The Upgrading of Baden Powell Drive

July 2020 Vol 28 No 6

Siviele Ingenieurswese

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Franki_adverts new.indd 6 2020/03/17 09:53 FROM THE PRESIDENT’S DESK The roll-out of infrastructure projects: Could there be a silver lining?

INTRODUCTION and communities located in villages, rural a R21.7 million sport complex, but the The ongoing debate in the country is areas and townships. Accompanying money had vanished. The Public Finance about opening the economy, because the these initiatives should be a strategy Management Act classifies this as fruitless number of job losses is escalating, and of narrowing the gap between where and wasteful expenditure. However, no ac- livelihoods are being ruined. poor people live (including rural areas) tion has been taken against those involved. These concerns are understandable, and centres of economic activity by I recently saw a handwritten invoice (using but the situation is complex. There is a introducing efficient transport systems an ordinary supermarket receipt book) to Sotho saying, kgomo ya moshate wa e gapa to move the people to these economic the tune of R2.3 million by a company in o molato wa e tlogela o molato, which, centres or by bringing the economic the Eastern Cape. A handwritten invoice in loosely translated, means you are damned activities closer to where they live. It must this day and age of 4IR! The AG reminded if you do it or damned if you don’t. That be about a shared future of inclusivity and us all that supermarket cashiers whose tills is the unprecedented predicament the transformation. do not balance at the end of the day face government finds itself in. consequences, but this, however, does not The concomitant action required, VANDALISM and LACK OF appear to apply to municipal officials … a among others, is to unleash infrastructure INFRASTRUCTURE MAINTENANCE very unfortunate state of affairs. projects in the various industries (par- While it is crucial to introduce new ticularly the supply side industries like infrastructure to grow our economy, it is IN CLOSING consulting and construction) to germinate equally important to maintain and pre- Most people agree that opening the the seed of economic growth which will serve the existing. Because infrastructure economy in a responsible manner is the move the country towards achieving maintenance does not attract ribbon- right way to go. This will increase broader the National Development Plan’s 2030 cutting and eloquent speech opportuni- participation in the economy by the citizens targets and the associated Sustainable ties, it is often neglected through increas- of our country to meet their basic needs. Development Goals. The necessary and ingly unsustainable budget cuts. This is a The roll-out of new infrastructure will supporting corollary is to maximise the concern, as infrastructure maintenance strengthen access to economic activities, country’s efforts to contain this pandemic should be equally prioritised. increase social mobility, and promote of biblical proportions. Another concern is how vandalism of inclusive and sustainable growth. Growth- infrastructure (particularly in the railway enhancing infrastructure will furthermore NEW INFRASTRUCTURE ROLL-OUT sector) is gaining momentum, and it is sad support South Africa’s trade and produc- The figure of R3.2 trillion to be invested to see that very little is done to stop it. Cable tive capacity, competitiveness and the in new infrastructure and upgrades of theft by what appears to be organised crime transformation agenda. existing infrastructure, as presented by syndicates is sending our economic recovery While new infrastructure is being Dr Kgosientso Ramakgopa at the recent years back, undoing some of the gains of the introduced, the existing Sustainable Infrastructure Development new democratic dispensation. A concerted should be protected Symposium South Africa (23 June), was effort by SOEs and the security establish- and maintained to received with the same joy children have ment is required to stop this tsunami, as we preserve its useful on Christmas Day. The roll-out of the all have a direct interest in the condition of life. Infrastructure various projects (in transport, water and this infrastructure, which is a public asset maintenance should sanitation, energy, digital infrastructure, created by and for the benefit of all citizens. be the buzz word! human settlements, and agriculture and Such a long-term investment should be agro-processing) can create an opportune protected and cared for by both the main- Fana Marutla moment for the country to chart a new tenance practitioners from SOEs and the SAICE President 2020 path. Infrastructure development has been people who use it. [email protected] identified as a priority area and a catalyst to propel economic growth, localisation and THE CULTURE Of NON-COMPLIANCE industrialisation, and equally important, Also worrisome is the growing culture of the creation of new jobs that the masses of non-compliance by municipalities in man- our nation so hungrily need. aging the financial and procurement affairs The government’s aim is to ensure of our state institutions. The Auditor that there is greater participation from General (AG) recently reported that only a black-owned companies, industrialists, fence was found in what should have been

Civil Engineering July 2020 1 July 2020 Vol 28 No 6

Siviele Ingenieurswese

Siviele Ingenieurswese = Afrikaans ON THE COVER oN THE cOVER P12 With some forecasts predicting that civil engineering could shrink by 20% this year, it is an anxious time for the sector, Afri Sam believes that South Africa still needs to industrialise, and manufacturing must grow; this but construction materials leader AfriSam requires people to be in factories and workshops suggests that a more positive picture may be emerging. In an encouraging sign, for example, cement companies have seen a substantial uptick in demand during May. FROM THE PRESIDENT’S DESK

The roll-out of infrastructure projects: Could there be a silver lining? �� 1

South African Institution of CEO’S CORNER Civil Engineering

July 2020 Vol 28 No 6 Opportunity to address gender equality and empowerment as applicable to women �� 4

Siviele Ingenieurswese GROWING FORWARD TOGETHER Published by SAICE Block 19, Thornhill Office Park, Bekker Street, Vorna Valley, Midrand Different types of unethical behaviour in the civil engineering industry �� Private Bag X200, Halfway House, 1685 7 Tel +27 11 805 5947/8 | Fax +27 11 805 5971 http://www.saice.org.za | [email protected] CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER Vishaal Lutchman PrEng PMP [email protected] | Tel: +27 11 805 5947/8 ON THE COVER Editor Verelene de Koker [email protected] There is always light at the end of any dark tunnel – the Covid-19 tunnel is no exception �� 12 Tel +27 11 805 5947/8 | Cell +27 83 378 3996 Editorial Panel Marco van Dijk (chairman), Irvin Luker (vice-chairman), Fana Marutla (president), Vishaal Lutchman (CEO), Steven Kaplan (COO), Andile Gqaji, Jeffrey Mahachi, CONSTRUCTION AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT Avi Menon, Prisca Mhlongo, Jones Moloisane, Beate Scharfetter, Verelene de Koker (editor), Sharon Mugeri (editor’s assistant), Barbara Spence (advertising) The upgrading of Baden Powell Drive (R310) between the N2 and Vlaeberg Road �� 15 Annual subscription rate R730.00 (VAT included) Advertising Curling of concrete ground slabs ��20 Barbara Spence, Avenue Advertising [email protected] Tel +27 11 463 7940 | Cell +27 82 881 3454 Techniques for accelerating chloride-induced corrosion of steel in concrete:

Design and reproduction A review and general guidelines �� Marketing Support Services, Ashlea Gardens, Pretoria 28 Printing Fishwicks, Pretoria Construction claims, disputes and settlements �� 35 The South African Institution of Civil Engineering accepts no responsibility for any statements made or opinions �� expressed in this publication, and all information is The SAICE Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Panel 38 provided without prejudice. Consequently nobody connected with the publication of the magazine, in particular the proprietors, the publishers and the editors, will be liable for any loss or damage sustained by any reader as a result of his or her action upon any statement or opinion published in this magazine. RESEARCH ISSN 1021-2000 Keeping research on track: Applications of machine learning and virtual reality ��40

The Fourth Industrial Revolution in the Local Government Sector ��44

Civil Engineering July 2020 P15

IN BRIEF

Paving the way for remote Botswana mine ��47

Jet Demolition continues operations safely during lockdown �� 48

Covid-19 calls for ‘balanced’ strategy for technical audits ��49

SMEC South Africa uses VR technology to gain an edge ��51

SAPSA Woman Professional of the Year ��52

SAICE AND PROFESSIONAL NEWS P20

Obituary – Prof Dereck Sparks ��53

The SAICE HOD Forum for our tertiary institution colleagues ��55

SAICE Training Calendar 2020 ��56

Letter ��57

CARTOON Civillain by Jonah Ptak: Negative Reinforcement ��34 P47 FUN QUIZ

SAICE Know Your Sector Competition ��39

P51 P48

REMINDER: Websites and email addresses on adverts are LIVE, and so is our contents page. HAPPY CLICKING! 3 CEO’S CORNER

SAICE’s CEO, Vishaal Lutchman, has launched his contributions to the magazine by co-writing with a number of young SAICE leaders who are actively involved in various SAICE units, and who thereby advance the Institution’s Growing Forward Together initiative. The first such article appeared in the June magazine and was co-written with Tauqeer Ahmed from the Eastern Cape. For this month’s article Vishaal teamed up with Refilwe Lesufi, chair of the SAICE Johannesburg Branch. Opportunity to address gender equality and empowerment as applicable to women

OVERVIEW success. This article is a brief overview of 0.61 in 1996 to 0.65 in 2019, to be further The South African Institution of Civil inequality in South Africa, specifically as it exacerbated by the SARS-COV-2 pandemic. Engineering (SAICE) supports the notion of applies to women in the engineering sector. The pandemic will lead to the largest a world where all people can live productive, The topics of inequality and empower- economic contraction in South Africa since vibrant and peaceful lives on a healthy ment are not mutually exclusive, and are World War 2 and is predicted to be in the planet. In our quest to promote transdisci- key and of significance to South Africa, a order of 10% in Q2 2020. plinary thinking in solving problems related country which has a history of deprivation to infrastructure, this article seeks to and exclusion applying to the majority of its PROGRESSING SDG #9 explore opportunities to address inequality people (http://www.statssa.gov.za/MDG/ UNDERPINNED BY SDG #5 and empowerment as these apply to SDGs_Country_Report_2019_South_ Economic inclusion can also be measured women. The initiative to address inequality Africa.pdf and https://worldpopula- using STATS SA data on economically and empowerment is identified as United tionreview.com/country-rankings/gini- active persons (EAPs), which also serves Nations Sustainable Development Goal coefficient-by-country). Our country’s to give progress on employment equity (SDG) #5, which has been defined by South inequality, which is quantified by the GINI targets. South Africa had approximately Africa as a pillar to enable the achievement index, appears to have deteriorated over 38.8 million people in the working age of the remaining sixteen time. The GINI index measures statistical category at the end of Q1 2020. We had a SDGs. Therefore, the distribution of wealth in a country, as well labour force (employed plus unemployed) achievement of as economic inclusivity, and is today’s at the end of the same period of approxi- the SDGs in the most used measurement of wealth or mately 23.5 million people, of which 16.4 South African income inequality. South Africa has million were employed and 7.1 million development the second highest GINI index of 0.625, unemployed. A further 15.3 million were agenda is a priority defining it as one of the most unequal not economically active. Unemployment to enable our countries in the world, like several other stood at 30.1%. If we include those who African countries. In contrast, the Nordics are not economically active, it means and Central Eastern European countries that 58% of those who are at an age to have the highest equality at participate are not participating in the approximately 0.23, which sug- economy. Looking at percentages could be gests that we are in the order of misleading, though, as in number terms three times more unequal to it amounts to 22.4 million people (www. most equal countries (www. statssa.gov.za, Q1 Labour Force Survey, worldpopulationreview. 23 June 2020). Interpolating for women com). Inequality in South (www.workinfo.com) indicates that of Africa has been persis- these, 10 million are women excluded tent, having from participating in the economy. increased from SAICE expects unemployment to worsen

4 July 2020 Civil Engineering Refilwe Lesufi (Pr Eng, FSAICE), who holds an MSc in Civil Engineering the commercialisation of disruptive sanitation technologies. She is from the University of the Witwatersrand, has 19 years of engineering the 2020 chair of the SAICE Johannesburg Branch, and also serves experience, and is the founder and owner of Prana Consulting, a on the CESA Executive Board and the ECSA Steering Committee woman-owned Level 1 BBBEE civil engineering consulting firm that has for the Development of Codes of Practice. On a weekly basis Prana been in operation successfully since 2011, specialising in geotechnical Consulting offers maths and science tutoring services to Grade 10–12 investigations, road pavement designs, materials engineering and learners in Cosmo City. ([email protected]) in Q2–Q4 2020, and to continue into to ensure that these create the enabling the profession at a greater rate than their 2021 due to the SARS-COV-2 pandemic. environment for the inclusion of women male counterparts. Comparing national statistics, one would to sustainably participate in the develop- Currently the barriers to exit the expect to find similar ratios within the ment agenda. We believe that creating engineering profession are low in South other economic sectors as well, but this greater emphasis on SDG #5 embedded Africa. To assist in lifting these barriers is not the case, as it applies to the engi- within much needed amended regula- a concerted effort is required to create a neering sector as indicated below. tions, policies and processes remains supporting and enabling environment to Within the context of the built imperative. We need to lobby decision- attract and keep women professionals in environment, the SARS-COV-2 pandemic and law-makers to incorporate revisions the industry. To contribute significantly and pre-pandemic economic contrac- with the call for fundamental reforms as to our economy, South Africa needs to tion, SAICE acknowledges that targeted these pertain to addressing gender-based actively cultivate a talent pool, especially strategies within our industry to address inequalities. At the same time, these revi- in the science, technology, engineering gender-based inequality and empower- sions should reduce the barriers to entry and mathematics (STEM) fields. Recent ment have not had the intended effect. for women in the sector. The initiatives years have seen an increase in women This will be illustrated by statistics to require a transdisciplinary approach entering the engineering space. According follow. The consequences of SARS-COV-2 which will provide the opportunity to to the World Bank collection of develop- have not yet been fully quantified and will increase effectiveness. Broadly, the ap- ment indicators (www.worldbank.org‌ , not be for some time to come; however, proach relates to changes in paradigm July 2020), of the 8.09% of tertiary we anticipate that the situation will not and perspective, culture and behaviour, education graduates in the engineering, improve in Q2–Q4 2020 and 2021. technology and innovation, regulation and manufacturing and construction pro- South Africa has identified a focused policy, capacity and development, to name grammes, 4.25% were women. This is initiative in the investment in infrastruc- a few which form an holistic approach to encouraging, as it shows progress is being ture which relates to progressing SDG #9, making progress on SDG #5. made towards SDG #5 with participation underpinned by SDG #5 as a key enabler. Currently gender disparity is a common of women in the industry. However, the A firm commitment from government phenomenon in the engineering sector. retention of this limited skills pool is to invest in an infrastructure pipeline According to the 2018/19 Engineering crucial and should be underpinned by a focusing on the network industries is re- Council of South Africa Annual Report, supportive environment. quired, and this was launched on 23 June 74% of registered engineers were white In the current environment there 2020 at the Sustainable Infrastructure and only 6.75% of the total number of is evidence that companies may not be Development Symposium South Africa all registered persons were women. doing enough to promote gender equality (SIDSSA). This includes water, transport, Furthermore, women accounted for 24.1% and may be using women as a means to an energy and digital infrastructure, as of candidate registrations, therefore in total end. For example, in order to comply with well as sectors with high job absorption only 13.5% of all registered professionals existing legislation, companies tend to capacity, such as human settlements, and candidates are women. This does not front women and women-owned organi- agriculture and associated processing. It align with country-level gender statistics sations to improve BBBEE scores, enabling is the purpose of this article to strongly as these apply to the economic inclusivity them to win public and private sector advocate for the approach that SDG #5 of women. work whilst not having a genuine com- be intricately intertwined with the imple- Research indicates that the lesser mitment to develop and capacitate women mentation of SDG #9. participation of women in engineering professionals. There is also evidence The opportunity is now, together is not unique to South Africa. Based on that companies tend to be gender-biased with the economic reset brought about statistics in the UK and Australia1, women when considering career opportunities, by the GDP contraction and the need professionals account for approximately especially towards women wishing to to revisit existing regulations, policies, 12% in both countries. With reference to start a family. processes and execution methodologies a Harvard Business Review2, women leave In keeping with the behavioural theme, harassment of women is a Research indicates that the lesser participation of women in engineering common and disturbing practice in the is not unique to South Africa. Based on statistics in the UK and sector. These incidents happen within the work environment on site, in offices, Australia, women professionals account for approximately 12% in boardrooms and at conferences, perpe- both countries. With reference to a Harvard Business Review, women trated by site staff, employers and clients. Due to fear, women do not easily report leave the profession at a greater rate than their male counterparts. these experiences. The damaging effects

Civil Engineering July 2020 5 of such are felt at the point of occurrence, and the effectiveness of remedies is questionable – leading to women feeling disem- powered and unsafe in such an environment. According to a report by Project on Women Engineers’ Retention (POWER 2011, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee), nearly half of the women who left the engineering sector cited working conditions, lack of advancement or low salary as reasons for leaving. To put it succinctly, over and above their struggle to grow as professionals in a highly competitive industry, women have to overcome disempowerment, feelings of inferiority and shame due to their experiences with the prevailing culture in the sector. The industry has insufficient role models for mentoring and leadership of women equality and empowerment initiatives, and it lacks support systems that specifically address challenges faced by women. IN CONCLUSION As supported by statistics, the challenges or barriers faced by women in the industry are many. This article sought to emphasise the need for attention and focus to be given towards using SDG #5 as a vehicle towards realising SDG #9 in our growth initiatives. The opportunities brought about by the SARS-COV-2 pandemic motivate the case and call for urgent action. The status quo presents opportune timing to develop, retain and accelerate the empowerment of women to management and executive level. It is possible, through a collective effort, to change the current narrative. Globally, there has been some progress made towards SDG #5. Presently the key to removing barriers to redress inequality in the industry lies in the hands of the current custodians of the sector. It will therefore take both men and women with a strong sense of self, empathy, fairness and a willingness to want to bring change that will allow us to make progress towards the realisation of SDG #5, namely Gender Equality. Proposed initiatives to support the case for women inclusivity comprise efforts to have more women in management roles, policy frameworks that support women, financing arrangements and gender budgeting. These will be uncovered in greater detail in follow-up articles. As South Africans our challenges are many, and their complexity can often become a deterrent to implementing good initiatives and strategies. Although this article has alluded to concepts that are strategic, as individuals we can start by making immediate meaningful shifts in our paradigms and beliefs that will positively impact our teams, organisations, communities and society to start addressing gender-based inequality and empowerment. Such initiatives will be explored further in the upcoming articles. NOTES 1. The Engineering Profession, A Statistical Overview. Thirteenth Edition: February 2017. 2. https://hbr.org/2018/11/the-subtle-stressors-making-women- want-to-leave-engineering

Vishaal Lutchman Pr Eng, PMP

[email protected]

6 July 2020 Civil Engineering GROWING FORWARD TOGETHER

SAICE’s Growing Forward Together strategy comprises eleven different activities grouped into seven areas. The second of these activities is Gregory Skeen Pr Eng SAICE Growing Forward Champion: Ethics Ethics, which focuses on the promotion of professionalism and integrity [email protected] in the civil engineering industry. To increase awareness of the issue, Civil Engineering will be featuring short articles on relevant topics around the subject from time to time. Different types of unethical behaviour in the civil engineering industry

This article gives a high-level overview of unethical practices Bribery in the civil engineering industry, with the intention of creating Bribery is a form of corruption and is seen as being more preva- awareness within the profession. lent in construction and engineering than any other sector. It is The most reliable litmus test of whether an action is ap- more likely to occur during the tendering and procurement stages propriate is by referring to the ECSA (Engineering Council of of contracts, although it can occur at any stage. This is mainly South Africa) Code of Conduct – Rules of Conduct for Registered because on large contracts, individuals within organisations Persons: Engineering Profession Act, 2000 (Act No 46 of 2000) – can influence or even decide on the procurement of goods. This which gives clear guidance in many situations and is the law gov- provides the opportunity for corruption, compounded by a lack erning the profession. The SAICE Code of Ethics is also a useful of transparency and governance and inaccurate recording in tool in helping civil engineering practitioners to remain vigilant. financial statements. A study by Liverpool University1 revealed the following as An example would be a payment by a supplier to a client em- the most common sources of unethical behaviour in the civil ployee in order to influence a purchase decision in favour of their engineering and construction industries: product. A further example would be a subcontractor bribing an QQ Bribery: Non-money or money support to get something employee of the main contractor to gain their favour over a rival consequently. subcontractor. Bribery can ultimately affect the quality of the QQ Fraud: Deceit to obtain financial or other advantages. final construction – if an inferior product is used as a result. QQ Extortion: A type of blackmail whereby one party threatens Bribes can be paid directly. But they are more likely to be paid the other party with adverse consequences unless the other through third parties and intermediaries, something that is more party meets listed demands. prone to occur when companies move into new markets and place QQ Tender rigging: Unlawful conspiracy whereby competitors more of their operations with third parties, especially in foreign join to falsely raise the prices of a bid. countries. QQ Overbilling: Increasing unit prices for activities that are planned to occur earlier in the project to raise the cash flow. Fraud QQ Change order games: Presenting a low tender in order to win In the engineering and construction sector, economic crime can the project and later on getting back the profit by presenting occur at all levels. The most common types of fraud are: change orders. QQ Asset misappropriation: Construction materials are relatively QQ Claim games: Making additional earnings through presenting easy to steal and sell. Indeed, material losses have long been false claims. seen as part of the cost of doing business for contractors. QQ Money laundering: Moving assets or cash acquired by QQ Creation of false supplier invoices. criminal activity from one place to another, to hide the source QQ An engineer accepts supplier invoicing for quantities higher of finances. than delivered and shares the profits, or accepts different grade QQ Cover pricing: This happens when a bidder only wants to be products in exchange for a split in the profits made on the sale. seen to take part, but never wants to win the contract, so asks QQ Unauthorised political contributions made by the organisation. for a competitor for a reasonable “spread cost” and shows it as QQ Political contributions made by employees and reimbursed by a real offer. the organisation through expense accounts or special bonuses. Since consulting engineers, contractors, and even operations and Civil engineering and construction firms must be willing maintenance companies are now having to tender for work, many to invest in the necessary prevention and detection controls of the phenomena described apply to all parts of the industry. before becoming a victim to fraud. Good governance and This is therefore not only a contractor issue but extends to all maintaining consistent procurement processes will help avoid organisations which tender for work. reputational damage.

Civil Engineering July 2020 7 Extortion Overbilling Extortion is the act of trying to get money, goods, property or Overbilling, another questionable behaviour common in the con- anything of value from another person by threatening or using struction industry, was considered unethical by 86% of respondents violence, fear, humiliation or any other unlawful threat. The act to a UK survey. However, 10% disagreed. Some advocates of over- of extortion is usually done by threat to inflict bodily harm, ac- billing cite the problem of withholding funds due to contractors, cuse someone of a crime, expose a secret that would harm some- especially subcontractors, as the reason a contractor must overbill. one’s image, take or withhold action as an official, refuse to testify They maintain that contractors should unbalance the bid/front-end or cooperate in an investigation, start a boycott or strike, or harm load of the project, even though they collect money in a timely the person who money is demanded from in a way that does not manner. In their opinion, if a contractor, particularly a subcon- benefit that individual. Common types of extortion include black- tractor, does not unbalance the cashflow, the difference in cash dis- mail, protection schemes, and certain types of hacking. bursed against cash received on a project can be enormous. When Extortion is not a clearly defined action. For example, is a examining the job, the contractor will find that he/she is funding frivolous lawsuit a form of extortion? The person filing such labour and other costs but not being paid in a timely manner. baseless charges is looking for their target to settle and pay them Therefore, due to the typical project cashflow and contractor off, but this is actually not defined as extortion, because the actor project start-up costs, some believe that overbilling is justifiable. is using civil forums to file their grievance. In other cases, a civil engineering practitioner may press charges against someone they Change order games genuinely believe stole their intellectual property and might be Consider this scenario: As a subcontractor you have been ap- found guilty of extortion if the charge was in error. Extortion pointed by the main contractor to complete a civil engineering usually involves a demand for something with the threat that, project. The scope changes soon after you establish on site, or the if that demand is not met, physical harm or public shame will construction drawings were completed late and you were finally be inflicted. able to get the shop drawings completed. It took longer because the client or the consulting engineer could not or would not make Tender Rigging a decision. Tender rigging is an illegal practice in which competing parties In order to cover your costs to make the change, you submit a collude to choose the winner of a tendering process while others change order to the main contractor. You submit this to the main submit uncompetitive bids. Tender rigging stifles free-market contractor as scheduled and a week later it is rejected. competition, as the rigged price will be higher than what might Later, you learn quite by accident that the main contractor have resulted from a competitive tendering process. As such, who denied your change order turned around and submitted it to tender rigging is harmful to consumers and taxpayers who bear the client for payment, which he received and pocketed. Sure, you the cost of higher prices and procurement costs. The Competition could call them out or tell the client, but then you should prepare Act, 89 of 1998 regulates competition in South Africa. The Act yourself for not getting on the tender list for the next job with the also prohibits anticompetitive conduct between competitors, main contractor! This is an example of a change order game. firms and their customers or suppliers, and abuses of dominance by firms having a substantial market share. Claim games Companies may take turns being a low bidder. One organisa- Over the past few years of the current recession the industry tion may decide to not submit a bid, or may submit uncompetitive has again taken a substantial hit economically. The number of bids to manipulate the process. Tender rigging may also entail projects declined, as did the number of construction companies. a conspiracy that involves using a competing organisation as a This is an international phenomenon in many cases. However, subcontractor to subvert the tendering process or forming a joint despite this decline (or perhaps as a logical reaction to this venture with the sole purpose of submitting a single tender rather adverse impact to the industry) it appears from research that the than achieving savings by combining resources or expertise. number of claims has risen.2 Table 1 refers.

Table 1 Main drivers of construction claims in various regions2

Middle North Cause of claims Asia Europe UK East America

Ambiguous requirements 3 1 5

Conflicting party interests 3 3 2

Contact administration issues 1 1 5 1

Failure to resolve time extension and delay damages contemporaneously 1 4 4 4

Incomplete design 5 2 2 2

Owner caused damages 5 3 4

Unrealistic time of completion 4

Unrealistic risk transfer 2 5 3

8 July 2020 Civil Engineering “Claimsmanship” has proliferated in the past few years and appears to be equally practised by both owners and contractors, and their representatives. This involves claiming for any and all potential discrepancies and seeking to maximise return via arbitration or another alternative dispute mechanism. As a direct result, the number of claims has likewise grown. This in itself might not be seen as unethical, but if it forms a strategy in order to increase contract values, it is unethical. Cover pricing Cover pricing occurs when a bidder wants to be seen to participate, but does not want to win the job, so asks a competitor for a realistic “cover price” and submits it as a genuine bid. An organisation may have a good reason to ask for a cover price so that it can present a believable bid – it might get dropped from a tender list if it doesn’t participate, or it might lack capability or capacity for the job but wants to attract future work from the same principal. Those motivations seem harmless. Cover pricing involves a discussion with a competitor (usually in secret) about a tender price and is a form of tender rigging. In many cases it effectively sets a floor on the tender price. For example, the following is likely to be illegal: QQ Asking another bidder for a cover price QQ Giving a cover price to your competitor (or any other information about price). QQ Suggesting your competitors use “industry standard” pricing in future bids. QQ Agreeing with your competitor(s) to designate a winner, and then each submitting a cover price to create the impression of competition (tender rigging). QQ Agreeing with a competitor to submit a tender at a price which you know is uncompetitive, or which contains terms unacceptable to the procurer. QQ Representing or warranting to the procurer that you have not colluded (or communicated) with other bidders in preparing your bid, and then submitting a cover price. Conflict of interest This is a situation in which an individual is in a position to derive benefit from actions or decisions made in his/her official capacity. Conflicts of interest are not restricted to individuals only. Organisational conflicts of interest may also exist. For example, if an organisation provides two different services to a client, and these services have conflicting interests or appear objectionable (such as supplying materials and participating on a selection committee comparing materials suppliers), then an organisational conflict of interest exists. Conflicts of interest arise when there is an actual or perceived risk that an engineer’s actions for one client or the public interest will be materially and adversely affected by another client’s interest or by a personal interest.3 Potential conflicts of interest often arise in situations where civil engineering practitioners: QQ work for more than one client on the same project or inter- related projects QQ leave organisations to join a competitor, or start their own firms

Civil Engineering July 2020 9 QQ participate in tender selection where family members are tendering QQ are involved in hiring decisions regarding 1 family members, or Ethics, 2 QQ own personal property or have business Diversity and interests that may be affected by their Inclusivity work. Getting to know your Bid-cutting / Bid‑shopping SAICE Bid-cutting4 or bid-shopping is Knowledge an unethical practice in which a Trailblazer contractor discloses the tender The Voice – price of one sub-contractor Advocacy to another in an attempt to 7 obtain a lower price. Included in bid-shopping is “bid-peddling,” 3 in which subcontractors themselves offer to undercut Grow SAICE the known price of another subcontractor. Bid-shopping can SAICE STAR occur both before and after the Success Through client awards the main contract to Academic Readiness Programme the main contractor. SAICE SOS Pre-award bid-shopping Support Our Assist-a-University Students Many people consider pre-award bid- 5–6 Grow-a-Graduate shopping, i.e. bid-shopping that occurs prior to Grow-an-Expert 4 the awarding of the main contract, as an acceptable expression of free competition. “It (pre-award bid- shopping) ultimately benefits the (client) by arriving at the lowest possible bid for, and consequently the cost of, the project”.5 Collusive tendering Post-award bid-shopping Collusive tendering is an umbrella term for the process in Despite all of the problems associated with pre-submission which firms tendering for contracts put out to tender by (typi- negotiations, it is post-award bid-shopping that is considered cally) public authorities agree to share out contracts between the most harmful to the construction industry. In post-award them and/or to fix the price at which bids are to be made. bid-shopping, the contractor seeks to obtain a lower price from This includes cover pricing, bid rotation, bid suppression a second subcontractor, after having already been awarded the (preventing outside companies from entering the market), and prime contract through the original subcontractor’s bid. Post- market division. award bid-shopping serves only to benefit the contractor, as monies from these savings are used to increase the profit margin Frontloading rather than being passed on to the client. Frontloading a schedule of values (also known as front-end loading) refers to shifting the value of the contract to the begin- Under-tendering ning of the project. Rather than evenly distributing overhead and Under-tendering or under-bidding has become prevalent in an profits over the entire schedule, it is common for construction industry struggling to survive and keep staff in work. The prac- and engineering businesses to shift a lot of the project costs tice involves tendering at very low, break-even or even negative toward the beginning of the project. margins, simply to keep a pipeline of work. In addition to driving prices down to unrealistic levels, the resulting project now has to Negligence, wilful or unconscious be built to low quality (variable) to satisfy time (fixed) and cost It is not sound argument to claim that unethical behaviour is (too low) constraints. merely a ‘mistake’.6 Mistakes and errors imply that the behaviour or incident was accidental in nature – which, crucially, means According to ECSA, the basic test in the that it was not intentional. However, when the misconduct has assessment of error versus whether or not the happened over a period of time – such as inclusion of a fraudulent degree on an engineering CV – it cannot be considered an error. error could have been avoided, is whether the Similarly, when the conduct was in clear breach of the law and engineer had exercised skill, care and diligence in good governance practices, it cannot be reframed as a mistake when uncovered. On the contrary, it implies an intention to accordance with the norms of the profession. delude or defraud.

10 July 2020 Civil Engineering According to ECSA7, the basic test in the assessment of For more information, or if any SAICE member wishes to be error versus whether or not the error could have been avoided, involved in the Growing Forward: Ethics strategy, please email is whether the engineer had exercised skill, care and diligence in me ([email protected]). I welcome encouraging, different or accordance with the norms of the profession. dissenting views. The norms of the profession will be judged in terms of codes and standards (including the ECSA Code of Conduct), the scope NOTES of services normally offered in the execution of such work and the 1. Shah, R K & Alotaibi, M 2017. A study of unethical practices in conduct of the reasonable person/engineer in a similar situation. the construction industry and potential preventive measures. If it can be shown that the engineer acted outside of the Journal of Advanced College of Engineering and Management, requirements of accepted codes and standards, failed to provide Vol 3, 2017. the scope of services that would normally be expected or acted 2. Zack, J G 2012. Trends in Construction Claims & Disputes. A differently to the conduct expected of a reasonable engineer, Research Perspective Issued by the Navigant Construction this would be considered professional misconduct. Forum. It is important to note that the level of skill, care and diligence 3. Federation of Law Societies of Canada 2011. Report on expected of the engineer is dependent on the nature of the Conflicts of Interest. Available at: http://docs.flsc.ca/ services which are being offered. Specialised work will require a Conflicts-of-Interest-Report-Nov-2011.pdf. higher standard. 4. Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation This concept also comes through in the ECSA Code of 2006. Ethical Behaviour in the Construction Procurement Conduct where Clause 3(1)(b) requires that the registered person Process. may only undertake work which their education, training and 5. Dufficy, K 1989. Post-Award Bid Shopping in the Colorado experience have rendered them competent to perform and is Public Constru‑ction Industry. The Colorado Lawyer, within their category of registration. pp 1739–1742. 6. Schoeman, C 2007. ETHICS, the Good the Bad and the Ugly. LAST WORD Available at: http://www.ethicsmonitor.co.za/Article. It is important to be aware of the above scenarios and activities aspx?AID=47. within our profession in order to be able to identify them and 7. Engineering Council of South Africa. Practice Note: 2016/1: hopefully “engineer” them out! Error Versus Improper Conduct.

Civil Engineering July 2020 11 ON THE COVER There is always light at the end of any dark tunnel – the Covid-19 tunnel is no exception

AfriSam is suggesting that a more positive “If you catch hell, don’t hold it, and if you’re picture may be emerging from the current going through hell, don’t stop – you go anxious times in the construction sector ahead, go ahead, go ahead.” These are the words of renowned African American singer, Ron Kenolly. Economies around the world, including our own, are going through hell right now. More than 36 million people lost their jobs in two months in the world’s biggest economy, the USA. In South Africa, unemployment is predicted to reach 50% in the next few months. Does this mean a total collapse and shutdown of our economy and our industry? Certainly not, but it is certainly a tough road ahead. With some forecasts predicting that civil engineering could shrink by 20% this year, it is an anxious time for the sector, but construction materials leader AfriSam suggests that a more positive picture may be emerging. South Africa’s construction industry as a whole was already in poor shape when 2020 dawned, but there was some hope – according to Industry Insight economist David Metelerkamp – that the civils sector would start seeing a modest recovery. However, when addressing an industry webinar hosted by AfriSam in May this year, Metelerkamp said that the Covid-19 lockdown poured cold water on that optimism. “The Covid-19 pandemic could not have come at a worse time,” he said. “We were already in crisis, and Covid-19 exacerbated an already dire situation.” Metelerkamp’s research points towards a contraction in gross fixed capital formation in the civils sector of almost 20% during 2020. His outlook on the whole construction industry is equally bleak, with the most likely scenario featuring a 34% decline for the year. Earlier in the same month, Econometrix chief economist Dr Azar Jammine delivered an equally sobering message in another

12 July 2020 Civil Engineering AfriSam-hosted webinar. The lockdown, he said, is “totally debilitating” for the economy and heralds a worsening of trading conditions. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) had forecast that the global economic growth rate would drop to 3%. “It has not been at these levels since the Great Depression 90 years ago,” Jammine said. SOUTH AFRICA STILL NEEDS INFRASTRUCTURE However, a positive observation from Metelerkamp shines out from these gloomy messages. It comes from President Cyril Ramaphosa, in one of his first addresses Despite the negative outlook at the to the nation on government’s response to moment, AfriSam believes that there is a the crisis. Outlining government’s efforts pressing need for infrastructure development to stimulate the struggling economy, and looking ahead to a recovery stage, the “Our talented people remain our “We hope that this also signals a pos- president highlighted his commitment to a foundation, so retrenchment has always sibly better scenario taking shape than substantial infrastructure build programme. been a last resort in tough times,” he says. the predictions so far,” he says, noting the While little more has been said at “It is vital that this expertise is retained and significance of the rural economies in this this stage, Richard Tomes, AfriSam sales developed, so that the company and the welcome demand for cement. “In provinces and marketing executive, considers the country have a basis on which to build the like Limpopo, Mpumalanga and the Eastern strong demand for infrastructure to be recovery from hard times.” Cape demand for construction materials is a significant differentiator in how South not as reliant on factors like interest rates Africa is likely to recover. While there are CONTRACTORS’ EXPERIENCE and downturns.” many constraints on government spending One of the most sobering messages from In these areas, there is a vibrant informal capacity, Tomes emphasises that our Metelerkamp’s presentation is the slump in sector that can be counter-cyclical to the developing-country status puts infrastruc- construction projects going out to tender formal economy. These are predominantly ture centre-stage in all future scenarios. in April. cash economies characterised by already “Despite the negative outlook at the mo- “Not surprisingly, this is an all-time low high unemployment levels, with many ment, we know that, as a developing nation figure since this data began being collected households supported by social grants. and continent, there is a pressing need for in 1998,” he said. “Very few projects went The impact of the lockdown may ironically infrastructure development,” he says. “The out to tender – quite staggering, with the not have the same effect there in terms of demand for roads, rails, schools and clinics line falling right off the graph.” job losses. is huge. So, even if there is a significant He compared it to the impact of the slowdown now, there will be a recovery.” financial crisis in 2008/2009. At the time WORK PATTERNS While acknowledging that the outlook of his presentation there were a number of The isolation of construction industry for the next 12 months is indeed negative, contractors – mainly on road projects – employees during the lockdown – with Tomes argues that the general forecast for who had gone back to work, though. To get many of them working from home – has construction can only be positive. This will work back on schedule, they are also looking also raised questions about whether the also be supported by a growing population. at ways of working around the clock. Covid-19 pandemic will transform South “Many contractors were taking longer Africans’ working habits. Will we travel PEOPLE FIRST to get back to work, waiting for their less in future? Will companies need as “The challenge will be to ride through clients – usually government – to confirm much office space? Will less construc- this difficult period once the stimulus permission after the submission of the tion be the result? Again, Tomes’ view is package winds down,” Tomes says. “This necessary health and safety documenta- reassuring. can be done with a firm commitment from tion,” Metelerkamp said. Onerous plan- “We will probably see some interesting all businesses in the construction supply ning and personnel tracking requirements changes in work patterns in many first-world chain, especially those with a track record also add to the difficulty of contractors countries, where many jobs are service-re- for surviving similar difficult times over getting the necessary permits to restart lated and where people have a strong digital many decades.” operations. network,” he says. “In South Africa, we need He highlights AfriSam’s 85 years in In an encouraging sign, however, cement to remain realistic – our economy still needs business and its current commitment to companies have seen a substantial uptick in to industrialise, and manufacturing must retaining expertise and capacity. Even demand during May, according to Tomes. grow. This requires people to be in factories before the onset of the pandemic, AfriSam This suggests that more work is restarting, and workshops, working in person.” elected to be highly strategic in managing with developers making enquiries and This means that people must travel to its cost base. placing orders. work regularly, and a fully-fledged public

Civil Engineering July 2020 13 transport system must be developed. Indeed, with Covid-19 putting many people at risk in taxis and buses, such public transport will also need to be safer. SUPPORTING GROWTH Although the outlook remains difficult for the civils sector, it is vital that contractors remain well-supported by a supply sector that retains capacity and resources. For this reason, AfriSam set up a Covid-19 task team well in advance of the lockdown. An important focus was to ensure optimal care and maintenance at key plants, so that these could be ramped up quickly as the industry restarts. “All our plant and equipment were well maintained and ready to go, and staff are well prepared for re-opening,” Tomes says. AfriSam’s Tomes reminds the sector that it has been through “It has been vital to keep staff motivated fires in the past, and has endured; it is all about building a through good communication – so that vision, working together and creating concrete possibilities customers get what they need, when they need it.” arrangements have been made with every taking every opportunity to preserve jobs. Relationships within the industry also issue – from outstanding accounts to the Local producers like AfriSam contribute need extra work under these demanding management of raw materials. not only through employment and tax conditions. All through the supply chain, “While juggling all these current revenue, but through our transformation players need to support one another. demands, AfriSam has been mindful responsibilities.” Tomes pays tribute to the ‘tight knit’ to look ahead at what the construction The Covid-19 restrictions make it community in the sector, and how special industry will need in the years to come,” even more vital that local industries are he says. “For instance, we are working to provided with a level playing field when it preserve our industry bodies relating to comes to imports, Tomes says, and there cement and concrete – which come under is no longer the luxury of time to waste. pressure when the economy suffers.” In the midst of what appears to be a The contribution of these bodies worsening economic environment, Tomes ranges from technical standards to the highlights the sector’s ability to collaborate pursuit of sustainability. With growing towards a common goal. In the spirit of global demands to reduce carbon emis- ubuntu, much has already been achieved. sions, for instance, the sector must have More will certainly need to be done the agencies to facilitate joint action for with less. Dr Jammine forecasts a dra- longer-term survival. matic fall in government revenue, but is “Incentivising young talent to join thankful that South Africa will have the the sector is also a vital thrust that ability to borrow from the IMF at low cannot be ignored,” Tomes says. “If we interest rates. Metelerkamp has pointed cut educational initiatives like bursary to the massive pressure on the fiscus, schemes whenever there is a slump, we with the budget deficit breaching 16%; he will lose local expertise and capacity. This suggests that there will be less money for could lead to dependence on outside skills, infrastructure projects in the longer term. which is a downward spiral of resources However, Tomes reminds the sector leaving the country.” that it has been through fires in the past, and has endured. It is about building a IMPORTS OR JOBS? vision, working together and creating The Covid-19 lockdown is also bringing concrete possibilities. the ongoing discussion on cement imports to a head, says Tomes. He highlights that Info these imports have grown 30% on last Maxine Nel All AfriSam’s plant and equipment have year’s volumes, placing an even greater AfriSam been well maintained during the lockdown strain on local cement producers. +27 11 670 5893 and are ready to go, and staff are well “With our high unemployment rate set [email protected] www.afrisam.com prepared for re-opening to rise even further, government should be

14 July 2020 Civil Engineering CONSTRUCTION AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The upgrading of Baden Powell Drive (R310) between the N2 and Vlaeberg Road

Mish-al Booley Pr Eng, PMP Production Engineer and Contract Coordinator Western Cape Government: Transport and Public Works [email protected]

John Craig Pr Eng, Pr CPM, FSAICE Senior Project Engineer EFG Engineers (Pty) Ltd [email protected]

Theo La Grange Pr Eng, Pr CPM Project Director EFG Engineers (Pty) Ltd [email protected]

Jan Henning Pr Eng Senior Resident Engineer EFG Engineers (Pty) Ltd The upgrading of Baden Powell Drive [email protected] between the N2 and Vlaeberg Road in progress

PROJECT DESCRIPTION interchange between Baden Powell Drive Traffic data AND BACKGROUND and Van Riebeeck Road. Traffic along the route fluctuates consid- Baden Powell Drive (the R310) is a busy erably, with high seasonal and weekend arterial road that runs from Muizenberg Geometry peaks, because: to Stellenbosch. It is the main access road The original Baden Powell Drive was con- QQ it is one of the main gateways to the between Stellenbosch and Cape Town structed in 1970 and consisted of a single Stellenbosch Wine Route area via the N2. It provides access to Cape carriageway with a 3.6 m lane and a 1.2 m QQ it is a commuter route between Town International Airport, the Cape surfaced shoulder in both directions. The Stellenbosch and Cape Town, and Town Film Studio, industrial hubs, wine quarter link road between Baden Powell QQ it carries traffic from Cape Town farms and various townships. The road is Drive and Van Riebeeck Road consisted International Airport. also heavily used by tourists, cyclists and of a single carriageway with a 3.6 m lane The route is also utilised by pedestrians pedestrians, particularly on weekends. and a 1.8 m surfaced shoulder in both and cyclists to access employment Based on high traffic volumes and directions. Van Riebeeck Road, also and leisure opportunities on the sur- the need to rehabilitate the existing constructed in 1970, is a dual carriageway rounding wine farms and residential single carriageway, the Western Cape with each carriageway having a width estates. Government Transport and Public of 10.8 m. The estimated annual average daily Works: Road Network Management traffic in both directions in 2017 was Branch (WCG) launched a project in 2018 Existing road pavement approximately 16 000, with heavy vehicles to upgrade approximately 5 km of the At the time of construction, Baden accounting for 6% of this volume. R310 between the N2 National Road and Powell Drive and Van Riebeeck Road Vlaeberg Road within the City of Cape had an asphalt surface on a G3 base of Street lighting and services Town and Stellenbosch Municipality. An approximately 150 mm, and a G5 subbase The only street lighting along Baden additional project element was the up- of approximately 200 mm. Both roads had Powell Drive was at the Cape Town Film grading of the quarter link at the partial been resealed several times. Studio and De Wijnlanden intersections.

Civil Engineering July 2020 15 QQ Streetlights were installed over almost the full length of the project. THE CONSTRUCTION PROJECT The project was awarded to Civils 2000 (Pty) Ltd in the amount of R283 million with a 24-month contract period. The commencement date was 12 April 2018 with a scheduled completion date of 14 April 2020. There have been several extensions of time for reasons relating to extra work to accommodate new City of Cape Town Widening under way in a cutting near the water services, a revision to an access to De Wijnlanden Residential Estate entrance accommodate a new development, as well as dealing with work disruptions linked For safety reasons, and due to the high QQ A new dual carriageway quarter link to the current Covid-19 pandemic. These traffic volumes on Baden Powell Drive, between Van Riebeeck Road and add up to 82 working days, taking the street lighting was installed over almost Baden Powell Drive was constructed. completion date to 14 August 2020. the full length of the project. QQ A new access road to Faure Village was There are various Telkom, Eskom, City constructed. Road work of Cape Town, Passenger Rail Agency of QQ The access road to Faure Station was As has been said above, Baden Powell South Africa (PRASA) and other services relocated. Drive is a busy road. It was therefore im- in close vicinity of the works, which QQ A new bridge was constructed on the portant to maintain unrestricted two-way required traffic accommodation during northbound carriageway of Baden traffic as far as possible, while permitting the construction work. Powell Drive alongside the existing unhindered and safe work conditions for The City of Cape Town main water bridge. the contractor. bulk line from the Steenbras Dam is also QQ The existing bridge on the southbound Traffic was accommodated on the ex- reasonably close to the works and needed carriageway of Baden Powell Drive was isting Baden Powell Drive so that the new to be protected during construction. rehabilitated. northbound carriageway could be con- QQ A section of Van Riebeeck Road in the structed first. Traffic was then switched OVERALL SCOPE OF WORKS direction of Eerste River had to be low- to the new carriageway so that the The main items that were executed under ered to get adequate bridge clearance. original southbound carriageway could be the project were as follows: QQ Three agricultural underpasses were rehabilitated. All traffic accommodation QQ Baden Powell Drive was upgraded to constructed, and stormwater struc- was carried out by a subcontractor in a double carriageway by constructing tures were built or extended. accordance with Chapter 13 of the SA the new carriageway next to the QQ The existing irrigation channel was Road Traffic Signs Manual. Because of the existing road as the northbound relocated in sections. high standard of traffic accommodation, carriageway. QQ The terminals of the on- and off-ramps there was only one construction-related QQ The existing Baden Powell Drive at the N2 interchange were improved. accident. was rehabilitated as the southbound QQ Traffic signals were installed at all the The new carriageway traverses a fairly carriageway. major intersections. large cutting near the De Wijnlanden

Construction of a 300 mm C4 stabilised subbase under way

16 July 2020 Civil Engineering Residential Estate entrance road and crosses a narrow area situated in the Meerlust Farm Dam. Special measures had to be taken where unexpectedly poor material was encountered in the cutting, while the area in the vicinity of the dam required a pioneer layer of rockfill due to the wet and marshy conditions in that area. The layer works of the new roads consist of 40 mm of A-R2 asphalt on a 150 mm G2 base, a 300 mm C4 subbase, and a 300 mm G7 selected layer.

Structural work Major structural work included a new 90 m × 13.7 m bridge on Baden Powell Drive where it crosses the railway The placing of precast beams over the line and Van Riebeeck Road alongside railway line for a new bridge was undertaken the existing bridge. The new bridge during a one-weekend occupation period consists of a 250 mm deck on 72 precast prestressed beams supported by two bottom of a damaged edge beam, and the Community participation abutments and five piers. The wet and application of a protective coating to the WCG set the contractor strict com- muddy founding conditions required piers and balustrades. munity participation goals (CPGs) for foundation improvements at all piers and Other structural work consisted of local labour in terms of person-days and abutments. new agricultural underpasses at Meerlust, work opportunities, targeted enterprises The placing of the precast beams Kompanjiesdrift and Klein Welmoed wine and the implementation of an Emerging over the railway line was a challenging farms, as well as a 40 m × 3 m retaining wall Contractor Development Programme, experience. The initial challenge for at the Kompanjiesdrift bus stop. each within specific geographical target Civils 2000 was to establish a line of areas. The potential for community communication with representatives of Ancillary works unrest in the local municipal areas was PRASA and to get their consent. Civils The City of Cape Town Bulk Water managed through regular monitoring 2000 received occupation of this section Department wished to install sleeves with and reporting from two locally appointed of the railway line from 20:00 on Friday diameters of 600 mm and 1 800 mm under community liaison officers. The Emerging 16 February 2019 until 05:00 on Monday Faure Village Road, the new Quarter Link, Contractor Development Programme 19 February 2019 for the placing of the and Van Riebeeck Drive for future new was implemented by the main contractor precast beams over the railway line. water mains for the Faure Water Scheme. and managed by a Project Management This operation was done without any The WCG and the City of Cape Town Team (PMT) made up of representatives problems and was assisted by supervisors agreed that it would be more cost-effective from the main contractor, consultant and from PRASA. During the occupation to install these sleeves under an agreement employer. The PMT had monthly meet- period, passengers were transported with the current Baden Powell Drive con- ings to monitor the management of all between Eerste River Station and Strand tractor. The contract was duly amended to aspects regarding the award, mentoring Station by bus. include this work. and development of emerging contractor The existing bridge on Baden Powell A large number of services belonging subcontracts. Drive was rehabilitated by sealing cracks, to Telkom, DFA, MTN, Vodacom and All of the CPG goals were achieved undertaking spalling repairs, the ap- Eskom were either relocated away from well before the completion date and plication of carbon fibre membrane to the new roads or protected by installing significantly exceeded the targets, as is the piers, the fixing of a steel plate to the them into sleeves. evident in the last column of Table 1. This

Table 1 CPG goals and achievements up to the end of May 2020

CPG Target % Target value Achieved %

Targeted labour (person-days) – 60 000 90 678 151%

Targeted labour (work opportunities) – 260 394 151%

Targeted enterprises (CPGs) 20% of net contract value* R46 million R116 million 250%

Local enterprises 25% of CPGs R11.6 million R23 million 197%

Emerging contractor development 25% of CPGs R11.6 million R12 million 102%

* Net tender amount = R245 million, excluding value-added tax

Civil Engineering July 2020 17 A score of 85% or better was achieved in 14 of the 18 audited months, and there were no fatalities or life-threatening inju- ries on construction-related work. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND INNOVATIONS A few of the problems encountered and solutions implemented included the following: QQ Poor roadbed conditions in some areas, such as at the Meerlust cutting, required the placing of a geotextile membrane on the roadbed. QQ Ongoing theft of construction traffic signs during the duration of the con- Poor roadbed conditions in some areas, tract necessitated regular replacing of such as at the Meerlust cutting, required the the signs and deploying of security. placing of a geotextile membrane on the roadbed QQ Repeated theft of underground electric cables during the latter part of the achievement was the clear result of Civils involved the transfer of engineering skills, contract forced the contractor to 2000 implementing most of the contract entrepreneurial skills and generic skills to backfill the trench excavation with work using subcontractors and procuring these emerging contractors. soilcrete. goods from local enterprises. Five emerging contractors with CIDB QQ Drawn-out negotiations with service gradings of 3CE to 5CE were utilised and owners resulted in the frequent re- Training carried out work worth a total of approxi- scheduling of activities linked to these It was a requirement of the contract that mately R21 million. services. a significant amount of training had to Work done by 5CE contractors be carried out, including environmental consisted of the construction of asphalt PROJECT STATUS AND awareness, road safety for construction berms, walkways, paving, gabions and IMPACT OF COVID-19 workers, laying underground services, flag road marking, while work undertaken by Apart from a 24-working-day delay operator duties, and basic firefighting. 3CE contractors entailed the installation because of Covid-19, the main contractor All of 378 people were trained in en- of kerbing and precast culverts. and subcontractors were faced with the gineering skills for 29 days at a total cost following challenges: of R450 000, and 648 people were trained Environmental management QQ Some senior supervisory staff were in life skills for 13 days at a total cost of The environmental consultant appointed not able to return to work after R320 000. for the project was SLR Consulting who Alert Level 4 of the National State of provided the on-site environmental of- Disaster had been lifted because of Emerging contractor development ficer to ensure that all work was carried co-morbidities and age restrictions. The Department of Transport and Public out in accordance with the applicable QQ Suppliers had to overcome some of Works has a plan to support the profes- Environmental Management Plan. The the restrictions on return, resulting in sional development of emerging contrac- plan provided for environmentally ap- delays in the supply of materials. tors in the Western Cape so that they propriate practices and monthly auditing QQ Covid-19 regulations that impose can improve their Construction Industry in respect of waste generation, stormwater mandatory minimum distances be- Development Board (CIDB) grading. The discharge, emission of pollutants, soil tween workers had a negative impact Baden Powell Drive contract aimed to erosion, and deformation or destruction of on certain production activities. support the development of emerging the environment. There were no signifi- Despite the various challenges and inter- contractors with a CIDB grading of 3CE cant environmental incidents during the ruptions, the contract will in all prob- and 5CE. construction period. ability be completed within the extended Civils 2000 participated in the contract period. Contractor Development Programme Occupational health and safety (OHS) through awarding subcontracts to The appointed safety agent, SafetyCon, Key players emerging contractors in the 3CE to conducted monthly audits and submitted Western Cape Government: Client 5CE range, following a structured monthly OHS reports. The only time Transport and Public Works pre-qualification and tender process. that scores were lower than acceptable Once appointed and on site, they were was during the initial stages of the bridge Contractor Civils 2000 (Pty) Ltd mentored, guided and assisted by Civils and underpass construction, but the Consulting 2000 throughout their involvement with identified shortcomings were quickly EFG Engineers (Pty) Ltd Engineers the project. A large part of the process rectified.

18 July 2020 Civil Engineering  TransporTaTion planning EFG Engineers excels at Civil Engineering projects and provides value added services for warehousing, retail, industrial, commercial, residential and mixed use development. Our  Traffic EnginEEring services include planning and design of access control, parking layouts, traffic flow optimisation and municipal services.  road & infrasTrucTurE dEsign (Pty) Ltd  Municipal sErvicEs Engineers

 3A Queen Street Tel: 021 975-3880 conTracT adMinisTraTion yEArS EnginEErs Durbanville E-mail: [email protected] EST. 2000  projEcT ManagEMEnT 7550 www.efgeng.co.za Curling of concrete ground slabs

Roderick Rankine Construction Materials Specialist Rod Rankine Engineering Solutions [email protected]

Bryan Perrie Managing Director The Concrete Institute [email protected]

JC Lategan Figure 1 Curling of ground slabs is caused by differential drying of concrete – fastest, and Director most thoroughly, from the exposed top surface; this causes the slab to warp, or cup, Premier Concrete Floors upwards [email protected] Overview regularity, rocking slabs, relative vertical Curling of concrete ground slabs is movement between panels leading to loss a natural phenomenon caused by of load-transfer by aggregate interlock Cecil Tembani Director differential drying shrinkage and is between adjacent panels, cracking due Premier Concrete Floors characterised by lifting of the perimeter to loss of support under perimeter [email protected] corners and edges. Serviceability may be edges, sealant failure and edge spalling. compromised due to changes in surface Unfortunately, there is little that can be

Figure 2 An excellent example of extreme curling of concrete panels in the apron at Walvis Bay Airport after a rare high rainfall event; note the extreme lifting of corners and perimeter edges relative to the centre (Photo: Roderick Rankine)

20 July 2020 Civil Engineering particularly if load transfer with adjacent slabs is absent or compromised (Figure 3). Curled slabs may start rocking in service, particularly if regularly traversed by heavy traffic and/or impact loads. In cases where the subbase has been poorly compacted, the repeated movement at the joints can cause further settlement and an increase in the size of voids in the subbase beneath the joints. Figure 3 Corner cracking of curled slabs under heavy traffic is a common symptom of curled In a healthy floor, aggregate interlock ground slabs, particularly if load-transfer is absent or compromised; the elevated beneath a saw-cut in a contraction joint corner essentially becomes an unpropped unreinforced cantilever is a critical load-transfer mechanism whereby a narrow irregular crack (induced by the saw-cut to relieve tensile Groove, sawn and reamed, stresses due to shrinkage within the or moulded, and sealant concrete) transfers load from a panel on one side of the saw-cut to the panel on the d opposite side. Because cracks are induced 50 4 by saw-cuts at an early age, the crack path tends to skirt around strong/stiff aggre- 75 75 d gate particles rather than run in a vertical plane directly through them. The ag- Induced crack gregate particles therefore mesh together, like gears in a gearbox, which provides a convenient mechanism for the transfer of load between opposite panels straddling Reinforcement, if any, to be stopped off short of joint these joints. The effectiveness of this load transfer depends on a number of factors, Figure 4 Saw-cut contraction joint with induced crack beneath the saw-cut with a tortuous including the width of the joint opening. path that skirts around aggregate particles which facilitates efficient load-transfer, Generally, it is assumed that joints that via aggregate interlock, provided the joint does not open excessively do not open wider than about 1 mm may be effective in load transfer, but joints done to prevent curling, but, with a thor- panels cup towards the sky (Figure 1). The that open wider than 1 mm, in areas of ough understanding of how it occurs, it problem of curling is well recognised in heavy traffic or loading, are compro- can be minimised by skilful design and concrete industrial slabs on the ground mised. According to work undertaken by material selection, and its symptoms (Figure 2). Colley and Humphrey (1967), for design thereafter can be managed as part of an Damp proof membrane (DPM), or purposes, a saw-cut contraction joint that ongoing maintenance regime. any other impermeable plastic sheeting opens 1.5 mm is only capable of transfer- beneath a slab may aggravate/exacerbate ring 15% of its potential load-transfer WHAT IS CURLING AND problems associated with curling and capacity.* Repeated relative vertical HOW IS IT DEFINED? irregular crack inducement and opening movement, combined with the opening of Curling occurs because concrete dries of saw-cut contraction joints. A saturated saw-cut contraction joints, due to drying out unevenly. Typically, the upper surface, subbase at the time of casting can exacer- shrinkage, can gradually grind away at the which is exposed, dries faster and desic- bate curling, as it will prevent any drying interlocking aggregates, resulting in loss cates more thoroughly than the underside, from below. of load-transfer capacity and an increase which is not exposed to the air, and so a If curling is prevented, for example in relative vertical differential movement moisture gradient develops (differential by heavy loads imposed on a slab, tensile between adjacent panels on opposite sides drying of concrete). Because drying stresses will develop in the upper part of of saw-cut contraction joints (Figure 4). shrinkage of hardened concrete is caused the concrete slab. If this tension exceeds In warehouse facilities with very primarily by loss of moisture (which occu- the tensile capacity of the concrete, the high racking (typically 8 m and higher) pies volume), the top surface experiences slab will crack. Alternatively, where more shrinkage than the concrete lower unrestrained edges of concrete panels down. As a result, rectangular panels have curled and lifted clear of the sub- * Large aggregate particles (say 26 mm stone) curl or “cup” upwards – their perimeter base support, subsequent loading of the afford better interlock and better load lifts, especially the extreme corners, edges, particularly at corners, may lead transfer than small aggregates where the since these are furthest from the centre. to diagonal corner cracking since the joint opening is significant on account of Because shrinkage is proportional to loss unsupported corners effectively become the greater tortuosity of the crack skirting of moisture from the surface, individual unpropped unreinforced cantilevers, large around particles.

Civil Engineering July 2020 21 Any measures that reduce drying shrinkage will reduce curling. QQ The combined grading of coarse and Drying shrinkage is shrinkage associated with the loss of water from fine aggregates should be adjusted to minimise water demand. The largest the cement gel which occurs in concrete subsequent to it setting. available size of aggregate should be used, consistent with the thickness of and/or very narrow aisles, where tight and Kapernick (1958) succinctly by the slab. surface regularity tolerances need to be stating, “Extended curing only delays Unfortunately, besides following the observed, curling of floor slabs may result curling, it does not reduce curling”. To a above guidelines, a specialist flooring in unacceptable undulations in the surface limited extent, both drying shrinkage and contractor has virtually no control over which may compromise the safety of curling can be ameliorated by minimising the shrinkage and potential curling of the operation. the amount of mix water and selecting concrete ground slabs. Local ready-mix The presence of an impermeable optimal aggregates. Nevertheless, there is concrete suppliers manufacturing ready- plastic membrane beneath the floor always likely to be a tendency for concrete mixed concrete in accordance with SANS slab prevents any loss of moisture from panels to shrink and curl. 878:2012 Ready-mixed Concrete do not below (either by absorption into the Technical Report 34, Concrete take responsibility for the shrinkage of soil layerworks and/or by evaporation), Industrial Ground Floors, published by concrete supplied by them. Clause 15 which worsens the problem of curling. the UK Concrete Society (2013), states the of SANS 878:2012, under the heading Furthermore, plastic sheeting under following: Durability and Shrinkage, states “In slabs reduces friction between the soil QQ All concrete shrinks as the water the event of durability or shrinkage and the underside of the slab. As a in the concrete evaporates to the requirements, or both, the mix design result, the joints that successfully induce atmosphere. The prediction of drying shall be submitted for approval to the cracks (as intended) generally open shrinkage is complicated ... Concrete customer before the commencement of excessively and adjacent saw-cuts either floors usually lose more water from the contract. Based on the acceptance of side of these often do not induce cracks the upper surface, resulting in non- these mixes, the manufacturer shall only at all – often several joints either side uniform shrinkage and, potentially, be responsible for ensuring that the ap- of the functioning joints (with induced curling. Any steps taken to reduce proved mix proportions and ingredients cracks) fail to induce cracks and open. shrinkage will reduce curling. are maintained within the batch toler- Excessive opening of some joints can re- QQ Although curing is of great impor- ance specified in Clause 7”. sult in load transfer being lost altogether. tance in achieving a durable concrete Even if the engineer, or purchaser of Construction joints may be particularly floor, it does not reduce shrinkage. A the concrete, diligently performs tests prone to excessive opening, since these floor will eventually dry and shrink by to measure shrinkage of samples of the offer little initial resistance to drying an amount that is almost independent supplier’s mix, there is likely to be a large contraction, unlike saw-cut joints where of when that drying begins. discrepancy between the shrinkage values the concrete beneath the saw-cuts must QQ The main factors influencing drying measured under accelerated laboratory initially resist some tension to induce shrinkage are the volume of cement conditions and real-world ground slab them to crack and open. paste and its water content. Cement conditions, since experience has shown and water content should be as low as that accelerated laboratory shrinkage CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS possible, consistent with the specified tests do not accurately mimic real site maximum free-water/cement ratio conditions. Moreover, even the acceler- Drying shrinkage and choice of materials and the practicalities of placing and ated tests take considerable time to yield Any measures that reduce drying finishing. The maximum water/ce- results – more time than is often available shrinkage will reduce curling. Drying ment ratio should be 0.55. The use of on current fast-track projects. shrinkage is shrinkage associated with water-reducing admixtures is strongly For reasons not fully understood, the the loss of water from the cement gel recommended. incidence of excessive curling has become which occurs in concrete subsequent to QQ Although the cement paste is usually more prevalent in recent decades. There it setting. On termination, or absence, of the only component of concrete that are various theories as to why problems curing, the rate of drying proceeds most undergoes significant shrinkage, some associated with drying shrinkage and rapidly at the beginning of a structure’s aggregates are known to have high curling appear to have increased. These life and then slows asymptotically, but levels of drying shrinkage. include finer grinding of cement, the continues indefinitely. Ongoing shrinkage strains have been measured decades after Even if the engineer, or purchaser of the concrete, diligently performs concrete had been cast. Drying shrinkage may cause extreme internal stresses and tests to measure shrinkage of samples of the supplier’s mix, there is forces within the body of concrete. likely to be a large discrepancy between the shrinkage values measured Longer moist-curing periods have little effect on drying shrinkage and under accelerated laboratory conditions and real-world ground slab curling, other than delaying the onset. conditions, since experience has shown that accelerated laboratory The American Concrete Institute (ACI) (1992) summarises the work by Childs shrinkage tests do not accurately mimic real site conditions.

22 July 2020 Civil Engineering increasing use of high-early-strength A large percentage of reinforcement (say at least 0.25% of the total cements and the use of water-reducing admixtures which may increase shrinkage cross-sectional area) in the bottom of a slab will tend to exacerbate despite reducing the water content. It the problem of curling by preventing lateral contraction at the bottom. should not be assumed that the incor- poration of a high-range water-reducing The same reinforcement at the top will help to combat curling. admixture (or superplasticiser) will automatically bring about a corresponding limited to the lesser of 30 times the slab Climate reduction in drying shrinkage. A fact thickness or 4.5 m. The problems associated with drying that is not generally appreciated is that Joint intervals greater than 4.5 m also shrinkage and curling are far more the ASTM admixture standard (ASTM C result in both a larger band of perimeter pronounced in arid climates (such as 494/C494M – 17) allows up to 35% more concrete losing contact with the subbase, Kimberley, Bloemfontein and Gauteng) shrinkage in test specimens with admix- as well as saw-cut contraction joints where ambient atmospheric relative tures than in control specimens (without opening wider, and losing load-transfer humidity is low compared with that in admixtures). capacity by aggregate interlock, since humid climates (such as Durban). As a the width of the joint opening is directly rule-of-thumb, for slender concrete ele- Floor slab design and geometry proportional to the panel dimensions and ments such as very thin 75 mm ground Within limits, observing empirical to the drying shrinkage. slabs in a domestic house, the amount dimensional proportions can limit the As a result of the perceived increase of drying shrinkage in an arid inland harmful effects of drying shrinkage and in the incidence and severity of curling, climate, such as Kimberley (average curling. The larger the concrete panel, some specialist flooring designers and RH = 46%) in the Northern Cape, is the greater the risk of curling. The contractors have adopted a more conser- about double that of equivalent concrete thinner the panel, the more likely it will vative rule-of-thumb that the panel size in a moist coastal climate such as Port be to curl. should not exceed 25 times the slab thick- Elizabeth (average RH = 79%) (Alexander Standards for constructing such ness or 4.0 m, whichever is less. & Beushausen 2009). ground slabs (such as SANS 10109-1: A large percentage of reinforcement 2012) and handbooks on ground floors (say at least 0.25% of the total cross- Layerworks give empirical rule-of-thumb guidelines sectional area) in the bottom of a slab will Curling, although present in most ground to reduce the effects of curling. Since tend to exacerbate the problem of curling slabs, is often accommodated by bedding the amount of lifting of perimeter edges by preventing lateral contraction at the down of the convex centre of the slab into of curled slabs is proportional to the bottom. The same reinforcement at the the subbase. Elevated edges and corners distance of the perimeter edges from the top will help to combat curling. However, are often able to resist imposed loads centres of panels, larger panels tend to the use of reinforcement in ground slabs is and rocking by some load sharing across experience worse symptoms of curling. problematic, since it must remain in place joints through aggregate interlock and/or Traditionally, the rule-of-thumb to limit when trodden upon and it must never run dowels (load transfer). However, in some curling and drying shrinkage cracking (in continuously across contraction joints – instances where the founding subgrade jointed unreinforced floors) has been to these requirements may be easy to specify, or subbase has been heavily compacted ensure that the maximum panel size is but they are seldom achieved in practice. or cement-stabilised, the layerworks may

Civil Engineering July 2020 23

Thermal Integrity Profiler (TIP)

The TIP system assesses concrete quality along the shaft, by measuring heat generated by curing cement. Thermal Wire® Cables are installed along the cage and replace access tubes, that are used in CSL testing. With Cloud Enabled technology, the TAG and TAP Edge boxes collect thermal data in real time, and push data to the cloud, allowing engineers to analyze data remotely, without wasting project time. To learn more about TIP, visit www.pile.com. Figure 5 Exaggerated schematic showing the difference between a subbase which is sufficiently soft and compliant so as to allow convex bellies of curled slabs to bed down (left) and a very stiff subbase, such as a cement-treated subbase, which resists bedding down (right).

Drying shrinkage and curling are inherent characteristics of concrete other material can provide a floor surface ground slabs, but invariably they are scarcely present, and not that is economical, easily formed, hard, abrasion- and impact-resistant, and du- recognisable, at the time of acceptance/handover. These are inherent rable. Unfortunately, over a long period of properties of concrete, although their extent may vary depending on time, concrete also shrinks and curls as it dries. At the time of acceptance/handover factors well beyond the control of the contractor and material supplier. no appreciable curling will exist and it will not be possible for either the specialist be so hard and stiff that there is little design professionals ought to know about flooring contractor or the client to deter- possibility of accommodating the central these long-term characteristics and they mine whether a floor will curl excessively. convex underside of the concrete as the should warn their clients accordingly. This needs to be understood and accepted slab curls, i.e. the curled central convex If this is done appropriately, then it is by facility owners. Since the symptoms of under-surface is unable to bed down into unlikely that a latent defect could be drying shrinkage and curling are largely the subbase so that the outer edges of the considered in this instance. beyond the control of the concrete sup- slab remain supported by the soil. Instead, All materials have inherent charac- plier and specialist flooring contractor, it individual slabs will tend to rock like a teristics and unique properties, and many would be both unreasonable and unfair rocking horse on the stiff founding layer materials are selected for a unique property to hold these parties responsible for the (Figure 5). despite the knowledge that that specific remediation of these symptoms – this property may change over time, or that the follows the established principle that IS CURLING A PATENT OR LATENT same material may have another undesir- someone cannot be held accountable DEFECT OR NEITHER? able property likely to cause problems for what is clearly beyond their control. As a general rule, if a buyer had the elsewhere. For example, neoprene is used The symptoms of drying shrinkage and opportunity to inspect an item before for O-rings and oil seals because of its curling therefore need to be monitored purchase/delivery but nevertheless ac- elastomeric nature, heat resistance and oil and managed as part of any facility’s cepted a patently defective item, he or resistance despite the fact that it becomes ongoing maintenance programme. she will have no recourse to the seller. A brittle with time and will fail and need flaw is a defect only if it is an “abnormal” to be replaced. This change in character RECOMMENDATIONS TO characteristic, which a reasonable buyer is not normally considered to be a latent MINIMISE UNDESIRABLE would not expect to find in a reasonable defect. And transparent polycarbonate is CONSeQUENCES OF CURLING item. According to Wille’s Principles of used for roof sheeting because it admits QQ Avoid the temptation to design/ South African Law (Dubois et al 2007), a light despite the fact that it degrades under cast industrial floors too thin. Most latent defect is a defect that is not readily ultra-violet light and may shatter when slabs exhibiting excessive curling are discoverable on a proper inspection by an struck by hailstones. thinner than 200 mm. Advise clients ordinary buyer. The seller is held liable for Engineering is both an art and a of the disproportionate compromise any latent defect that destroys or substan- science, and the choice of material is in flexural strength and risks of tially impairs its utility or effectiveness. invariably a compromise between what is malfunction due to drying shrinkage The aedilitian remedies protect the buyer economically viable, buildable, structur- and curling if the floor thickness is in respect of latent defects only if such ally adequate and durable. Substituting shaved in the interests of a slightly defects exist at the time of sale. The onus one material for another with a specific reduced initial material cost. Most of proving the latent defect existed at the desirable quality often solves one problem clients would naturally assume that time of sale is on the buyer. but creates another. lost strength and increased risks vary Drying shrinkage and curling are in- There are currently few viable alterna- in direct proportion to thickness, herent characteristics of concrete ground tives to concrete industrial floor slabs. No whereas in fact these factors vary slabs, but invariably they are scarcely present, and not recognisable, at the Engineering is both an art and a science, and the choice of material is time of acceptance/handover. These are inherent properties of concrete, although invariably a compromise between what is economically viable, buildable, their extent may vary depending on structurally adequate and durable. Substituting one material for another with factors well beyond the control of the contractor and material supplier. Competent a specific desirable quality often solves one problem but creates another.

24 July 2020 Civil Engineering exponentially. As a rule-of–thumb, a change of just 25 mm in the thickness of a 200 mm-thick slab on ground will double or halve its flexural strength! QQ In jointed unreinforced floors, do not exceed a joint interval of 4 m. If a joint interval of more than 4.5 m is specified, the risks of curling and joint distress rise disproportionally. QQ Where possible, use a proven low- shrinkage concrete with a maximum water content of 180 L/m3 and 26.5 mm stone (aggregate). QQ Pre-empt the inevitable and temper client expectations by explaining the risks and consequences of curling to Figure 6 Joint filling and rocking slab stabilisation by injection of polyurethane expanding the client upfront (at tender stage) foam into the void beneath saw-cut contraction joints at regular intervals; rather than waiting to do so after as the foam expands, it rises and infiltrates the joints from the bottom up problems due to drying shrinkage and (Photo: Chris Howes Construction) curling have started to manifest. A well-informed client is more likely to may need more drastic treatment.) More last 10 years) been used locally in the sta- agree to prudent design proposals at recently, expanded polyurethane (PU) bilisation of some rocking freeway slabs on inception and is less likely to complain foams have gained popularity due to their the Griffiths Mxenge Freeway in Umlazi and demand compensation after lower viscosity, ability to expand into voids in KwaZulu-Natal, on the N1 Freeway, as symptoms of curling manifest years and their faster curing times (Figure 6). well as in several commercial facilities. after taking occupation. A specialist Typically, such treatment involves drilling Polyurethane foam has some advantages flooring contractor might even holes (approximately 6 to 8 mm in diam- over cementitious grout, including its include a clause in the contract in eter at centres of approximately 300 mm) ability to flow into very narrow spaces which it is explicitly stated that some through existing saw-cut contraction without stiffening in transit (which is a drying shrinkage and curling is to be joints where relative movement can be problem with cementitious grouts) and the expected, that it is not a latent defect, detected, and injecting proprietary poly- fact that it cures rapidly, which minimises and that the contractor will not be urethane foam into the void space(s) under the quarantine time before the slab can be responsible for the costs of remedial slabs. A two-component polyurethane is put back into service (generally less than work necessary to correct symptoms, injected (in liquid form) into any voids be- one hour). The cost of PU foam support but that he would be willing to under- neath the joint where it reacts and expands reinstatement is generally less (by about take remedial work and maintenance (by about 2.5 times the volume of the half) than the cost of slab demolition and work for some mutually acceptable fee. parent ingredients) to form a rigid foam recasting, and it is quicker and less disrup- as it solidifies. If applied optimally, this tive. It should be noted that this is a spe- REMEDIATION OF FLOORS EXHIBITING expanding foam will infiltrate and fill the cialised operation that requires a bespoke SERIOUS SYMPTOMS OF DRYING vertical space created by drying shrinkage polyurethane formulation and specialist SHRINKAGE AND CURLING at saw-cut‑induced cracks. This may rein- skills. If it is undertaken by a novice, there state load transfer at these joints, but the may be an unacceptable risk of failure. Reinstating support under longevity of this restored load transfer is One possible mode of failure entails the edges and corners difficult to predict with certainty, because expanding foam lifting entire floor panels Traditionally, cementitious grout has been it depends on many factors, including so that they project above the rest of the injected through pre-drilled holes near traffic loads and frequency, the extent to floor. This would inevitably be remedied the edges of panels to fill the empty space which the foam penetrates the joint, foam by demolition of the raised panels. and reinstate support. (Note that it is density, the cleanliness of the joint, etc. prudent to check that rocking and relative This PU foam injection technique has Joint stabiliser cans movement are a consequence of curling been used internationally with success for Proprietary aluminium joint stabilisers and not due to loss of support which several decades and has recently (in the (or cans) comprise 75 mm diameter aluminium cylindrical mechanisms that Traditionally, cementitious grout has been injected through are inserted into 75 mm diameter vertical pre‑drilled holes near the edges of panels to fill the empty space cylindrical cavities drilled through the problematic joints with a diamond-tipped and reinstate support. (Note that it is prudent to check that rocking core drill, so that the equators of the holes and relative movement are a consequence of curling and not due coincide with the joint lines (Figure 7). The cylinder is then expanded inside the cavity to loss of support which may need more drastic treatment.) by means of an Allen key applied to a

Civil Engineering July 2020 25 Before specialist equipment. With care it may be possible to target high spots on general warehouse flooring by flooding the floor with water and grinding the high spots, which happen to be those parts that dry first. However, unless this is skillfully After done, grinding may exacerbate an already irregular floor. (Note that this applies Before to general warehouse flooring, but not all warehouse flooring. Grinding of very narrow aisles and defined movement floors is a highly specialised process best undertaken by specialist grinding contractors using specialist laser grinding Screw equipment.) Spring CAUTION Split cylinder Before embarking on any major remedial work described above, conduct a trial in a Wedge non-critical area to refine the application technique and evaluate the result.

Figure 7 Aluminium joint stabilisers (cans) (Source: Face Consultants) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to acknowledge the hex-head cap screw so that it exerts a large Grinding input of Dr Hylton Macdonald Pr Eng, outward/lateral thrust between adjacent In a warehouse where there is high who gave valuable advice on the defini- panels. The system has the advantages of racking and/or very narrow aisles, and tions of latent and patent defects within being quick to install and individual stabi- therefore an onerous requirement for a the ambit of concrete floors in construc- lisers can be tightened/stressed further in tight tolerance on surface regularity, it tion contract law. future as panels shrink/curl further. These may be possible to grind the high spots devices may be suitable for indoor use in at panel edges/joints to level the floor. REFERENCES applications where the diurnal temperature This often necessitates removal of a ACI (American Concrete Institute) 1992. fluctuation is minimal. They should not be large volume of concrete from the edges ACI 360R-92. Design of Slabs on Grade. deployed externally or where ground slabs and corners of panels. The grinding Farmington Hills, MI: ACI. are exposed to sunlight because the cans process is messy/dusty and noisy, and Alexander, A & Beushausen, H 2009. Fulton’s effectively immobilise joints, precluding likely to disrupt operations. Grinding Concrete Technology, 9th ed. Midrand: their closure and thereby preventing them reduces the thickness of the panels at Cement & Concrete Institute, p 138. from accommodating thermal expansion. the corners where stresses are greatest. Childs, L D & Kapernick, J W 1958. Tests of (These stabiliser cans are manufactured Unless support has been reinstated concrete pavements on gravel subbases. by Concrete Grinding in England and are under elevated corners, these are likely Proceedings of the American Society of Civil supplied in South Africa by Royal Floors. to rupture since they are effectively Engineers, 48, HW3. unpropped unreinforced cantilevers. Colley, B E & Humphrey, H A 1967. Aggregate Full-depth joint reconstruction Furthermore, grinding permanently interlock at joints in concrete pavements. Where joints are badly damaged and changes the aesthetics of the floor. Development Bulletin D124, Skokie, IL: exhibit deep edge spalling, full-depth Ground areas will expose the flat faces Portland Cement Association. repair is usually the best remedial option. of aggregate particles in a sea of cement Concrete Society, UK 2013. Concrete Industrial The handbook Concrete Industrial Floors paste. Unground areas will have a more Ground Floors: A Guide to Design and on the Ground by Marais and Perrie (1993) uniform flat grey appearance. Construction. TR 34 Ed. 4. Camberley: UK gives several options (method statements) It should be appreciated that con- Concrete Society. for detailing the thin strip of concrete to crete grinding is a specialised process Du Bois, F, Bradfield, G & Wille, G (Eds) 2007. be reinstated. best undertaken by professionals with Wille’s Principles of South African Law, 9th ed. Cape Town: Juta, p 897. It should be appreciated that concrete grinding is a specialised Perrie, B D & Marais, L R 1993. Concrete process best undertaken by professionals with specialist equipment. industrial floors on the ground. Midrand: Portland Cement Institute. With care it may be possible to target high spots on general SANS (South African National Standard) warehouse flooring by flooding the floor with water and grinding 2012. SANS 10109-1:2012. Part 1. Bases to concrete floors. Pretoria: SABS Standards the high spots, which happen to be those parts that dry first. Division.

26 July 2020 Civil Engineering RETAINCROSS

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oxygen, more stable corrosion products misinterpretation thereof. This article Dr Mike Otieno School of Civil and Environmental Engineering such as haematite and magnetite (Cornell is motivated by the increasing number University of the Witwatersrand & Schwertmann 1996; Liu 1996; Care et al of studies using accelerated corrosion [email protected] 2008) are formed. When there is a limited techniques to simulate natural steel cor- supply of oxygen, less stable/soluble rosion in various exposure environments. products such as ferrous hydroxide can It is based on the author’s vast practical INTRODUCTION be expected. experience over the years with a number Due to the slow nature of the natural Accelerated corrosion techniques of steel corrosion acceleration techniques steel corrosion process in concrete, continue to be used despite several cri- (Otieno, Beushausen & Alexander 2010; coupled with the urgent need for working tiques and results from previous studies Otieno, Beushausen & Alexander 2016; solutions for corrosion-related problems showing that most may not be closely Otieno et al 2019), and it is envisaged that in reinforced concrete (RC) structures, representative of the natural corrosion it will provide general guidance, especially the use of accelerated corrosion of steel process in aspects such as concentration for postgraduate students, with respect to to simulate corrosion and/or predict (and penetration) of corrosion-inducing carrying out accelerated steel corrosion corrosion-induced damage is common. species and corrosion-induced damage experiments to assess corrosion initiation Such damage includes cover cracking, (Miyagawa 1985; Andrade, Alonso & and its propagation (including corrosion- spalling, loss of steel cross-section and Molina 1993). The techniques used to ac- induced damage such as cover cracking). loss of member stiffness. These simulation celerate chloride-induced corrosion, their techniques are inexpensive and fast, but strengths and limitations, are reviewed ACCELERATING CHLORIDE-INDUCED have inherent drawbacks, some of which and possible applications discussed. STEEL CORROSION IN CONCRETE will be discussed in this article. Accelerated steel corrosion in concrete NEED TO ASSESS THE TECHNIQUES Use of impressed current (IC) refers to a corrosion process that occurs at AND THEIR APPLICATIONS The acceleration of corrosion using IC a faster rate than a corresponding natural Although there are no standards or is a common technique used to study one (Otieno 2014). The effects of ac- guidelines for carrying out experiments corrosion-induced damage such as cover celerated corrosion can therefore be seen on steel corrosion in concrete, it is cracking in RC structures. It involves and evaluated within a relatively short important to use the correct technique the application of direct anodic IC to the period of time. However, regardless of or combination of techniques for embedded steel using a galvanostat, a po- whether the corrosion of steel in concrete simulating and/or accelerating steel tentiostat, or a variable DC power supply. is natural or accelerated, both anodic and corrosion or corrosion-induced damage The latter is most commonly used. When cathodic reactions still occur (Austin, in concrete. Unfortunately, the different a galvanostat or variable DC power supply Lyons & Ing 2004). Depending on the steel corrosion acceleration techniques is used, a cathode embedded in concrete oxygen concentration (relative to the rate available result in different corrosion or an external one (e.g. stainless steel or of anodic reaction) and the pH, different morphologies and corrosion-induced copper) can be used. Typical experimental corrosion products (in terms of composi- damage which, if not well understood, can set-ups for this technique are shown in tion, density, expansion volume and lead to biased experimental results and Figures 1(a) and (b). The use of an external stability) may be formed (Schwertmann & Cornell 2000; El Maaddawy & Soudki The acceleration of corrosion using IC is a common technique used to 2003; Jaffer & Hansson 2009). These factors (pH and oxygen concentration) study corrosion-induced damage such as cover cracking in RC structures. are extremely variable and are difficult It involves the application of direct anodic IC to the embedded steel to quantify in an in-service RC structure. When there is an adequate supply of using a galvanostat, a potentiostat, or a variable DC power supply.

28 July 2020 Civil Engineering Power supply (galvanostat) Reservoir + on concrete + Electric cable surface

Cathode Chloride-based Chloride-based e.g. stainless steel solution e.g. NaCl solution e.g. NaCI

Reinforcing steel (anode) Reinforcing steel (anode)

Cathode e.g. stainless steel

Concrete (a) External cathode specimen (b) Internal cathode

Figure 1 Set-ups for accelerated corrosion of steel in concrete using a galvanostat

Variable DC power supply

+ Voltage data logger Reservoir on Cathode Chloride-based concrete surface e.g. stainless steel solution e.g. NaCl . V Current (I) Resistor (R) (I ∙ t) Computer ∑ Time (t) Reinforcing steel (anode)

Concrete specimen

Figure 2 Set-up for accelerated corrosion using a variable DC power supply

If a potentiostat is used, an externally Potentiostat applied constant potential is applied to RE AE WE Electric cable push the anodic potential away from the equilibrium state and hence accelerate steel corrosion in the concrete. A system of three electrodes (i.e. working electrode, Ionic solution WE (steel bar), reference electrode, RE (e.g. e.g. NaCl, Ca(OH)2, etc MnO2) and auxiliary/counter electrode, AE/CE (e.g. stainless steel) is used (see Figure 3) (Kapat, Pradhan & Bhattacharjee Reference electrode e.g. MnO 2 2006; Tang 2017). The RE should be placed Concrete specimen Working electrode (steel) as close as possible to the WE (or attached to the WE embedded in the concrete) to Note: RE: Reference electrode; AE: Auxilliary electrode; WE: Working electrode increase the accuracy of measurement of the potential of the WE. Just as in the Figure 3 Set-up for accelerated corrosion using a potentiostat case of using a galvanostat, an internal RE (embedded in concrete and either attached cathode is usually preferable and easy to in the specimens due to a number of to or placed close to the WE) or an external implement; an internal cathode should factors, such as varying concrete resis- RE (placed in the electrolyte solution) can only be used if either the corrosion rate tivities, even in specimens of the same be used. This technique can be used not assessment technique or the experimental concrete. It is therefore important that a only to accelerate steel corrosion, but also set-up, or both, demand(s) it. If a single set-up such as the one shown in Figure 2 in accelerated corrosion initiation and DC power supply is to be used on a is used to determine the total effective accelerated chloride migration tests to de- number of specimens simultaneously, a IC through each specimen using Ohm’s termine the critical chloride concentration series circuit should be used to connect law. In the set-up it is recommended that for steel corrosion initiation in concrete the RC specimens. However, it is impor- ceramic resistors of low resistance and (Otieno et al 2016; Jin 2016; Wu et al 2019; tant to note that, even if the specimens are high wattage, which can withstand high Wang et al 2019). connected in a series circuit, the effective temperatures when in operation, be used Compared with naturally corroding IC corroding the steel can still be different to avoid limiting the IC to the steel. systems, an IC system raises the potential

Civil Engineering July 2020 29 to a value greater than the pitting (or When IC is used, the amount of steel QQ The suitable IC density for acceler- transpassive) potential where the corro- dissolved at the anode (Fe  Fe2+ + 2e–) ating corrosion has been a subject sion rate does not correspond to an equi- can be estimated using Faraday’s Law: of debate. A review by El Maaddawy librium corrosion potential or a potential and Soudki (2003) showed that the obtainable under natural conditions (Care MIt IC densities used by researchers (45 ∆m = & Raharinanaivo 2007). This results in the zF to 10 400 μA/cm‌ 2) are 3–100 times steel bar being in an artificially polarised greater than the maximum current state (Austin et al 2004). The increase in where densities reported from field studies corrosion rate is due to an electric field on ∆m = mass of steel consumed at the involving natural corrosion. They the steel surface (Care & Raharinanaivo anode (g) recommend limiting the IC density 2007). In contrast to the ingress of chlo- M = molar mass of steel (56 g) to 200 µA/cm2 in order for close rides by a diffusion-dominated process in I = corrosion current simulation of natural corrosion char- in-service RC, chloride ion penetration t = duration of the corrosion process (s) acteristics and structural response. in concrete when impressed current or z = valency of steel (equal to 2) However, it is not clear whether their voltage is used creates a chloride ion front ρ = density of steel (7.85 g/cm3) recommendation is applicable to in- (flux) in the concrete and can be modelled F = Faraday’s constant (96 500 C/mol). vestigations involving aspects of corro- using the Nernst-Planck equation, which sion and/or corrosion-induced damage governs the movement of ions in a solu- Even though the use of IC has the ad- other than structural response, and it tion under an electrical field, i.e. migra- vantage of allowing corrosion rates (and needs to be investigated. tion/electro-diffusion (Tang & Nilsson hence the degree of damage) to be varied, 1992; Andrade 1993). the following criticisms have been made Cyclic wetting and drying It is also important to note that in the against it: Corrosion can also be accelerated use of anodic IC, steel depassivation ex- QQ Previous studies (e.g. Alonso et al by cyclic wetting and drying with a hibits different characteristics from those 1998; El Maaddawy & Soudki 2003; chloride solution. The following are produced by chlorides. In the former case, Ballim & Reid 2003; Nyokana 2018) possible options that can be used for the the entire exposed surface area of the have demonstrated that using wetting phase: steel is anodic and hence results in general Faraday’s law to estimate corrosion QQ Application of a salt spray or fog in a corrosion; in the latter case, the chlorides, rates (in terms of steel mass loss) from closed chamber with controlled tem- having reached a threshold value, cause such tests is not valid, and can lead perature (e.g. see Mohamed, Otsuki localised breakdown of the passive film to overestimation or underestimation & Hamada 2003; Vidal, Castel & at discrete locations on the steel surface, of steel mass loss. El Maaddawy and François 2007). In most cases, the salt while the remaining steel area becomes Soudki (2003) state that the degree of spray is uniformly distributed around cathodic. This results in a larger cathode- variation between predicted mass loss the concrete specimen. to-anode area ratio and hence higher (based on Faraday’s law) and actual QQ Full or partial immersion in a chloride- corrosion rates in the anodic areas. The mass loss is also dependent on the IC solution bath. Typical concentrations anodic IC also alters the local chemistry density applied. of chlorides in the salt bath range of the pore solution of the concrete near QQ A current efficiency of 100% is seldom from 3% (Cairns, Dut & Law 2009) to the steel by changing the ionic distribu- achieved, i.e. not all the applied or 5% (Cabrera 1996) by weight of the tion in the pore solution of the concrete resulting current is consumed in solution. around the steel, attracting and repelling, dissolution of the steel (Alonso et al QQ Ponding on one face (usually the top respectively, anions and cations. 1998; Nyokana 2018). For example, face) with a chloride-solution (Otieno A further difference between this results by Ballim and Reid (2003), in an et al 2016; 2019). This is one of the technique and natural corrosion is that accelerated corrosion study to inves- most commonly used wetting and both galvanostatic and potentiostatic tigate the effect of corrosion on beam drying techniques and simulates techniques prevent repassivation of deflection, showed that Faraday’s law natural exposure conditions (e.g. steel which can take place in in-service overestimated mass loss and that the the marine tidal zone) where spatial RC structures (Chalhoub, François & current efficiency was less than 100%, distribution of chlorides is expected. Carcasses 2019). typically 70%. It has been experimentally shown to simulate natural corrosion processes It is also important to note that in the use of anodic IC, steel better than the use of impressed cur- depassivation exhibits different characteristics from those produced rent or admixed chlorides (Yuan, Ji & Shah 2007), and has been adopted by chlorides. In the former case, the entire exposed surface area in the ASTM G109 Standard Test of the steel is anodic and hence results in general corrosion; in the Method (2007) to assess the resistance of concretes to chloride-induced steel latter case, the chlorides, having reached a threshold value, cause corrosion. localised breakdown of the passive film at discrete locations on the Typical techniques used to dry specimens in the drying phase include steel surface, while the remaining steel area becomes cathodic. removal of the chloride solution, e.g. by a

30 July 2020 Civil Engineering vacuum device as in ASTM G109, or ex- Cyclic wetting and drying with a chloride solution accelerates corrosion posure to ambient or elevated temperatures (temperature and relative humidity by (i) increasing the rate of chloride penetration by capillary suction may be controlled). The use of elevated temperature has been criticised because rather than by diffusion, and (ii) allowing the replenishment of it damages the concrete microstructure oxygen at the cathodes on the steel surface to sustain the corrosion which then affects the transport mechanisms (Collier et al 2008). process. These two processes occur during the drying phase. Cyclic wetting and drying with a chloride solution accelerates corrosion stable and less voluminous corrosion accelerated corrosion experiment using by (i) increasing the rate of chloride products, and hence gives more space cyclic wetting and drying. penetration by capillary suction rather for corrosion agents to reach the steel. than by diffusion, and (ii) allowing the Even though Malumbela contends that Use of admixed chlorides replenishment of oxygen at the cathodes longer drying phases simulate in-service This technique involves the use of on the steel surface to sustain the corro- structures more realistically than shorter chlorides, usually as common salt (NaCl), sion process. These two processes occur ones, this conclusion should be applied ranging from 1% (Mangat & Elgarf 1999) during the drying phase. Previous studies selectively to RC structures depending to 5% (El Maaddawy & Soudki 2003) by have shown that in this technique the on the exposure conditions. Logically, weight of cement, uniformly distributed longer the drying phase, the higher the the choice of either short or long drying in the concrete. The result is the forma- corrosion rate. For example, Malumbela phases should be based on a balance tion of very small corrosion micro-cells, (2010) reported a 55% increase in cor- between accelerating the corrosion rate in contrast to what is found under most rosion rate in RC beam specimens of and simulating in-service exposure natural conditions where chlorides are the same concrete when the air-drying conditions. Furthermore, a recent study spatially distributed. In most cases, it duration was increased from 2 to 4 days, by Otieno et al (2019) found that, in also has the main disadvantage that the while keeping the wetting duration addition to drying duration, concrete formation of the passive protective film (using 5% NaCl solution) constant at 2 quality also affects the corrosion rate of on the steel surface will be hindered. days. This trend is attributed to adequate steel in concrete in a cyclic wetting and Furthermore, it does not allow chloride drying which allows oxygen to penetrate drying regime. It is therefore important binding to take place, and can affect the to the steel. The availability of dissolved to take both concrete quality and drying alkalinity of the pore solution. oxygen also allows the formation of duration into account when designing an This technique is, however, useful for investigations in which macro-cell cor- This technique involves the use of chlorides, usually as common rosion is desired. In such cases, a portion salt (NaCl), ranging from 1% to 5% by weight of cement, uniformly of concrete in a test specimen is admixed with chlorides, while in the remaining distributed in the concrete. The result is the formation of very small portion no chlorides (or in some cases, corrosion micro-cells, in contrast to what is found under most a lower concentration of chlorides) are admixed (Arito et al 2012). Furthermore, natural conditions where chlorides are spatially distributed. it can also be used to investigate the

Civil Engineering July 2020 31

South Africa It is possible to use more than one technique to accelerate chloride- and concrete cover. This approach is induced corrosion of steel in concrete in an experimental set-up, for therefore not recommended and should not be used. example using admixed chlorides along with cyclic wetting and drying. CLOSING REMARKS effectiveness of an electrochemical a dry RC specimen (at least dry up to the Different techniques for accelerating chloride-extraction system (Elsener, steel level) in a chloride solution. Drying the chloride-induced corrosion of steel Molina & Bôhni 1993). is usually carried out at relatively low tem- in concrete, including their strengths peratures of around 50°C or by exposure to and limitations, have been discussed in Use of simulated concrete ambient temperatures to avoid microstruc- this article. It is clear that it is not pos- pore solutions (SPSs) tural damage such as cracking (Pigeon et al sible to rank the effectiveness of these This technique is used mainly to study 1993; Garcia et al 2014). techniques, because different mechanisms the effect of various concrete pore solu- are involved in each technique and these tions on the corrosion kinetics of steel in Combined corrosion‑acceleration result in different corrosion morphologies. concrete (Jaggi, Bôhni & Elsener 2001; techniques However, it is possible to recommend Joiret et al 2002). SPSs have also been used It is possible to use more than one applications for the various techniques to study chloride thresholds for steel in technique to accelerate chloride-induced based on past experimental results concrete, with results indicating that they corrosion of steel in concrete in an obtained by various researchers. Table 1 give lower values than those determined experimental set-up, for example using presents a summary of the possible using concrete or mortar (Scott 2004; admixed chlorides along with cyclic applications of the various techniques. As Yu, Chang & Yang 2012). This may be wetting and drying (Arito et al 2012). It is stated earlier, two or more techniques can attributed to chloride binding and the also possible, in some cases, to accelerate be combined in an experimental set-up to steel-mortar/concrete interface condi- the achievement of corrosion initiation achieve the desired effect(s). In summary, tions, in which a lime-rich layer not only (or its elimination) by using admixed the following factors should be considered acts as a physical barrier, but also buffers chlorides or impressed current techniques when selecting a technique or combina- the action of chloride activity – this and thereafter allowing natural corrosion tion of techniques to accelerate chloride- inhibition function cannot be provided by to progress (Otieno 2014). However, it is induced corrosion of steel in concrete: homogenous SPSs. The main drawbacks important to check the compatibility of QQ Stage of corrosion to be investigated – with the use of SPSs are the following: the different techniques used regarding initiation and/or propagation QQ Simulated pore solutions do not ac- the specific aspects of chloride-induced QQ Need to only eliminate the corrosion curately reflect the true mechanisms corrosion to be investigated. initiation phase (and let the propaga- of steel corrosion in concrete as there tion phase proceed naturally) is no bonding of hydrates to the steel, Comment on mechanical grinding QQ Whether it is the corrosion process nor is there variability in the pore solu- of steel to simulate mass loss or corrosion-induced damage to be tion chemistry that may exist within Some researchers (e.g. Dladla 2014) have investigated localised regions of the concrete. taken the approach of grinding a portion QQ Effect of corrosion-induced damage on QQ Previous investigations into the of the steel cross-section (in most cases e.g. structural response, concrete-steel electrochemical behaviour of iron using a hand-held angle grinder) to bond, etc. (steel) immersed in alkaline solutions simulate steel cross-section mass loss due It is important to take these factors into have shown very low oxidation kinetics to corrosion. The grinding is carried out account, considering that in most cases (Joiret et al 2002). before the steel is embedded in concrete data obtained from accelerated steel QQ It is difficult to determine the actual specimens. Although steel corrosion corrosion experiments is used for both concrete pore solution chemistry to does result in cross-section mass loss, numerical and empirical modelling, and be simulated. There is no standard the corrosion morphology is significantly for the validation of numerical models. pore solution chemical composition different from that obtained by grinding Finally, it should be noted that, even and hence no standard procedure can action. Furthermore, the steel-concrete though data on natural corrosion is lim- be adopted to make one. The use of interface bond is also significantly dif- ited, investment should be made in long- cement extenders and the introduction ferent in both cases, being higher in the term field corrosion experiments covering of new cements means that pore solu- case of grinding. In short, it bypasses the various aspects of corrosion. This will tion chemistry varies from one binder steel corrosion process and consequently help in comparing accelerated and natural to another. the associated corrosion-induced damage corrosion test results. The grinding of on the steel, steel-concrete interface steel to simulate cross-section reduction Accelerated capillary suction This technique is used mainly to accelerate Some researchers have taken the approach of grinding a portion of chloride penetration in order to shorten the corrosion initiation phase. It is usually the steel cross-section (in most cases using a hand-held angle grinder) used to investigate the chloride threshold to simulate steel cross-section mass loss due to corrosion. The grinding of concretes (Nygaard & Geiker 2005; Garcia et al 2014). It involves immersing is carried out before the steel is embedded in concrete specimens.

32 July 2020 Civil Engineering Table 1 Comments on the use of various techniques for accelerating chloride-induced steel initiating corrosion: A new set-up taking the corrosion localized aspect of corrosion into account. Technique Comments Cement and Concrete Research, 124: 14 QQ Eliminates the corrosion initiation phase (by chloride migration) Collier, N C, Sharp, J H, Milestone, N B, QQ Corrosion propagation: Hill, J & Godfrey, I H 2008. The influence Impressed – assessment of corrosion-induced damage, e.g. cover cracking current of water removal techniques on the – simulation of different degrees of corrosion on RC structural members QQ Can be used to determine chloride threshold (in potentiostatic IC set-ups) composition and microstructure of hardened cement pastes. Cement and QQ Shortens corrosion initiation phase (by increased rate of chloride diffusion) Concrete Research, 38(6): 737–744. Cyclic wetting QQ Corrosion propagation (simulation of tidal/splash marine zones) and drying QQ Can be used to assess the effect of duration of wetting/drying periods on Cornell, R & Schwertmann, U 1996. The Iron corrosion initiation and its propagation Oxides: Structure, Properties, Reactions,

QQ Eliminates the corrosion initiation phase Occurrence and Uses, 1st ed. Weinheim, Admixed QQ Results in uniform corrosion of steel Germany: Wiley-VCH. chlorides QQ Suitable in cases where RC is exposed to chloride ingress from all phases Dladla, T 2014. The behaviour of patch- QQ Altered pore solution chemistry can affect corrosion initiation (and repaired and FRP-strengthened RC beams. Simulated pore propagation) MSc dissertation, Department of Civil solutions QQ Useful in determining chloride threshold Engineering, University of Cape Town. QQ Shortens corrosion initiation phase El Maaddawy, T A & Soudki, K A 2003. Capillary suction QQ Can be used to determine chloride threshold Effectiveness of impressed current technique to simulate corrosion of steel Mechanical Not recommended for use to simulate steel corrosion in concrete grinding of steel reinforcement in concrete. ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 15(1): 41–47. Elsener, B, Molina, M & Bôhni, H 1993. due to corrosion is not recommended for ASTM-G109 2007. Standard Test Method Electrochemical removal of chlorides from use in corrosion studies as it bypasses the for Determining Effects of Chemical reinforced concrete structures. Corrosion steel corrosion process and consequently Admixtures on Corrosion of Embedded Science, 35(5–8): 1563–1570. the associated corrosion-induced damage Steel Reinforcement in Concrete Garcia, V, François, R, Carcasses, M & on the steel, steel-concrete interface and Exposed to Chloride Environments. Gegout, P 2014. Potential measurement concrete cover. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM to determine the chloride threshold International, p 6. concentration that initiates corrosion of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Austin, S A, Lyons, R & Ing, M J 2004. reinforcing steel bar in slag concretes. The author acknowledges with gratitude Electrochemical behavior of steel- Materials and Structures, 47: 1483–1499. the support over the years of The reinforced concrete during accelerated Jaffer, S J & Hansson, C M 2009. Chloride- Concrete Institute, the National Research corrosion testing. Corrosion, induced corrosion products of steel in Foundation, PPC (Pty) Ltd, AfriSam, Sika 60(2): 203–212. cracked-concrete subjected to different (SA) (Pty) Ltd and a.b.e (SA). Ballim, Y & Reid, J C 2003. Reinforcement loading conditions. Cement and Concrete corrosion and the deflection of RC beams – Research, 39(2): 116–125. References An experimental critique of current test Jaggi, S, Bôhni, H & Elsener, B 2001. Macrocell Alonso, C, Andrade, C, Rodriguez, J & methods. Cement and Concrete Composites, corrosion of steel in concrete: Experiments Diez, J M 1998. Factors controlling 25(6): 625–632. and numerical modelling. Proceedings, cracking of concrete affected by Cabrera, J G 1996. Deterioration of concrete due Eurocorr 2001, 1–4 October 2001, Milan, reinforcement corrosion. Materials and to reinforcement steel corrosion. Cement Italy, p 11. Structures, 31(7): 435–441. and Concrete Composites, 18(1): 47–59. Jin, Z, Zhao, X, Zhao, T & Yang, L 2016. Andrade, C 1993. Calculation of chloride Cairns, J, Dut, Y & Law, D 2008. Structural Interaction between compressive load and diffusion coefficients in concrete from performance of corrosion-damaged corrosive-ion attack on reinforced concrete ionic migration measurements. Cement concrete beams. Magazine of Concrete with accelerated potentiostatic corrosion. and Concrete Research, 23(3): 724–742. Research, 60(5): 359–70. Construction and Building Materials, Andrade, C, Alonso, C & Molina, F J 1993. Care, S & Raharinaivo, A 2007. Influence 113(15): 805–814. Cover cracking as a function of bar of impressed current on the initiation Joiret, S, Keddam, M, Novoa, X R, Perez, M C, corrosion: Part I-Experimental test. of damage in reinforced mortar due to Tangel, C & Takenouti, H 2002. Use of EIS, Materials and Structures, 26(8): 453–464. corrosion of embedded steel. Cement and ring-disk electrode, EQCM and Raman Arito, P A, Beushausen, H, Alexander, M G Concrete Research, 37(12): 1598–1612. spectroscopy to study the film of oxides & Otieno, M 2012. The use of discrete Care, S, Nguyen, Q T, L’Hostis, V & Berthaud, Y formed on iron in 1M NaOH. Cement and sacrificial anodes in reducing corrosion 2008. Mechanical properties of the rust Concrete Composites, 24(1): 7–15. rate in chloride contaminated layer induced by impressed current method Kapat, C, Pradhan, B & Bhattacharjee, B 2006. reinforced concrete. Proceedings, 3rd in reinforced mortar. Cement and Concrete Potentiostatic study of reinforcing steel in International Conference on Concrete Research, 38(8–9): 1079–1091. chloride contaminated concrete powder Repair Retrofitting and Rehabilitation, Chalhoub, C, François, R & Carcasses, M solution extracts. Corrosion Science, 3–5 September 2012, Cape Town, p 6. 2019. Determination of chloride threshold 48: 1757–1769.

Civil Engineering July 2020 33 Liu, Y 1996. Modelling the time-to- level required to initiate reinforcement in cracked concrete. Part I: Experimental corrosion cracking of the cover concrete corrosion in concrete. Materials and studies under accelerated and natural in chloride-contaminated reinforced Structures, 38: 489–494. marine environments. Cement and concrete structures. PhD Thesis. Virginia Nyokana, A 2018. Effect of concrete quality and Concrete Research, 79: 373–385. Polytechnic Institute and State University. cover depth on the efficiency of impressed Otieno, M, Golden, G, Beushausen, H & Malumbela, G 2010. Measurable parameters anodic current to induce corrosion of Alexander, M G 2019. Acceleration of steel steel in concrete. Master’s Dissertation. for performance of corroded and repaired corrosion in concrete by cyclic wetting RC beams under load. PhD Thesis. University of the Witwatersrand, and drying: Effect of drying duration and University of Cape Town. Johannesburg. concrete quality. Materials and Structures, Mangat, P S & Elgarf, M S 1999. Flexural Otieno, M B 2014. The development of 52(2): 1–14. strength of concrete beams with corroding empirical chloride-induced corrosion Pigeon, M J, Garnier, F, Pleau, R & Aitcin, reinforcement. ACI Structural Journal, rate prediction models for cracked and P-C 1993. Influence of drying on the 96(1): 149–158. uncracked steel reinforced concrete chloride ion permeability of HPC. Concrete Miyagawa, T 1985. Early chloride corrosion of structures in the marine tidal zone. reinforcing steel in concrete. PhD Thesis. PhD Thesis. University of Cape Town. International, 15(2): 65–69. University of Kyoto. Otieno, M B, Alexander, M G & Beushausen, Schwertmann, U & Cornell, R M 2000. Iron Mohamed, T U, Otsuki, N & Hamada, H H-D 2010. Corrosion in cracked and oxides in the laboratory: Preparation 2003. Corrosion of steel bars in cracked uncracked concrete: Influence of crack and characterisation, 2nd ed. Weinheim, concrete under marine environment. ASCE width, concrete quality and crack re- Germany: Wiley-VCH. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, opening. Magazine of Concrete Research, Scott, A N 2004. The influence of binder type 15(5): 460–469. 62(6): 393–404. and cracking on reinforcing steel corrosion Nygaard, P V & Geiker, M R 2005. A method Otieno, M, Beushausen, H & Alexander, M G in concrete. PhD Thesis. University of for measuring the chloride threshold 2016. Chloride-induced corrosion of steel Cape Town. Tang, K 2017. Stray current induced corrosion of steel in fibre reinforced concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 100: 445–456. Civillain by Jonah Ptak: Tang, L & Nilsson, L O 1992. Rapid determination of the chloride diffusivity in Negative Reinforcement concrete by applying an electric field. ACI Materials Journal, 89(1): 49–53. For more engineering humour, please visit Vidal, T, Castel, A & François, R 2007. “Unreal Bridges” on Facebook and “@TheUnrealBridge” on Twitter. Corrosion process and structural performance of a 17-year-old reinforced concrete beam stored in a chloride environment. Cement and Concrete Research, 37(11): 1551–1561. Wang, Y, Liu, C, Wang, Y, Li, Q & Liu, Z 2019. Investigation on chloride threshold for reinforced concrete by a test method combining ANDT and ACMT. Construction and Building Materials, 214: 158–168. Wu, Z, Yu, H, Ma, H, Zhang, J, Da, B & Zhu, H 2019. Rebar corrosion in coral aggregate concrete: determination of chloride threshold by LPR. Corrosion Science, doi.‌org/10.1016/j.corsci.2019.108238. Yu, H, Chiang, K-T K & Yang, L 2012. Threshold chloride level and characteristics of reinforcement corrosion initiation in simulated concrete pore solutions. Construction and Building Materials, 26(1): 723–729. Yuan, Y, Ji, Y & Shah, S P 2007) Comparison of two accelerated corrosion techniques for concrete structures. ACI Structural Journal, 104(3): 344–347.

34 July 2020 Civil Engineering Construction claims, disputes and settlements

INTRODUCTION then results in the submission of frivolous Neville Gurry PrEng, PrPCM, FSAICE Construction claims, disputes and settle- claims, really upsetting all relationships. Specialist Construction Consultant ments are a nightmare for all concerned In today’s market of tight margins, in- Multi-disciplinary Mediator and Adjudicator – from the client through to the subcon- competence, and lack of experienced per- [email protected] tractor. The number of changes/claims is sonnel, a project and contracts manager’s inversely proportional to the definition job borders on the impossible. A suggestion of the scope – the poorer the scope, the on how to alleviate the situation is made It is extremely difficult to fully define larger are the number of changes/claims. towards the end of this article. the scope of work. In fact, it’s almost Most consultants and contractors do In most contracts, the parties may impossible, hence there will always be not relish the thought of submitting a only claim in accordance with the work not defined in the scope that has to claim, but in today’s market if you don’t contract because, by applying the claim be executed. It is understandable therefore claim for the work executed, you will clauses, the parties waive the right to that the person executing it should be certainly head for liquidation. It is prudent submit a claim directly to arbitration or paid for it, and if there is no automatic to recognise the situation and deal with court proceedings. There must always be re-measurable for compensation, the only it in a realistic, positive and sensible a cause and effect which relates to entitle- way is to claim. manner. This is much better than trying ments in terms of a clause in the contract. to brush things under the carpet until No clause – no claim. For example, if Claim fundamentals the end of the job for fear of upsetting the there are items that are not in the original There are a few fundamental things that contractual relationship. scope of work, the contractor will have to should be done if you are involved in It is almost unheard of that a project execute additional work, which obviously claims. These are: never changes from commencement to costs money. QQ Read the contract carefully at the start completion, and it is therefore obvious The resolution method of the claim of the project. that there will always be approved addi- determines the attitude on the project. QQ Study the scope of work at the start. tions and, if not approved, claims on any QQ Have an alignment meeting with all project. Once there is a claim, what hap- THE ATTITUDE OF THE ENGINEER parties concerned (see below). pens next is fundamental to the claimant. OR CONTRACTOR ON A PROJECT QQ Check that what you are doing is Although claims are generally associ- QQ Win/lose attitude: One party with an clearly stated in the contract scope. If ated with contractors, there are some in- all-out win attitude leaves the other not, list the variances in each variance stances where consultants have the right party very disgruntled and this gener- and do the following: to claim for additional compensation. ally results in a poor project. QQ define the difference Generally speaking, the scope definition QQ Lose/lose attitude: When both parties QQ cost the difference. will define this. have an all-out win attitude, this in- QQ Find a clause in the contract that al- Many contractors execute additional variably results in both parties losing. lows you to claim. If there is no clause, work at the beginning of a project at no QQ Win/win attitude: When both parties you have no claim. charge as they do not want to upset the work together, this results in the best QQ Give notice of your intention to claim, relationship with the engineer at the start. solution to any issue. stating the clause under which you In many instances the costs involved tend Remember that all successful projects have intend to claim (note that this must to mount up until such time that the con- a win/win attitude. A win/lose attitude be within the stipulated period in the tractor realises he is losing money, which very rarely results in a successful project. contract). Remember that any change or delay is Many contractors execute additional work at the beginning of a project at going to cost someone money. no charge as they do not want to upset the relationship with the engineer An alignment meeting is a meeting held between main parties to clarify the at the start. In many instances the costs involved tend to mount up until scope. Best results occur when an outsider such time that the contractor realises he is losing money, which then results is appointed to run the meeting. This was also discussed at length in a previous ar- in the submission of frivolous claims, really upsetting all relationships. ticle of the author (Project management in

Civil Engineering July 2020 35 the current environment, Civil Engineering, A detailed construction programme is a very good indication of a change in July 2016, pp 68–71) (also see Disruption circumstances which could result in a claim. If the schedule changes, make on construction projects, Civil Engineering, January/February 2016, pp 33–36). a note of what caused the change, the effect and who is liable for the costs. There are a limited number of reasons why a contractor may have the basis of a QQ Don’t submit fictitious claims – this DISRUPTION claim and only a few items are uncontrol- just wastes everyone’s time and is One of the biggest causes of cost overrun lable. Any change can constitute a claim prejudicial. is disruption. Disruption is loss of pro- by either party. Many contractors are QQ Don’t submit cumbersome claims and ductivity, disturbance, hindrance or inter- sometimes not aware that a particular set expect the adjudicator to do a lot of ruption to a contractor’s normal working of circumstances or events may constitute research on reference documents. methods, resulting in lower efficiency. In a claim. QQ Don’t assume that the adjudicator the construction context, disrupted work A detailed construction programme knows the contract. is work that is carried out less efficiently is a very good indication of a change in QQ Don’t labour the point in a claim. than it would have been, had it not been circumstances which could result in a QQ Don’t submit incomplete claims re- for the cause of the disruption. Disruption claim. If the schedule changes, make a quiring the engineer/employer’s agent/ is a significant cause of cost overrun note of what caused the change, the effect adjudicator to refer to outside sources on any project and if such disruption is and who is liable for the costs. for information. caused by the management or client team, To assess the extent and validity of QQ Don’t “stretch the tape” to make up for compensation for the contractor must be claims submitted properly, the following claims previously not submitted. paid to ensure job creation and industry provisions generally apply: stabilisation. Disruption has a significant QQ All facts and circumstances relating Do detrimental effect on any construction to the claims shall be investigated as QQ Do refer to ALL contract clauses that project and this effect is not always real- and when they occur or arise. For this are applicable to your claim. ised until long after it has occurred. purpose, the Contractor shall deliver to QQ Do keep the claim short and concise There are two components to disrup- the Engineer/Employer’s Agent records, with attachments as back-up. tion, the first being one that can be in a form approved by the Engineer/ QQ Do submit claims as soon as they measured, and the second one that is more Employer’s Agent, of all the facts and occur, even if it is early in the contract. subjective than measurable and occurs circumstances which the Contractor QQ Do always claim what you are entitled to. when there is a change on any project. This considers relevant and wishes to rely QQ Do submit a complete claim – change could be a delay, a change of scope upon in support of his claims, including remember the first submission is the or, in fact, any change whatsoever. Clearly, details of all construction equipment, best you will get. the effect is dependent on the change. labour and materials relevant to each QQ Do head ALL letters related to claims All disruption has a cost effect as any claim. Such records shall be submitted “Without Prejudice”. change incurs a cost. The two types of promptly after the occurrence of the QQ Do remember that claims are impor- disruption can be illustrated as follows. If a event giving rise to the claim. tant – do not rush them as you may contractor working in one area is instructed QQ The Engineer/Employer’s Agent may re- prejudice yourself in the future. to carry out identical work in another cord facts and circumstances, additional area, then (1) the disruption is quantifiable to those recorded by the Contractor, that DISPUTES because the cost of moving the crew plus he considers relevant and the Contractor If a claim is rejected, declare a dispute. equipment to another location can be shall, for this purpose, supply the Most contracts have a dispute resolu- measured; and (2) the disruption is also Engineer/Employer’s Agent with all the tion procedure ranging from mediation subjective because the reduction in produc- information he may require. through adjudication to arbitration. tivity of the team is extremely difficult to This stresses the importance of detailed Each process is more expensive than its measure, but it does have a significant effect and accurate daily diaries – if possible, predecessor. on costs. Furthermore, the cost of starting get the engineer/employer’s agent to sign Most contractors go straight to up again is generally not accounted for. No them off. a lawyer for any dispute resolution. team just starting in a new location reaches The contractor’s failure to comply Lawyers know the law, but do not gener- full productivity instantly. This means with the notice period stated in the con- ally understand construction. This can that on normal contracts, disruptions can tract will result in time barring. Any time be prejudicial to the contractor. In the eliminate a contractor’s total profit and his barring clause in a contract is enforceable. author’s opinion, the best way to resolve a contingency on the project. dispute is first to consult with an expert Change-related events on any project DO’S AND DON’TS OF CLAIMS construction manager who has had claims have a negative and synergistic effect on and dispute resolution experience. both changed and unchanged work. The Don’t QQ Don’t try to pull the wool over the en- If a claim is rejected, declare a dispute. Most contracts have a dispute gineer/employer’s agent/adjudicator’s resolution procedure ranging from mediation through adjudication eyes – he or she will catch you out and it will prejudice all future claims. to arbitration. Each process is more expensive than its predecessor.

36 July 2020 Civil Engineering It is recommended that, on award, an experienced contract or examine the merits of your claim – thereafter you may or may not need a claims consultant be employed on a temporary basis to read your lawyer’s assistance. contract, examine the scope of work and advise you of the potential CONCLUSION pitfalls. If you are concerned about the cost, ask for a quote first. Briefly, remember the following: QQ Know and understand your contract. compounding effect of the numerous com- It is recommended that, on award, an QQ Be aware of what is in your scope. pensable events is inadequately understood, experienced contract or claims consultant QQ Maintain records meticulously. difficult to quantify precisely, and seldom, be employed on a temporary basis to read QQ Get competent help if you need it – it’s if ever, reflected in the estimated cost of your contract, examine the scope of work not expensive in the long run. approved and pending project changes. and advise you of the potential pitfalls. If QQ Don’t make hasty decisions. Disruption has a significant effect on you are concerned about the cost, ask for a QQ Be proactive, not reactive. productivity. It is recommended that pro- quote first. It is your choice as to whether QQ If the contract dispute-resolution ductivity rates be measured as a milestone as the consultant continues advising on an clause calls for mediation (recom- early as possible on a contract and this mea- ad hoc basis. Record all events and discus- mended) and then adjudication, try surement must include the cost of start-up. sions, and if someone writes to you, be to get both mediator and adjudicator sure to answer the letter timeously. appointed at the start of the contract. RECOMMENDATIONS ON CONTRACTS Should you have a claim situation, QQ Declare a dispute if a claim is unrea- It is recommended that every contract ap- remember that the first submission you sonably rejected. points a standing mediator – this can be make is the best you will get, so ensure QQ If it gets to the stage that a mediator/ on a retainer basis or on an ad hoc basis. that it’s well presented. If the claim is adjudicator/arbitrator has to be Most small to medium contractors do not significant and with no disrespect to appointed, make sure that you get have a large management structure and your current advisor, it is recommended someone with experience in the field therefore cannot spend too much time on that you get a third party to review it relevant to your project and that the the paperwork. Regrettably, this can be before submission. Before you rush off person does not have any tie or obliga- very costly in the long run. to a lawyer, get a claims consultant to tions to either party.

Civil Engineering July 2020 37

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own suitable persons for appointment as Amicable Settlement Facilitators. This Bryan Westcott Pr Eng, FSAICE Chairman: SAICE ADR Panel the Arbitrator, Adjudicator or Amicable discipline covers mediation (facilitative Mediator and Adjudicator Settlement Facilitator. There are currently and evaluative), conciliation, negotiation, [email protected] approximately 60 names on the List. neutral facilitation and expert determina- The ADR Panel maintains and updates tion, and executive panel facilitation. the List. Listed professionals are required Amicable Settlement is a much maligned to renew their listing annually and, as and underutilised dispute resolution Johann du Plessis Pr Eng, FSAICE, FSAAE from January 2020, to pay a nominal technique. This can be traced, in part, Vice-Chairman: SAICE ADR Panel [email protected] renewal fee. The ADR Panel determines to the indiscriminate appointment of the criteria for an ADR professional to be inexperienced and untrained amicable included on the List. These include pro- settlement facilitators in the past. The fessional registration, appropriate educa- ADR Panel is seeking to redress this THE PANEL AND THE PRESIDENT’S tion and training, and relevant experience shortcoming by raising the require- LIST EXPLAINED in construction practice and construction ments for a professional to be included The so-called President’s List has been dispute management. Membership of on this list. It is hoped that in time this in existence for many years and contains SAICE, including associate membership, discipline will become more popular. a list of names of professional persons is a prerequisite. The ADR Panel has re- To this end the ADR Panel is currently who are competent to perform the duties cently decided to admit legal practitioners also giving attention to the training of of an ADR practitioner when disputes as Arbitrators (only), provided they have Amicable Settlement Facilitators and arise. ADR procedures can take the form the appropriate professional legal regis- the identification of training providers. of arbitration, adjudication and several tration and experience in construction Furthermore, the application fee for the forms of amicable settlement facilitation. disputes. The criteria are published on the nomination of an Amicable Settlement The latter includes mediation, concilia- SAICE website. Facilitator by the SAICE President has tion, negotiation and neutral facilitation, been greatly reduced. among others. Most of the persons on NEW INITIATIVES When requested to make a nomina- the list are professionals registered with The website page (https://saice.org. tion, the President, or his Nominee, the Engineering Council of South Africa za/the-presidents-list-of-alternative- studies the application and accompanying (ECSA), but a few are legal practitioners. dispute-resolution-professionals/) has documentation to ascertain whether the The SAICE Alternative Dispute recently been updated to make it more requisite processes have been followed Resolution (ADR) Panel is the custodian user-friendly in facilitating searches for prior to the request for a nomination. of the SAICE President’s List. Several suitable ADR professionals based on These include: versions of the General Conditions of experience, technical discipline and, if QQ Has the appropriate contract been Contract widely used in construction requested, geographic location. used and/or is the process of dispute contracts in South Africa allow for the Another initiative currently under resolution correctly described in the SAICE President to be approached under way is the review of the requirements for contract data? certain circumstances by disputing par- professionals to be included on the list of QQ Has a dispute been declared properly? ties, with a request to appoint a person to help resolve a dispute (e.g. Clause 10.9.1 of The SAICE Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Panel is the custodian GCC 2015). Other forms of contract, and even bespoke contracts, have a specific of the SAICE President’s List. Several versions of the General Conditions provision stipulating the SAICE President of Contract widely used in construction contracts in South Africa as the “Nominating Authority”. He (or she, of course) or his Nominee, refers to allow for the SAICE President to be approached under certain the List before making a nomination. The circumstances by disputing parties, with a request to appoint a List is also made available to the public to assist disputing parties to select their person to help resolve a dispute (e.g. Clause 10.9.1 of GCC 2015).

38 July 2020 Civil Engineering QQ Have the notices of dispute resolution QQ Any known pending litigation QQ Of these, 54% were adjudications and been correctly given? QQ The consulting engineer or employer’s 26% were arbitrations. QQ Have names been put forward for con- representative involved QQ In 91% of the cases, the claimant was a sideration by the responding party? QQ Parties representing either of the par- contractor. QQ Have the correct timelines been ties to the dispute (attorneys, claims QQ In 56% of the cases the respondent was followed? consultants and the like) a local authority. QQ Is the appropriate ADR procedure QQ Names previously rejected or other- QQ In 87% of the cases a consulting engi- being requested? wise not acceptable to either of the neer was involved. The nature of the project and the sub- parties. QQ Some 74 different ADR professionals stance of the dispute are examined to en- Once the above have been established and were appointed for these disputes, 14 able the Nominator to approach a suitable a holistic picture of what is required is of whom were in the Western Cape, 11 listee to handle the dispute. Aspects of formed, a nomination can be made. The in the Eastern Cape, 12 in KwaZulu- importance include: Nominator then enters the application Natal, 34 in Gauteng and one each in QQ The geographical area in which the and all relevant details into the database the Free State, the Northern Cape and project is located designed for this purpose. North West. QQ The geographical area(s) in which the QQ Testimony to the robustness of the disputing parties are located INTERESTING STATISTICS nomination process is the fact that QQ The type of project (engineering The following are some of the statistics during the past 11 years only once did discipline) drawn from the Nominator’s database a nominated ADR professional have QQ The nature of the dispute (mainly con- from the past almost 11 years, between to be removed as requested by the tractual, financial, technical, legal, etc) September 2009 and the end of May 2020: parties to a dispute. In this particular QQ Any history of previous dispute(s) on QQ Some 275 disputes were handled (or instance, medical reasons necessitated the same project about 26 per annum on average). the person’s removal.

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Civil Engineering July 2020 39 RESEARCH Keeping research on track: Applications of machine learning and virtual reality The adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) in civil engineering is a critical André Broekman PhD Candidate in Civil Engineering component of the future of society and a key factor in enabling the University of Pretoria [email protected] world’s largest cities. Machine learning and civil engineering have taken off in recent years and this industry is seeing growth that exceeds the national GDP. But as the data sets get bigger and more varied, it is harder Prof Hannes Gräbe Chair in Railway Engineering to train systems to learn from them efficiently. University of Pretoria [email protected] and bounds made in the sphere of AI re- condition monitoring solutions (Gräbe & search are rapidly spreading into different Broekman 2019). The NRF-funded, mul- sectors of engineering. Rail environments, tifunctional road rail vehicle (RRV) serves Take a minute to read through the with complex and varied characteristics, as the primary testing platform for various introductory paragraph again. It is not of cannot operate under preprogrammed, condition monitoring research projects our own thoughts or creation, but that of static rules for detection, localisation and that run in parallel (Figure 1). GPT-2, a text-generating neural network monitoring requirements to ensure reliable New measurement and digitisation developed by OpenAI (2020). The most and safe operations. To this end, the Chair techniques have been trialled at the recent release of GPT-3 (Brown et al 2020) in Railway Engineering at the University of University’s facilities, including the comprises an increased capacity totalling Pretoria (UP) has partnered with 4Tel (Pty) railway test track (Vorster & Gräbe 2013), 175 billion trainable parameters, reportedly Ltd, headquartered in Newcastle, Australia, namely photogrammetry using a UAV costing US$12 million to train. These leaps to develop state-of-the art railway (Figure 2, top) and an Emesent Hovermap

Figure 1 Maiden road rail vehicle (RRV) trial adjacent to the Beestekraal Stasie Restaurant near Brits

40 July 2020 Civil Engineering learning techniques. Representation learning techniques have repeatedly proved their generalisation ability, solving increasingly complicated tasks and delivering continued improvements in accuracy (Goodfellow, Bengio & Courville 2016). Deep learning has benefited significantly from the increasing availability of immense datasets, and the increased complexities and capacities resulting from efficiency improvements and the miniaturisa- tion of semiconductor manufacturing techniques for processor hardware. In the context of railway engineering, the natural emergence of Big Data applications is characterised by five key characteristics: velocity, variety, veracity, value and volume (Núñez et al 2014). Increasing digitisation of railway infrastructure is producing an ever-growing, continuous stream of data which is collected and aggregated from a variety of data sources. Low-cost sensors, data acquisition platforms and a diverse offering of edge devices, such as the Nvidia Figure 2 Photogrammetric (top) and LIDAR (bottom) reconstruction of a tangent section of Jetson Nano (Figure 3), have the potential railway track to address more frequent, lower-cost monitoring schemes that can be readily scaled LIDAR unit that can scan up to 300 000 reconstructions are uniformly distributed for industrial applications. points per second (Figure 2, bottom). across the scene instead of just the area of The performance of the LIDAR degrades interest, e.g. the rail profile. The relatively OPTICAL MEASUREMENT SOLUTIONS in the presence of reflective metals due to small dimensional features of the super- Taking advantage of low-cost hardware scattering effects, limiting the accuracy to structure, alongside highly specular features development platforms and the open approximately 40 mm. Photogrammetry of the rail, yield both methods inadequate source nature of AI frameworks, the methods improve the resolution to ap- for measuring small geometric deviations of University of Pretoria (Chair in Railway proximately 10 mm, but also rely on diffuse the track that are associated with roughness Engineering) is undertaking novel material properties for accurate reconstruc- and differential settlement. research to develop sophisticated optical tions. High-resolution photographs increase measurement solutions to address the the processing time to a few hours, even DEEP LEARNING TECHNIQUES current limitations of railway condition when modern workstations with dedicated Deep learning, also referred to as repre- monitoring. In a year marked by disrup- GPU hardware are employed. High-density sentation learning, is one of many machine tions not experienced in generations,

Figure 3 Nvidia Jetson Nano Development Kit (left) and demonstration of real-time object classification inference (right)

Civil Engineering July 2020 41 and soil textures in addition to high- resolution, high-dynamic range (HDR) environmental textures that accurately mimic real-world lighting conditions. Approximations of overhead traction equipment (OHTE) and conductors add realistic shadow effects to the ground that vary with the position of the sun, encoded within the environmental textures. Every component is assigned a unique identification number in order to generate individual binary segmentation maps, where the colour of the pixel corresponds to the occupancy of that particular class of component (Figure 5, middle row). These segmentation maps are useful for neural networks that perform object detection and segmentation for individual rail components. Blender’s Compositor allows access to additional camera data. The Z-buffer – the distance between every pixel on the camera’s imaging sensor and the scene geometry – is the ground truth depth map (Figure 5, bottom row). These depth maps serve as training data for the neural network, whereby distances can be inferred by the network based on a limited number of photographs used as input data. Neural networks preside over the representational capacity to encode the Figure 4 Comparison between the virtual environment (left column) and photographs taken of process of depth estimation through itera- the railway track and superstructure components (right column) (Credit: Rick Vandoorne) tive adjustment of its network parameters. This training procedure seeks to mini- virtual reality (VR) presented itself as the Various free repositories on the internet mise the disparity between the network’s primary solution to address the limited provide free-to-use environmental assets own output and that of the ground truth, availability of rail-specific datasets. to add elements such as vegetation, ballast otherwise referred to as the loss function. Modelling railway environments in a photorealistic, digital world has served as a valuable and reliable tool to recreate the required track conditions accurately. Blender is a comprehensive, open- source modelling and animation software suite that also includes a fully integrated Python API. Photorealistic results are created using Blender’s path-tracing rendering engine alongside parametric modifiers that are well suited to periodic railway elements (Figure 4, left). The renderings are strikingly similar when compared with photographs of the superstructure components and track as viewed from the perspective of a drone (Figure 4, right). All the superstructure components, apart from the e-clip, can be modelled from the standard specifica- tions, namely the sleeper, UIC60 rail profile and insulator pads. The e-clip Figure 5 Different camera views illustrating the colour renderings (top row), binary was digitised using the Department’s segmentation maps (middle row) of the rail, concrete sleeper and e-clip high-accuracy 3D scanner (EinScan Pro). respectively, and ground truth depth maps (bottom row)

42 July 2020 Civil Engineering Figure 6 Optimisation of camera orientation (left); orthographic projection of the track roughness spanning the 100 m section of track (right)

VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS accuracies, scaling the number of rendered REFERENCES Virtual environments provide nearly limit- samples for the model requirements is Broekman, A & Gräbe, P J 2019. Analysis, less control of all the scene parameters. trivial. The use of open source software, interpretation and testing of mesoscale Different optical properties of the camera such as Blender, has been adopted within ballast dynamics using Kli-Pi. Proceedings, can be modified, such as the sensor size, the Department of Civil Engineering at the International Heavy Haul STS Conference focal length, exposure, f-stop and motion University of Pretoria for processing and (IHHA2019), Narvik, Norway, pp 151–157. blur, as part of an optimisation process to visualising large point clouds generated by Brown, T B, Mann, B, Ryder, N, et al estimate the optimal camera configuration the LIDAR scanners (Figure 1), processing 2020. Language models are few-shot relative to the railway track (Figure 6, left). high-speed, uncompressed video files learners. Available at: https://arxiv.org/ These in turn improve the reconstruction generated by geotechnical centrifuge abs/2005.14165. accuracy through iterative training of the tests, designing 3D printed enclosures for Goodfellow, I, Bengio, Y & Courville, A 2016. neural network responsible for estimating various sensor platforms (Broekman & Deep Learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. depth maps of the railway track. Track Gräbe 2019), and for the statistical analysis Gräbe, H & Broekman, A 2019. Condition roughness can be incorporated as part of digital twin pavement surface character- monitoring on the digital railway. of the parametric model through the istics (Steyn et al 2019). Innovation News, Issue 14. Available at: introduction of Bezier curves. The track is https://www.up.ac.za/media/shared/404/ extruded along the curve, with the vertical CONCLUSION ZP_Files/innovate-14_web.zp183250.pdf offset of every point on the curve set equal Integration of these synthetic datasets (accessed in June 2020). to the desired value (Figure 6, right). The using virtual reality environments in the OpenAI 2020. Available at: https://openai. track roughness itself can be generated if research process has shown promising com/blog/better-language-models the power spectral distribution (PSD) of a initial results. Three-dimensional (accessed in June 2020). given track geometry dataset is available. reconstruction accuracies of railway com- Núñez, A, Hendriks, J, Li, Z, De Schutter, B & The integration of a Python API simplifies ponents are improved by orders of mag- Dollevoet, R 2014. Facilitating maintenance the integration of scripts for more ad- nitude compared with traditional photo- decisions on the Dutch railways using big vanced features, isolating the development grammetry pipelines. Neural networks data: The ABA Case Study. Proceedings, to a single software package in the process. are adept at learning the specular and ge- IEEE International Conference on Big Data, Once the scene is configured, the ometry properties that are associated not Washington, DC, pp 48–53. DOI:10.1109/ rendering process is initiated. The output only with railway components, but also BigData.2014.7004431. directories of the rendered files are with other infrastructure environments, Steyn, W J vd M, Jordaan, G J, Broekman, dynamically configured for every scene, notably construction sites. Artificial A & Marais, A 2019. Evaluation of novel allowing the computer to operate without intelligence software frameworks are in- winter-seal applications. Proceedings, 12th any intervention. On a modern workstation creasingly moving from a highly technical Conference on Asphalt Pavements for computer, the rendering process runs for a research field to integrated, commercial Southern Africa (CAPSA), Sun City, South few days up to a few weeks, depending on software and hardware solutions. Their Africa. the size of the dataset, output resolution proliferation serves as another powerful Vorster, J & Gräbe P J 2013. A new test and number of samples. With larger neural and versatile tool for the engineering track at the University of Pretoria. Civil networks requiring a minimum of a few community at large during the dawn of Engineering, 21(4): 35–39. Available at: thousand samples to achieve acceptable the Fourth Industrial Revolution. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC138343.

Civil Engineering July 2020 43 Prepared by City Insight (Pty) Ltd This article is part of a series reporting on research commissioned by the [email protected] [email protected] Local Government Sector Education and Training Authority (LGSETA). The Fourth Industrial Revolution in the Local Government Sector

The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR or digitisation) is changing for lifelong learning and continuous retraining to address skills how the world functions and provides the opportunity to mismatches arising from 4IR technologies. rethink development. 4IR offers more efficient and cost-effective technologies, such as increased connectivity, e-commerce, e- NEW STRATEGIES NEEDED government, artificial intelligence (AI), quantum computing, 3D National government can play a critical role in diffusing 4IR tech- printing, the Internet of Things, electric vehicles, drones, additive nologies (TIPS 2018). This could include providing financial incen- manufacturing, and blockchain technology (Schulze 2019; Menon tives, an appropriate legal framework, expanding connectivity, & Castrillon 2019). protecting data security, promoting research and innovation, and In the face of Covid-19, this increased connectivity has been new education programmes (Mabasa 2019; Menon & Castrillon ramped up to allow more people to work from home using video 2019). Local government can also take proactive steps to address conferencing and conference calls. Technology increases access skills needs. Municipal 4IR development strategies should be to banking, jobs, transport and delivery (ESCAP 2019), changing focused, tailored to local contexts and integrated with a regional mobility patterns, public transport and road and rail networks, strategy, supported by the private sector and citizens (Nkala 2019). and impacting spatial patterns (Cook et al 2002). However, it Although most strategies of national government depart- also presents new challenges, particularly around jobs and skills, ments and major private sector players refer to 4IR changes and and has the potential to deepen inequality due to skewed access how to address these, our ICT (information and communication (Nedlac 2019). Some new technologies eliminate jobs, whereas technology) infrastructure remains poor. Government spending on others demand new jobs and skills. Actions need to be taken ICT is relatively low given other priorities. Although South Africa’s now to embrace the opportunities that 4IR presents, particularly political leadership have recognised the 4IR’s potential, implemen- facing the challenges we do today. tation requires collaboration between government, business and A recent research report by the Local Government Sector social partners to address challenges and leverage opportunities. Education and Training Authority (LGSETA) studied the huge Managed well, 4IR innovations can help municipalities potential of the 4IR to transform our economy and society, ex- tackle major challenges, improve service delivery and safety and amining the opportunities it provides for local government. The security, and promote social inclusion. Municipalities need to research looked at the implications of the 4IR for South African determine what capabilities they need, and undertake appropriate municipalities, particularly their skills needs, and how they ad- investments and actions. They should share experiences and learn dress the 4IR in their strategic planning. The research shows that from successful initiatives (Corfe 2019). to capitalise on the 4IR, municipalities need to have the skills and Applications such as Open311 in the USA (Wendy Ovens & capacity to adopt new technology to improve service delivery and Associates 2015) and Singapore’s One Service App allow residents deepen democracy. to identify issues and get feedback, fostering transparency and enhancing trust. With regard to disaster management, the Internet EFFECT ON JOBS of Things and AI can predict and communicate potential shocks Concerns about job losses associated with the 4IR are valid, with and disasters, while blockchain can enhance cyber security, well-publicised examples, such as the recent closures of bank drones can deliver urgent supplies to hard-to-reach areas and 3D branches (PWC 2017). However, new jobs are also being created. printers can print medical supplies, build temporary shelters, and For example, automation in VW’s Uitenhage plant allows the plant rebuild infrastructure (Rashid 2018). to reach full capacity for extended periods and added 300 new In the field of health, 4IR technologies have recently supported jobs in 2018 (TIPS 2018, 2019). New jobs are being created in the disrupted industrial supply chains in the Covid-19 crisis. For ex- science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. ample, using a 3D printer an Italian hospital was able to produce These include data analysis, computer science and engineering. valves for an intensive care device. China used drones to mini- The 4IR also means an even greater demand for “soft skills” such mise risk in transporting medical samples and quarantine ma- as creativity, complex problem solving, relationship building, com- terials to high-risk areas and to improve delivery speed. Further munication, collaboration, and critical thinking (World Economic opportunities include integrated waste management, waste Forum 2017, 2018, 2019, n.d.; BCG 2019). Our current education reduction through sharing economies and intelligent packaging, system needs to focus more on these, and provide opportunities “living” buildings, green spaces, urban food production and water

44 July 2020 Civil Engineering management. Biotechnologies include cleaner energy sources, bioplastics and improved microbial waste management. For housing, drones, 3D printing and robots can construct multi- functional buildings more quickly. Energy innovations use the Internet of Things, blockchain and bioengineering to develop virtual power plants, sensor-based electric and water grids, and solar cells. 3D printing can produce solar roof tiles and components for small-scale wind turbines. IMPACT ON A LOCAL LEVEL The research conducted by LGSETA found that in South Africa 4IR technology is already having an impact at a local level (South African Cities Network 2018). Municipalities have implemented smart technology such as e-services, citizen portals, broadband fibre rollouts, CCTV networks, data centre facilities, private cloud offerings, internet access in libraries, smart fines and building-management systems (African Development Bank et al 2012; Albino, Berardi & Dangelico 2015; ANC 2017; Baatjies 2019; Manda & Dhaou 2019; DST 2019). These range from large-scale, costly systems to small-scale, relatively cheap smartphone applications. What is important is not how advanced the technology is, but how it could solve problems for a sustainable future. Municipalities must plan now for potentially disruptive 4IR technology with mixed information and limited resources (Cloete & Moloko 2019). However, the report notes that the adoption of new technologies has varied across the country. Municipalities need to be aware of important technological changes, reflect these in their plans, and use technology to become more effective, efficient and transformative. An analysis of ICT skills in municipalities showed that across the eight metros and 249 local and district municipalities, 4 279 employees occupy base ICT positions – 2 641 in metros and 1 638 in local and district municipalities. In 2018/2019, the report notes, 27 more people in base-ICT posts left municipalities than were recruited. Worryingly, there Enjoying reading was a significant loss of managers and professionals among them. Almost 3 000 high-demand ICT people work in municipalities, and more than 70% of these are in the metros. Overall, the data in your SAICE magazine? LGSETA’s report confirms the conventional wisdom that technical skills are in short supply at local government level, particularly in ICT. Losing more people in critical positions raises concerns. How about advertising here? CONCLUSIONS In concluding, it is noted that the Fourth Industrial Revolution provides an opportunity to promote democracy and sustain- Contact: Barbara Spence able development, particularly at a local level (Cook et al 2002). Municipalities should include digital strategies in their Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) (SETA Workshop 2019). Tel: (011) 463 7940 However, LGSETA’s analysis of IDPs across municipal categories and provinces showed that very few mention the 4IR or associ- Email: [email protected] ated technologies in their medium- and long-term planning. Managed well, 4IR innovations can help municipalities to tackle major challenges, improve service delivery and safety and security, and promote inclusion. However, although the 4IR is firmly on the country’s agenda, it has yet to be factored into municipal planning. Challenges include: QQ lack of integration of 4IR strategies into the IDPs QQ failure to see a 4IR programme as an overarching framework

Civil Engineering July 2020 45 QQ lack of integrated, coordinated operations dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-04-15-universities-have-pivotal- QQ a heavily regulated environment role-to-play-in-fourth-industrial-revolution. QQ insufficient funding Mpehle, Z 2012. Bridging the digital divide through telecentres: A South QQ limited stakeholder buy-in African experience. Administrato Publica, 20(1). QQ inadequate internal capacity. Nedlac 2019. Futures of work in South Africa. https://nedlac.org.za/wp- Finally, the shortage of key ICT skills across municipalities is content/uploads/2017/10/Futures-of-Work-in-South-Africa-Final- a significant concern, including the digital divide between the Report-March-2019.pdf. more adequately staffed metros, and the less resourced local Nkala, T 2019. South African municipal districts must all have Silicon and district municipalities (Mphele 2012). Government can play Valley skills hubs, Daily Maverick, 21 August 2019. a crucial role in developing and promoting the skills needed PWC (PricewaterhouseCoopers) 2017. Fourth Industrial Revolution for for a successful shift to the 4IR. Although many efforts are the the earth: Harnessing the 4th Industrial Revolution for sustainable responsibility of national government, local government can also emerging cities. https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/services/sustainability/ take proactive steps to address skills needs. A collaborative and publications/sustainable-emerging-cities.html. cooperative approach is essential. Rashid, A A 2018. The Fourth Industrial Revolution impact to the future of sustainable urban development in Malaysia. https://www.academia. BIBLIOGRAPHY edu/36382024/the_fourth_industrial_revolution_impact_to_the_ African Development Bank et al 2012. Presidential Infrastructure future_of_sustainable_urban_development_in_malaysia. Coordinating Commission, 2012. A summary of the South African Schulze, E 2019. Everything you need to know about the Fourth Industrial National Infrastructure Plan. https://www.gov.za/sites/default/ Revolution. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/16/fourth-industrial- files/PICC_Final.pdf. revolution-explained-davos-2019.html. Albino, V, Berardi, U & Dangelico, R 2015. Smart Cities: Definitions, SETA Workshop 2019. Digital Skills Strategy South Africa: Skills for agility, dimensions, performance, and initiatives. Journal of Urban creativity originality and problem-solving, 3 October 2019. Technology, 22(1): 3–21 South African Cities Network 2018. The State of City Finances. ANC (African National Congress) 2017. Communications & the Battle of TIPS (Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies) 2018. World Economic Forum Ideas. ANC Discussion Document 10 March 2017. and the Fourth Industrial Revolution in South Africa. TIPS Research Baaitjies, R 2019. The 4th Industrial Revolution: Implications for 21st Report for the Department of Trade and Industry. https://www.tips. century local governance. Transformer Journal, 20(1). org.za/research-archive/trade-and-industry/item/3638-world- BCG (Boston Consulting Group) 2019. Mass uniqueness: A global economic-forum-and-the-fourth-industrial-revolution-in-south- challenge for one billion workers. Boston, MA. africa. Cloete, H & Moloko, K 2019. Municipal readiness to implement the Fourth TIPS 2019. Technological change and sustainable mobility: An overview of Industrial Revolution: An evidence-based approach. Paper presented at global trends and South African developments. TIPS Research Report the DHET Research Colloquium, 18–19 September 2019, Johannesburg. for the Department of Trade and Industry. https://www.tips.org.za/ Cook, M E, LaVigne, M F, Pagano, C M, Dawes, S S & Pardo, T A 2002. research-archive/trade-and-industry/item/3636-technological- Making a case for local e-government. Albany, NY: University at change-and-sustainable-mobility-an-overview-of-global-trends- Albany Center for Technology in Government. and-south-african-developments. Corfe, S 2019. Tech in the town: How the Fourth Industrial Revolution could Wendy Ovens and Associates 2015. A synthesis of local and international transform local government. Social Market Foundation. http://www. long-term trends, opportunities and dynamics. Research conducted for smf.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Tech-in-the-Town.pdf. the City of Johannesburg. DST (Department of Science and Technology) 2019. Remarks by the World Economic Forum 2017. Accelerating workforce reskilling for the Minister of Science and Technology, Mmamoloko Kubayi-Ngubane, Fourth Industrial Revolution: An agenda for leaders to shape the at the Fourth Industrial Revolution Workshop, Johannesburg, 7 future of education, gender and work. https://www.weforum.org/ March 2019. https://www.google.co.za/maps/place/25%C2%B045’2 whitepapers/accelerating-workforce-reskilling-for-the-fourth- 7.2%22S+28%C2%B016’37.0%25.757564!4d28.276932?hl=en. industrial-revolution. ESCAP (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia World Economic Forum 2018. Agile governance: Reimagining policy- and the Pacific) 2019. The future of Asian and Pacific cities: making in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. http://www3.weforum. Transformative pathways towards sustainable urban development. org/docs/WEF_Agile_Governance_Reimagining_Policy- https://www.unescap.org/publications/future-asian-and-pacific- making_4IR_report.pdf. cities-2019-transformative-pathways-towards-sustainable-urban. World Economic Forum 2019. Leading through the Fourth Industrial Mabasa, N 2019. Automation and the Fourth Industrial Revolution: A Revolution: Putting people at the centre. http://www3.weforum.org/ force for the liberation of workers. Daily Maverick, 14 June. https:// docs/WEF_Leading_through_the_Fourth_Industrial_Revolution. www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-06-14-automation-and-the- pdf. fourth-industrial-revolution-a-force-for-the-liberation-of-workers. World Economic Forum n.d. Fourth Industrial Revolution. https://www. Manda, M I & Dhaou, S B 2019. Responding to the challenges and weforum.org/focus/fourth-industrial-revolution. opportunities in the 4th Industrial Revolution in developing countries. Proceedings, International Conference on Theory and Practice of For more information contact: Electronic Governance (ICEGOV2019), 3–5 April 2019, Melbourne, Australia. Matodzi Ralushai Local Government SETA Menon, K & Castrillon, G 2019. Universities have ‘pivotal role’ to play in [email protected] Fourth Industrial Revolution. Daily Maverick, 15 April. https://www.

46 July 2020 Civil Engineering In Brief

A view of both the access road and the The scope of Concor’s work at the Boseto process plant includes earthworks haul road under construction for the and concrete civils to the existing and new process plant structures for the Khoemacau Copper Silver Starter Project crushing, milling, flotation and concentrate handling circuits

by a natural calcrete. The wearing course PAVING THE WAY FOR REMOTE BOTSWANA MINE is a 9/19 mm double seal. Concor has had to crush all aggregate on site from the old Tackling the demanding conditions of and for the powerlines to be installed by mine waste rock stockpile at Boseto. Botswana’s Kalahari Desert, Concor another contractor.” Concor Infrastructure contracts Infrastructure is nearing completion of The planning of the haul road also manager Tiaan Krugel explains that the a 35 km access road for the Khoemacau had to consider the large and ancient remote location of the site and the dry Copper Silver Starter Project. The baobab trees that are common in the conditions are among the key challenges company is also busy constructing a area. Preservation of these trees is a vital encountered on this project. parallel haul road, as well as conducting imperative, requiring the haul road to be “The sourcing and timing of the supply earthworks and concrete civils at the diverted on occasion to avoid about half of equipment, parts and construction Khoemacau Boseto processing plant. a dozen baobabs, which are hundreds of material required careful and detailed The Khoemacau Copper Project, years old. planning. The bulk had to come from located in the central Kalahari copper While the access road is 90% complete the capital, Gaborone, which is 900 km belt some 65 km southwest of Maun, is and due for completion in Q3 2020, the away, with the other challenge being that developing underground operations at work on the haul road is also expected most of our equipment OEMs are based its flagship Zone 5 deposit. The mine to be completed in Q3 this year. Road in Johannesburg, which is more than plan involves three adjacent underground construction comprises a 600 mm deep 1 300 km from site.” mines at Zone 5, each producing over cut filled with pioneer crushed rock fol- The scope of Concor’s work at the 1.2 million tonnes a year in their first five lowed by a G3 subbase and base layer. In Boseto process plant, the contract which years of production. The haul road will some areas the crushed rock is replaced was awarded in November 2019, includes allow mineralised material to be trucked 35 km from Zone 5 to the Boseto pro- Construction of tailings dams under way at the Khoemacau Copper Silver Starter Project cessing facility, while the access road will be used by light vehicles. After processing at Boseto, the mineral concentrate will be shipped out for smelting. Good progress has been made on construction of the access road, according to Jay Juganan, contracts director at Concor Infrastructure. The contract for both the access and haul roads was awarded in November 2018. “The access road was little more than a sand track when we established on site and was accessible only by 4x4 vehicles,” says Juganan. “Essentially, we are creating a corridor for both roads in parallel,

Civil Engineering July 2020 47 earthworks and concrete civils to the existing and new process plant structures for the crushing, milling, flotation and concentrate handling circuits. The plant had previously treated material from an open pit copper mining operation at Boseto, under the ownership of a different company. Krugel highlights the challenges of working with concrete on a remote site, especially where temperatures can reach over 40 degrees Celsius during working hours. “A special concrete mix was designed to accommodate on-site conditions,” he says. “This includes the use of admixtures to prolong the concrete’s workability, Confined-space demolition within live facilities as well as having to chill the water we use before it is added to the cement and industry due to its ingrained company suspended. It all relates to supply and de- aggregates.” safety culture and comprehensive mand, as our clients were not generating In addition to the refurbishment and Integrated Safety Management revenue and hence had to drastically cut upgrading work at Boseto, Concor has Programme. This has allowed the demoli- their capex and social distance as far as also contributed to preparing the infra- tion specialist to quickly and effectively possible,” notes Bester. structure at the Zone 5 mining site, where put all of the necessary regulatory meas- Now with construction allowed to underground development is under way. ures in place to protect its 200-strong start-up again, there will be an inevitable The work included all internal roads at the workforce in preparation for the construc- lag in getting projects back on track. In Zone 5 mine, terracing for the 650-person tion industry opening up again under addition, the focus will shift to new work accommodation camp, the mine admin- Level 3 of the national lockdown. as opposed to demolition as contractors istration surface infrastructure area, When the construction industry ef- and other service providers seek to gen- the mine workshops and stores area and fectively closed shop due to the Covid-19 erate much-needed revenue. the explosives magazine, together with crisis at the end of March, Jet Demolition “We were fortunate in that some of the construction of the ROM pads. The saw an immediate impact on its order mines were still carrying out some work, Khoemacau Starter Project expects to book. “Most of our work was affected, and we were able to assist during the lock- produce 62 000 tonnes of copper and some projects more so than others. Some down, as we are certified as an essential 1.9 million ounces of silver each year over projects were halted temporarily while services provider,” adds Bester. Despite its planned life of more than 20 years. Covid-19 measures were put in place,” the squeeze on cash flow, Jet Demolition “Despite the restrictions related to reports Contracts Manager Kate Bester. has not considered branching out into the Covid-19 pandemic, which saw a “We were midway through some other sub-sectors of the construction reduction of staff numbers on site due to other projects that were subsequently industry. individual choices, we are working hard to ensure that the various programme Large-scale commercial demolition within an urban environment schedules will be met,” says Juganan.

Info

Coral Fraser-Campbell On behalf of Concor Infrastructure Coralynne & Associates [email protected]

JET DEMOLITION CONTINUES OPERATIONS SAFELY ad DURING LOCKDOWN

Jet Demolition has one of the highest levels of safety performance in the

48 July 2020 Civil Engineering management teams of our clients in order to come up with practical solutions.” COVID-19 CALLS FOR While workshopping various scenarios for safely returning to work, lateral ‘BALANCED’ STRATEGY thinking was essential in finding practical solutions whilst ensuring the safety of the FOR TECHNICAL AUDITS teams. In one specific instance, the site was treated as an exclusion zone with only Jet Engineering projects face a growing range Demolition personnel permitted into the of audits, assessment and monitoring, but works area. The client was kept informed will Covid-19 restrictions on movement of progress via frequent video conference make it difficult for consultants to carry calls and ad-hoc virtual site walks. out this vital work? These are some of the new ways of The answer lies in leveraging infor- working that have evolved out of neces- mation systems and communication Kate Bester, Jet Contracts Manager sity from dealing with the impact of the platforms, and finding innovative ways Covid-19 crisis on the construction and of verifying information that used to be “We specialise in complex industrial related industries. “Our clients are relying confirmed during a site visit, according to demolition and difficult urban projects, on us to do the correct thing. They are SRK Consulting principal environmental and our clients rely on us to be ready when- expecting us to follow all the necessary scientist Chris Dalgliesh. While some ever they need us. Having our teams out protocols without having direct oversight. audits monitor a range of project risks doing work which isn’t our core speciality It has been interesting and very rewarding on behalf of financiers or investors, would compromise our availability and to know that there was a level of trust others are necessary to satisfy regulatory flexibility. We decided early on to stick required and delivered. requirements. with what we know best and to ride it out.” “There has been a definite shift “Meeting clients face-to-face on a This has resulted in an even closer towards a more collaborative approach, as project site has usually been considered working relationship with many of its key well as empowering our own employees by consultants as an integral part of clients. “It has been really interesting to to be responsible and aware of their own conducting an audit or assessment,” get on board with our clients’ manage- health and safety while on site. There has says Dalgliesh. “But Covid-19 lockdown ment teams to deliver these systems and not been a single issue so far. We continue conditions have forced us to look at other procedures, which did not exist prior to to work responsibly, as and when our ways of verifying information. This might the crisis,” notes Bester. clients need us,” concludes Bester. include the sharing of satellite imagery “There is not a one-size-fits-all solution online, or live data reviews with the client to Covid-19. We have to take into account Info as part of the audit record.” an array of diverse factors, from work He highlights that most audits require proximity, to workers getting in and out of Kate Bester (NDip Civil Engineering) a combination of desktop work – ana- Contracts Manager machines and congregating for rest breaks. lysing documentation and data from the +27 11 495 3800 / +27 72 811 5310 Many of these types of very granular [email protected] client – and on-the-ground observation decisions saw us working closely with the conducted during a site visit.

Civil Engineering July 2020 49

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Analysis Concrete Steel Steel Concrete Analysis This data is provided in good faith that it is accurate and valid. “In the past, there has generally been a ‘close out’ session with the client, in which the consultant returns to site following an audit, to report back,” she says. “Working remotely under Covid-19 lockdown conditions, it is clear that some of these interac- tions can be conducted remotely.” However, she emphasises that there are several minimum requirements for a remote audit to be an acceptable alternative to a site visit. For example, the consultant will generally have seen the site before, and on-site conditions must not change between seasons. Also, the con- Sharon Jones and Chris Dalgliesh, principal environmental scientists at SRK Consulting sultant will have to be satisfied with the culture in place at the client’s operations – “In many of the larger, international (NEMA) requires statutory audits in terms of overall adherence to good projects where we monitor environmental against Environmental Authorisations. international practice. This would provide and social performance against good These focus in a fairly binary manner on assurance that audit data provided by the international industry practice (GIIP), whether the conditions of these authorisa- client is correct and reliable. Under these such as the Performance Standards of the tions are being implemented on site.” conditions, there may be an opportunity International Finance Corporation (IFC), Many of these are conducted when the for clients and consultants alike to save on it is certainly very useful, even essential, project is already operational, so much of the cost and time of travelling to site. to be physically present,” he says. the work has already been undertaken and Dalgliesh notes that digital communi- This is particularly the case where the project is either compliant or not. cation platforms are proving invaluable in an audit needs to ascertain the capacity “These kinds of audits lend themselves making remote audits more feasible. of health, safety and environment (HSE) more to document review, where we “Meetings and conferencing using teams, and to assess whether something scrutinise the systems in place and the online platforms can often facilitate the has been done to the required standard. documented evidence of action,” she says. iterative nature of our role, where we may “Other types of audits require us to “This aspect is usually more important need to be in close contact with a client analyse past performance rather than than observing directly what is being over a period of time,” he says. “Doing this current activities, and here the documen- done on site.” remotely can also make the process more tation is really the focus,” he says. She explains further that the same focused and economical.” The amount of time required on site usually applies to audits for Water Use Apart from the time and cost savings also depends on the phase of the project, Licences and Atmospheric Emissions of not travelling to site – which may even adds Sharon Jones, also a principal envi- Licences. Here, documented evidence involve regional or international travel – ronmental scientist at SRK. must be supplied by the client for the these online communication tools allow “For instance, the National consultant to audit against local compli- specific people within an organisation to Environmental Management Act ance limits and international standards. be targeted for discussion as and when

Prior to Covid-19 meeting clients on site was usually considered to be an integral part of conducting an audit or assessment

50 July 2020 Civil Engineering necessary, instead of having a large client team on standby. A practical point not to be overlooked is that time is a scarce resource, and time spent travelling to site could often be better spent on the more detailed inter- rogation of existing documentation. “A move towards doing more of our work remotely is likely to mean that we spend more time evaluating documented data,” says Jones. “This might even change our approach towards doing more desktop preparation, and might be the new normal for certain categories of audit. The physical visits – which could be fewer and Virtual reality is increasingly being incorporated in the full engineering design further apart – would be for the purposes cycle, from initial concept through to the build and implementation stages of verifying and corroborating rather than discovery.” on stage is all part of the illusionary ef- highlighted and mitigated before imple- fects of an alternative existence. mentation takes place. This saves a great Info The technology of the virtual reality deal of time and money on a project. industry really began to be used in At SMEC, VR is one of the cutting- Sharon Jones medical and automobile industry design, edge technologies now being used to Principal Environmental Scientist military training and flight simulation advance design capabilities. One of the SRK Consulting [email protected] applications from 1970 to 1990. projects which SMEC South Africa’s But, as with many cutting-edge Pretoria office has been working on, technologies, the first navigable VR was using virtual reality in the design phase, developed by the space industry at NASA’s is Trans African Concession (TRAC)’s SMEC SOUTH AFRICA Jet Propulsion Laboratory from 1977 Montrose Interchange near Nelspruit in to 1984. Mpumalanga. The interchange sits on USES VR TECHNOLOGY Leapfrogging to 2016 and at least 230 the only east-west route between South companies were to be found developing Africa and Mozambique, and the original TO GAIN AN EDGE VR-related products, including Amazon, road design, initially constructed in the Facebook, Google, Microsoft, Sony and 1970s, is inadequate for the current traffic In today’s fast-moving world of technology Samsung, largely for the entertainment volume. innovation, virtual reality (VR) has been industry. The interchange occupies the narrow around for a relatively long time, since Today we have VR being used in the space between the Crocodile and Elands the late 1960s. However, the concept of full engineering design cycle, from initial Rivers at the start of the old Montrose virtual reality has in fact been around for concept through to the build and imple- Pass. It was a difficult area to survey, centuries, in fiction and in the theatre. mentation stages. The technology allows but the SMEC team managed to build The suspension of disbelief in order to engineers to view their project in 3D, from up a 3D reality mesh of the site using immerse oneself in a story or in the action where any flaws or potential risks can be UAV or drone photography and Bentley’s

Virtual reality is being used in the design phase of the new Montrose Interchange near Nelspruit in Mpumalanga

Civil Engineering July 2020 51 SAPSA WOMAN PROFESSIONAL OF THE YEAR

The South African Professional Services Awards (SAPSA), sponsored by Sanlam and W Consulting, has bestowed the title of Woman Professional of the Year for 2019/2020 on Kim Timm Pr Eng, Executive (Structures, Buildings and Places) at infrastructure delivery company AECOM. Professionals from a wide range of companies were set to gather at a gala dinner in the Montecasino Ballroom on the evening of 19 March. However, due Warren McLachlan, engineer and VR specialist to the Covid-19 pandemic, the SAPSA in SMEC’s Roads and Highways sector Awards were indefinitely postponed. The organisers subsequently undertook ContextCapture software for the prelimi- to progressively announce the winners for nary design. The final proposal to the the 2019/2020 edition prior to hosting a client became the winning bid partly be- future gathering for all finalists and guests. cause of the digital engineering modelling This marks the fifth edition of the awards, Kim Timm Pr Eng, SAPSA Woman SMEC South Africa was able to showcase. following a rigorous process of deter- Professional of the Year for 2019/2020 Work is currently under way on the mining winners based on strict criteria. detail design, using SMEC’s VR tech- Janette Minnaar, chair of the adjudica- enthusiasm the candidates bring to the nology. Using an HTC VIVE Pro headset tion panel, explains how the winners were industry. It is highly rewarding to have the and motion controllers, the team (and the determined: “Individuals were judged opportunity to help shape their careers client) are able to experience an enhanced based on a host of attributes, including and futures. They challenge me to reas- walk-through or fly-over of the site. demonstration of leadership skills, sess my own views and opinions, and our Driving the implementation of this tech- changing of paradigms and innovation relationship hence becomes a partnership nology is Warren McLachlan, engineer within the bounds of available resources.” that we all learn from.” in the Roads and Highways sector of the Timm has a BSc Eng (Civ) from the Timm adds: “When I started working firm. As part of his long-term involvement University of Cape Town and a MSc Eng in this industry, I was frequently the only in the technology, Warren has built up a (Civ) from the University of Stellenbosch. woman engineer that the contractors had library of assets applicable to the South Describing herself as an all-rounder, she ever met. This situation caused several African market, such as road signs and has worked on both heavy and light in- early misunderstandings. I found that guardrails, for use in future VR-related dustrial, retail, commercial and residential over time, as I became more experienced projects for SMEC South Africa. projects. “I enjoy the size and diversity and more women joined the profession, it “I’m hoping to show my colleagues in of the projects and the teams we get to has become easier. the company that taking a project from a work with.” “There is definitely still bias around simple CAD model to a full VR experience A recent flagship project for Timm gender in the industry, and this will take shouldn’t be thought of as reserved for was the challenging dolomitic ground time to change. I’ve always believed that special projects or only targeted clients,” conditions at the site of the new Lakeside the only way I will change the misconcep- McLachlan explains. “If we work together head office in Centurion, Pretoria, for tion that women don’t belong in engi- to build up our capabilities and libraries resources company Exxaro. Here AECOM neering is to be the best engineer that I of assets that can be reused on other proj- collaborated closely with AMA Architects can possibly be. It makes it a lot harder for ects, going VR will become just a matter to optimise the building design. people to argue the point if you are living of clicking the right buttons. We’re at the Timm has previously been recognised evidence that they are incorrect,” Timm point now that SMEC could become one within her profession as a finalist for concludes. of the leaders amongst consultants in VR the Consulting Engineers South Africa and digital engineering.” (CESA) Young Engineer of the Year Award Info in 2010. In 2019, she was recognised by Info CESA as Mentor of the Year. She recently Lara Lombard co-authored two papers at an interna- Communications & Marketing Officer Middle East and Africa Warren McLachlan tional conference in Nantes, France. +27 12 481 3841 +27 12 421 3832 [email protected] Commenting on her mentoring role, [email protected] she says: “I love seeing the passion and

52 July 2020 Civil Engineering SAICE AND PROFESSIONAL NEWS Obituary Prof Dereck Sparks 28 June 1934 – 10 August 2019

Prof Dereck Sparks followed Nelson on merit, and continued teaching the Mandela’s philosophy: “What counts in life undergraduate courses. is not the mere fact that we have lived – it Dereck wrote over 80 research papers is the difference we have made to the lives and presented post-graduate courses and of others, that will determine the signifi- seminars covering fields, such as dam cance of the life we led”. As a lecturer for design and slope stability. He actively over 40 years, his impact was significant. supported SAICE and was elected annually Dereck was born in Durban in 1934 to the SAICE Council for a record 32-year to Abe and Loulou. He initially attended period. He was also a member of the the local farm school at Swinburne, where SAICE Executive Committee, chairman of multiple grades were taught in one room. the National Research and Development There he thrived and skipped a few grades. Committee, chairman of the Parliamentary He was fortunate in that an aunt, who was Liaison Committee, and an Honorary commencing teaching at Durban Boys Fellow. In addition, he was a regular Preparatory School (DHPS), was able to examiner for the Institution of Civil arrange that her nephew be admitted into Engineers, London, and acted as chairman Standard 6. Consequently, Dereck moved for the accreditation teams evaluating the to Durban where he stayed with her and Civil Engineering Departments at Pretoria, attended DHPS and thereafter Durban Prof Dereck Sparks was a lecturer par Natal and RAU (now UJ) Universities. He Boys High School (DHS). At DHS he won excellence, also because he took such a keen prepared reports for arbitrations, generally the matric mathematics prize. While at interest in his students (Photo: Angus Rule) supporting the wronged “underdog”. DHS a visit to the construction site of the Dereck believed in using experiments Nagle Dam inspired him to choose civil As a lecturer at WITS, a certain to better demonstrate theory to students. engineering as his career. Later he, in turn, graduate caught his eye, and he decided To this end, Nooredien Hassen and the would foster awareness amongst school there and then to marry her. He looked workshop team at UCT had to construct pupils of the opportunities available in the up her name on the graduation list and many models. One such model helped to civil engineering profession. traced her to a local bookshop. In 1958 he visualise flow nets in dam walls – dye was Dereck completed his BSc in Civil married Rosemary Drewett (whose father, injected at key locations to illustrate the Engineering at Natal University in 1954, uncle, sister and brother were all engi- flow route of water, and standpipes helped and then worked as an assistant research neers). Together they had two children, to measure the pressure head. officer in the NBRI in 1955. He completed Anton and Sandra. He also supported students outside MSc coursework at the University of the In 1960, Dereck moved back to the of the narrow academic focus. In 1973 he Witwatersrand (WITS) in 1956, where University of Natal, where he lectured founded the Civil Engineering Student he became a full-time lecturer in 1957. third and fourth-year soil mechanics, Chapter of SAICE at UCT and served In 1958/59 he worked for FE Kanthack structures and numerical methods, till as its chair for over 20 years. He actively and Partners on the design and construc- 1964. He also supervised the PhD theses promoted membership of SAICE to all tion supervision of the Umgeni B Power of NE Simons and JE Drennan. In 1965, final-year students to facilitate the regis- Station. Simultaneously, he completed his he was appointed as a senior lecturer at tration process. MSc dissertation and a more theoretical UCT where he established the then new To foster awareness of the opportunities paper, with differential equations, titled soil mechanics field in the Department available in civil engineering amongst school A theory of consolidation for partially of Civil Engineering. In 1972 he was ap- pupils, he enthusiastically guided the SAICE saturated soil, which was finally published pointed Associate Professor of Foundation Western Cape Bridge Building Competition in July 1967. Engineering and Soil Mechanics, based team. Together with Andrew Clothier and

Civil Engineering July 2020 53 Prof Sparks, who guided the SAICE Bridge Building Competition in the Western Cape for many years, enjoyed explaining the structural and aesthetic principles behind the design of the bridges to pupils and spectators (Photo: Angus Rule)

Brian Holdridge, he drafted the rules for the mechanics simple, structured and had the wonderful ability to explain Western Cape competition, and especially interesting. I obtained an upper 2nd complex engineering phenomena enjoyed explaining the structural and and a 1st and have been designing in such a way that the engineering aesthetic principles behind the design of the geotechnical structures all over the concepts could be understood by bridges to pupils and spectators. world for over 30 years since. His laymen. … In a similar way, Dereck Dereck’s interests extended beyond course notes are still used regularly. was a wonderful ambassador for the academia. In 1967 he submitted a design Jonathan Dunn, Chief Engineer of ILF civil engineering profession through for a sundial at the then Jan Smuts (now Consulting Engineers in Zurich his many articles, on geotechnical OR Tambo) Airport. On another occasion topics, that were published in he used a model of the sinking of Venice When I studied for my Master’s on newspapers. I particularly remember to explain the issues to non-technical a Commonwealth Scholarship at the article that he wrote on how politicians (in this regard also see Mike Birmingham University, I found that the Newlands Cricket Pitch should Shand’s tribute below). He provided the the soil mechanics that I had learnt be constructed. His advice has no technical input for the book Dag van from Dereck at the University of doubt been followed and probably Buffel en Baviaan – die Laingsburg Vloed Natal was streets ahead of anybody continues to maintain Newlands as a by GF Marais to explain why certain in the class who came from other world-class cricket ground. suburbs were damaged while others were universities. AL “Sandy” Melvill, not. He also taught perspective drawing to SAICE Geotechnical Medal 2000, Following the passing of Rosemary in 2000, help students better visualise schemes. FSAICE Dereck married Margie Hoffman in 2003. Dereck would have been gratified by He kept lecturing after retirement as he en- the following tributes from some of his Mike Shand (whose father, Ninham, joyed it too much to stop. In 2006 Margie former students: commissioned Dereck to undertake a saved his life when she took him to hospital model study of flow over and through a with an aorta that was about to burst. After As a student of Dereck’s in the early rockfill dam to enable the safe design of spending four months in hospital, he was 1970s, his interest in his students reinforced rockfill in order to reduce the delighted to be asked to resume lecturing, set him apart from other lecturers – construction costs of such dams) adds to and continued teaching until 2011. In 2019 surprising us in the first lecture these tributes: he became increasingly frail and passed that he already had memorised the away peacefully on 10 August. names of every single student in I first met Dereck … in 1977. Soon the class! Tony Abrahamson thereafter … I attended Dereck’s fas- Anton Sparks Pr Eng and cinating SAICE lecture on the pro- Prof Mark Alexander Pr Eng, FSAICE I failed third-year soil mechanics gressive subsidence of Venice, which with input from various people whose lives under a stand-in lecturer and then has led to the now relatively frequent had been touched by Prof Sparks retook the subject under Professor flooding of large areas of Venice, [email protected] Sparks. He had a gift for making soil including St Mark’s Square. Dereck

54 July 2020 Civil Engineering The SAICE HOD Forum for our tertiary institution colleagues

The SAICE HOD Forum was established in 2012 to enable the heads of civil engineering departments at our tertiary institutions to meet once a year (one meeting each for the HODs of universities and universities of technology respectively), while at the same time offering the opportunity for closer liaison with SAICE. Over the years these meetings have proved to be very fruitful, both for the academics and for SAICE as a learned society. As these tertiary institutions are the principal source of young graduates feeding into the industry and of course SAICE’s potential members, cooperation between SAICE and the tertiary institutions is of utmost importance. The focus is primarily aimed SAICE HOD Forum meeting at the University of Pretoria on 3 March this year on improving the “quality of the graduate Back row from left: Greg Skeen (SAICE), Steven Kaplan (SAICE COO), Fannie Matumba product” and its alignment with the needs (PROTEC), Tom McKune (Forum Chair), Prof Wynand Steyn (University of Pretoria), Prof of the employers. Akpofure Taigbenu (University of the Witwatersrand), Prof Pilate Moyo (University of Cape Matters of mutual concern that are Town), Prof Jan Wium (Stellenbosch University), Friedrich Slabbert (SAICE Transportation discussed at these gatherings include Division) and Fridah Mahlangu (SAICE Career Guidance Assistant) not only curricula, academic accredita- Front row from left: Prof Maria Ferentinou (University of Johannesburg), Fana Marutla (SAICE tion, registration procedures, bursaries, President 2020) and Dr Christina McCleod (University of KwaZulu-Natal) teaching/learning material and changing regulations, but also: application and relevance of their between SAICE and these institutions, QQ the practicalities and academic impli- training via the Forum, is extremely important, cations of work-integrated learning QQ contact between tertiary institutions as SAICE offers a professional ‘home’ to opportunities (or the lack thereof) themselves for the benefit of their students, not only while they are still stu- QQ critical skills availability (or scarcity) respective students, and dent members, but particularly when they and how to adapt to or meet these QQ related topics that have direct bearing enter the world of work. The cooperation needs from an academic point of view on the education and retainment of between SAICE and the HODs in this QQ the various tertiary institutions’ unique our future engineering corps. regard helps towards ensuring the future learning environments and the effect Over and above academic and technical of a body of professionals. this has on teaching and studying training, tertiary institutions also prepare Over the years the Forum has devel- QQ possibilities of contact with industry their students to work as principled oped into a meaningful and mutually to help students understand the professionals. In this regard the liaison beneficial network, to the extent that the civil engineering departments at most tertiary institutions now display a framed copy of the Credo of the African Engineer (introduced to SAICE by our 2011 president, Seetella Makhetha). This ‘poem for engineers’ is also sometimes recited by students on graduation day as an ethical compass for their professional career ahead. We thank the HODs of our tertiary institutions (and their staff) for their many hours of dedicated work and for their ongoing support of SAICE.

Fridah Mahlangu

SAICE Career Guidance Assistant SAICE HOD Forum meeting in progress at the Durban University of Technology, [email protected] Pietermaritzburg, September 2019

Civil Engineering July 2020 55 SAICE Training Calendar 2020

Course Name Course Dates Location CPD Accreditation No Course Presenter Contact SAICEtr19/02561/22 Practical Geometric Design 9–13 November 2020 Midrand Tom Mckune [email protected] Credits: 5 ECSA Leadership and Project Management SAICEbus19/02507/22 14–15 October 2020 Midrand David Ramsay [email protected] in Engineering Credits: 2 ECSA

6–7 October 2020 East London SAICEcon19/02517/22 The Legal Process dealing with Credits: 2 ECSA Hubert Thompson [email protected] Construction Disputes SACPCMP/CPD/15/010/RV 20–21 October 2020 Midrand 12 hours SACPCMP Earthmoving Equipment, Technology SAICEcon19/02447/22 and Management for Civil Engineering 28–30 October 2020 Midrand Prof Zvi Borowitsh [email protected] Credits: 3 ECSA and Infrastructure Projects SAICEwat19/02412/22 Water Security and Governance TBC Martin van Veelen [email protected] Credits: 2 ECSA Mile Sofijanic NEC3 Project Manager Accreditation SAICEcon19/02464/22 [email protected] 6–9 October 2020 Midrand Andrew Baird Programme Credits: 4 ECSA [email protected] Mahdi Goodarzi 6–7 October 2020 Durban SAICEbus19/02457/22 Project Presentation Skills Elaine Matchett [email protected] 13–14 October 2020 Port Elizabeth Credits: 2 ECSA SAICE / Computational Hydraulics Int (CHI) Surface Water and Integrated 1D-2D Chris Brooker 15 September 2020 Stellenbosch SAICEwat17/02197/20 Meghan Korman Modelling with EPA SWMM5 and Onno Fortuin Credits: 1 ECSA [email protected] PCSWMM – 1 Day 27 October 2020 Johannesburg Robert Fortuin Surface Water and Integrated 1D-2D Chris Brooker 15–16 September 2020 Stellenbosch SAICEwat17/02198/20 Meghan Korman Modelling with EPA SWMM5 and Onno Fortuin Credits: 2 ECSA [email protected] PCSWMM – 2 Days 27–28 October 2020 Johannesburg Robert Fortuin Surface Water and Integrated 1D-2D 15–17 September 2020 Stellenbosch Chris Brooker SAICEwat17/02199/20 Meghan Korman Modelling with EPA SWMM5 and Onno Fortuin Credits: 3 ECSA [email protected] PCSWMM – 3 Days 27–29 October 2020 Johannesburg Robert Fortuin SAICE / South African Road Federation (SARF) SAICEtr20/02606/23 [email protected] Assessment and Analysis of Test Data TBC TBC R Berkers Credits: 2 ECSA [email protected] Concrete Road Design and 19 August 2020 Durban SAICEtr19/02472/22 B Perrie [email protected] Construction 7 October 2020 Midrand Credits: 1 ECSA Dr P Strauss [email protected] C Brooker SAICEtr20/02608/23 [email protected] Stormwater Drainage TBC TBC Dingaan Mahlangu Credits: 4.5 ECSA [email protected] Alaster Goyns Traffic Signals Design and Intesection SAICEtr20/02607/23 [email protected] TBC TBC Dr John Sampson Optimisation Credits: 2 ECSA [email protected] HDM4 (The Highway Development SARF20/HDM4-2/23 [email protected] TBC TBC Prof Alex Visser and Management) Credits: 3 ECSA [email protected] Perspective on Traffic Impact Steven Sutcliffe [email protected] TBC TBC SARF17/TIA01/20 Assessment Prof Mark Zuidgeest [email protected] Understanding and Investigation of SARF20/TIA02/23 [email protected] 22–24 July 2020 Durban Craig Proctor-Parker Road Traffic Accidents Credits: 3 ECSA [email protected] SAICE / Classic Seminars Susan Russell SAICEproj18/02374/21 Project Management Foundations TBC TBC Martin Bundred [email protected] Credits: 3 ECSA Elridge Ntini SAICEproj18/02259/21 Philip Russell Earned Value Management TBC TBC [email protected] Credits: 1 ECSA Andrew Holden SAICEproj18/02360/21 Advanced Project Risk Management TBC TBC Elmar Roberg [email protected] Credits: 2 ECSA SAICE / Candidate Academy Getting Acquainted with General 24–25 August 2020 Online CESA-1575-04/2022 lizelle@saicepdp.org Theuns Eloff Conditions of Contract (GCC2015) 19–20 October 2020 Midrand TBC Credits: 2 ECSA [email protected] Getting Acquainted with 15–16 September 2020 Online SAICEgeo18/02216/21 lizelle@saicepdp.org Edoardo Zannoni Geosynthetics in Soil Reinforcement 13–14 October 2020 Midrand TBC Credits: 2 ECSA [email protected] Register online: www. saice.org.za

56 July 2020 Civil Engineering SAICE / Candidate Academy

Course Name Course Dates Location CPD Accreditation No Course Presenter Contact

Getting Acquainted with Road 3–4 August 2020 Online CESA-1576-04/2022 lizelle@saicepdp.org Theuns Eloff Construction and Maintenance 16–17 November 2020 Midrand TBC Credits: 2 ECSA [email protected] 2–3 September 2020 Online Getting Acquainted with CESA-1577-04/2022 lizelle@saicepdp.org 7–8 October 2020 Bloemfontein TBC Andrew Brodie Sewer Design Credits: 2 ECSA [email protected] 4–5 November 2020 Port Elizabeth TBC Getting Acquainted with Water SAICEwat18/02328/21 lizelle@saicepdp.org 26–27 August 2020 Online Stephen Mallory Resource Management Credits: 2 ECSA [email protected] SAICEcon20/02672/23 Getting Acquainted with Planning, SAICEcon20/02673/23 lizelle@saicepdp.org Scheduling and Programming for 26–27 October 2020 Midrand TBC Theuns Eloff (online) [email protected] Construction Projects Credits: 2 ECSA Pressure Pipeline and Pump Station CESA-1578-04/2022 lizelle@saicepdp.org Design and Specification – a Practical 21 & 23 September 2020 Online Dup van Renen Credits: 2 ECSA [email protected] Overview Road to Registration for Candidate CESA-1579-04/2022 lizelle@saicepdp.org Engineers, Technologist and 9 September 2020 Online Allyson Lawless Credits: 1 ECSA [email protected] Technicians

Road to Registration for Mature 17 September 2020 Online CESA-1641-10/2022 lizelle@saicepdp.org Engineers, Technologist and 1 October 2020 Midrand TBC Stewart Gibson Credits: 1 ECSA [email protected] Technicians 24 November 2020 Cape Town TBC Road to Registration for Mentors, CESA-1580-04/2022 [email protected] 22 October 2020 Online Allyson Lawless Supervisors and HR Practitioners Credits: 1 ECSA [email protected] In-house courses are available. To arrange, please contact: Cheryl-Lee Williams ([email protected]) or Dawn Hermanus ([email protected]) on 011 805 5947. For SAICE-hosted Candidate Academy in-house courses, please contact: Dawn Hermanus ([email protected]) on 011 805 5947 or Lizélle du Preez (lizelle@saicepdp.org) on 011 476 4100.

Infrastructure Asset Management Plans? 2. Is it not time that the Auditor-General wields a big stick and gets those involved to dust off the now historic data Letter and update it? MAINTENANCE OF INFRASTRUCTURE – BACK TO BASICS 3. Why has the maintenance prescribed Civil Engineering, June 2020, pp 4–6, CEO’s Corner in the original Infrastructure Asset Management Plans never received Having read Vishaal Lutchman and Asset Management Plans then were a attention? Tauqeer Ahmed’s above article in the June comprehensive record of all infrastructure 4. If the answer to question 3 above is 2020 edition, I wish to comment as follows: assets, including locations, the conditions due to finance, surely the 20-year cash The Auditor-General required ALL of each asset and 20-year cash flows flows for Maintenance, Operating, local authorities to compile Infrastructure for Maintenance, Operating, Renewal, Renewal, New Works and Disposal Asset Management Plans during 2009 for New Works and Disposal Costs. Roger Costs should have been covered in submission in 2010, commencing with Byrne, from Australia, presented many future budgets? strategic infrastructure assets, and later training sessions on various aspects of Nearly all of the items addressed by adding secondary infrastructure assets. Infrastructure Asset Management to the Vishaal Lutchman and Tauqeer Ahmed I was seconded to the eThekwini eThekwini Municipality asset manage- should have received attention under the Municipality’s Project Management Unit ment teams, and nationally at IMESA Auditor-General’s original requirements by my previous employers in 2009 and Conferences and was influential in getting in 2009–2010. We’re 10 years further 2010 to assist in the implementation of matters and minds focused on what up the line and it’s about time all local Infrastructure Asset Management and was required. Virtually all of eThekwini authority, provincial and government the compilation of Infrastructure Asset Municipality’s infrastructure departments departments get involved practically in Management Plans by various Municipal had appointed Infrastructure Asset attending to their infrastructure assets. Departments. Jannie Pietersen, a previous Managers by the end of 2010. president of IMESA, was the Head of the The questions that bear asking are: Chris McKay Pr Eng (Retired) Project Management Unit at the time. 1. What has happened to these initial [email protected] The requirements of the Infrastructure and, supposedly, later annually updated

Civil Engineering July 2020 57 FROM LAYING FOUNDATIONS TO BUILDING SKYSCRAPERS

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