Paper 12; Module 01; E Text (A) Personal Details

Role Name Affiliation Principal Investigator Prof. Tutun Hyderabad Mukherjee

Paper Coordinator Dr. Neeru Tandon CSJM University, Kanpur

Content Writer/Author Dr. Neeru Tandon CSJM University, Kanpur (CW)

Content Reviewer (CR) Dr Nivedita Tandon D G College, Kanpur

Language Editor (LE) Dr Neeta Nagaich D G College,KANPUR

(B) Description of Module

Item Description of module

Subject Name English

Paper name English Teaching

Module title ELT Methods and Approaches

Module ID MODULE 1

Key words

1.0 Learning outcome: This module deals with the methods and approaches of English Language Teaching. Multiple-choice exercises will help students in assessing their knowledge and understanding of the work. Bibliography, list of websites and You Tube videos will help them in their in-depth study and further reading. Critical quotes and quotes from the book will also help them in understanding various aspects of the module.

1.1 Language Teaching 1.2 Introducing Methods and Approaches of Language Teaching 1.3 Differentiating between Methods and Approaches 1.4 Structural Methods a. Grammar Translation method b. Audio-Lingual Method 1.5 Functional Methods a. Situational Language Teaching b. Directed Practice 1.6 Interactive Methods a. Direct Method b. The Series Method c. Communicative Language Teaching d. e. f. Community Language Learning g. h. i. Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling j. The Bilingual Method k. Task-based language learning 1.7 Proprietary Methods a. Pimsleur Method b. Michel Thomas Method 1.8:Language Teaching Approaches 1.9: Structuralism 1.10: 1.11 The Notional-Functional Approach 1.12 The 1.13 Structural-Oral-Situational approach

14 The Communicative Approach

1.15:Cognitive-code Approach

1.16 The

1.17 The Eclectic Approach (or Eclecticism)

1.18:Summing Up

1.1 Language Teaching During the early part of the twentieth century, the basis of existing language teaching was developed as applied linguists and principles and procedures for the design of sound teaching methods and materials were developed. In other words language teaching was categorized by numerous changes, revolution and language-teaching ideologies. Much of the incentive and momentum for change in approaches to language teaching came about from changes in teaching methods. ‘’The method concept in teaching – the notion of a systematic set of teaching practices based on a particular theory of language and language learning – is a powerful one, and the quest for better methods was a preoccupation of many teachers and applied linguists throughout the twentieth century. Language is used to teach the subject matter and the language itself is acquired “as a by-product of learning about real-world content” (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 205). The use of a as the medium of classroom instruction has been commonplace throughout history. There are many different forms of second language teaching and teachers now acknowledge the need to adopt an informed eclectic approach, incorporating elements from the range of methods available. Most language teaching today aims to achieve oral communication, and immersion programme aim to achieve competence in all four-language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In the history of language teaching approaches and methods, there was a move away from methods that focuses on writing and reading to methods that stronger concentrate on the skills speaking and listening. Even the actual questions concerning language teaching that are debated have already been discussed throughout the history of language teaching (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 1-3). 1.2 INTRODUCING METHODS AND APPROACHES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING There are numerous methods of teaching according to the need of time and situation. Some have become less popular and obscure; others are being extensively used. Many theories about the learning - teaching process of languages have been proposed which were usually influenced by improvements in the disciplines of and psychology.

1.3 DISTINGUISHING METHODS AND APPROACHES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

According to Richards and Rodgers (2007: 16) it is fundamental to distinguish between the notions of method and approach since these two terms might get confused by readers and do not refer to exactly the same thing. First of all, it is

important to distinguish between approach and method and to clarify their relationship (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 16). ‘’When an instructional design is quite explicit at the level of theory of language and learning, but can be applied in many different ways at the level of objectives, teacher and learner roles and activities, it is usually referred to as an approach.’’ The above definition can be understood as Communicative language teaching is often considered as an approach and instructors adopting an approach have substantial elasticity in how they apply the principles to their own contexts. ‘’When an instructional design includes a specific level of application in terms of objectives, teacher and learner roles and classroom activities, it is referred to as a method. ‘’ When describing methods it is important to distinguish between a philosophy of language teaching at the level of theory and principles and a package of derived procedures for language teaching (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 19). With a method objectives, roles for teacher and learners and guidelines for activities are predetermined. In using methods teachers have very less flexibility. The teacher’s role is to implement the method. Audiolingualism, Total Physical Response and Silent Way are examples of methods. It is noteworthy that until the 1990s methods have lasted and after that main emphasis was shifted to teachers and the process of teaching, rather than methods. ‘’The researchers suggested that while teachers may draw on principles and practices from approaches and methods they have studied or been trained in, once they enter the classrooms and develop experience in teaching, their practice is much more likely to reflect an interaction between training-based knowledge, knowledge and beliefs derived from the practical experience of teaching and their own teaching philosophy and principles.’’ In 1963 The American applied linguist Edward Anthony introduced three levels of conceptualization and association, which he labeled approach, method and technique. According to Anthony’s model, Approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are described. Method, on the other hand, is an overall concept for the presentation of teaching material, which is based on the underlying approach. Method is therefore the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about which skills should be taught, the content to be taught and the order of presentation of the content. At the level of techniques the actual classroom procedures are depicted. Techniques must also be consistent with a method and by implication with the respective approach (Anthony 1963: 63-67 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007: 19).

For example ‘The Reform Movement’ was an approach to language teaching and the ‘Direct Method’ a method that was originated from this approach. Anthony’s model may be used to distinguish between fundamental theoretical principles of language teaching and learning and the practices derived from them. Richards and Rodgers discussed Anthony’s terms method and approach under their term design. They have defined carefully objectives, syllabus and content and discussed the roles of teachers, learners and instructional material. In the nutshell [A] method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by a design, and is practically realized in a procedure (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 20).

METHODS: Methods can be categorized in four categories: Structural Methods, Functional Methods, Interactive and Proprietary method.

1.4 Structural Methods a. Grammar Translation method b. Audio-Lingual Method GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD The grammar-translation method was first known in the United States as Prussian Method. (Kelly: 1969) During the 18th, 19th and early 20th century, grammar- translation method was formulated based on the assumptions that language is primarily explicit and that the main purpose of second language study is to build knowledge of the structure of the language either as a tool for literary research and translation or for the development of the learner’s analytical capacity. It was assumed that the process of second language learning must be deductive and it must be carried out with constant reference to the learner’s native language. A typical lesson consists of the presentation of a grammatical rule, a study of lists of vocabulary, and a translation exercise was used in this method. Because the Grammar Translation Method emphasizes reading rather than the ability to communicate in a language, there was a reaction to it in the 19th century and there was later a greater emphasis on the teaching of spoken language. Objectives of Grammar Translation Method  • To be able to read literature written in the target language  • To be able to translate from one language to another  • To develop reading and writing skill.

B. AUDIO-LINGUAL LANGUAGE TEACHING METHOD Audio-lingual language teaching method ,mainly developed in America, is based on structural linguistics (structuralism) and behavioristic psychology (Skinner’s behaviorism), and places great emphasis on spoken rather than written language, and on the grammar of particular languages, stressing habit formation as a mode of learning. Language was introduced through dialogues which contained common structures useful in everyday communication. This method tried to demonstrate the fact that a language teaching method can be based on rigorous scientific disciplines like linguistics and psychology. Main features of audio-lingual method are as follows:  In the audio-lingual method each skill of LSRW was treated separately.  Pattern drilling was an essential part of the teaching technique.  This method focused mainly on the skills of listening and speaking.  The other two skills of writing and reading were not neglected but the thrust was more on LS skills.  Language laboratory was introduced as an important teaching aid.  Dialogues, rote memorization, role playing etc. were the predominant activities.

The audio-lingual method like the direct method tried avoid the use of bilingual method that is use of mother tongue. Audiolingual approaches do not depend so much on the instructor’s creative ability and do not require excellent proficiency in the language, being always railed to sets of lessons and books.

 The audio-lingual method was widely used in the United States and other countries in the 1950s and 1960s.  Also known as Oral Method/The Army Method/ The New Method  The Audio-Lingual Method is similar to the direct method:  They both are oral-based approaches – pronunciation and ability of speaking in the target language is superior to other skills  Grammar is learnt inductively  Different from the direct method: Ø Not only vocabulary but also grammatical sentence patterns Ø Stronger theoretical base in linguistics (structural linguistics) and psychology (behavioural psychology)

1.5 Functional Methods A. Situational Language Teaching Method Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is presented in written form. The target language is the language of the classroom. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established. B. Directed Practice "Deliberate practice (DP) occurs when an individual intentionally repeats an activity in order to improve performance. The claim of the DP framework is that such behavior is necessary to achieve high levels of expert performance." (Campitelli & Gobet, 2011, p. 280).

"Deliberate practice consists of activities purposely designed to improve performance." (Gobet & Campitelli, 2007, p. 160).

Directed practice is that part of learning that occurs immediately after instruction. During instruction, the learner is grasping the concept of operation and adding it to their repertoire. Instruction basically ends when the learner can demonstrate the operation or concept for the first time. Such a demonstration however does not provide us with confidence that the student could repeat the performance. In order to consolidate the new learning, practice begins.

There are two different types of practice, directed and independent. Directed practice takes place under the watchful eye of the teacher, classroom aide, tutor, parent or therapist. The purpose of directed practice is to ensure that the student is not learning to make errors as they apply the concept or operation to examples not included in the teaching set.

Directed practice is devoted to developing accuracy by systematically reducing errors. Directed practice is a lot like coaching where more information is provided as needed until the student demonstrates that they can display the skill consistently.

1.6 Interactive Methods

A. THE DIRECT METHOD Direct Method of Language Teaching is “Teach the Language Not About the Language” “No Translation” and ‘No Use of Native Language.’ Direct Method is also known as Natural Method, Phonetical Method and Anti-Grammatical Reform Method. Direct Method is named “direct” because meaning should be connected directly with the target language without translation into the native language. It believed that Language could be learnt only through demonstration. Instead of explaining grammar rules, students must be stimulated to use language logically and freely so that they bring grammar. Critics claimed that a language could be best taught by using it actively in the classroom. Rather than using methodical techniques to explain grammar rules teachers should reassure direct and unstructured use of the target language. Initially the teacher was more important than the text; began with methodical attention to speaking and pronunciation. One of its positive points is that it promises to teach the language and Not about the language. It is a natural method, which teaches language in the same way the mother tongue is acquired. Only the target language is used and the learning is contextualized. Its emphasis on speech made it more attractive for those who have needs of real communication in the target language. It is one of the first methods to introduce the teaching of vocabulary.

Basic Principles of Direct Method 1. Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language. The teacher should demonstrate, not explain or translate. 2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Through known words, demonstration, authentic objects (realia), pictures. 3. Grammar is taught inductively. There may never be an explicit grammar rule given. 4. Do not give rules: make them figure out the rule. 5. New teaching points are introduced orally. 6. Both speech and listening comprehension are taught. 7. The teacher, by asking the student to make a choice, gets him to correct his own error. 8. Learning by self- correction 9. The syllabus is based on situations or topics

10. Contextual/topical teaching 11. Correct pronunciation is emphasized 12. Students should learn to think in the target language as soon as possible 13. The purpose of language learning is communication; therefore students need to learn how to ask questions as well as answer them. 14. The teacher asks questions of any nature and the students answer 15. Dictation: The teacher chooses a grade appropriate passage and reads the text aloud. Teacher reads the passage three times. One of its major shortcomings is what R. Brown (1994:56) points out, the Direct Method “did not take well in public schools where the constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher background (native speakers or native like fluency) made such a method difficult to use.” It then flagged the way to the Audio-lingual Method. B. The Series Method

Gouin was a French Latin teacher who wrote about his difficulties in learning German based on grammars and dictionaries. Gouin succeeded in learning German when he banished the grammar and dictionary in favor of what we would now call discovery learning: he asked his consultants (German-speaking children) to teach him the series associated with different themes (The Plant, The Bird, etc.), and he dutifully wrote these down and memorized them. The approach he advocated was to have "themes". The key points are :  It’s more important to learn sentences to speak than words,  That verbs are the key elements in sentences,  And that sentences are more easily learned when they form a narrative. Gouin's frustration with traditional grammars and dictionaries is similar to the frustration found in endangered language communities when they see the work that linguists have done. Linguists who document a language usually produce a reference grammar (a description of how sentences and words are formed), a dictionary (a list of all the words), and a text collection (stories, conversations, and other samples of language). These are of little use for people who want to learn how to ask their grandmother to tell a story or to lead a ceremony.

C. Communicative Language Teaching Method The focus of this method is to enable the learner to communicate effectively and appropriately. The only difference between the Natural Approach and the Communicative Method is that in the Communicative classroom, students are expected to avoid using their native language.

The Communicative Method does not teach about language; rather, it teaches language. It is often associated with the Functional-Notional Approach; that is, the emphasis is on functions such as time, location, travel, and measurements. In short, it

seeks to recreate real-life social and functional situations in the classroom to guide students toward communicative competence. The linguistic accuracy that was deemed so essential in grammar-translation, the Direct Method, and other approaches is a mere triviality in the Communicative classroom. Ideally, grammar is not taught at all. Teachers no more disturb or harass their students by demanding to recognize nouns, verbs, or direct objects; instead, they guide them to second-language proficiency by employing “the three Ps”— Presentation, Practice, and Production. Teachers present the target language via everyday situations; they give students time to practice the language via structured situational dialogues; and, finally, they step aside for students’ production of the language—the phase in which they are able to function independently in the target language.

D.Language Immersion Language immersion, or simply immersion, is a method of teaching a second language where classroom instructions are given through the learner’s second language only. The main tenacity of this method is to nurture bilingualism. To develop learners' ability to communicate properly or develop his language proficiency in their L2 in addition to their first or native language (L1) is the main motive of this method. Migrant students in the local schools have to adopt language in an immersion situation. Learning a second or third language not only helps an individual's personal mental skills, but also aids their future job skills. Thus learning a through Immersion has shown good results and has been established as an effective form of bilingual education.

E.THE SILENT WAY The Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching invented by a mathematician Caleb Gattengo. This theory proclaims that ‘teaching must be subordinate to learning.’ As it is implied, in the silent method learners do the talking and Teacher remains silent. Teacher is to say as less as possible so that the learner has the freedom to whatever he wants to say without using hid mother tongue. The silent way is also related to involvement of the learners as active agents.In the words of Benjamin Franklin: Tell me and I forget Teach me and I remember, Involve me and I learn. The silent method approves a structural syllabus with lessons planned around carefully selected vocabulary,grammar and plural forms of nouns. Teaching activities in this method are arranged with the aim to motivate the learner’s oral response without the teacher’s interference. Words and phrases are taught to learners and then their own reactions are prompted. F. Community Language Learning Charles Curan developed Community Language Learning in 1972. Stephen Krashen further developed this thinking during the 1980s in his examination of affective filters. Here students are the clients and teachers are the counselors.In terms of

second-language acquisition, certain affective factors—elements in the environment or in the student’s psyche—may cause a mental block that prevents input (target language) from reaching the language acquisition device” (Cook paragraph 5). The idea behind this method was to eradicate challenge or risk-taking from the emotionally delicate client, which theoretically would free him/her to learn a second language without really trying. The counselor would translate and gently facilitate all learning activity.

In Curren's method, teachers consider students as “whole persons,” with intellect, feelings, instincts, physical responses, and desire to learn. Learners become members of a community - their fellow learners and the teacher - and learn through interacting with the community. This method combines innovative learning tasks and activities with conventional ones. They include: Translation, Group work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis, Reflection and observation, Listening and Free conversation. The process begins with the counselor directing the clients what to do. The client speaks in her/his native language, which the counselor repeats in the target language. The client then repeats the phrase in the target language. The target-language portion of this “conversation” is recorded. The class listens to the recording. The counselor then writes the client’s portion of the conversation on the board and the most courageous fellow clients volunteer to translate the sentences into their native language. All the while, clients receive tender reassurance from the counselor.

G. SUGGESTOPAEDIA Suggestopaedia is a method developed by the Bulgarian psychiatrist-educator Georgi Lozanov. It is a specific set of learning recommendations and principles of ‘joy and easiness’. Suggestopaedia describes how attentiveness is manipulated to optimise learning and recall. Lozanov asserted that we do not use our mental capabilities to the fullest due to many psychological barriers. Thus the first thing learners are suggested to overcome fear of uncertainty. It is the pedagogic application of suggestion and helps learn identify the hidden reserves of talent and grey regions of the mind. In this method the learners  Listen to soothing music  They shall close their eyes  They are given new identities

H.TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method developed around the coordination of speech and action. It is evolved by James Asher, an experimental psychologist. This method aims to teach language through physical (motor) activity. Just like a child learns the mother tongue. listening comprehension is the base for language learning. The teacher gives the instructions and commands; learners respond and perform the expected action. This reform movement laid the foundations for innovative practices and new ways of teaching languages. Procedures include: Review, New commands and Role reversal. I. Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling

The reading method was based on the premise of that the ability to read English as utmost important. This method was developed entirely for pragmatic purposes. Michael West, who taught English in India, argued that for Indians, the ability to read fluently in English was more important than speaking in English. The objective of the reading method was to enhance the reading skills of learners. This method was rejected on the grounds that if the learners are taught language with emphasis on reading they were unable to comprehend the ungraded text. The method was considered as myopic and thus was rejected. J. THE BILINGUAL METHOD The bilingual method proposed by C.J.Dodson tried to etch various aspects of the direct method and the grammar-translation method and develop an effective second language teaching method. The use of mother tongue is allowed but strictly limited to concept translation stage. Three P’s Presentation, Practice and Production are used as the three main stages of any language learning in the Bilingual Method. The steps of this method are as follows:

 Imitation of basic Target Language (L2) sentences  Interpretation of L2 sentences  Substitution and extension of L2 sentences  Independent sentence construction and expression  Reverse interpretation/translation or vice-versa that is from L2 to L1 or L1 to L2  Interpretation of messages/questions  L2 questions and answers  Conversation practice The bilingual method advocates the use of the L1 in learning the L2. It’s distinct from the grammar-translation method in that it places a strong emphasis on oral language. Later in this post we’ll examine in more detail how these principles can benefit learning in your classroom.

K. Task-based language learning

 The focus of the teaching is on the completion of a task which in itself is interesting to the learners. Learners use the language they already have to complete the task and there is little correction of errors.

1.7 : Proprietary Methods A. Pimsleur Method Pimsleur language learning system is based on the research of and model programs developed by American language teacher Paul Pimsleur. It involves recorded 30- minute lessons to be done daily, with each lesson typically featuring a dialog, revision, and new material. Students are asked to translate phrases into the target language, and occasionally to respond in the target language to lines spoken in the target language. The instruction starts in the student's language but gradually changes to the target language. Several all-audio programs now exist to teach various languages using the Pimsleur Method. Michel Thomas Method Michel Thomas Method is an audio-based teaching system developed by Michel Thomas, a language teacher in the USA. It was originally done in person, although since his death it is done via recorded lessons. The instruction is done entirely in the student's own language, although the student's responses are always expected to be in the target language. The method focuses on constructing long sentences with correct grammar and building student confidence. There is no listening practice, and there is no reading or writing. The syllabus is ordered around the easiest and most useful features of the language, and as such is different for each language. 1.08 : LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACHES

An approach is a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be

learnt. An approach gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom activities or techniques to help learners learn.

1.09:STRUCTURALISM Some scholars looked for new approaches to language study, and this brought about structuralism, also popular as structural linguistics.According to Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, Structuralism is ― an approach to linguistics which stresses the importance of language as a system and which investigates the place that linguistic unit such as sounds, words, sentences have within this system .

1.10 Natural Approach

In 1983, Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell published The Natural Approach, which set forth both the theory and application of the Natural Approach to language teaching. They thought that the purpose of language is to communicate meanings and messages, which can be achieved simply by learning the glossary of the target language. This approach, propounded by Professor S. Krashen, stresses the similarities between learning the first and second languages. There is no correction of mistakes.. Krashen and Terrell felt that the initial “silent period” should be honored until students begin to speak naturally; that is, when speech in the target language emerges of its own accord. Textbooks are not used and it is the teacher’s responsibility to make the classroom experience enjoyable and unchallenging. Students are not expected to be responsible for their own learning. Their role is to absorb the input provided by teachers. The trick is not to tell the students they are learning or to suggest they are capable of making an error. The order of business is to give students a steady flow of comprehensible input and just enough extra information to help them acquire, rather than consciously learn, the target language.

In the Natural Approach classroom, the teacher plays the role of actor and prop person and students play the role of “guessers and immersers” (Rogers fig. 2). Students are encouraged to express their thoughts, opinions, and feelings in the target language. The teacher speaks only in the target language; but, in keeping with the no-pressure approach, students are permitted to use their native language. Theoretically, in this way, students acquire language without effort. 1.11 THE NOTIONAL-FUNCTIONAL APPROACH Notional –functional approach, like the structural approach, was developed in non- academic context. In the sixties and seventies many European countries were experiencing an upsurge on the economic front. The migrant community of labour was in dire of local language. The conventional methods of language learning did not produce the desired outcome.

1.12 The lexical approach A lexical approach in language teaching refers to one derived from the belief that the building blocks of language learning and communication are not grammar, functions, notions, or some other unit of planning and teaching but lexis, that is, words and word combinations.

This approach is based on a computer analysis of language that recognizes the most common words in the language and their various uses. The syllabus teaches these words in the order of their frequency, and great emphasis is placed on the use of authentic materials. The role of collocation is also important in lexically based theories of language. Collocation refers to the regular occurrence together of words. Many other lexical units also appear in language.

1.13 Structural-Oral-Situational approach Two prominent linguists, Harold Palmer and A.S.Hornby, developed this approach with a scientific foundation that was more methodical than the direct method. It was Hornby himself who used the term ‘structural approach’ in the title of a renowned series of ELT articles published in the year 1950.Popularly known as S-O-S approach, it came into existence as a substitute to direct method of English language teaching as a second language. When USA entered the World War II, they wanted people fluent in German, French, Italian, Chinese, Japanese and other languages and who could work as interpreters, code-room assistants, translators, etc. For this purpose Army Specialised Training Programmes (ASTP) was established in 1942. Linguists and applied linguists became popular as the demand for teaching of English as a foreign language increased manifold. Apart from this, thousands of students who travelled to USA from foreign countries for pursuing higher studies required training in English to get admitted in any course. These reasons resulted in the S-O-S approach of language teaching, in the 1950s. What is the Structural-Oral-Situational approach? The S-O-S approach is the presentation and practice of carefully selected and graded grammatical structures of English in effective, meaningful situations, initially through speech and later through reading and writing.In this approach language is considered as structurally related components for the understanding of meaning, the components being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence types. Techniques used in the S-O-S approach include situations (classroom situations, outside the classroom, verbal situations etc.); drills (call –word technique substitution, incremental drills, backward changing technique, completion, transformation. Language laboratory is used to train and assign in phonetics related tasks.

1.14 The Communicative Approach:

The scope of CLT has expanded and was considered as an approach rather than a method that aims to make communicative competence, the goal of language teaching and to develop procedures for the teaching ofthe four language skills and thus acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. The basic concept of this approach is the development of communicative competence. The worldwide increasing demand for good communication in the English language has increased significantly the responsibility of the English language teacher. It is more an “Experience Approach” or “Learning by Doing”. The communicative language learning does not just attempt to teach students how to use target language

communicatively; it also tries to encourage the students to take part in teaching - learning process increasingly (Larsen & Freeman, 1986).

The application of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has faced problems and resistance in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context (Ellis, 1996; Li, 1998; Liao, 2000). A positive relationship between communicative competence and language learning strategies has been reported. Hehermas first used communicative competence in 1970.

Focusing on all of the components of communicative competence- grammatical, functional, and pragmatic. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has not overcome the psychological barriers, which cripple learners and hinder the learning process. Unfortunately, teachers quickly get bored and chose the Grammar Translation Method. CLT pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of the language.

Key Features of the Communicative Approach:

• Grammar and vocabulary are taught inductively.

• “Chunks” of target language produced by the students are recorded and later listen to.

• Students apply the target language independently and without translation when they feel confident enough to do so.

• Information gap exercises are given to the students.

• This is a learner centered approach.

• The approach associates itself with the use of Authentic Material, Language Game, Role Play, Picture Strip Story and Strip Story Technique.

Limitations of the Communicative Approach:

• The teacher must be fluent in the target language. Such teachers are limited in number.

• It cannot be used for large or very large classroom.

• The teacher must be competent in using this approach.

• Sometimes classroom becomes too communicative to create disturbance for others. These are various methods and approaches for English language teaching.

1.15:Cognitive-code Approaches

The term cognitive-code refers to any conscious attempt made to organize material around a grammatical syllabus while allowing for meaningful practice and use of language. Based on the foundations of linguistic theories and the findings of

psycholinguistic research, cognitive psychologists and applied linguists, such as John B. Carroll and Kenneth Chastain, advocated the cognitive-code approach to the study of a second language. It was intended as an alternative to the audio-lingual method that emphasizes habit formation as process of language learning. Because of its emphasis on studying a foreign language as a system of rules and knowledge, rather than learning it as a set of skills, the cognitive approach is sometimes considered the modern version of the grammar-translation method.

The cognitive approach is based on Gestalt psychology and transformational grammar. Sub skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing such as sound discrimination, pronunciation of specific elements, distinguishing between letters that are similar in appearance and so on are learned before the student participates in real communication activities. Lessons are highly structured using a deductive process, and often practicing the `rule of the day’. Although research advises second language acquisition precede second language learning, cognitive-code approach emphasizes content over form. Phonemes are learned before words, words before phrases and sentences, simple sentences before complicated ones.

The cognitive approach is essentially a theoretical proposal. It did not lead to the development of any teaching method as far as classroom procedures and activities are concerned.

Here are two quotes from Carroll, its first proponent:

"The theory attaches more importance to the learner's understanding of the structure of the foreign language than to the facility in using that structure, since it is believed that provided the student has a proper degree of cognitive control over the structures of the language, facility will develop automatically with use of the language in meaningful situations."

"...Learning a language is a process of acquiring conscious control of the phonological, grammatical, and lexical patterns of the second language, largely through study and analysis of these patterns as a body of knowledge." (Carroll, 1966, p. 102)

1.16 The Comprehension Approach

The name comprehension approach comes from the title of a book edited by H. Winitz, The comprehension approach to foreign language instruction, published in 1981. It is not as much as a clearly defined method. Instead, it can be best regarded as a pedagogical principle, which can be found in a number of methods and in practice. According to Richards, Platt, and Weber, 1985:

a. Before leaners are taught speaking, there should be a period of training in listening comprehension; b. Comprehension should be taught by teaching learners to understand meaning in the target language;

c. The learners' level of comprehension should always exceed their ability to produce language; d. Productive language skills will emerge more naturally when learners have well developed comprehension skills; e. Such an approach reflects how children learn their first language.

The idea of comprehension before production has a long history. H.E.Palmer suggested to include an incubation period at the early stage of language learning to focus on the training of listening comprehension and to "awaken and to develop the student's natural and spontaneous capacities for language-study" (1921). Later, similar proposal was made in the name of a "silent period" in language teaching, inspired by the silent period in child first language development and second language learning by young children in naturalistic settings. This principle can be found in teaching approaches such as the natural approach and total physical response.

1.17 The Eclectic Approach (or Eclecticism)

The Eclectic Approach was proposed as a reaction to the profusion of teaching methods in the 1970s and 1980s and the dogmatism often found in the application of these methods. The idea of choosing from different methods to suite for one's teaching purposes and situations is not a new one. For example, Memorandum on the Teaching of Modern Languages published in 1929 on the basis of a British study by Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters in Secondary Schools recommended the ecletic "Compromise Method" as a solution to the language teaching method debate (Stern, 1983, p. 101).

A main proponent of the Eclectic Approach is Rivers (1981, Teaching Foreign Language Skills). According to Rivers, an eclectic approach allows language teachers "to absorb the best techniques of all the well-known language-teaching methods into their classroom procedures, using them for the purposes for which they are most appropriate" (p. 55). This is necessary and important because teachers "faced with the daily task of helping students to learn a new language cannot afford the luxury of complete dedication to each new method or approach that comes into vogue." (1981, p. 54).

The main criticism of the eclecticism is that "it does not offer any guidance on what basis and by what principles aspects of different methods can be selected and combined." Stern (1983, p. 512).

1.18:SUMMING UP: However, since both human nature and the language teaching- learning process are dynamic phenomena, the need for the newest techniques and technological devices is felt. Teaching English Language, covering the syllabus and fulfilling the taste of the students, may be a difficult task. The teacher should yield to change his/her way of teaching. Though old approach may be well known, one has to give place to new methods to fulfill the need. Change in teaching method is indispensable to develop English language ability of the students.