Altruism, Empathy, and Sex Offender Treatment „„The Concept of Empathy According to Oxley (2011) Empathy Is “Both an Act Tony Ward & Russil Durrant and a Capacity” (P

Altruism, Empathy, and Sex Offender Treatment The Concept of Empathy According to Oxley (2011) empathy is “both an act Tony Ward & Russil Durrant and a capacity” (p. 15). Individuals engage in acts of Victoria University of Wellington empathy when they imagine how someone else is likely to be feeling in certain situations, or alterna- Abstract tively, anticipate how they would feel in similar cir- Treatment programs for serious offenders such as sex offenders typically include an empathy training component cumstances. In order to act empathically individu- as part of a comprehensive intervention package. The reasons for doing so are partly based on research evidence als require cognitive and emotional capacities, such indicating that social disconnection and relationship ruptures related to empathy failures often trigger offending, as the ability to psychologically decenter, emotional and also because it is hard for people to grasp how individuals can inflict severe harm on others without lacking knowledge, and the possession of emotional regu- empathic capacities. In this paper we examine Philip Kitcher’s concept of psychological altruism and altruism lation, deliberation, and perspective taking skills. failure and consider its conceptual relationship to empathy and morality. We then apply Kitcher’s multidimensional For example, in order to empathize with a friend’s concept of altruism to the field of sex offender rehabilitation and argue that it can provide a useful ethical resource sadness following the death of a parent I need to be through which to approach the various tasks of practice. able to place myself in her shoes, so to speak. Taking Keywords in account my friend’s personality, circumstances, altruism and empathy; sex offender treatment history, relationships with her parent etc., I imagine what she would feel. This is what has been called other-focused empathy (Oxley, 2011). Another possible empathic mechanism is to place myself in the Being able to emotionally respond to other people the problems reside in a weak evidence base and a situation of my friend and to assume that my parent and to share their experiences is a core psycho- lack of a coherent model of change. had just died. Ideally, I would experience similar logical skill and an essential ingredient of healthy It seems to us that there are several contestable as- emotions and therefore be able to accurately infer intimate relationships and strong communities. It sumptions underpinning current theoretical and what she was feeling, thinking, and so on. This type enables us to enter into individuals’ internal worlds empirical research into the nature and function of of empathic imaginative process has been labeled and draw from the knowledge that this imaginative victim empathy deficits in sex offenders, and sub- self-focused empathy (Oxley, 2011). It is pretty ob- process yields an explanation for their actions and sequent treatment programs based on this research. vious that sophisticated, empathic actions of these predict what they are likely to do next. The capaci- These assumptions are: (a) empathy deficits repre- types have significant epistemic or knowledge gen- ty to respond in this way has been called empathy, sent specific psychological problems that are reli- erating advantages. It helps people to extend their sympathy, emotional knowledge, mind reading, and ably present (even if specific to a particular victim understanding beyond the limited boundaries of mentalizing, to name just a few of the concepts evi- or context) in individuals who commit sex offenses, their own minds-and bodies and to establish strong dent in the research and popular literature (Decen- (b) empathy interventions increase the ability of emotional connections to others. ty, 2012). The ability to be empathic helps people offenders to respond empathically to potential vic- Many definitions of empathy have been offered in to act in altruistic ways and to acquire social and tims, and (c) offenders who successfully resist the the philosophical and scientific literature, although moral norms. Its absence is thought to be associated desire to reoffend do so, at least partially, because none universally accepted. Maibom (2012) has use- with dysfunctional and destructive social behavior. they have become more empathic. In essence, these fully distinguished between sympathy, emotional If you are unable or unwilling to empathize with an- assumptions boil down to the claim that empathy contagion, and empathy while others have added other person’s distress it becomes much more diffi- related competencies (i.e., perspective taking, emo- perspective taking, simulation, and imitation to the cult to act in ways that further their interests rather tional responsiveness, according others respect, be- conceptual mix (Decety, 2012; Oxley, 2011). Rather than simply attending to your own. The personal ing able to manage one’s own emotional distress etc. than become bogged down in definitional disputes, consequences of a failure to empathize with others – see Barnett & Mann, 2012) are necessary and/or we agree with Oxley (2011) that a core component include social isolation, confusion, and possibly the sufficient for desistance from sexual offending. The of any definition of empathy is the requirement infliction of formal or informal sanctions by the that a person experiences an appropriate emotion trouble is, we lack the evidence to support these as- community. in response to another individual’s emotional state. sumptions as well as an account of where empathy Given the apparent foundational role of empathy in More specifically, Oxley (2011, p.32) formulates a figures in the rehabilitation process. the establishment and maintenance of social rela- generic working definition of empathy as follows: In this paper we examine Philip Kitcher’s (2010, tionships and community cooperation, it is not sur- Feeling a congruent emotion with another per- prising that developers of programs for sex offend- 2011) concept of psychological altruism and altru- son, in virtue of perceiving her emotion with some ers have included empathy interventions in their ism failure, and consider its conceptual relationship mental process such as imitation, simulation, pro- list of essential treatment components (e.g., Laws & to empathy and morality. We then apply Kitcher’s jection, or imagination. (italics in the original) multidimensional concept of altruism to the field Ward, 2011; Marshall, W. L., Marshall, L. E., Serran, According to this definition, there are a number of of sex offender rehabilitation and argue that it can & Fernandez, 2006; Pithers, 1999). Sexual offenses possible psychological mechanisms capable of gen- clearly involve the overriding of another person’s provide a useful ethical resource through which to erating an emotional (empathic) response to, for best interests by an offender, and hence display, at approach the various tasks of practice. Important- example, a person experiencing sadness. The mech- least on the face of it, empathy deficits. However, ly, the concept of altruism and its five dimensions anism could be simple emotional contagion (I feel despite the face validity of including victim empa- shifts the focus away from the concept of empathy, sad when the other person does, without necessary thy interventions in the treatment of sex offenders which is plagued with definitional vagueness and being aware of the link), imitation (I copy some- there is surprisingly little evidence that sex offend- is somewhat normatively detached (see below), one’s emotional behaviors and as a result experience ers have enduring empathy deficits, or, more worry- to the theoretically richer and pragmatically more a similar emotion), or imagination (e.g., I place my- ingly, that empathy interventions result in reduced versatile concepts of psychological and behavioral self in someone’s situation and anticipate how he or reoffending. According to Mann and Barnett (2013) altruism. she would be feeling). Forms of empathy that rely

on sophisticated cognitive abilities such as self- and The Concept of Empathy in the justified definition and causal analysis of empathy - other- focused perspective taking are necessary Sexual Offending Field Barnett and Mann have extended the concept be- for morality and complex social functioning. But how is empathy conceptualized within the yond its domain of meaning and transformed it into something approximating altruism. This is an Empathy is an important motivator for prosocial field of sexual offending? In three valuable recent excellent idea, but it may be helpful to be clearer and moral functioning and therefore it makes sense papers on empathy and sexual offending theory, assessment, and treatment Barnett and Mann (2012, and more explicit when doing this. It may be less for treatment programs to devote some of their 2013; Mann & Barnett, 2013) examined concep- confusing to use another term and allow empathy therapeutic resources to the cultivation of empa- tions of empathy in treatment programs, discuss- to retain its narrower meaning as an appropriate thy in sex offenders. However, empirical research ing foundational work by theorists such Marshall, emotional response to another person’s emotional and theoretical analyses suggest that the presence Hudson, Jones, and Fernandez (1995), Hanson, state (see above- Oxley, 2011). of empathy on its own does not reliably result in (2003), and Polaschek (2003). Following a critical In our view, what matters from a treatment per- moral and prosocial behavior (Barnett & Mann, analysis of competing definitions of empathy, Bar- spective is that offendersact towards others in an 2012; Batson, 2011; Oxley, 2011). In brief, people nett and Mann (2013a) define it as: altruistic manner, rather than that they feel em- are more likely to act empathically towards indi- A cognitive and emotional understanding of an- pathic. Additionally, the trouble with the concept viduals who are similar to them and fail to do to other person’s experience, resulting in an emotion- of an empathy response as used in the correctional when others are different on relevant dimensions, al response for the observer which is congruent field is that empathy tends to be viewed as either such as class or culture. Second, people tend to over with a view that others are worthy of compassion present or absent within an individual and there privilege current circumstances when considering and respect and have intrinsic worth (p.23). is a failure to make room for the important role the interests of others and discount longer term of context and moral norms. First, human beings They state that offenders display victim empathy factors. Third, empathy helps tomotivate individ- are not simply empathic (or altruistic) or not; they when they are able “to accurately identify and tend to exhibit a more fine grained picture varying uals to take into account others’ interests but is not understand, free from their own biases” what the a form of ethical or value based deliberation in it- along a number of dimensions (see Kitcher, 2011). person they abused was likely to have experienced Second, as we will argue below, the concept of psy- self. In other words, it is normatively detached and during the sexual assault (2013a, p.23). After point- chological and behavioral altruism is underpinned if it is to lead to prosocial outcomes it needs to be ing out a tendency to conflate empathy definitions by normative concerns and, by virtue of its multi- explicitly linked to justified ethical norms. Fourth, with models of the empathic process, and to con- dimensional nature, is responsive to issues of con- people can act in prosocial ways because of their fuse general empathy with victim empathy, Barnett text and scope not easily handled by the concept personal commitment to certain ethical norms or and Mann (2012) hypothesize that five sets of pro- of empathy. due to the anticipated negative consequences of not cesses converge to create an empathic response: (a) In our view, researchers and practitioners should doing so, rather than because they are empathic. the ability to accurately infer what another person be concentrating on incidents of altruism failure In other words, the occurrence of empathy is not is experiencing - perspective taking; (b) the abil- rather than empathy failure. The concept of altru- necessary (i.e., other interested actions can occur ity to experience an appropriate emotion when ism (psychological and behavioral), as developed without the presence of empathy) or sufficient (i.e., confronted with another person’s distress or pain; (c) the belief that other persons, aside from the by theorists such as Kitcher, is richer and provides the presence of empathy may not result in other in- offender, ought to be respected and treated with a more useful way of linking ethical norms and terested actions, could reflect bias, etc.) for actions compassion; (d) the absence of contextual variables concern for others to the kinds of psychological that place other people’s interests above those of the or competing motivational states that may over- and social interventions employed in treatment person concerned. ride the empathic processes and motivations, and programs for sex offenders. The fact that its stress Relatedly, there are empirical and theoretical (e) the capacity to modulate any resulting personal is on action is also an advantage; it is what people do, or fail to do, when committing offenses that is grounds for arguing that people could commit distress experienced by the individual concerned so of interest to practitioners. harmful acts against others in the presence of an that his or her empathic responses (likely to be gen- empathic response. First, the fact that studies have erated by the first three processes) are not blocked We argue that all of the treatment modules typi- indicated that some sex offenders do not display or avoided. Each of the five types of processes nec- cally implemented with sex offenders play a role in empathy deficits does raise the possibility that their essary for an empathic response is associated with addressing the major classes of problems evident its own, specific category of empathy deficits. For offending may occur in the presence of an empathy in altruism failure (which includes empathy failure example, some sex offenders are hypothesized to as currently construed). In our view, the multidi- response. Second, clinical data suggest that sex of- lack theory of mind capacities, making it extremely mensional, rich account of psychological altruism fenders exhibiting a high degree of emotional con- difficult for them to accurately infer other persons’ created by Philip Kitcher (2010, 2011) has the con- gruence towards children and related deviant sex- emotional and cognitive states. ceptual resources to incorporate the contributions ual preferences view themselves as empathic and and interventions brought into treatment by the caring individuals who have sex within the context It is notable that the definition of empathy offered by Barnett and Mann (2012) and the model of the concept of empathy, while avoiding its weaknesses. of a relationship (Navathe, Ward & Rose, 2013). empathy process that is hypothesized to cause em- They may be accurately identifying a (vulnerable A Multidimensional Concept pathic states do not align that well with Oxley’s and previously abused) child’s emotional states and of Psychological Altruism definition. There are references to moral status, current needs and responding with a similar emo- cognitive distortions, contextual factors, emotional In the exposition of his ethical theory Philip Kitch- tion. Their failure is not so much a failure of em- control, and so on in their definition and support- er (2010, 2011) distinguishes between biological, pathy as a moral failure: such individuals have not ing discussion. These variables are all associated behavioral, and psychological altruism. Biological aligned their actions with consensus norms that are with sexual offending and many are predictors of altruism occurs when a biological entity promotes intended to protect children from having sex with reoffending. In addition, all have immense clinical the reproductive success of another entity at the ex- adults on the grounds of their vulnerability to ex- utility. It seems to us, in their understandable desire pense of itself. Essentially, psychological altruism is ploitation and lack of fully fledged agency. to provide a theoretically coherent and empirically concerned with the intentions of an agent and is ev- 68 WARD & DURRANT

ident when an individual adjusts his/her actions to gree to which a person realigns his/her own desires Relationship Between Empathy and take into account the interests and desires of other or interests to accommodate those of another. The Psychological Altruism people. Behavioral altruists act to further their own, range of someone’s profile refers to the list of people It seems to us that the multidimensional concept self-serving interests while seeming to intentional- whose desires or interests (could involve all human of psychological altruism has several advantages ly act in ways that promote others’ interests. While beings or be restricted to family and friends) he/ over the concept of empathy within the correc- this form of altruism does not cohere well with our she normally takes into account when acting. The tional domain. First, conceptualizing altruism in a intuitive understanding of the concept, it may be scope of an altruism profile denotes the internal and graduated way means that it is not simply a ques- the only realistic way that some individuals can ad- external contexts in which an individual is likely to tion of whether a person is responsive to another’s vance the interests of other people (e.g., individuals act altruistically. For example, a male might usually interests or is not. It is more likely that individuals diagnosed with psychopathy). Kitcher argues that take his partner’s desires into account in their rela- will possess their own altruism profile consisting of ethical norms are especially important in prevent- tionship unless he was feeling angry or depressed. the weightings on each of the five dimensions de- ing altruism failure by prompting people to behave An individual’s discernment refers to his/her abili- scribed earlier. altruistically even if they are not inclined to do so. ty to identify the consequences of his/her actions Ideally, we would all be committed and competent for relevant others. Finally, someone’s empathetic Second, empathetic responses and their constitu- psychological altruists, but given the complexities skills speak to the ability to accurately infer another ents have a role to play in psychological altruism. of modern living, and taking into account our psy- person’s desires, or, more broadly, relevant men- For one thing, empathic emotions such as compas- chological nature, this is unrealistic. In this paper tal or physical states. This is similar to the notion sion or sadness may accompany a person’s desire to our focus is solely on psychological and behavioral of perspective taking and theory of mind ability. take another’s interests into account in certain con- altruism. Kitcher comments that typically individuals’ al- texts. Furthermore, the perspective-taking compo- truistic profiles consist of an inner circle of valued nent of empathy, as construed in the sex offending We would now like to look at the concept of psy- people whose interests they almost always take into literature, is evident in the empathetic skills and chological altruism more closely. Kitcher (2010) account when acting in ways that are likely to in- discernment dimensions of psychological altru- states that: fluence them. However, it is likely that the interests ism. The more complex empathy models, such as To be an altruist is to have a particular kind of of persons on the periphery or beyond this circle the one formulated by Barnett and Mann (2012), relational structure in your psychological life – would be overlooked or downplayed. also map onto the multidimensional concept of when you come to see that what you do will affect psychological altruism or, more accurately, the Kitcher presents an analysis of psychological altru- other people, the wants you have, the emotions theoretical framework we derived from Kitcher’s ism as a multidimensional concept and the point you feel, the intentions you form change from analysis. It seems clear that the emotion and per- of describing the five dimensions is to encourage what they would have been in the absence of that spective taking components of Barnett and Mann’s recognition. Because you see the consequences for researchers to think of the type of psychological theory map nicely onto Kitcher’s dimensions of others of what you envisage doing, the psychologi- altruism individuals display, or alternatively to elu- empathetic accuracy and discernment. Similarly, cal attitudes you adopt are different. (p.122) cidate the nature of altruism failures. Taking a step the claim that emotions can accompany the per- back it is possible to transform the concept of psy- In offering an analysis of psychological altruism ception of another’s distress incorporates empathic chological altruism into a theoretical framework Kitcher (2010, p.123) distinguishes between the de- emotions. The assertion that empathic responses that is capable of guiding theorists and empirical sires (or other relevant mental states) an altruistic are mediated partly by compassion and respect for researchers in the formulation of explanations of person is likely to have when his/her actions only target persons seems to be directly related to issues altruism (and empathy) failures. From the perspec- have consequences for him or herself, and those of range. That is, individuals who are accorded a tive of this framework, individuals act in ways that when his/her actions will have an observable im- certain moral status should also merit our respect disregard the interests of others (altruism failure) pact on other persons. In this kind of situation (we and compassion when experiencing hardship. The in situations where other people’s desires and in- have paraphrased Kitcher here) he stipulates that: requirement that contextual variables and com- terests should have high priority, when: (1) they do (a) the desires an agent acts on will be more closely peting motivations do not override an empathic not sufficiently modulate their own desires (etc.) to aligned with those he/she attributes to another per- response appears to be a straightforward example adequately respond to the situation at hand (inten- son than it would be if he acted in a solitary con- of Kitcher’s notion of context. Finally, Barnett and sity); (2) they unreasonably exclude certain classes text; (b) the desire that leads an agent to act follows Mann’s assumption that individuals’ levels of per- of people or specific individuals from the list of from his/her perception of the other person’s de- sonal distress be suitably modulated in order for an those towards whom they ought to behave altruis- sires; and (c) the desire that caused the agent to act empathic response to occur is also an example of tically and therefore would not sexually abuse them in this context was not intended to further his/her the importance of context from an altruism view- (range); (3) they fail to behave altruistically in cer- own interests. Rather, he gives priority to the de- point. One element of Kitcher’s concept of psycho- tain contexts because of the influence of cognitive, sires of the other persons and relegates his/her own logical altruism that is not mentioned by Barnett emotional, physiological, social, or environmental desires to the background. Kitcher makes it clear and Mann is that of intensity, or the matching of factors (scope); (4) they are incapable of, or fail in that there are likely to be other mental states such the degree of an altruistic response to the demands certain contexts to exhibit their capacities to dis- as emotions that accompany the altruistic person’s of a situation. cern the consequences of their actions for the in- desires when he/she acts altruistically; for example, dividuals they sexually abuse (discernment); and Third, problematic aspects of the concept of empa- compassion or sadness. (5) they lack the capacity to accurately detect the thy as formulated by theorists and some puzzling Once he has defined psychological altruism, Kitch- mental states of people they abuse or, if they pos- research findings can potentially be accommodat- er states that because altruism is a multidimen- ses this capacity, they fail to exercise it in certain ed by the employment of the concept of psycholog- sional concept it makes little sense to assert that a contexts (empathetic skill). Of course, these claims ical altruism. For example, the finding that some person is either altruistic or not. More specifically, are abstract and overly general but they function as sex offenders appear to lack empathy only for their Kitcher contends that an individual’s altruism pro- useful indicators of the social, psychological, and victims rather than for all children or adult females file can be established by using five dimensions. The physical variables researchers ought to concentrate (for example), may reflect a narrowness of range or intensity of an altruistic response involves the de- their efforts on. problem with scope. That is, in certain contexts an ALTRUISM AND EMPATHY 69

individual’s normal altruism inclinations are over- states is not required for altruistic actions, either formwork sketched above is able to accommodate ridden. In addition, some sex offenders may lack of a psychological or behavioral form. In addition, these variables with relative ease. the ability to accurately discern a victim’s men- because a primary aim of offender treatment is to tal states and thus suffer from skill deficits, while reduce the chances of altruistic failures occurring, Psychological Altruism and another offender may have the relevant skills but all of the specific treatment modules delivered to Treatment of Sex Offenders fails to utilize them when angry, or when sexually offenders are underpinned by norms that specifi- Aims of Rehabilitation aroused (a scope or context failure). Thus an eti- cally link each to this overarching goal. For exam- ological implication of the psychological altruism ple, in treatment sex offenders learn how to estab- The aims of treatment from the framework of psy- perspective is that, while sexual offenses can occur lish adaptive social relationships, and by doing so, chological altruism is to make it less probable that in the absence of empathy deficits, every act of sex- are less likely to use sex with children as a means an offender will experience altruism failure and ual aggression displays a lack of psychological al- of securing intimacy. The specific instructions or therefore fail to take the desires and interests of rel- truism. By way of contrast, the altruism framework norms outlining how treatment ought to proceed evant individuals into account in the course of their also predicts that individuals may inhibit sexually are undergirded by a general norm: it is good to daily lives. Failure to do so could adversely impact aggressive actions and act altruistically without establish sexually intimate relationships with adults on them and other members of the community in demonstrating the cognitive and affective elements (and wrong to do so with children). There are both two ways. First, once in a high-risk situation, dis- of an empathic response. This could be because prudential and moral aspects to this norm. On the regarding the desires and interests of a potential they do not want to let their friends down, because one hand, adults are more likely to be able to meet victim makes it easier for an individual to commit they are committed to specific moral norms, or be- offenders’ needs for companionship and love, and an offense. Second, consistently acting in ways that cause they calculate that it is in their best interests on the other, sex with children is harmful to them ignore the preferences and interests of other people to do so. In our experience, offenders often give and therefore wrong. Because the overall goal of is likely to impair the reintegration process because these types of reasons for inhibiting sexually devi- treatment is to reduce altruism failures-which of- of the corrosive effects on offenders’ vocational, ant or aggressive desires and impulses. fending surely represents- and also to increase the social, and intimate relationships (Ward & Laws, 2010). A downstream effect of any subsequent so- Fourth, the multidimensional concept of psycho- chances of offenders experiencing second level al- cial rejection may well be further offending. Min- logical altruism offers practitioners an overarch- truism, the concept of psychological altruism pro- imizing the likelihood of altruism failures occur- ing ethical/psychological framework with which vides a comprehensive psychological and ethical ring by strengthening the social, psychological, and to approach treatment with sex offenders. As we guide for practitioners. situational constituents of psychological altruism shall demonstrate below, locating problems in the In conclusion, while empathic responses are useful through correctional interventions should also intensity, range, scope, discernment and empathet- treatment targets because they can motivate altruis- make it easier for offenders to live more fulfilling ic skills components of psychological altruism can tic actions (e.g., inhibit aggressive behavior), people and meaningful lives. help to highlight key areas of clinical concern and can behave altruistically without feeling empathet- focus intervention efforts more tightly. The fact ic emotions or inclinations. This may be because Etiological Considerations that the presence of psychological altruism directly they are committed to certain norms, they do not The Risk-Need-Responsivity model (RNR) of of- reflects the recognition of others’ needs, and also want to let down a mentor, or for a number of oth- fender rehabilitation states that effective correction- supports the legitimacy of adjusting one’s own ac- er reasons. There may in fact be multiple pathways al interventions should follow the principles of risk, tions in the light of others’ relevant mental states, to acting altruistically. An advantage of orientating need, and responsivity. While a number of concep- points to its moral relevance. interventions with offenders around the concept of tual and practice problems have been identified in Fifth, the concepts of psychological and behavioral altruism is that it broadens the range of therapeutic this model (Ward & Maruna, 2007), most research- altruism have certain advantages over that of em- targets and can explain (a) why empathic responses ers and practitioners working with offenders agree pathy when it comes to appreciating the normative such as sympathy can facilitate prosocial behavior, that ethical and effective practice should be guided laden nature of offender treatment and rehabilita- and also (b) why a person might act in ways that by the RNR principles (Yates, Prescott & Ward, tion. An empathic response may motivate individ- are clearly other serving while not experiencing 2010; Ward & Stewart, 2003). One core require- uals to act in an ethical manner because of their empathy related emotions such as sympathy. This ment of RNR practice is that clinicians concentrate awareness of others’ mental states and the fact that is not to downgrade the importance of empathy in their therapeutic efforts on managing or eliminat- empathy related emotions (or affective states) such promoting prosocial behavior, merely to locate it ing dynamic risk factors. These psychological and as compassion, guilt, shame, remorse, and concern in its appropriate place in the context of offender environmental variables are thought to causally are action directing. However, if for some reason rehabilitation. An additional issue is that an indi- contribute to the onset of criminal events and their a person fails to experience empathy in the face of vidual may fail to act altruistically because of the successful reduction typically results in lowered re- a potential victim’s suffering or confusion, it can influence of external contextual factors and not offending rates (Andrews & Bonta, 2010). The the- play no role in accounting for his/her inhibition of because he or she lacks the capacity to feel for oth- oretical framework we derived from Kitcher’s mul- sexually deviant desires or inclinations. However, ers or to accurately infer their mental states. Thus tidimensional concept of psychological altruism the concept of psychological and behavioral altru- it is not sufficient for therapists to assist offenders can easily accommodate the RNR principles in the ism can do so. A person may be strongly inclined to cultivate appropriate psychological predispo- following way. Criminogenic needs such as offense not to sexually offend against someone, even in the sitions such as sympathy, perspective taking, or supportive beliefs and attitudes, intimacy deficits, face of conflicting motivations, because he is com- compassion; it is not simply a question of character emotional regulation problems, substance abuse, mitted to acting in accordance with norms that are or personality development. Sometimes contextual and impulsivity represent causal variables that are directed towards the desires and needs of the po- or environmental factors will override someone’s likely to impair the ability of offenders to act in a tential victim. The investment in certain norms, in normally empathic nature; social isolation or ex- psychologically altruistic way. For example, offense conjunction with the other requirements for acting treme stress, for example. What are required in supportive beliefs, or what have been termed cog- in a psychologically altruistic manner, can promote these instances are social interventions that seek to nitive distortions, typically cast potential victims in actions despite the lack of empathic emotions. In alleviate problems such as poverty, lack of support, ways that permit the offender not to consider them other words the experience of empathic affective or environmental threats. In our view, the altruism as having the same moral status as them, or else as 70 WARD & DURRANT

possessing desires and preferences that make sexu- some way? For example, does he find it hard to take The foci of this model are individual offense sup- al abuse acceptable. This is a problem relating to the account of someone else’s interests when feeling portive beliefs and attitudes and acceptance of re- range dimension. Two good examples of this type angry, sexually aroused, or lonely? What about ex- sponsibility for his/her abusive actions. It is normal of cognitive distortion are the belief that women ternal contexts? Does X struggle to control his sex- to see the emergence of an awareness of their cog- are untrustworthy or dangerous, and that children ually deviant desires and preferences when alone nitive and emotional barriers to accepting victims are sexual agents (Gannon & Polaschek, 2006). The with a child or woman? What about if he is in the as moral equals; beings who merit equal consid- former depicts women as belonging to a class of company of certain groups of friends? Or when he eration of their desires, needs, and interests when beings whose desires and interests are not that rel- is socially isolated? contemplating sex. Furthermore, clinicians may evant when engaging in sex and the latter portrays obtain insight into offenders’ knowledge of sex Discernment. children as competent sexual beings who are capa- Does X lack an adequate understand- and interpersonal relationships, and their level of ble of making decisions about sex for themselves. ing of the psychological and developmental needs empathetic skill. Finally, it should be possible to We suggest that all of the dimensions of intensity, of children? Are his problem solving and inductive ascertain how emotionally competent individuals range, scope, discernment, and empathetic skill reasoning skills of poor quality making it difficult are and what relationships exist between emotional can be linked to causal factors resulting in a sexual for him to think through the consequences of act- states and offending (contextual dimension). offense, directly or indirectly (see below). ing in sexually abusive, or offense reacted ways? Empathy Training Empathetic skills. Assessment Does X struggle to accurately identify other people’s mental states during an interac- The major aim of the empathy module is to en- The aim of the assessment phase of sex offend- tion? Is he able to adjust his actions in light of his courage offenders to reflect on the impact of sex- er treatment is to systematically collect clinically reading of others’ mental states? ual abuse on victims and their families. This is relevant information about individuals’ offending, achieved through the use of victim biographies, functional life domains, personal characteristics, Intensity. Does X possess the general practical rea- role plays of the index offense, and the assimilation and developmental and social history. Once a sex soning and self-management skills in order to of information about sexual abuse and its conse- offender’s problems have been identified a case for- frame other people’s situations in ways that accu- quences for victims. Offenders often describe this mulation (or mini clinical theory) is constructed rately describes what is going on for them? Hav- as an emotionally devastating experience and re- in which the nature of the problems, their onset, ing done this, can he realign his own desires (and port that it helped them to grasp the self-serving development, and interrelationships are described. other relevant mental states) and actions in order nature of their behavior and the callous disregard Following the development of a case formulation, to respond in an appropriate manner? We view in- for the well-being of vulnerable children and un- clinicians construct an intervention plan in which tensity as a more global capacity that builds on the consenting adults. the various treatment goals, their sequencing, skills, etc. aligned to the other altruism dimensions. Victim perspective taking and appropriate emo- and strategies for achieving them are noted. The It is anticipated that the answers to the above tional responding are therapeutic targets of this components of sex offender treatment in a com- questions will enable practitioners to pinpoint the module, and are classical components of an empa- prehensive treatment program for sex offenders reasons why a sex offender acted in ways contrary thy response. In the language of psychological al- typically include the following types of interven- to the desires and interests of his/her victim. This truism, an expectation is that empathetic accuracy tions: cognitive restructuring/offense reflection, information can then be recruited in the construc- is improved, discernment skills are sharpened, and sexual reconditioning, sexual education, social tion of the case formulation and subsequent inter- contextual features of high risk situations that in- skill training, problem solving, (empathy) perspec- vention plan. crease the likelihood of sexual crime occurring are tive taking/constructing victim biographies/victim discovered. impact work, intimacy work, acquiring emotional Practice Social skills and Intimacy Interventions regulation skills, lifestyle/leisure planning and ex- In discussing the practice implications of the the- perience, vocational training, and reentry or ad- oretical framework derived from Kitcher’s concept The social skills/intimacy module seeks to equip justment planning including relapse prevention of psychological altruism, we will describe briefly a offenders with the internal and external capabilities (Marshall et al., 2006; Laws & Ward, 2011). number of typical sex offender treatment modules to adaptively navigate their way though the social When formulating a case the theoretical frame- and trace their potential for strengthening altruis- world and to learn how to establish and maintain work we derived from Kitcher’s altruism dimen- tic actions. The description of the modules’ content intimate relationships. Research has indicated that sions can be use to direct and concentrate clinical is based on our clinical experiences and the work some offenders commit sexual offenses because attention to certain kinds of problems. Drawing by Marshall et al. (2006) and Ward et al. (2007). of their feelings of loneliness and social isolation from the assessment data (comprising interview (Ward, Mann, & Gannon, 2007). In addition, there information, psychological measures, archive data, Understanding One’s Offense/ is emphasis on dealing with social conflicts and Cognitive Restructuring behavioral observations etc.) practitioners can ask learning how to communicate feelings in a range the following questions, each covering one of the The aim of this treatment module is for offenders to of interpersonal contexts, from work to disagree- five dimensions of altruism. acquire an understanding of their offense process ments in close relationships. Frequently, the impact and the psychological and contextual triggers and of offenders’ early interpersonal relationships are Range. Are there any individuals or classes of people precursors to their offending. With gentle prompt- explored and the resulting influence on their in- explicitly excluded from X’s list of altruism targets? ing and feedback from the group, often individuals ternal working models of attachment figures and Does he hold certain beliefs or attitudes that effec- start to question their interpretations of their vic- romantic partners are clearly identified. tively disenfranchise persons from a consideration tim’s actions and their own justifications for what The human world is pretty much a social world, of their interests, for example children or young they did. Ideally, offenders will exit this phase of and there is no practically possible way to escape adult women? Does he lack the skills to communi- treatment with a sense of accountability for their or avoid the demands and impact of interpersonal cate openly and honestly with adults? actions, awareness of the problematic nature of relationships. Offending is an interpersonal event Scope. Are there any internal contexts in which some of their beliefs and attitudes, and a grasp of and involves an interaction between at least two X’s ability to act altruistically are compromised in their own suite of risk factors for further offending. people. The offender and the person he or she ALTRUISM AND EMPATHY 71

sexually assaults. Internal working models of rela- about the consequences of their actions (discern- Gannon, T. A., & Polaschek Polaschek, D. L. L. (2006). Cognitive dis- tionships that are characterized by distrust or per- ment dimension) although it does have implica- tortions in child molesters: A re-examination of key theories and ceptions of vulnerability may impair offenders’ per- tions for the other dimensions as well. For example, research. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 1000-1019. ceptions of children and adults, and result in sexual when faced with an interpersonal problem or ex- Hanson, K. R. (2003). Empathy deficits of sexual offenders: A concep- crimes. Problematic beliefs of these types, and the periencing a negative emotion such as intense fear, tual model. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 9, 13–23. strategies that accompany them, make it difficult the offender would ideally sit back and ask himself Kitcher, P. (2010). Varieties of altruism. Economics and Philosophy, 26, for offenders to function in a psychologically altru- what is going on. Creating cognitive space between 121-148. istic way. There is frequently a problem of range, feeling and acting should open up further oppor- Kitcher, P. (2011). The ethical project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- where the needs and interests of certain people are tunities to explore his difficulties and to consider versity Press. dismissed as irrelevant, or else are misperceived in alternative ways of dealing with them. This could Laws, D. R., & Ward, T. (2011). Desistance and sexual offending: Al- ways that promote sexual offending (empathetic result in a shift of focus from his own needs to what ternatives to throwing away the keys. New York, NY: Guilford Press. skill). There may also be problems of context (e.g., the potential victim is experiencing, and ultimately, Maibom, H. L. (2012). The many faces of empathy and their relation experiencing altruism failure when feeling lonely) to a decision to realign his own desires to those of to prosocial action and aggression inhibition. WIREs Cog Sci, 3, that would benefit from therapeutic attention. the other person and not to engage in a sexual as- 253-263. Emotional Regulation sault. It is also to be expected that improved problem solving skills could impact in a positive man- Mann, R. E. & Barnett, G. D. (2013). Victim empathy intervention Emotional regulation modules tend to look closely ner on offenders’ cognitive distortions and thus with sexual offenders: Rehabilitation, punishment, or correctional at offenders’ competence on a number of emotional contribute to dealing with any possible altruism quackery? Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, tasks. These include being able to accurately iden- 25, 282-301. failures associated with the dimension of range. tify and label an emotion, in oneself and in others; Marshall, W. L., Hudson, S. M., Jones, R., & Fernandez, Y. M. (1995). once the emotions have been correctly identified, Conclusions Empathy in sex offenders. Clinical Psychology Review, 15, 99-113. knowing how to act in (adaptive) ways prompted Marshall, W. L., Marshall, L. E., Serran, G. A., & Fernandez, Y. M. by the emotion in question; and being able to man- In this paper we have explored the relevance of the (2006). Treating sexual offenders: An integrated approach. New age powerful emotional states so they do not over- concept of empathy for sex offender research and York, NY: Routledge. whelm the person concerned. practice. In doing so, it has become apparent that empathy may play an important role in motivat- Navathe, S., Ward, T., & Rose, C. (2013). The development of the sex- Powerful emotional states can disinhibit individ- ing individuals to act in morally acceptable ways, ual offender relationship frames model. Psychiatry, Psychology, & uals and create immense pressure on them to act and importantly, to cease offending. After exam- Law, 20, 60-72. non-altruistically. For example, if an offender is ining empathy and its conceptualization in the Oxley, J. C. (2011). The moral dimensions of empathy: Limits and experiencing strong feelings of anger, self-control sexual offending field more closely, we concluded applications in ethical theory and practice. London, UK: Palgrave could prove to be particularly challenging. Norms that the concept of psychological altruism and its Macmillan. directing him to attend to his potential sexual associated five dimensions could incorporate val- partner’s desires or preferences may be overlooked Pithers, W. D. (1999). Empathy: Definition, enhancement and -rele ued aspects of empathy, while avoiding some of and his own desires trump all other motivations; vance to the treatment of sexual abusers. Journal of Interpersonal the conceptual and practice related problems that Violence, 14, 257-284. he commits an offense. Alternatively, another sex offender could use sex as a soothing activity and attend it. After describing Kitcher’s concept of psy- Polaschek, D. L. L. (2003). Empathy and victim empathy. In T. Ward, when feeling vulnerable, anxious, or depressed chological altruism, and using it as the basis for an D. R. Laws, & S. M. Hudson (Eds.), Sexual deviance: Issues and seeks out a sexual partner. These kinds of problems altruism theoretical framework, we investigated its controversies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. are unfortunately relatively common and point to implications for practice. In our view, the capacity Ward, T., Gannon, T., & Mann, R. (2007). The Good Lives Model of of- issues with psychological altruism. Perhaps the of the psychological altruism concept to provide an fender rehabilitation: Clinical implications. Aggression and Violent most obvious issue relates to one of internal con- ethical and theoretical framework for viewing cor- Behavior, 12, 87-107. rectional practice is encouraging. It reminds prac- text, where failure to effectively modulate certain Ward, T., & Laws, D. R. (2010). Desistance from sex offending: Mo- titioners that work with sex offenders has a strong moods makes it hard for an offender to enter act in tivating change, enriching practice. The International Journal of normative, as well as a scientific or empirical, di- a psychologically altruistic manner; his own desires Forensic Mental Health, 9, 11-23. and needs take precedence in a context when the mension and that the concept of psychological Ward, T., & Maruna, S. (2007). Rehabilitation: Beyond the risk assess- reverse should be true. altruism is much better positioned to provide this ment paradigm. London, UK: Routledge. broader perspective than that of empathy. Problem Solving Ward, T., & Stewart, C. A. (2003). The treatment of sex offenders: Risk management and good lives. Professional Psychology: Research The final module we will consider is that of prob- References and Practice, 34(4), 353-360. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.34.4.353 lem solving. Basically, in this module offenders Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2010). The psychology of criminal conduct Yates, P., Prescott, D., & Ward, T. (2010). Applying the good lives mod- learn how to frame problems and work towards (5th ed.). New Providence, NJ: Matthew Bender & Company Inc. effective solutions. The aim is to increase their abil- el to sex offender treatment: A practical handbook for clinicians. Barnett, G. D., & Mann, R. E. (2012). Empathy deficits and sexual of- ity to step back from social and personal crises in Brandon, Vermont: Safer Society Press. fending: A model of obstacles to empathy. Aggression and Violent order to reflect on the nature of the difficulty, and Behavior, 18, 228-239. Author Contact Information by thinking in a flexible and pragmatic way arrive Barnett, G. D., & Mann, R. E. (2013). Cognition, empathy and sexual at a workable solution. Offenders learn the various Tony Ward, PhD, DipClin Psych phases of problem solving and how to seek relevant offending. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 14, 22-33. Victoria University of Wellington, information when deciding between a number of Batson, C. B. (2011). Altruism in humans. New York, NY: Oxford Uni- options to resolve their difficulties. versity Press. Wellington, PO Box 600 The acquisition of good problem solving skills is Decenty, J. (2012) (Ed.). Empathy: From bench to bedside. Cambridge, New Zealand. most likely to improve the way offenders think MA: The MIT Press. E-mail: [email protected]