00 - 11.00 Limits— High Need for Approval Group 18.00 - 30.00

In scoring the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability

Scale, the higher the score obtained by any subject, the higher the need for approval and, conversely, the lower the score, the lower the need for approval.

Because the numerical value of the first quartile

(Qj^ = 10.93) was expressed in decimal figures while the scale scores were equated in whole numbers, it was decided to use all scores from one through eleven to comprise the low need for approval group. Within these limits, the counting procedures yielded 179 subjects. A similar pro­ cedure was followed to identify the high need for approval subjects. Starting with the third quartile (Q3 = 18.16), all scale scores from eighteen through thirty-one, inclu­ sive, were used to identify the high need for approval group. From within these limits, 177 subjects were gleaned. 71

To insure homogeneity of the two high need for approval

samples, t:-tests were computed. The difference between the

means was not significant. A similar process was followed

for the two low need for approval samples. The difference

between the means of the two extreme high and low groups was

significant at the .001 level.

The normative data reported by Crowne and Marlowe

for female subjects include a mean of 16.82 i 5. SO.'*' Our

data collected on 632 female subjects compare favorably in

size to the normative sample of 752; however, our lower mean indicates a generally lower tendency to give socially desirably responses to the items on this scale. The Oregon

sample reflects fewer extreme scores and a greater concen­

tration in the center of the distribution than the normative data, as evidenced by the difference in the two standard deviations.

Attitude Toward Physical Activity Total ATPA Inventory

Hypothesis One (Total ATPA Inventory)

There will be a significant difference in the total

ATPA scores of high need for approval subjects in the neu­ tral and experimental assessment conditions.

Douglas P. Crowne and David Marlowe, The Approval Motive (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 209- 12 . 72

Results.— As shown in Tables 3 and 4, the hypoth­

esis was not supported. The high need mean in the experi­ mental condition was higher than the high need mean in the neutral condition but not significantly so, as indicated by the first-order interaction F ratio of 3.27. Using the value of 216 as the inventory test mean, subjects in both high need conditions reflected a slightly positive total attitude.

Hypothesis Two (Total ATPA Inventory)

There will be no significant difference in the total

ATPA scores of low need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions.

Results.— As shown in Tables 3 and 4, the hypoth­ esis was supported. The low need mean in the experimental condition was lower than the low need mean in the neutral condition, but the difference was not significant. Using the value of 216 as the inventory test mean, low need for approval subjects in the neutral condition reflected a slightly positive total attitude. In the experimental con­ dition, low need subjects reflected a slightly negative total attitude. TABLE 3.— Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitudes Toward Physical Activity: Total Inventory Score

Neutral Experimental Condition Condition Total Need and Method N M SD • N M SD N M SD

High Need: Group 30 221.73 26.9 21 220.33 33.0 Individual 16 213.62 35.4 24 234.54 31.2 Total 46 218.91 30.0 45 227.91 32.5 91 223.36 31.4 Low Need: Group 29 217.21 33.0 35 216.40 34.3 Individual 21 216.86 24.4 11 202.36 22.3 Total 50 217.06 29.4 46 213.04 32.2 96 215.14 30.7

Group 115 218.71 31.6 Individual 72 219.82 30.8

Total Study Mean Total 96 217.95 29.6 91 220.40 32.9 187 219.14 31.2 Inventory Test Mean 216

to 74

TABLE 4.— Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Dif­ ferences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity--Total Inventory Score

Source d.f. Mean Square F P

Needs 1 3618.25 3.78 ns Conditions 1 45.97 0.05 ns Methods 1 177.55 0.19 ns N x C 1 3134.79 3.27 ns N x M 1 1085.28 1.13 ns C x M 1 192.60 0.20 ns N x C x M 1 3352.03 3.50 ns Error 179 957.20

Total 186

Hypothesis Three (Total ATPA Inventory)

There will be a significant difference in the total

ATPA scores of high and low need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions •

Results. — As shown in Tables 3 and 4, the hypoth- esis was not supported. The high need means in both conditions are higher than the low need means; the differ- ence approached. but did not reach, significance, as indicated by the F_ ratio of 3.78. Using the value of 216 as the inventory test mean, the high need subjects expressed a slightly positive attitude, while the low need subjects expressed a slightly negative attitude. 75

Hypothesis Four (Total ATPA Inventory)

There will be no significant difference in the total

ATPA scores of subjects in the group method of data collec­

tion and subjects in the individual method of data collec­

tion.

Results.— As shown in Tables 3 and 4, the hypothesis

was supported. The means of the two groups were almost

equal. Using the value of 216 as the inventory test mean,

subjects in both groups reflected a slightly positive total

attitude.

Attitude Toward Physical Activity as a Social Experience

Hypothesis One (Social Experience?

There will be a significant difference in the scores

of high need for approval subjects in the neutral and

experimental assessment conditions for attitude toward physical activity perceived as a social experience.

Results.— The hypothesis was not supported, as

indicated by the data shown in Tables 5 and 6. The high

need mean in the experimental condition was slightly higher

than the high need mean in the neutral condition, but the

difference did not reach significance. When compared to

the subdomain test mean of 32, high need subjects in the

neutral condition demonstrated a slightly negative attitude TABLE 5.— Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitude Toward Physical Activity as a Social Experience

Neutral Experimental Condition Condition Total Need and Method N M SD • N M SD N M SD

High Need: Group 31 31.16 7.0 21 32.00 7.8 Individual 17 29.95 7.0 27 33.44 7.2 Total 48 30.73 7.0 48 32.81 7.4 96 31.77 7.2

Low Need: Group 29 30.83 6.8 36 29.08 6.7 Individual 22 30.05 5.3 12 30.17 6.2 Total 51 30.49 6.2 48 29.35 6.5 99 29.94 6.3

Group 117 30.59 7.0 Individual 78 31.22 6.6

Grand Mean Total 99 30.61 6.5 96 31.08 7.2 195 30.84 6.8 Test Mean 32

TABLE 6.— Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Dif­ ferences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity as a Social Experience

Source d.f. Mean Square F P

Needs 1 112.51 2.42 ns Conditions 1 20.16 0.43 ns Methods 1 0.75 0.02 ns N x C 1 97.00 2.09 ns N x M 1 0.02 0.00 ns C x M 1 55.95 1.20 ns N x C x M 1 1. 74 0.03 ns Error 187 46.45

Total 194

Hypothesis Two (Social Experience)

There will be no significant difference in the scores of low need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions for attitude toward physical activity perceived as a social experience.

Results.— The hypothesis was supported, as indicated by the data in Tables 5 and 6. The low need mean in the experimental condition was only slightly lower than the low 78

need mean in the neutral condition. When compared to the

subdomain test mean of 32, low need subjects in both con­

ditions exhibited a slightly negative attitude toward this

subdomain.

Hypothesis Three (Social Experience)

There will be a significant difference in the

scores of high and low need for approval subjects in the

neutral and experimental assessment conditions for attitude

toward physical activity perceived as a social experience.

Results.— The hypothesis was not supported as

indicated by the data in Tables 5 and 6. Again, the high need mean was higher than the low need mean but not signifi­

cantly so. When compared to the subdomain test mean of 32, both high and low need for approval subjects exhibited a

slightly negative attitude toward physical activity per­

ceived- as a social experience.

Hypothesis Four (Social ExperTence)

There will be no significant difference in the scores of subjects in the group method of data collection

and subjects in the individual method of data collection for attitude toward physical activity perceived as a social experience. 79

Results.— The hypothesis was supported, as indicated

by the data shown in Tables 5 and 6. The means of the two

groups were approximately equal. Subjects in both groups demonstrated a slightly negative attitude toward this

subdomain.

Attitude Toward Physical Activity as Health and Fitness

Hypothesis One (Health and Fitness)

There will be a significant difference in the atti­ tude scores of high need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions for attitude toward physical activity perceived as health and fitness.

Results.— As indicated by the means and interaction j? ratio shown in Tables 7 and 8, the hypothesis was not supported. Again, the high need mean in the experimental condition was slightly higher than the high need mean in the neutral, but the difference was not marked. The high need subjects in both conditions possessed a slightly posi­ tive attitude toward this subdomain when compared to the subdomain test mean of 44.

Hypothesis Two (Health and Fitness)

There will be no significant difference in the attitude scores of low need for approval subjects in the TABLE 7.— Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitude Toward Physical Activity as Health and Fitness

Neutral Experimental Condition Condition Total Need and Method NM SD ■ N M SD N M SD

High Need: Group 31 45.13 10.1 22 43.23 10.2 Individual 17 44.24 8.4 26 47.77 9.4 Total 48 44.81 9.5 48 45.69 10.0 96 45.25 9.7

Low Need: Group 29 42.03 9.8 36 43.89 10.4 Individual 21 44.52 9.3 12 42.42 8.0 Total 50 43.08 9.5 48 43.52 9.8 98 43.30 9.6

Group 118 43.64 10.1 Individual 76 45.25 9.0

Grand Mean Total 98 43.93 9.5 96 44.60 9.9 194 44.26 9.7 Test Mean 44 81

neutral and experimental assessment conditions for attitude

toward physical activity perceived as health and fitness.

TABLE 8.— Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Dif­ ferences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity as Health and Fitness

Source d . f . Mean Square F P

Need 1 152.64 1.62 ns Conditions 1 5.17 0.05 ns Methods 1 59.11 0.63 ns N x C 1 9.65 0.10 ns N x M 1 18.80 0.20 ns C x M 1 5.90 0.06 ns N x C x M 1 239.83 2.55 ns Error 186 94.20

Total 193

Results.— As indicated by the means and interaction

IT ratio shown in Tables 7 and 8, the hypothesis was sup­ ported. The means in both conditions are approximately equal. The low need subjects in both conditions demon­ strated a slightly negative attitude toward physical activity perceived as health and fitness when compared to the subdomain test mean of 44. 82

Hypothesis Three (Health and Fitness)

There will be a significant difference in the atti­

tude scores of high and low need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions for

attitude toward physical activity perceived as health and fitness.

Results.— As indicated by the means and I? ratio shown in Tables 7 and 8, the hypothesis was not supported.

Again, the high need mean was slightly higher than the low need mean but the difference did not reach significance.

The high need subjects exhibited a slightly positive attitude toward physical activity as health and fitness when compared to the subdomain test mean of 44. The low need subjects exhibited a slightly negative attitude toward this subdomain.

Hypothesis Four (Health and Fitness)

There will be no significant difference in the scores of subjects in the group method of data collection and subjects in the individual method of data collection for attitudes toward physical activity as health and fit­ ness .

Results.— As indicated by the means and I? ratio shown in Tables 7 and 8, the hypothesis was supported. 83

Although the means did not differ markedly, the subjects in

the individual data collection group possessed a slightly

positive attitude toward this subdomain. The group method

of data collection subjects possessed a slightly negative

attitude toward this subdomain, when compared to the sub-

domain test mean of 44.

Attitude Toward Physical Activity as the Pursuit of Vertigo

Hypothesis One (Vertigo)

There will be a significant difference in the scores

of high need for approval subjects in the neutral and

experimental attitude assessment conditions for attitude

toward physical activity perceived as the pursuit of vertigo.

Results.— As indicated by the data in Tables 9 and

10, the hypothesis was not supported. The high need means in both conditions were almost identical. Subjects in both high need groups possessed a favorable attitude toward this subdomain when compared with the subdomain test mean of 36.

Hypothesis Two (Vertigo)

There will be no significant difference in the scores of low need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions for attitude toward physical activity perceived as the pursuit of vertigo. TABLE 9.— Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitude Toward Physical Activity as the Pursuit of Vertigo

Neutral Experimental Condition Condition Total Need and Method NM SD . N M SD N M SD

High Need: Group 30 39.70 8.9 22 39.50 8.3 Individual 17 40.53 5.3 26 40.35 8.6 Total 47 40.00 7.7 48 39.96 8.4 95 39.98 8.0

Low Need: Group 29 41.31 8.7 36 39.25 9.8 Individual 22 41.91 6.9 12 40.58 5.0 Total 51 41.57 7.9 48 39.58 8.8 99 40.61 8.4

Group 117 39.92 9.0 Individual 77 40.87 6.9

Grand Mean Total 98 40.82 7.8 96 39.77 8.6 194 40.30 8.2 Test Mean 36

a> 85

TABLE 10.— Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Dif­ ferences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity as the Pursuit of Vertigo

Source d . f . Mean Square F P

Needs 1 24.14 0.35 ns Conditions 1 38.70 0.56 ns Methods 1 35.45 0.51 ns N x C 1 24. 56 0.36 ns N x M 1 0.18 0.00 ns C x M 1 1. 54 0.02 ns N x C x M 1 1.40 0.02 ns Error 186 68.89

Total 193

Results.— As indicated by the data in Tables 9 and

10, the hypothesis was supported. The low need mean in the

experimental condition was only slightly lower than the low need mean in the neutral condition. Subjects in both low need groups possessed a favorable attitude toward this subdomain when compared with the subdomain test mean of 36.

Hypothesis Three (Vertigo)

There will be a significant difference in the scores of high and low need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions for attitude toward physical activity perceived as the pursuit of vertigo. 86

Results.— As indicated by the data in Tables 9 and

10, the hypothesis was not supported. The low need mean was very slightly higher than the high need mean in this subdomain. Subjects in both extreme groups exhibited a positive attitude toward physical activity perceived as the pursuit of vertigo.

Hypothesis Four (Vertigo)

There will be no significant difference in the scores of subjects in the group method of data collection and subjects in the individual method of data collection for attitude toward physical activity perceived as the pursuit of vertigo.

Results.— As indicated by the data in Tables 9 and

10, the hypothesis was supported. Subjects in both groups possessed positive attitudes toward physical activity as the pursuit of vertigo.

Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Aesthetic Experience

Hypothesis One (Aesthetic Experience)

There will be a significant difference in the scores of high need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions for attitude toward physical activity perceived as an aesthetic experience. 87

Results.— The hypothesis was not supported by the

data as shown in Tables 11 and 12. The high need mean in

the experimental condition is slightly higher than the high

need mean in the neutral condition. When compared to the

subdomain test mean of 36, high need subjects in both con­

ditions expressed a positive attitude toward physical

activity as an aesthetic experience.

Hypothesis Two (Aesthetic Experience)

There will be no significant difference in the

scores of low need for approval subjects in the neutral and

experimental assessment conditions for attitude toward physical activity perceived as an aesthetic experience.

Results.— The hypothesis was supported by the data shown in Tables 11 and 12. The low need mean in the experi­ mental condition is slightly higher than the low need mean in the neutral condition. When compared to the subdomain test mean of 36, low need subjects in both conditions exhibited a positive attitude toward physical activity as an aesthetic experience.

Hypothesis Three (Aesthetic Experience)

There will be a significant difference in the scores of high and low need for approval subjects in the neutral

V TABLE 11.— Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Aesthetic Experience

Neutral Experimental Condition Condition Total Need and Method N M SD N M SD N M SD

High Need: Group 31 39.81 10.4 22 40.50 10.4 Individual 17 38.71 9.4 27 40.96 9.0 Total 48 39.42 10.0 49 40.76 9.5 97 40.09 9.7

Low Need: Group 29 36.97 11.3 35 41.20 9.6 Individual 22 36.86 8.2 11 31.64 9.2 Total 51 36.92 10.0 46 38.91 9.5 97 37.87 9.8

Group 117 39.65 10.4 Individual 77 37.96 9.3

Grand Mean Total 99 38.13 10.0 95 39.86 9.5 194 38.98 9.8 Test Mean 36 89

and experimental assessment conditions for attitude toward

physical activity perceived as an aesthetic experience.

TABLE 12.— Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Dif­ ferences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Aesthetic Experience

Source d.f. Mean Square F P

Needs 1 275.37 2.82 ns Conditions 1 135.01 1. 38 ns Methods 1 180.22 1.84 ns NxC, NxM, CxM, N x C x M* 4 151.62 1.57 ns Error 186 96.57

Total 193

♦Additional computation for interaction.

Results.— The hypothesis was not supported, as

indicated by the data shown in Tables 11 and 12. Again,

the high need mean was higher than the low need mean, but

the difference was not statistically significant. When compared to the subdomain test mean of 36, subjects in both

extreme groups possessed a positive attitude toward physical

activity as an aesthetic experience.

Hypothesis Four (Aesthetic Experience)

There will be no significant difference in the scores of subjects in the group method of data collection and subjects in the individual method of data collection 90 for attitude toward physical activity perceived as an aes­ thetic experience.

Results.— The hypothesis was supported, as indicated by the data shown in Tables 11 and 12. Subjects in both groups possessed a positive attitude toward physical activ­ ity as an aesthetic experience when compared to the sub- domain test mean.

Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Ascetic Experience

Hypothesis One (Ascetic Experience)

There will be a significant difference in the scores of high need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions for attitude toward physical activity perceived as an ascetic experience.

Results.— The hypothesis was not supported by the data, as shown in Tables 13 and 14. Looking across condi­ tions, the high need mean in the experimental condition was higher than the high need mean in the neutral condition, but the difference was not significant. When compared to the subdomain test mean of 32, subjects in both high need conditions possessed a negative attitude toward physical activity perceived as an ascetic experience. TABLE 13.— Means and Standard Deviations of Scores Representing Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Ascetic Experience

Neutral Experimental Condition Need and Condition Total Method N M SD N M SD N M SD

High Need: Group 31 29.19 7.6 22 28.91 8.7 Individual 16 27.94 9.1 26 30.31 7.9 Total 47 28.77 8.0 48 29.67 8.2 95 29.22 8.1

Low Need: Group 29 25.93 7.4 36 27.69 8.1 Individual 22 28.27 7.1 12 25.67 7.9 Total 51 26.94 7.3 48 27.19 8.0 99 27.06 7.6

Group 118 27.88 7.9 Individual 76 28.49 7.9

Grand Mean Total 98 27.82 7.7 96 28.43 8.1 194 28.12 7.9 Test Mean 32 92

TABLE 14.— Three-Way Factorial Analysis of Variance for Dif­ ferences Between Needs, Conditions and Methods: Attitude Toward Physical Activity as an Ascetic Experience

Source d. f. Mean Square F P

Needs 1 208.64 3. 34 ns Conditions 1 4.13 0.07 ns Methods 1 0.56 0.01 ns N x C 1 23.19 0. 37 ns N x M 1 0.08 0.00 ns C x M 1 7.95 0.13 ns N x C x M 1 133.45 2.14 ns Error 186 62.50

Total 193

Hypothesis Two (Ascetic Experience)

There will be no significant difference in the scores of low need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental conditions for attitude toward physical activity perceived as an ascetic experience.

Results.— The hypothesis was supported, as shown in

Tables 13 and 14. Looking across conditions, the low need mean in the experimental condition was higher than the low need mean in the neutral condition, but the difference was very small. When compared to the test mean of 32, subjects in both low need conditions expressed a negative attitude toward physical activity as an ascetic experience. 93

Hypothesis Three tAscetic Experience)

There will be a significant difference in the scores of high and low need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental assessment conditions for attitude toward physical activity perceived as an ascetic experience.

Results.— The hypothesis was not supported, as is shown in Tables 13 and 14. Once again the high need mean was slightly higher than the low need mean, but the differ­ ence only approached significance. Subjects in both groups exhibited negative attitudes toward physical activity as an ascetic experience.

Hypothesis Four (Ascetic Experience)

There will be no significant difference in the scores of subjects in the group method of data collection and subjects in the individual method of data collection for attitude toward physical activity perceived as an ascetic experience.

Results.— The hypothesis was supported, as shown in

Tables 13 and 14. The means of both groups were similar.

When compared to the subdomain test mean of 32, subjects in these two groups expressed negative attitudes toward phys­ ical activity as an ascetic experience. 94

Subdomain Rankings and Comparisons by High and Low Need for Approval Groups

A comparison of the order in which high and low need subjects ranked the individual subdomains in terms of strength of their attitudes is presented in Table 15. The unequal sizes of the subdomains negated the use of ranking by means; therefore, the per-item mean was computed by dividing the mean by the number of items in the subdomain.

This procedure was followed for each mean in each subdomain for each high and low need group. The per-item mean was used to rank the subdomains for six groups: (1) total high need for approval; (2) total low need for approval; (3) high need neutral assessment condition; (4) high need experi­ mental assessment condition; (5) low need neutral assessment condition; and (6) low need experimental assessment condi­ tion. The total group ranking is a combination of both the neutral and experimental assessment conditions.

The combined high need for approval subjects ranked the subdomains in the following order: (1) aesthetic experience, (2) pursuit of vertigo, (3) health and fitness,

(4) social experience, and (5) ascetic experience. The combined low need for approval subjects ranked the sub- domains in the following order: (1) pursuit of vertigo,

(2) aesthetic experience, (3) health and fitness, (4) social experience, and (5) ascetic experience. As can be seen, TABLE 15.— Rank Order Comparisons of Subdomains of Physical Activity for High Need and Low Need Groups by Neutral and Experimental Conditions and for Total Need Group

Per- Neutral Per- Experimental Per- Total Need Per- Need item Assessment item Assessment item Group item Level Mean Rank Condition Mean Condition Mean Ranking Mean

4 1 Vertigo 4.44 Aesthetic . 4.52 Aesthetic 4.45 ITriign ^ rrVk Aesthetic 4.38 Vertigo KTa a H 4 2 4.44 Vertigo 4.44 i N e e a . 4 3 Health/Fitness 4.07 Health/Fitness 4.15 He alth/F itne s s 4.11 Jm or 4 4 Social 3.84 Social 4.10 Social 3.97 Approval 4 5 Ascetic 3.59 Ascetic 3.71 Ascetic 3.65 4 Total ATPA 4.05 Total ATPA 4.22 Total ATPA 4.14

4 1 Vertigo 4.62 Vertigo 4.39 Vertigo 4.51 T. a t j Jj u W 4 2 Aesthetic 4.10 Aesthetic 4.32 Aesthetic 4.21 Need f o r 4 3 Health/Fi tness 3.92 Health/Fitness 3.96 He alth/F i tne ss 3.94 l O I 4 4 Social 3.81 Social 3.67 Social 3.74 ApprovalA M M W A t9 A 1 4 5 Ascetic 3.37 Ascetic 3.39 Ascetic 3.38 4 Total ATPA 4.02 Total ATPA 3.95 Total ATPA 3.98

vo w 96

the rankings given the subdomains by the high and low need

for approval subjects are similar.

The high need for approval subjects in the neutral

attitude assessment condition ranked the subdomains in the

following order: (1) pursuit of vertigo, (2) aesthetic

experience, (3) health and fitness, (4) social experience,

and (5) ascetic experience. The high need for approval

subjects in the experimental attitude assessment condition

ranked the subdomains in the following order: (1) aesthetic

experience, (2) pursuit of vertigo, (3) health and fitness,

(4) social experience, and (5) ascetic experience.

The low need for approval subjects in the neutral

attitude assessment condition ranked the subdomains in the

following order: (1) pursuit of vertigo, (2) aesthetic

experience, (3) health and fitness, (4) social experience,

and (5) ascetic experience. In the experimental attitude

assessment condition, the low need for approval subjects

ranked the subdomains as follows: (1) pursuit of vertigo,

(2) aesthetic experience, (3) health and fitness, (4) social

experience, and (5) ascetic experience.

For both extreme groups, the subdomains given the highest rankings were physical activity perceived as an

aesthetic experience, and as the pursuit of vertigo. Social

experience and ascetic experience were ranked fourth and

fifth, respectively. 97

Direction and Intensity of Subdomains by Sub-Samples

The direction and intensity of each subdomain for

high and low need subjects is shown in Table 15. Using the

per-item test mean of 4, each subdomain was compared to

this value to determine the positive or negative direction

of the subdomain and the intensity of this direction.

In the total high need group, subjects expressed

positive attitudes toward three of the five domains. Social

experience was close to neutral, and ascetic experience was

negative. There was a slight difference between the high

need for approval groups in the neutral and experimental

conditions. Looking across conditions from neutral to

experimental, pursuit of vertigo drops from a first ranking

into second place. In the neutral condition, positive

attitudes were held for only three subdomains, while in the

experimental condition, this number increases to four.

In the total low need group, subjects expressed positive attitudes toward two of the five subdomains.

Looking across conditions, the subdomains did not change in ranking. In both the neutral and experimental conditions, positive attitudes were expressed toward the subdomains of

vertigo and aesthetic experience. Negative attitudes were

expressed toward the subdomains of social and ascetic

experience.

Generally, the most positive attitudes were expressed 98 by the high need for approval subjects in the experimental

condition. The most negative attitudes were expressed by

the low need for approval subjects in the same condition.

The domains of the pursuit of vertigo and aesthetic experi­ ence were consistently positive for all groups. The most negative attitudes were expressed toward physical activity as an ascetic experience by all groups.

Subjects in the approval-motivated experimental condition expressed the most positive attitudes toward the total ATPA Inventory, while the low-need experimental con­ dition subjects expressed the most negative attitudes toward the total ATPA Inventory.

Discussion

A summary of analyses of variance I? ratios by sub- domain for differences between the means of high and low need for approval groups is shown in Table 16. No signifi­ cant differences were found between the means of the two extreme groups, high and low, for the five subdomains and total ATPA Inventory. Since the statistical computation for this main effect includes the use of high and low scores in both assessment conditions, each condition will be treated separately.

It seems appropriate to review briefly the person­ ality characteristics that have been attributed to individ­ uals designated as low and as high in the need for approval. 99

TABLE 16.— Summary of £ Ratios for Main Effect of Analyses of Variance for Attitude Subdomains Between High and Low Need for Approval Groups

Attitude Toward Physical Activity Subdomains d .f. Mean Square £ Ratio

As Social Experience 1 112.51 2.42 As Health and Fitness 1 152.64 1.62 As Pursuit of Vertigo 1 24.14 0.35 As Aesthetic Experience 1 275.37 2.82 As Ascetic Experience 1 208.64 3. 34

Total ATPA Inventory 1 3618.25 3.78

The high need for approval female's test-taking behavior is

characterized by a consistent tendency to endorse socially

desirable alternatives on test items related to the self.

Her non-test behavior can be viewed as cautious, conforming,

and more normatively anchored than persons designated as

low in the need for social approval. Moreover, there is

evidence to indicate that she relies on defense mechanisms

to defend against threats to a low self-esteem. It appears

that her major frame of reference centers around presenting

a socially desirable public evaluation and image from which

approval satisfactions are attained. Thus, both her test- taking and non-test-taking behavior reflect the need for

social approval. Conversely, she avoids those behaviors which are not socially sanctioned.

The low need for approval female is characterized 100 as giving frank and honest answers in a self-evaluative test-taking situation. By depicting herself less euphemis­ tically, she is viewed as having less need for social approval. Moreover, this low-need pattern is reflected in a variety of non-test-taking situations where the degree of social influence has been manipulated.

There appears to be little evidence to explain how people know what constitutes a socially desirable response. 2 Nevertheless, the evidence indicates that they do. There­ fore, it was assumed that approval-motivated women, as compared to women who are less motivated by approval, could determine which attitude items had social-desirability implications. Furthermore, it was expected that this response would occur within the framework of norms appro­ priate to their particular subculture.

From the point of view of society, physical activity characterized as a variety of separate subdomains might be perceived and ordered in the following manner by high need for approval women. Attitude items related to the subdomain of physical activity perceived as a social experience and as an aesthetic experience should be particularly salient to approval-motivated females. These subdomains appear to carry definite sex-role overtones. The subdomain of health and fitness would also appear to be positively valued, but

2 Crowne and Marlowe, Approval Motive, p. 13. 101

for a different reason and perhaps with less intensity.

This subdomain could be considered unrelated to age, sex,

and subculture. It might be perceived as reflecting a part

of the American life-style. As health and fitness con­

tributes to physical attractiveness, it may be more posi­

tively valued by high need for approval women as a means of

gaining approval. Physical activity perceived as the

pursuit of vertigo and as an ascetic experience should be

least important for approval-motivated women. Highly

competitive sports and vertigo-type activities are male-

oriented subdomains.

One might expect that low need for approval females

would view the subdomains of physical activity from a

completely different perspective. They might be expected

to respond to demands other than the desire to present a

socially desirable public image. Moreover, it is plausible

that they would differ from approval-motivated females in

the ordering of the subdomains within the broader framework

of physical activity. Finally, this difference in approach between the two extreme groups could manifest itself in differences in intensity of feeling toward physical activ­

ities. However, it is important to note that subcultural norms may differ from societal norms.

As reasonable as these assumptions appear, it was the purpose of this investigation to test them empirically.

Therefore, no predictions were made as to the direction in 102 which these two need groups would differ in their attitudes

toward physical activity.

The neutral attitude- assessment condition

It should be noted that the means of the high need

subjects were slightly higher than the means of the low

need subjects in the following subdomains: aesthetic

experience, social experience, health and fitness, ascetic experience, and total ATPA Inventory. High need subjects expressed a less favorable attitude than the low need subjects toward the subdomain of vertigo.

The psychologically neutral attitude-assessment condition was characterized as being free from direct social demands. In other words, directly exerted social influences were minimized. This was achieved by: (1) using a paper and pencil test, (2) including the use of anonymity, and

(3) excluding any verbal interaction among the subjects.

More explicitly, this process was facilitated by denying subjects the opportunity directly to compare their attitudes toward physical activity with those of their peers. In addition, the psychological atmosphere was supportive and in no way could it have been considered threatening.

The findings that the high and low need subjects did not differ significantly in their attitudes toward physical activity lead to the conclusion that uncontrolled factors were operating within the assessment condition, or 103 other interpersonal demands were stronger than the motiva­ tion for approval.

It has been shown that the two groups were signifi­ cantly different on the psychological construct used; therefore, this factor may be eliminated.

The major external factor that must be considered is the validity of the attitude inventory. Was it effective in constructing the type of situation necessary to elicit socially desirable responses?

A review of the individual items in the inventory indicates that the personal pronoun "I" is used in approxi­ mately 40 per cent of the total 54 items. However, personal reference is implied throughout many of the remaining items.

Items such as "People should spend twenty to thirty minutes a day doing vigorous calisthenics," and "Most people could live happy lives without depending upon frequent watching or participating in physical games and exercise," are very general and, therefore, open to a variety of interpreta­ tions. These items may have social-desirability implica­ tions, but they are not directly self-evaluative. One item drew a written response in the margin of the answer sheet which would indicate that for this student the item was not personally relevant. It appears that items not including the personal pronoun "I" failed to elicit maximum intensity of feeling from the subjects. However, it seems doubtful that the direction of the response would have been changed. In contrast, all items on the MC-SD Scale use the personal 3 pronoun "I." A similar procedure was used by Salman in 4 his study of attitude change. We might conclude that a part of the error variance in the results of this investi­ gation could be attributed to the attitude instrument.

The variability of the attitude scores for both the high and low need subjects in the neutral assessment condi­ tion should be considered. The standard deviations for most subdomains are large and similar for both high and low need groups. Assuming that high need for approval subjects are more cautious in their behavior, or that they could not judge the correct social-desirability position on the item scale, we might expect that they would respond close to the midpoint. This would be the safest position on the very strongly agree-very strongly disagree continuum. The size of the standard deviations indicates that this phenomenon did not occur. Rather, it appears that the approval motive was operative at a very low level— if at all. It appears that most subjects responded with honest and frank opinions regarding their previously held attitudes toward physical activity.

According to a number of investigators, extreme

3 Crowne and Marlowe, Approval Motive. pp. 23-24.

^Arthur R. Salman, "The Need for Approval, Improvi­ sation, and Attitude Change" (unpublished master's thesis, The Ohio State University, 1962). 105

attitudes are held with greater degrees of personal involve- 5 raent than are less extreme attitudes. We might assume

that we had an interaction between a high need to give

socially desirable responses and a strong personal feeling

toward some type of physical activity. It appears that

when the two positions were in conflict, the strong personal

attitude was selected. This interpretation is based upon

two assumptions: (1) within our subject population, we

had an equal number of positive and negative attitudes due

to randomization; and (2) the subcultural concept of social-

desirability would be more positive on some subdomains

and/or more negative on others. This interpretation would

not pertain to all high need for approval subjects.

The absence of any direct social pressure could have facilitated the expression of the more extreme atti­

tudes. As Cohen has shown, normative social influence becomes less with the use of anonymity.^

It also seems plausible that many subjects, regard­

less of degree of approval motivation, who took the time to participate in this investigation held rather positive or negative attitudes toward some activities represented within

5 Theodore M. Newcomb, Ralph H. Turner, and Philip E. Converse, Social Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1965), p. 50.

^Arthur R. Cohen, Attitude Change and Social Influ­ ence (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1964), p^ 111. 106

the subdomains. They volunteered because they had a

specific opinion to express.

We might project that the use of a double classifi­

cation of motive value plus expectancies of success in

specific physical activities would have greater predictive

utility in an attitude assessment study. Using this refine­

ment, high need for approval females who have had approval

satisfactions by direct, or vicarious involvement in physical

activities might be inclined to hold positive attitudes.

Whereas, high need for approval females who have received

minimal social approval in physical activity situations

might reflect negative attitudes. This proposal does not

preclude the possibility that positive and negative atti­

tudes may result from other patterns of motivation.

In view of the slight trend indicating that the high need women, as compared to the low need women,

expressed more positive attitudes toward physical activity, we might look at the following possibilities as alternatives

to chance. '*•

If the experimenter were perceived as a dispenser

of social approval and identified with positive attitudes

toward physical activity, high need subjects could have responded more favorably than low need subjects. This

could be interpreted as conforming behavior designed to

solicit approval by being a "good" subject in this partic­ ular experiment. 107

' Concern over the thought that their physical educa­

tion teacher might see their inventory could have caused a

slight positive shift in the attitudes of the high need

subjects. However, if this had been a strong motivating

factor, it seems logical that the attitudes expressed by

these subjects would have been considerably more positive

than they actually were. As can be seen in Table 15, the

intensity of the positive attitudes was not high.

Or, perhaps what was found was social-desirability

responding reflecting the subcultural value of physical

activity.

Little can be said about the low need for approval

subjects' attitudinal behavior at this time.

The experimental attitude- assessment condition

The experimental attitude-assessment condition was

characterized as an ego-involving situation in which direct

social influence was exerted. To the motive strength used

in the neutral condition, we have added an instructional

set emphasizing the consequences of the subjects' atti­

tudinal behavior. This was accomplished: (1) by telling

all subjects that there was a strong possibility that the

results of the attitude study would be used for a feature

article in the school paper or the local paper; (2) by

telling the subjects that they might be contacted for a personal interview based on their responses; and (3) by 108

telling the subjects to make certain that they placed their

full name on the answer sheet. The psychological atmosphere

was serious, factual, and formal. Again, in this paper and

pencil testing situation, there was no interaction among

the subjects. Thus, subjects were denied the opportunity

to compare their attitudes with those of their peers.

It was assumed that high need subjects, given the

opportunity to obtain approval satisfactions by making a public commitment, would make every effort to present a

stereotypical image to their college campus friends. This

factor combined with their habitual social-desirability response-set behavior appeared to be very compatible. In fact, the addition of the direct social influence operating in this attitude-assessment condition should produce even greater differences between the high and low need groups than in the neutral condition.

Considering the fact that professors as well as male and female students read the college paper, first-term freshmen, who are establishing new reference groups, might give careful consideration to the type of image they present to the college population. An image based upon their atti­ tudes toward physical activity perceived as a social experience, health and fitness, the pursuit of vertigo, as an aesthetic experience, and as an ascetic experience.

Likert-type scales, ranging from very strongly agree to very strongly disagree, provided the response 109 options on each item. It was expected that this type of flexible scale would give the approval-motivated subject every opportunity to present the "proper" image.

Possessing a motivational pattern which minimizes the need for approval, we might expect low need subjects to be unaffected by the instructional set. The consequences of their behavior should have been personally irrelevant.

It should be noted that in the experimental condi­ tion, the scores of the high need for approval subjects were slightly higher (not significantly) than the scores of the low need subjects for all subdomains except the pursuit of vertigo. In this subdomain the two extreme group means were approximately equal.

The finding that the high need subjects did not differ significantly from the low need subjects in their attitudes toward the subdomains characterizing physical activity leads to the following conclusion: artifacts were operating within the assessment condition, or other psycho­ logical factors confounded the results.

As in the neutral attitude-assessment condition, the high and low extreme groups were significantly different on the psychological dimension.

First, consideration must be given to the attitude statements that comprised the ATPA Inventory. As previously mentioned, some of the error variance can be attributed to the inability of some statements to elicit the response set. 110

This was due primarily to the generalized nature of the

statements. Although clearly stated, they were not per­

sonally relevant.

Second, the ability of the experimenter to maintain

a serious and formal atmosphere could be questioned. It is possible that the experimenter unintentionally provided the

subjects with cues that were not in keeping with the nature

of the experiment. It would follow that, if this were true,

the direct influence attempted by the use of the instruc­

tional set could have been negated. Or, third, we might consider that potential subjects were informed of the public commitment aspect of the experiment. This seems slightly credible due to the length of the assessment period. An

additional factor affecting the results could have been an

inability to duplicate the psychological atmosphere of the group conditions when assessing on an individual basis.

However, considering that the primary focus was on the public commitment, this obligation was met. The lack of

any significant difference between these two data collec­ tion methods would indicate that this was not a major contributing factor.

Once again the standard deviations of both the high

and low need groups looked similar. In addition, they were fairly large. It was assumed that for those high need for approval subjects who were in doubt as to what attitudinal position to take on the agree-disagree continuum, the Ill undecided position would be the appropriate choice. This might be considered analogous to the limited-range, goal- setting behavior demonstrated by the high need for approval males in Barthel's study. In this investigation, the high need males chose a middle position in a dart-throwing task and moved little from this initial position throughout the 7 trials. Presumably, this behavior involved the least risk.

The comparable size of the standard deviations for the high and low groups would indicate that this did not occur. Based upon insignificant differences between the two extreme groups and noting the similarity in the standard deviations, it appears that the approval motive was opera­ tive at a low level, if at all.

Again, knowing that extreme attitudes are more resistent to change, we might conclude that any changes 9 which occurred reflected: (1 ) moderately held attitudes; and (2 ) strong attitudes that were already in agreement with the implicit norm.

However, there is one alternative that should be considered— the defensiveness and vulnerable self-esteem of

7 Christopher E. Barthel, "The Effects of the Approval Motive, Generalized Expectancy, and Situational Cues upon Goal Setting Behavior" (unpublished Ph.D. dis­ sertation, The Ohio State.University, 1963). 8 Elliott McGinnies, Social Behavior: A Functional Analysis (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1970), p . 391. g Ibid. 112

the high need for approval individual. In a number of

studies self-esteem has been linked with persuasibility.

Regardless of the experimental manipulation, the investiga­ tions of Cox and Bauer,^ Silverman,^ and Nisbett and 12 Gordon all produced similar results xn one respect. The high and low self-esteem subjects always responded in the same manner. They either changed together or did not change together. If we could identify some of our high need sub­ jects as low in self-esteem and some of our low need subjects as high in self-esteem, we might have results similar to those found in the previously cited studies.

The most logical conclusion would be that they did not change together. This interpretation would be supported by the finding that both need groups in this condition are similar to their counterparts in the neutral assessment condition.

In keeping with the defensiveness hypothesis, the experimental attitude-assessment condition might have been interpreted as a threatening situation. This could have

^Donald Cox and Raymond A. Bauer, "Self-Confidence and Persuasibility in Women," Public Opinion Quarterly. XXVIII (1964), pp. 453-66.

^Irwin Silverman et al., "Inter-Related Effects of Social Desirability, Sex, Self-Esteem, and Complexity of Argument on Persuasibility," Journal of Personality, XXXIV (1966), pp. 555-68. 12 Richard E. Nisbett and Andrew Gordon, "Self-Esteem and Susceptibility to Social Influence," Journal of Person­ ality. V (1967), pp. 268-76. 113

occurred if the experimenter were identified as one who

wanted to persuade the subjects to express very favorable

attitudes toward physical activity, attitudes which they did not support. This conflict may have caused the high

need for approval subjects to respond more negatively than

they would have under other conditions. Similar results 13 were found by Cox and Bauer. Some support for this position is found in the slightly larger standard deviations of the high need subjects in the experimental condition as opposed to the neutral condition.

With the approval motive inoperative, we still find the possibility of defensive behavior. According to Hov- land, Harvey, and Sherif, the "boomerang effect" becomes an important factor when attempts are made to change attitudes 14 that are personally relevant to the individual. Assuming that both high and low need for approval groups included subjects that held negative attitudes toward some types of physical activity, it seems reasonable that these subjects may have interpreted the instructional set as an unreason­ able attempt to persuade them toward a positive attitudinal position. Considering the evidence that extreme attitudes

13Cox and Bauer, "Self-Confidence and Persuasibil- ity," pp. 453-66. 14 Carl I. Hovland, 0. J. Harvey, and M. Sherif, "Assimilation and Contrast Effects in Reactions to Communi­ cation and Attitude Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. LV (1957), pp. 244-52. 114

are held with more personal involvement than moderate 15 attitudes, this interpretation seems plausible. Accord­

ing to McGinnies, negative attitudes appear to have "more 16 affect conditioned to them" than positive attitudes. In other words, people seem to react more emotionally when their negative attitudes are under attack. Some support for this interpretation is evidenced by the larger standard deviations of both high and low extreme groups in the experimental condition as compared to the neutral assess­ ment condition.

High need for approval: attitudes toward physical activity

The results of this investigation did not support the hypotheses that significant differences would be found in the attitude scores of high need for approval subjects in the neutral and experimental conditions for the sub- domains characterizing physical activity. A summary of the

F ratios is shown in Table 17. Those artifacts which may have been operative in the neutral and experimental condi­ tions have been described in the previous section. However, it should be noted that in all but one subdomain the high need means changed across conditions in a consistent direction— the movement was'toward a more positive attitude

15 Newcomb et al., Social Psychology, p. 50.

^McGinnies, Social Psychology, pp. 302-05. 115 in the experimental condition. Two changes occurred in the rankings of the subdomains across conditions. In the neu­ tral condition, the pursuit of vertigo domain ranked first, with aesthetic experience ranking second. These two sub- domains changed positions in the experimental condition.

TABLE 17.— Summary of JF Ratios for First-Order Interaction Effects of Analysis of Variance for Attitude Subdomains: High and Low Need x Neutral and Experimental Conditions

Attitude Toward Physical Activity Subdomains d.f. Mean Square F Ratio

As Social Experience 1 97.00 2.09 As Health and Fitness 1 9.65 0 . 1 0 As Pursuit of Vertigo 1 24.56 0.36 As Aesthetic Experience 1 41.69 0.43 As Ascetic Experience 1 151.62 1.57

Total ATPA Inventory 1 3134.79 3.27

■ The high ranking of the pursuit of vertigo sub- domain by the high need for approval groups can be inter- preted as reflecting the availability of vertigo activities within their regional subculture. The physical character­ istics of the State of Oregon include rivers, mountains, and the ocean, all of which provide the opportunity for involvement in vertigo-type activities. These opportunities are available throughout the year.

The most startling finding was the ranking of 116 physical activity perceived as a social experience as fourth

by all high need subjects. This ranking was accompanied by

a relatively neutral attitude. This finding does not seem

compatible with the characterization of the high need for

approval female. There is no explanation for this finding.

Low need for approval: attitudes toward physical activity

The results supported the hypotheses that no signif­

icant differences would be found in the attitude scores of

low need for approval subjects in the neutral and experi­ mental conditions for the subdomains characterizing physical

activity. A summary of F, ratios by subdomain is shown in

Table 17.

The low need for approval subjects exhibited no consistent pattern in the intensity of their attitudes toward the five subdomains across attitude conditions.

However, the low need subjects in both conditions ranked

the subdomains in the same order, with the pursuit of vertigo receiving the highest ranking and ascetic experi­

ence receiving the lowest ranking. This similarity in rankings across conditions by the low need subjects appears to be compatible with their characterization as approval-

independent individuals. The finding that the low need subjects in both conditions expressed their most positive attitudes toward physical activity perceived as the pursuit 117

of vertigo can be interpreted as reflecting the availability

of vertigo activities within the State of Oregon.

High and low need for approval: attitudes toward physical activity

The results of this study did not support the

hypothesis that high and low need for approval subjects

would differ significantly in their attitudes toward

physical activity perceived as five distinct domains.

The high and low need subjects reflected more

similarities than differences in ranking the various sub-

domains. Subjects in both extreme groups possessed positive

attitudes toward the pursuit of vertigo which was accom­ panied by a high ranking. This can be interpreted as

reflecting the opportunities for young women to engage in

vertigo activities within the geographical area of the

Pacific Northwest. The fourth ranking and accompanying

neutral attitude strength of the social experience subdomain

by all subjects is somewhat unusual considering the results

of other investigations. This subdomain has consistently

received a high ranking by female subjects in a number of recent studies. This finding appears to be highly incom­ patible with the characterization of the high need for

approval female.

In general, all approval-motivated subjects ex­ pressed more positive attitudes toward all subdomains, with the exception of the pursuit of vertigo area. Similar 118

results were found for the total ATPA Inventory score.

However, these differences were not statistically signifi­

cant .

Summary

As shown by the results of this study, the approval

motive did not function to differentiate attitude toward physical activity perceived: (1 ) as a social experience;

(2) as health and fitness; (3) as the pursuit of vertigo;

(4) as an aesthetic experience; and (5) as an ascetic

experience. In addition, the psychological conditions under which attitudes toward physical activity were assessed had no significant effect on the attitudinal responses of

college women designated as high and as low in the need for

approval. It was found that the attitudinal responses of these two extreme groups were similar. This was true for the rankings assigned to the five subdomains, for the positive and negative direction on the attitudes esqpressed, and for the intensity of feeling associated with these

attitudes.

In interpreting these findings, it appears that some of the error variance may be attributed to the gen­ eralized nature of specific ATPA Inventory statements.

Lacking personal relevance, some items may have failed to elicit the desired response. Additional sources of error variance may be attributed to factors operating within the 119 experimental attitude-assessment condition. This condition may have failed to materialize as an ego-involving situa­ tion for the high need for approval subjects. If inter­ preted as a threat by subjects in both extreme groups, this condition may have elicited strong negative responses which could be interpreted as defensive behavior.

In general, it appears that subjects in both extreme groups responded to the inventory items with honest and frank personal opinions based upon their past experiences, positive or negative, associated with physical activities.

This explanation appears to be true regardless of the psychological conditions under which the attitudes were assessed. This interpretation is reflected in the marked similarities in the attitudes expressed by the two high and low need for approval groups. CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the

effects of two extreme levels of the approval motive upon

five subdomains which characterize physical activity as

expressed by college freshman women. The study was

designed to determine if differences in attitudes expressed

by high need for approval students and low need for approval

students would occur by altering the psychological condi­

tions under which those attitudes were assessed. Additional

comparisons were made between individual and group methods

of data collection.

Procedure

The subjects for this study were 196 college fresh­ man women attending the University of Oregon during the fall of 1970.

These subjects represented the top and bottom 25 per cent of all freshman women tested on the Marlowe-Crowne

Social Desirability Scale from which the initial strength of the need for approval was inferred. The two extreme groups, identified as high and as low on this motive, were randomly divided, yielding a total of four groups. 120 121

Individuals who score high on the Marlowe-Crowne

Social Desirability Scale are viewed as placing a high value on approval from others. These individuals are char­ acterized as describing themselves in socially desirable terms in self-evaluative situations in order to obtain approval. They are amenable to social influence in a variety of situations. Among these individuals there is evidence to suggest a defensive disposition.

Individuals who score low on the Marlowe-Crowne

Social Desirability Scale are viewed as placing little value on the approval of others. These individuals are characterized as describing themselves accurately and frankly. They are independent and generally free from social influence across social situations.

Attitudes were assessed through the administration of the Kenyon Attitude Toward Physical Activity Inventory:

Form DW. This inventory assesses attitudes toward six sub- domains of physical activity. The five subdomains utilized in this study were physical activity perceived: (1 ) as a social experience; (2) as health and fitness; (3) as the pursuit of vertigo; (4) as an aesthetic experience; and

(5) as an ascetic experience. A sixth subdomain, catharsis, was not used as a separate domain due to its unestablished validity. In addition, a total inventory score was gleaned.

The attitude inventory was administered to a sample of high and low need for approval subjects in a psycholog­ 122

ically neutral assessment condition. This condition was

characterized as supportive, anonymous, and free from direct

social influence and ego-involvement.

The inventory was administered a second time to a different sample of high and low need for approval subjects in an experimental assessment condition. This condition was characterized as an ego-involving situation in which direct social influence was exerted. This influence took the form of emphasizing the consequences of the subject's attitudinal response behavior. The consequences demanded an open public commitment to the attitudes expressed.

The effects of the two levels of motivation, the two attitude-assessment conditions, and two methods of data collection on attitudes toward physical activity were deter­ mined by use of three-way factorial analyses of variance.

Six 2x2x2 analyses of variance were computed, one for each of the five subdomains and one for the total inventory scores. The intensity of feeling and the directional focus of attitudes expressed by the high and low need for approval women, were compared by ranking the subdomains and computing a per-item mean.

Results

The results obtained in this investigation indicate that the approval motive had no significant effect in dif- 123

ferentiating attitudes toward physical activity held by

college freshman women at the University of Oregon.

There were no significant differences between the

mean scores of the low need for approval subjects in the

two assessment conditions for any of the subdomains

assessed. This was true for the total ATPA Inventory

scores. This finding was in the predicted direction. No

significant interactional effects were found between the

two high need for approval groups in their expression of

attitudes toward physical activity perceived as the five

subdomains and as a total ATPA score. This finding was not

in the predicted direction. There were no significant dif­

ferences between the attitudes of the high need for approval

subjects and the low need for approval subjects for any of

the five subdomains or for the total ATPA Inventory score.

This finding did not support the prediction. No signifi­

cant differences were evidenced between the two methods of data collection groups. This finding confirmed the predic­

tion.

Similar results in the subdomain rankings were found for the high and the low need for approval subjects in both

attitude-assessment conditions. The two highest rankings were given to physical activity perceived as the pursuit of vertigo and as an aesthetic experience. The two lowest rankings were given to physical activity perceived as a social experience and as an ascetic experience. With the 124

exception of the vertigo subdomain, high need for approval

subjects as a total group, compared to the total low need

subjects, expressed more positive attitudes toward physical

activity in all subdomains and in total ATPA Inventory

score. However, these differences were not statistically

significant. Across assessment conditions, approval- motivated subjects expressed consistently more positive

attitudes in the ego-involving condition than in the non­ ego-involving situation. Across assessment conditions, there was no consistent tendency for the approval-independ­ ent subjects to express more positive or more negative

attitudes in either condition. In general, all attitudes expressed by all the subjects, both high and low extreme groups, hovered around the neutral position.

Conclusions

The main conclusions that can be drawn from the results of this investigation are as follows:

1 . There are no distinguishable differences between high and low need for approval women in their attitudes toward physical activity perceived: (1 ) as a social experi­ ence; (2) as health and fitness; (3) as the pursuit of vertigo; (4) as an aesthetic experience; and (5) as an ascetic experience.

2. There is no reliable difference between high and low need for approval women in their attitudes toward 125

physical activity as measured by a total ATPA Inventory

score.

3. Ego- and non-ego-involving attitude assessment

conditions have no effect upon attitudes toward physical

activity as expressed by low need for approval women.

4. Ego- and non-ego-involving attitude assessment

conditions have no effect upon attitudes toward physical

activity as expressed by high need for approval women.

5. Individual and group methods of collecting data have no effect upon the expression of attitudes toward physical activity as held by women who differ in approval motivation.

6 . High and low need for approval women show marked similarities in their ordering of the five subdomains

characterizing physical activity.

7. The attitudes expressed by the college women in

this investigation had little positive or negative direc­ tional emphasis.

Recommendations for Further Study

The results of this study evidence the need for further investigation of the approval motive in its rela­ tionship to individual differences in physical education learning situations.

It is suggested that a similar study be conducted utilizing refinements in the present attitude inventory. 126

It may be necessary to construct an instrument which would have greater predictive utility in assessing attitudes toward physical activity or physical education held by approval-motivated individuals. Any replication of this study should include the middle need for approval subjects.

If an ego-involving situation is used, an attempt should be made to secure an initial attitude measure prior to this manipulation.

An attempt should be made to determine if individual differences in the approval motive have predictive utility in motor performance situations. It is feasible that women differing on this dimension would differ in their selection of physical activities and in their degree of involvement in these activities.

Additional attention should be given to exploring the possible relationships between approval motivation and achievement motivation in a variety of activity situations.

Consideration should be given to devising a method or instrument that would differentiate among those women who have expectancies of gaining approval satisfactions through physical activities and those whose expectancies of approval satisfactions are low in these situations.

Significant Questions

In terms of a motivational approach to understand­ ing physical activity, it appears that for women the need 127 for social approval is not a major motivational determinant of direction and intensity of "feeling" about various kinds of physical activities. It would appear that it is possible for a woman to hold and openly express strong positive and negative attitudes toward physical activity without those attitudes affecting her social position within various reference groups. Perhaps we might project that physical activity is one of those sociopsychological attitude areas which holds a strong neutral position in terms of sub­ cultural norms. Perhaps the cognitive, affective, and action components comprising attitudes toward physical activity are developed entirely from intrinsic satisfac­ tions gained through the physical activity experience. A more basic question remains unanswered: Do the myriad forms of physical activity lie outside the boundaries of social approval for women? APPENDIX A

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

128 RESEARCH PROJECT

A member of the physical education staff is conducting a research project concerning the attitudes and opinions of freshmen women at the University of Oregon. An attempt is being made to include all incoming freshmen women, and your assistance as a volunteer is requested.

Your responses will not be seen by your physical education instructor and, therefore, they cannot be related to your grade in physical education.

The project will take about ten minutes of your time today in filling out a short Information Sheet and a short Per­ sonal Reaction Inventory. It is possible that you will be asked (selected) to return at some time during the next two weeks to fill out an additional inventory related to physical activity.

If selected, you will be contacted by mail regarding the time and place of the second project session.

THANK YOU.

129 PERSONAL REACTION INVENTORY

Listed below are a number of statements concerning personal attitudes and traits. Read each item and decide whether the statement is true or false as it pertains to you per­ sonally.

Do not make any marks on the test booklet. Record your answers in the true or false columns of the separate answer sheet that has been given you. Circle your answer.

Remember: Answer each item as it pertains to you personally.

1. Before voting I thoroughly investigate the qualifica­ tions of all the candidates.

2. I never hesitate to go out of my way to help someone in trouble.

3. It is sometimes hard for me to go on with my work if I am not encouraged.

4. I have never intensely disliked anyone.

5.. On occasion I have had doubts about my ability to suc­ ceed in life.

6 . I sometimes feel resentful when I don't get my way.

7. I am always careful about my manner of dress.

8 . My table manners at home are as good as when I eat out in a restaurant.

9. If I could get into a movie without paying and be sure I was not seen I would probably do it.

10. On a few occasions, I have given up doing something because I thought too little of my ability.

11. I like to gossip at times.

12. There have been times when I felt like rebelling against people in authority even though I knew they were right. 130 131

13. No matter who I'm talking to, I'm always a good listener.

14. I can remember "playing sick" to get out of something.

15. There have been occasions when I took advantage of someone.

16. I'm always willing to admit it when I make a mistake.

17. I always try to practice what I preach.

18. I don’t find it particularly difficult to get along with loud mouthed, obnoxious people.

19. I sometimes try to get even rather than forgive and forget.

20. When I don't know something, I don't at all mind admit­ ting it.

21. I am always courteous, even to people who are dis­ agreeable.

22. At times I have really insisted on having things my own way.

23. There have been occasions when I felt like smashing things.

24. I would never think of letting someone else be punished for my wrongdoings.

25. I never resent being asked to return a favor.

26. I have never been irked when people expressed ideas very different from my own.

27. I never make a long trip without checking the safety of my car.

28. There have been times when I was quite jealous of the good fortune of others.

29. I have almost never felt the urge to tell someone off.

30. I am sometimes irritated by people who ask favors of me.

31. I have never felt that I was punished without cause. 132

32. I sometimes think when people have a misfortune, they only got what they deserved.

33. I have never deliberately said something that hurt someone's feelings. Information Sheet

Name Age Last first middle

Home Address street & number city state

High School Attended name city state

Size of High School Attended: (circle one): Class A-l Class A-2 Class 5 Other

Number in your graduating class: ______

Campus Address:______(for mailing purposes)

Campus Telephone:______

University Major:______

Move on to the Answer Sheet on the next page, but

do not detach it from the Information Sheet.

Do not sign your name to the Answer Sheet.

Thank you

133 PERSONAL REACTION INVENTORY

Answer Sheet

Page 1

1 . T F 18. T F

2 . TF 19. T F

3. TF 2 0 .T F

4. TF 2 1 . T F

5. TF 2 2 . T F

6 . T F 23. T F

7. TF 24. T F

8 . TF 25. T F

9. T F 26. T F

1 0 . TF 27. T F

1 1 . TF 28. T F

1 2 . TF 29. T F

30. T F

Page 2 31. T F

13. T F

14. TF Page 3

15. TF 32. T F

16. TF 33. T F

17. T F

134 APPENDIX B

ATPA INVENTORY

135 INVENTORY FOR DETERMINING ATTITUDE TOWARD PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Instructions

1. Express your agreement or disagreement by circling the appropriate symbol on the answer sheet that corresponds with the attitude item, according to the following: VS A: very strongly agree SA: strongly agree A: agree U: undecided D: disagree SD: strongly disagree VSD: very strongly disagree For example, if you strongly disagree with a statement, you circle the symbol SD as follows: VSA SA A U D SD VSD 1. The United Nations should be abolished.

2.- You should rarely need to use U (undecided).

3. Work independently of others.

4. Do not spend too much time on any one statement; try to respond, then go on to the next item.

5. Respond to ALL statements on the answer sheets.

IMPORTANT

1. Do not open this booklet until told to do so.

2. Respond to the statements in the order given. (Do not go on to page 2 until you have finished page 1 , etc.)

3. The significance of this research depends upon the degree to which you express your own opinion. 136 INVENTORY FOR DETERMINING ATTITUDE TOWARD

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

1. I would prefer quiet activities like swimming or golf, rather than such activities as water skiing or sail boat racing.

2. I would gladly put up with the necessary hard training for the chance to try out for the U.S. Women's Olympic Team.

3. The most important value of physical activity is the beauty found in skilled movement.

4. Physical education programs should stress vigorous exercise since it contributes most to physical fitness.

5. The years of strenuous daily training necessary to prepare for today's international competition is asking a lot of today's young women.

6. The need for much higher levels of physical fitness has been established beyond all doubt.

7. Among the best physical activities are those which represent a personal challenge, such as skiing, moun­ tain climbing, or heavy weather sailing.

8. Among the most desirable forms of physical activity are those which present the beauty of human movement such as modern dance and water ballet.

9. I would get by far the most satisfaction from games requiring long and careful preparation and involving stiff competition against a strong opposition.

10. Of all physical activities, those whose purpose is pri­ marily to develop physical fitness, would not be my first choice.

11. The best way to become more socially desirable is to participate in group physical activities.

137 138

12. Almost the only satisfactory way to relieve severe emotional strain is through some form of physical activity.

13. Frequent participation in dangerous sports and physical activities are all right for other people but ordi­ narily they are not for me.

14. Physical education programs should place much more emphasis upon the beauty found in human motion.

15. If given a choice, I sometimes would choose strenuous rather than light physical activity.

16. There are better ways of relieving the pressure of today's living than having to engage in or watch physical activity.

17. I like to engage in socially oriented physical activ­ ities .

18. A part of our daily lives must be committed to vigorous exercise.

19. I am not particularly interested in those physical activities whose sole purpose is to depict human motion as something beautiful.

2 0 . Colleges should sponsor many more physical activities of a social nature. 21. For a healthy mind in a healthy body the only place to begin is through participation in sports and physical activities every day. 22. The least desirable physical activities are those pro­ viding a sense of danger and risk of injury such as skiing on steep slopes, mountain climbing, or parachute jumping.

23. Being physically fit is not the most important goal in my life.

24. A sport is sometimes spoiled if allowed to become too highly organized and keenly competitive.

25. I enjoy sports mostly because they give me a chance to meet new people. 139

26. Practically the only way to relieve frustrations and pent-up emotions is through some form of physical activity.

27. The time spent doing daily calisthenics could probably be used more profitably in other ways.

28. Given a choice, I would prefer motor boat racing or running rapids in a canoe rather than one of the quieter forms of boating.

29. Of all the kinds of physical activities, I don't particularly care for those requiring a lot of social­ izing.

30. One of the things I like most in sports is the great variety of ways human movement can be shown to be beautiful.

31. Most intellectual activities are often just as refresh­ ing as physical activities.

32. Strength and physical stamina are the most important prerequisites to a full life.

33. Physical activities that are purely for social pur­ poses, like college dances, are sometimes a waste of time.

34. The self-denial and sacrifice needed for success in today's international competition may soon become too much to ask of a thirteen or fourteen year old girl.

35. I am given unlimited pleasure when I see the form and beauty of human motion.

36. I believe calisthenics are among the less desirable forms of physical activity.

37. Watching athletes becoming completely absorbed in their sport nearly always provides me with a welcome escape from the many demands of present-day life.

38. If I had to choose between "still-water" canoeing and "rapids" canoeing, "still-water" canoeing would usually be my choice.

39. There are better ways of getting to know people than through games and sports. 140

40. People should spend twenty to thirty minutes a day doing vigorous calisthenics.

41. There is sometimes an over-emphasis upon those physical activities that attempt to portray human movement as an art form.

42. Physical activities having an element of daring or requiring one to take chances are desirable.

43. Since competition is a fundamental characteristic of American society, highly competitive athletics and games should be encouraged for all.

44. A happy life does not require regular participation in physical activity.

45. The best form of physical activity is when the body is used as an instrument of expression.

46. Sports are fun to watch and to engage in, only if they are not taken too seriously, nor demand too much time and energy.

47. Calisthenics taken regularly are among the best forms of exercise.

48. I could spend many hours watching the graceful and well coordinated movements of the figure skater or modern dancer.

49. The best thing about games and sports is that they give people more confidence in social situations.

50. Among the best forms of physical activity are those providing thrills such as sailing in heavy weather or canoeing on river rapids.

51. Regular physical activity is the major prerequisite to a satisfying life.

52. In this country there is sometimes too much emphasis on striving to be successful in sports.

53. I would enjoy engaging in those games and sports that require a defiance of danger.

54. Most people could live happy lives without depending upon frequent watching or participating in physical games and exercise. INVENTORY FOR DETERMINING ATTITUDE TOWARD

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Answer Sheet Name

Paqe 1

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51. VSA SAA U D SD VSD 52. VSASA AU D SD VSD 53. VSASAAU D SD VSD 54. VSA SA A U DSD VSD APPENDIX C

LETTERS TO SUBJECTS

144 Dear

As a member of the freshman class, you have been selected to participate in the follow-up research project regarding attitudes of freshmen women at the University of Oregon.

This last project has two objectives: to give you an opportunity to express your feelings toward physical activity; and, to assist in research which is attempting to gain insight into the value of physical activity in our society.

A sample attitude item is as follows: The idea that every human movement is beautiful, is absurd. Your response to this item will be expressed on a seven-point scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Your participation is needed and appreciated.

WHEN: 6:30 p.m. - October 26 (Monday)or October 27 (TuesdayTT 1970.

WHERE: Gerlinger Annex - B 54 : Large Gymnasium. (Dress to sit on the floor.)

TIME TO TAKE: 30 minutes

Lois J. Youngen Assistant Professor of Physical Education

145 Dear

As a member of the freshman class, you have been selected to participate in a research project regarding the attitudes of freshmen women toward physical activity.

This project has two objectives: to give you an opportunity to express your feelings toward physical activity; and, to assist in research which is attempting to gain insight into the value of physical activity in our society.

You will be asked to react to a written attitude inventory which contains 54 items. A sample item is as follows:

The idea that every human movement is beautiful, is absurd.

Your response to this item will be expressed on a seven- point scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Your participation is needed and appreciated.

WHEN AND WHERE: 11:30 a.m., Thursday, November 19 121 Gerlinger 12:30 p.m., Thursday, November 19 121 Gerlinger 4:30 p.m., Monday, November 23 119 Gerlinger

TIME TO TAKE: 20 minutes

Lois J. Youngen Assistant Professor of Physical Education

P.S. Just a reminder for those of you I have contacted per­ sonally.

146 APPENDIX D

RAW SCORES

147 RAW SCORES FOR THE NEUTRAL CONDITION

M-C SDS Attitudes Toward Physical Activity Subject Scores Total Soc. H/F. Ver. Ath. C a t . Act

1 29 196 33 36 44 29 31 23 2 27 253 33 46 53 51 40 30 3 27 270 27 54 58 40 47 44 4 25 187 24 27 46 52 22 16 5 24 191 39 28 30 38 34 22 6 24 250 35 54 46 32 50 33 7 24 223 40 34 36 57 22 34 8 24 183 33 25 47 30 25 23 9 24 244 48 53 38 45 32 28 10 24 218 28 29 41 49 42 29 11 23 212 35 49 29 38 36 25 12 23 200 26 47 29 52 24 22 13 23 226 32 58 29 29 48 30 14 22 265 36 38 52 55 48 36 15 22 221 28 50 39 43 27 34 16 21 220 40 55 31 38 30 26 17 21 211 21 41 34 45 47 23 18 20 163 24 49 27 22 21 20 19 20 261 41 51 31 49 49 40 20 20 202 28 35 43 51 25 20 21 20 223 32 45 27 47 39 33 22 19 241 16 58 48 29 45 45 23 19 177 23 41 29 37 28 19 24 19 252 26 57 37 59 46 27 25 19 228 23 58 53 25 30 39 26 19 223 33 46 39 37 33 35 27 19 211 35 43 39 32 36 26 28 18 245 35 61 40 31 51 27 29 18 23 39 27 26 22 30 18 222 34 42 50 29 30 37 31 18 234 35 50 46 36 30 37

Individual

32 22 268 30 49 50 50 39 50 33 21 275 36 64 44 42 54 35 34 21 156 18 36 44 29 12 17 35 21 169 23 35 42 22 17 30 148 149

Individual M-C SDS Scores Total Soc. H/F. Ver. Ath. Cat. Act

36 20 225 31 50 33 43 33 35 37 20 215 37 51 43 24 36 24 38 20 217 32 41 34 39 41 30 39 20 209 30 48 35 43 32 21 40 20 164 20 26 38 39 15 26 41 20 209 29 44 36 39 31 30 42 19 274 46 50 41 39 56 42 43 19 203 30 41 32 39 37 24 44 19 220 35 50 40 25 48 22 45 19 32 46 49 54 36 46 18 196 21 41 43 36 37 18 47 18 207 25 39 44 53 27 19 48 18 211 34 41 41 42 29 24

Group

49 1 149 27 26 22 23 34 17 50 3 234 32 49 46 43 39 25 51 4 219 30 48 39 38 38 26 52 4 223 41 31 54 39 34 24 53 4 197 32 41 35 38 28 23 54 5 218 27 38 49 38 47 19 55 5 241 25 55 37 49 50 29 56 6 165 21 29 38 30 24 23 57 6 132 19 29 18 30 26 10 58 6 242 28 51 39 49 51 24 59 6 241 33 31 50 54 46 27 60 7 268 44 50 47 61 51 15 61 7 186 26 27 45 31 38 19 62 7 221 16 39 53 49 45 19 63 7 256 38 54 42 47 48 27 64 8 176 36 38 36 24 25 17 65 8 234 27 58 41 13 56 39 66 8 223 43 44 33 35 37 31 67 9 218 31 45 37 39 36 30 68 10 241 35 47 47 28 46 38 69 10 185 23 31 35 42 34 20 70 11 244 33 55 36 35 48 37 71 11 201 26 29 47 35 37 27 72 11 223 32 44 34 44 44 25 73 11 188 34 39 44 09 32 30 74 11 240 39 51 42 33 43 32 75 11 252 32 52 48 42 43 35 76 11 243 28 54 49 43 44 25 77 11 239 36 38 55 31 40 39 150

Individual M-C SDS Scores Total Soc. H/F. Ver. Ath. Cat. Act.

78 3 238 24 59 47 40 44 24 79 6 225 33 39 40 41 41 31 80 6 267 42 58 36 44 42 45 81 7 30 37 41 45 29 82 8 216 30 37 41 41 39 28 83 8 178 32 36 24 44 23 19 84 8 208 33 39 50 28 30 28 85 8 192 28 32 40 33 33 26 86 8 188 36 30 45 24 34 19 87 9 220 25 48 45 42 34 26 88 9 236 31 56 47 27 45 30 89 9 199 32 39 29 42 34 23 90 9 219 32 40 50 38 28 31 91 9 206 21 43 52 44 22 24 92 9 258 35 56 44 50 46 27 93 9 183 27 38 36 21 21 40 94 9 202 25 41 44 22 33 37 95 10 228 20 59 51 41 40 17 96 10 238 38 48 41 40 36 35 97 11 248 29 54 43 45 46 31 98 11 200 28 47 38 33 35 19 99 11 205 30 36 42 30 34 33

RAW SCORES FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION

Group

100 25 239 47 47 55 36 35 19 101 24 165 28 41 31 28 18 19 102 23 225 23 45 51 40 37 29 103 23 215 22 49 45 39 31 29 104 21 236 34 52 37 40 40 33 105 21 43 30 38 28 34 106 21 240 41 42 39 44 40 34 107 20 220 31 52 32 47 33 25 108 20 244 23 47 44 33 50 47 109 20 215 31 35 31 41 39 38 110 20 135 22 17 33 32 21 10 111 20 254 35 46 45 54 47 27 112 19 174 28 32 33 26 28 27 113 19 259 40 55 43 41 44 36 114 19 223 31 45 44 25 46 32 115 19 226 40 30 41 63 25 27 116 18 197 29 27 45 35 24 37 117 18 265 24 52 49 58 41 41 118 18 262 43 58 43 59 37 22 151

Group M-C SDS

Scores Total Soc. H/F. Ver. Ath. Cat. Act

119 18 194 43 32 19 38 47 15 120 18 219 33 54 36 32 37 27 121 18 220 24 50 43 42 33 28

Individual

122 30 269 43 55 44 43 48 36 123 26 259 36 57 44 47 44 31 124 24 239 39 43 54 34 51 18 125 23 290 43 58 45 60 46 38 126 22 243 39 44 48 44 37 31 127 22 308 43 64 57 44 58 42 128 22 192 28 42 31 24 41 26 129 21 215 23 43 31 49 30 39 130 21 38 29 43 42 131 21 220 26 37 45 48 29 35 132 21 35 52 43 44 32 133 21 239 41 41 47 34 44 28 134 20 235 46 47 38 48 29 27 135 20 212 25 55 29 33 38 32 136 20 191 29 37 40 30 24 31 137 20 254 33 49 50 40 46 36 138 20 250 33 52 40 54 37 34 139 19 32 34 24 11 17 140 19 215 20 47 42 54 43 09 141 19 . 246 37 49 45 40 44 31 142 19 182 26 31 36 35 32 22 143 19 207 30 54 22 47 29 25 144 18 213 25 36 49 38 37 28 145 18 201 23 40 44 32 28 34 146 18 248 36 66 34 36 43 33 147 18 262 35 62 33 33 54 45 148 18 239 39 47 29 48 48 28

Group

149 3 184 28 30 39 41 29 17 150 3 192 37 61 18 30 28 18 151 5 207 32 50 28 38 37 22 152 5 185 23 42 38 41 22 19 153 6 173 29 29 47 28 24 16 154 6 223 33 43 44 38 34 31 155 6 267 43 50 61 45 41 27 156 7 228 35 44 36 45 45 23 157 7 136 20 18 25 36 16 21 158 7 246 41 37 49 57 45 17 152

Group M-C SDS

Scores Total Soc. H/F. Ver. Ath. Cat. Act

159 7 240 30 51 41 39 40 39 160 7 242 34 57 40 48 37 26 161 8 170 21 29 32 44 23 21 162 8 217 26 36 48 47 32 28 163 8 200 27 46 36 24 43 24 164 8 221 24 53 42 36 43 23 165 9 260 34 69 42 42 38 35 166 9 252 25 56 32 58 49 32 167 9 281 34 62 29 55 54 47 168 9 216 31 42 44 31 35 33 169 9 172 17 38 38 25 30 24 170 9 222 35 33 42 39 31 42 171 9 19 42 52 37 26 172 9 212 29 50 29 35 38 31 173 10 163 21 38 37 27 21 19 174 10 228 33 42 45 33 44 31 175 10 204 26 50 31 42 27 28 176 10 164 23 38 21 32 30 20 177 10 269 34 48 55 52 55 25 178 10 228 21 44 46 38 34 45 179 10 216 33 45 30 45 25 38 180 11 262 33 48 35 56 51 39 181 11 250 33 50 46 45 44 32 182 11 207 23 37 59 45 19 24 183 11 211 20 35 43 62 25 26 184 11 . 226 40 37 33 43 45 28

Individual

185 1 190 28 42 34 40 35 11 186 7 214 29 47 41 47 26 24 187 8 190 20 38 42 36 32 22 188 8 243 33 64 35 12 58 41 189 10 181 23 38 38 26 29 27 190 10 226 39 36 50 36 32 35 191 10 191 31 40 43 29 31 17 192 10 215 41 42 47 29 30 26 193 10 221 26 44 45 37 37 32 194 11 175 26 37 37 31 20 24 195 11 180 31 34 38 25 26 26 196 11 35 47 37 42 23 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Allerdice, Mary E. "The Relationship Between Attitudes Toward Physical Education and Physical Fitness Scores and Sociometric Status." Master's thesis, State University of Iowa, 1963. Abstract in Completed Research, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, VI (1964), 59-60.

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Dorfman, Sandra P. "Attitude Toward Physical Activity as a Function of Religious Identification, with Partic­ ular Reference to Judaism." Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1968. Abstract in Com­ pleted Research. The American Association of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XI (1969), 240.

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Unpublished Materials

Barthel, Christopher E. "The Effects of the Approval Motive, Generalized Expectancy, and Situational Cues upon Goal-Setting and Social Defensiveness." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1963.

Conn, Lane K., Jr. "The Effects of the Approval Motive, Generalized Expectancy, and Threat to Self-Esteem upon the Identification of Emotional Communica­ tions." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1964.

Delaplane, Nancy M. "A Comparison of Attitudes of Male and Female College Freshmen Toward Physical Activity." Unpublished master's thesis, The Ohio State Univer­ sity, 1969.

Mullins, Martha. "Attitudes Toward Multidimensional Physical Activity as a Function of Race, Sex, and Socio-Economic Level." Unpublished Ph.D. disserta­ tion, Florida State University, 1969.

Rosenfeld, John M. "Some Perceptual and Cognitive Cor­ relates of the High Need for Social Approval Personality." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1963.

Salman, Arthur R. "The Need for Approval, Improvisation, and Attitude Change." Unpublished master's thesis, The Ohio State University, 1962.