Youth development programs in Central Australian Aboriginal communities A review of the literature
In Central Australia, youth programs have addressed volatile substance misuse and, more recently, issues associated with crime rates, health and emotional wellbeing, cultural renewal, educational outcomes and ‘socialising’. This paper outlines the current context of Aboriginal youth development programs in the Central Australian region and reviews the relevant local and national literature to identify the key elements of successful youth programs. The authors suggest there is a paucity of research that explores the effectiveness of youth development programs for Aboriginal peoples in Central Australia, especially in remote contexts. Much of the knowledge from successful work is dispersed and often unpublished.
by Jess Lopes, boriginal1 young people are among the most disadvantaged groups in Australia (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011). In 2006, children and youth Anna Flouris A aged 0–24 years represented 57% of the total Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander & Melissa A. population in Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2006). Anecdotal evidence also Lindeman indicates that in Central Australia 50% of Aboriginal peoples living in remote communities are less than 25 years of age. Fietz (2006) suggests that these young people are fundamental to the continued vitality of Aboriginal identity; however, they often experience poor health, boredom and inconsistent care from family members. Of particular concern in certain Aboriginal commu- nities in Central Australia has been the high incidence of petrol sniffing among Aboriginal youth (Shaw 2009). In response, the Federal Government implemented the Eight Point Plan, which included the expansion of low-aromatic Opal fuel2 across affected areas and the provi- sion of alternative or diversionary activities for young people (Community Affairs References Committee 2006; Urbis 2008). The prevalence of petrol sniffing has decreased following the introduction of low-aromatic (Opal) fuel in specific communities in 2005 (Central Australian Youth Link Up Service (CAYLUS) 2008; Shaw 2009; Senate Standing Committee on Community Affairs 2009); however, outbreaks continue to occur throughout the region. Opal fuel is only one part of the overall
Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 32 NUMBER 1 2013 55 solution and, to achieve long-term benefits to the Central Australian context; however, to communities, concurrent and comprehen- it offers some helpful insight into general sive strategies are required (Senate Standing themes and emphasises the need and impor- Committee on Community Affairs 2009). It tance of further local evidence-based studies has now become common for regular ongoing in the area. sport and recreation or youth programs to be conducted in a number of remote Central Methods Australian Aboriginal communities (Shaw & Payne 2009; Barkly Shire Council 2011; This paper provides an outline of the current Central Desert Shire 2011; MacDonnell Shire context of youth development programs Council 2011). for Aboriginal young people in remote The focus of youth, sport and recreation communities of Central Australia. Some of programs over time has expanded beyond the benefits and outcomes of youth develop- petrol sniffing and other VSM-related behav- ment programs, with reference to examples, iours to youth development programs to are provided to establish the context of this address broader health and social outcomes discussion. However, our focus then turns for young Aboriginal people. to the key elements of successful youth The provision In Australia, youth programs have been programs drawing on local and national shown to have a positive impact on crime literature. The review involved a compre- of these prevention (Tatz 1994; Cameron & MacDou- hensive search through online databases programs and gall 2000), juvenile criminal re-offences (ATSIHealth, SCOPUS, CINAHL, Wiley and (Clough, Lee & Conigrave 2008), self-harm Google Scholar) and the collation of grey other youth and other risky behaviours (Carinduff 2001). literature from government and non-govern- services in Programs are having positive health bene- ment agencies. The search strategy involved fits, including reducing the risk of emotional key terms: youth, development, programs, Aboriginal difficulties (Zubrick et al. 2005). Anecdotal Indigenous or Aborigin* (prefix), and evalua- communities feedback also suggests that activities are tion. Some grey literature3 was also accessed promoting child and maternal health and opportunistically, such as through references has generally child nutrition. Organised sport and recrea- lists and personal contacts. From this material been irregular. tion activities for young people have been we have constructed a narrative review. shown to influence educational outcomes (Department of Education, Employment Youth development programs and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) 2010); for example, enhancing school attendance in Central Australia and performance, retaining young people The Central Australian region is comprised in the educational system and improving of the Alice Springs Town Council and three employment opportunities. In addition, some shire councils: MacDonnell, Central Desert programs have been designed to promote and Barkly. In the past, each community cultural renewal; foster self-esteem; enhance council was responsible for the delivery of confidence; and develop teamwork, social a youth program in their community (Shaw interaction and skills (Mt Theo Program 2009; & Payne 2009). As such, the provision of Warlpiri Youth Development Aboriginal these programs and other youth services in Corporation (WYDAC) 2012). Aboriginal communities has generally been Youth programs that have been evaluated irregular, ad hoc and subject to the diffi- internationally similarly report successful culties of recruiting and retaining quality outcomes related to health, education, social youth workers and the insecurity of ongoing and emotional wellbeing, and cultural devel- funding arrangements (Fietz 2006). In 2002, opment (Tucker & Herman 2002; Harvey & there were only five communities with youth Hill 2004; Hawkins, Cummins & Marlatt 2004; services, and two of these five were only Carter, Straits & Hall 2007; Hishinuma et al. delivered occasionally (Shaw 2009). Most 2009). This information is limited in relevance programs received funding from sport and
56 Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 32 NUMBER 1 2013 recreation grants, but generally it was difficult Aboriginal communities over the last decade, to recruit and supervise youth workers given it is vital that programs are assessed and the low wages that were provided. There were important lessons are shared. Since there is also some communities that received specific limited formal literature available locally, the funding, although these programs normally key elements that contribute to functional lasted for a short period of time and then and successful youth programs have been collapsed (Shaw 2009). identified predominantly from practice and The MacDonnell Shire is the only council grey literature. These elements have been that has conducted a formal evaluation of substantiated by evidence-based studies, youth programs operating in their region where possible, and national literature incor- (Shaw & Payne 2009). Youth programs also porated, where relevant. The key elements are operate in the other two shires in the Central discussed in turn below. Australian region (Barkly Shire Council 2011; Central Desert Shire 2011) and, although no The youth development program information is publicly available, anecdotal feedback suggests that they are having posi- Variety tive outcomes for Aboriginal young people in The evaluation of the youth development these communities, where adequate infra- programs in the MacDonnell Shire (Shaw Youth and structure and funding exist. 2009) found that there was considerable age The Central Australian Youth Link-Up variability among participants, where in recreation Service (CAYLUS) commenced in 2002 and some communities certain age cohorts were programs has become recognised as a leading organi- overrepresented and in other communities sation in the reduction of substance abuse they were underrepresented. In general, should not be in Central Australia (Batley 2009). CAYLUS activities are needed to cater for a full range the primary has been working with the local shires and of young people, especially those in the 18 to government agencies to extend youth devel- 24 years age group. Some of the core activities or sole opment programs across Central Australian include: bush trips, cultural activities, sports, component communities, with the philosophy that a arts and crafts, cooking, discos, movies, music preventative approach to substance misuse programs, multimedia activities and computer of a VSM will be the most effective (CAYLUS 2008; programs (Shaw 2009; MacDonnell Shire program. Shaw 2009). Other examples of local organi- Council 2011). sations involved in the delivery and support In relation to VSM-related youth programs, of youth programs in Central Australian the Select Committee on Volatile Substance remote communities include Ngaanyat- Fumes (1985) identified that youth programs jarra Pitjantjatjara Yankunytatjara Women’s should be available at different times: after Council (NPYWC), Waltja, Bushmob and school, evenings, weekends and during school Mt Theo (Cultural & Indigenous Research holidays and should incorporate a range of Centre Australia (CIRCA) 2010). There are activities to cater for the diverse character- also various youth diversion and youth devel- istics of participants, including gender- and opment programs operating in the region; age-status-appropriate activities. Similarly, however, many are not regular ongoing the Mt Theo program adopted a multi-faceted programs or are limited to town-based activi- approach to petrol sniffing in recognition that ties. In addition, few of these programs have a number of concurrent strategies are required been evaluated or published in the literature. to effectively address petrol sniffing (Preuss & Brown 2006). Youth and recreation programs Important elements of youth should not be the primary or sole component of a VSM program, particularly in commu- development programs nities with a high prevalence of “chronic With the increasing number of youth devel- sniffers” (D’Abbs & Maclean 2008; CIRCA opment programs that have been created 2010). These programs are unlikely to attract and delivered in Central Australian remote chronic users since they require rehabilitation
Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 32 NUMBER 1 2013 57 and other support; it is those who have Fietz (2005) notes that community youth recently started or occasionally engage in program models are often underpinned sniffing who normally attend (D’Abbs & by the assumption that Aboriginal youth Maclean 2008). and the wider Australian youth population With the success of Mt Theo, other outsta- have the same aspirations, needs and inter- tions like Ilpurla4 have been created to host ests. The broad application of mainstream youth-specific intensive residential rehabili- youth programs does not take into account tation facilities (Maclean & D’Abbs 2002). the differences that exist not only between Most sniffers However, because of their remote locations, Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal youth, but will resume outstations are not appropriate for those also between Aboriginal communities and young people who are violent or seriously groups. As d’Abbs and Maclean (2008) argue, the practice disabled. They can provide a meaningful interventions are context specific, with no if conducive program, but town-based support is also single solution applicable for all communities. needed to help with the referral and place- Programs that are locally developed, context changes have ment of young people. Importantly, while specific and culturally relevant may be more not been made outstation programs often provide a restora- effective and appropriate for young minority tive break, most sniffers will resume the and Aboriginal peoples (Shaw 2009). in the home practice if conducive changes have not been Fietz (2005) proposes equipping skilled community made in the home community to encourage youth workers with the ability to understand other activities when they return. It is vital the complexities of Aboriginal family life and to encourage therefore that these programs do not place all develop activities with consideration of the other activities the focus on young people that sniff and disre- specific context of implementation. It is also gard the importance of the community and crucial that young people and their families when they other distal factors (Maclean & d’Abbs 2002). are involved in the planning and development return. of youth programs to ensure that activities Engaging are locally driven and not externally imposed In order for a youth program to be engaging it (Fietz 2005). needs to be exciting and include opportunities for risk-taking (d’Abbs & Maclean 2008). Also, Program staffing activities should be relatively informal and unstructured (Stojanovski 1999). An evalu- Capacity building ation of school holiday programs in Central Skill and capacity building is vital to the Australian remote communities (Batley success of youth programs (Fietz 2006; CIRCA 2009) found that the most effective activities 2010). Youth programs should incorporate for community engagement included those educational and employment opportunities that catered for a variety of age groups, for and utilise local resources, including involve- example bush trips and discos. Those activi- ment of role models, promotion of strong ties that taught new and practical skills were intergenerational relationships, and commu- also beneficial. nity development and participation. Participa- For those programs aimed at addressing tion and support of older family members is issues of substance abuse it is recommended important since they can provide advice on that activities avoid giving youth who sniff the cultural content of programs and influence preferential treatment but include measures wider community support (Fietz 2006; Preuss to avoid stigmatising drug users (Maclean & & Brown 2006; Lee et al. 2008). d’Abbs 2002). It is also essential that youth The Mt Theo Program is a well-recognised programs are delivered regularly, particularly example of a community initiated, supported when schools are closed and during school and operated program (Stojanovski 1999; holidays when risky behaviors like petrol Preuss & Brown 2006; Mt Theo Program sniffing are often observed (Fietz 2006). 2010). Warlpiri elders whose own children were sniffing petrol initiated and continue to Context specific run the program. Although Mt Theo now has
58 Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 32 NUMBER 1 2013 outside support, the decisions are still made one of the important factors in the success by the Aboriginal management committee and of this initiative is the strong cross-cultural are considered crucial to the ongoing success partnership between co-workers (local of this program. The MacDonnell Shire Warlpiri people and non-Warlpiri commu- youth development program has also shifted nity members). Non-Aboriginal members from a sole focus on youth engagement to are acknowledged as an essential part of the an emphasis on “sustainability and commu- establishment and ongoing maintenance nity ownership and nurturing strong local of the program. They gain and manage youth workers” (MacDonnell Shire Council resources, and negotiate between government 2011, p.1). Activities are only delivered when agencies and communities in ways that most local youth workers are available, in order to Aboriginal people are unable or unwilling to achieve a culturally and contextually relevant employ. Since non-Aboriginal people do not service that is run by young community role have strong Aboriginal kinship obligations, it models (MacDonnell Shire Council 2011). is also beneficial that non-Aboriginal people are able to deal with sniffing action promptly, Youth worker workforce without complications of family affiliations Skilled and committed youth workers are (Preuss & Brown 2006). a fundamental part of a successful youth program (Fietz 2006). Select Committee on Resources and infrastructure Volatile Substance Fumes (as cited in d’Abbs & Maclean 2008, p.65) comments on the CAYLUS (2008) suggests that the basic infra- importance of employing staff who have some structure required for a youth development previous understanding of the problems of program includes a recreation hall or other petrol sniffing, who would provide activities suitable building with shelter and shade, that were “purposeful, interesting, exciting accommodation for two youth workers (a and educational” and who are sensitive to male and a female), and two vehicles (one for Youth the needs of the community. In addition, young men and one for young women). For both male and female youth workers may operational requirements CAYLUS suggests programs be required and activities or even separate salaries for the youth workers, a team of local should programs need to be provided specifically workers and an adequate budget for activi- for females. ties. The reality is that in some Aboriginal incorporate It has been argued that youth workers5 communities there is a severe lack of basic educational and rather than recreation workers6 should be resources which prevents youth programs employed in remote communities since they from functioning effectively (CIRCA 2010). employment are more likely to have a broader skill base With the funding announcement of $55 opportunities and are therefore capable of working with million for the implementation of the Eight young people with complex needs (McFar- Point Plan there was hope that infrastruc- and utilise local land 1999 & Shaw 2002, as cited in d’Abbs ture needs in the region would be fully met. resources. & Maclean 2008; Northern Territory Youth Instead, most funding has been allocated to Affairs Network (NTYAN) 2010). Youth short-term programs and there is concern that workers who operate within a community at the end of the federal funding allocation development framework might also aim to the situation in the region will not be much enhance the community’s capacity to run better (Standing Committee on Community programs, rather than just provide activi- Affairs 2009). ties. In contrast to other shires in the Central Ray & McFarland (2010, p.72) commented Australian region, the MacDonnell Shire that “… the availability of youth services employ staff who fit within the definition of a is inconsistent across the region; some youth worker, as opposed to a sport and recre- communities have adequate funding, others ational worker (MacDonnell Shire 2011). almost none”. There have also been reports The study of the Mt Theo program (Preuss that a considerable amount of funding in & Brown 2006) also suggested that perhaps Central Australia has been granted to larger
Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 32 NUMBER 1 2013 59 non-government organisations instead of Since there are inherent differences among smaller community-run organisations (CIRCA Aboriginal groups and communities, there 2010). This has been viewed as wasteful as are limitations to the application of programs well as a duplication and devaluation of across diverse settings. existing service providers. The infrastructure This review identified a number of key and resources required to support programs elements of a successful youth program such as recreational and youth activities in Central Australia. A “one size fits all” cannot be provided by communities alone approach is not effective for youth programs (Maclean & d’Abbs 2002). Governments must operating in remote Aboriginal communities. A ‘one size fits also be prepared to commit to supporting Youth programs should focus on the provision evidence-based interventions and to funding of meaningful, culturally relevant, gender- all’ approach is resources to create recreational, educa- and age-status-appropriate activities. They not effective tional and employment opportunities. It is should incorporate involvement, guidance suggested that relationships between govern- and support from older family members and for youth ment and community organisations need to be employ skilled youth workers who develop programs enhanced and strengthened (CIRCA 2010). ideas and lead activities. It is also crucial Findings from the MacDonnell Shire evalu- that programs have appropriate funding and operating ation (Shaw & Payne 2009) highlighted a lack resources, including infrastructure. Collec- in remote of management and administrative resources tively, the effectiveness and sustainability and a concern that there is not enough of a youth development program may be Aboriginal capacity to address the broader strategic dependent on the successful functioning of communities. vision of the program. There have been diffi- the various key elements outlined. culties trying to keep on top of the demands of a program that has 28 staff members and is Notes spread over a large geographic area. There are 1. In this paper the term “Aboriginal” is used in also concerns about the wider strategic direc- acknowledgement of the diversity of Aboriginal tion of the program and how to improve the peoples in Australia and in recognition that this scope and quality for the long term (Shaw & terminology is not universally accepted. Since Payne 2009). this paper is focused on Central Australia and the term Aboriginal is most commonly used in this Conclusion region, the term Aboriginal has been chosen for this discussion. There have been a number of successful youth programs developed and conducted for 2. Opal fuel is a low-aromatic unleaded fuel that Aboriginal youth to address a broad range of does not contain the properties associated with the health and social issues. Given the importance creation of a “high”. It was designed to discourage and benefits of these programs, it is essential people from petrol sniffing (British Petroleum (BP) that lessons are shared among the broader 2011). community. Overall, findings from the review 3. Grey literature is defined as “information found that generally few studies have been produced on all levels of government, academia, conducted to explore the benefits and value of business and industry in electronic and print Aboriginal youth development programs in formats not controlled by commercial publishing”. Central Australia, given their relatively new status within the research field, particularly in 4. Anecdotally, this service is no longer operational. remote settings. 5. Youth workers contribute to the develop- The key elements of a successful youth ment of young people aged 10–24 years by: program were primarily identified within providing services and meeting needs, building grey literature. The majority of the youth relationships, and building connection to and programs operating in remote contexts in participation in communities (Martin 2006). A the Central Australian region have not been trained youth worker normally has a broad skill evaluated and are not formally published. base that includes delivering sport and recreation
60 Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 32 NUMBER 1 2013 activities as well as being able to identify issues au/sport-and-recreation>. affecting young people and offering them help or Clough, A.R., Lee, K.K.S. & Conigrave, K.M. 2008, referral to an external service (NTYAN 2010). ‘Promising performance of a juvenile justice diversion programme in remote Aboriginal 6. In general, a sport and recreation worker has a communities, Northern Territory, Australia’, Drug narrow and defined role that involves the facilita- and Alcohol Review, v.27, n.1, pp.433-38. tion of regular and specific diversionary activities Community Affairs References Committee 2006, to promote an active and healthy lifestyle for Beyond petrol sniffing: Renewing hope for Indigenous participants (NTYAN 2010). communities, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. References Cultural & Indigenous Research Centre Australia (CIRCA) 2010, Research to inform the development Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2006, of the Youth Diversion Communication Strategy in Population characteristics, Aboriginal and Torres Strait the East Kimberly and Central Desert Region (CDR), Islander Australians, No. 4716.0, ABS, Canberra. retrieved from, Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 32 NUMBER 1 2013 61 author Bulletin, v.130, n.2, pp.304-23. Sciences, v.29, n.1, pp.68-72. Hishinuma, E.S., Chang, J.Y., Sy, A., Greaney, Senate Select Committee on Volatile Fumes 1985, M.F., Morris, K.A., Scronce, A.C., Rehuger, D. & Volatile substance abuse in Australia, Australian Jess Lopes works Nishmura, S.T. 2009, ‘Hui Malama O Ke Kai: A Government Publishing Service, Canberra. as a Research positive prevention-based youth development Senate Standing Committee on Community Affairs Associate at the program based on native Hawaiian values and 2009, Grasping the opportunity of Opal: Assessing the Centre for Remote activities’, Journal of Community Psychology, v.37, impact of the petrol sniffing strategy, Commonwealth Health (Flinders n.8, pp.897-1007. of Australia, Canberra. NT), a partner in the Centre of Research Lawrence, A. 2012, ‘Electronic documents in a Shaw, G. 2009, The provision of support and advocacy Excellence in Rural print world: Grey literature and the internet’, for Indigenous young people on a regional basis – the and Remote Primary Media International Australia, v.143, pp.122-31, CAYLUS model, retrieved from, 62 Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 32 NUMBER 1 2013