The Fruits of Freedom in British Togoland: Literacy, Politics and Nationalism, 1914–2014 Kate Skinner Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-07463-7 - The Fruits of Freedom in British Togoland: Literacy, Politics and Nationalism, 1914–2014 Kate Skinner Index More information

Index

Ablɔɖe (freedom) movement. See also Acheampong, I. K., 209, 228–230, Togoland reunification movement 232–234, 239–240, 243 African political history and, 17–21 Achimota College, 56–62 Akan-Ewe political cleavage and, ambitions of students from, 69–70 223–226 Datsa’s education at, 112–116 biographical research on, 21–29 demographics of students at, 63–68 class divisions within, 27–29 entrance examinations for, 67–68 colonial division of Togoland territories Adablah, Samuel Kwame, 247 and, 3–11 Adangme-speaking peoples, 4n.9 detention in Ghana of, 216–218 adapted education, teacher training and, in domestic and international arena, 57–62 199–202 Adedeme, G. S. K., 151–152 exile of activists in, 174–182 Adiku, E. T., 144 failure of, 29–32 Adjei, Ako, 166 Ghanaian politics and, 209–212, administrative grid, historical 238–258 interpretations based on, 15–17 legacy of, 208–212, 254–258 Adom, Eugene, 53–54 northern British Togoland and, 160 adult education plebiscite on reunification, 152–155 discourse ethics and, 100–102, 116–121 as political force, 33–38 GCE qualifications and, 107–109 post-colonial reformulation and survival, ‘Oxford model’ of, 86–89 168–172, 172–174 political mobilisation and, 89–97, refugees of, 31–32 217–218 socio-economic composition, 177–178 social interaction and, 100–102 teacher-politicians dominance of, 33–38, status of, 102–109 219 Togoland reunification movement and, Togo Republic and, 182–185 98–101, 120–121 translation and application of ablɔɖe, Advisory Committee on Education in the 142–145 Colonies (ACEC), 86–89 Ablɔɖe Safui (Key to Freedom) newspaper, Adzatekpor VI, Fia, 144n.66 171–172, 191–199 Adzini, 198 Accelerated Plan for Education (Gold Adzotor, J. K. B., 220 Coast), 107–109, 160 Adzraku, Agnes Tachie, 176, 179

283

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-07463-7 - The Fruits of Freedom in British Togoland: Literacy, Politics and Nationalism, 1914–2014 Kate Skinner Index More information

284 Index

African culture, adapted education rhetoric Anlo group, 5–6 and, 57–62 cleavage with Peki group, 75 African political history missionary presence in, 38–43 overview of, 1–32 People’s Education Association and, 92–97 party, person, and place in, 17–21 prominence in Evangelical Presbyterian Agbodza, Mathias, 54, 62–63, 69, 76, Church, 68–69 214–215 Antor, Robert, 221–222, 248 Agbogbozã festivals, 226–230 Antor, S. G. Agokoli, King, 226–227 adult education and, 78, 116, 120 agricultural production chants used by, 148 chieftaincy disputes and, 71–72 on cocoa production, 64 economy in British Togoland and, as Ghana’s ambassador to Togo, 64–68 227–228 missionary influence on, 44–45 National Liberation Council and, 214 Ahlman, Jeff, 170 opposition to Ghana independence, Aithson, Messan, 190–191 165–166, 247 Akan language and identity, 63–68 plebiscite defeat and, 162–164 Akan-Ewe political cleavage and, post-independence political activism of, 223–226 173 Akoto, Togbe II, 92–93, 103 print politics and, 123, 125, 127–133, Akpini Youth Society, 78, 92 135–141, 147 Akropong College, 57–62 reunification movement and, 36, ambitions of students from, 69–70 151–152, 235 competition from Gold Coast for Togoland Congress and, 151–152, 250, students, 66–68 252 Datsa’s education at, 110–116 Togo unification movement and, 190 demographics of students at, 63–68 United Party and, 216–218 entrance examinations for, 67–68 Apaloo, M. K., 216 Akwamu, kingdom of, 5–6, 143 Apetor, Henri Kofi, 180 Algeria, 186–188 ‘Apollo 568’ incident, 224 Aliens’ Compliance Order, 224–225 Appiah, Joe, 216–218 All-African Peoples’ Conference, 170, 191 Arden-Clarke, Sir Charles, 166 All Ewe Conference (AEC), 41, 75, 97 Asamany, H. K., 76 integrationist politics and, 131–135 Asamany, Regina, 77 reunification movement and, 114–121 Asante Allman, Jean, 22, 165 in Ghana, 13n.32 Amedzofe-Avatime seminary, 56 invasion of Krepe by, 6, 39–44, 143, Ameh, Robert Kwame, 247–248 194–195 Amenumey, D. E. K., 13, 41–43, 128–129, plebiscite defeat and, 163–164 164n.141, 183 secessionist sentiment in, 165 Ametowobla, Bernice, 181 secondary schools in, 67n.112 Ametowobla, Francis R., 36, 62, 69–70, Asanteman Council, 163 165–166, 181, 190, 252 Asante National Liberation Movement, 163 Ametowobla, Timotheo Kofi, 51n.64 Asare, F. Y., 119, 123, 129–130, 132, Ampofo, G. K., 69 140–141 Amponsah, R. R., 216 northern British Togoland issue and, 155, Anglo-French Consultative Commission, 157 reunification debate and, 117–121 post-independence political activism of, Anku, V. O., 36, 76, 98, 219 173–174 Anku Morny, Harry, 78, 97–100, 114, 117, Asare, Theodore O., 125, 137–138, 136, 190 145–146, 235

Index 285

Asase, Moses Kofi, 73, 139, 147, 174–175, Boahen, Adu, 240–242 178, 213–214, 216, 218, 247 bonded service of Ewe teacher-catechists, asceticism, missionary emphasis on, 44–48 48–51 Ashanti Pioneer newspaper, 157, 165, 167, Bookchin, Murray, 127 202 boys’ education, British Togoland training Asogli State programmes and, 59–62 chieftaincy disputes in, 71–73, 97 Branch, Daniel, 22 Dome-Bankoe chieftaincy dispute and, 71 Bremen missionaries Asogli Taxpayers’ Association, 72 challenges facing, 43–48 Asogli Youth League, 72 Ewe community and, 39–43 Asor, Togbe Apede, 166 Ewe-Württemburger students and, 70 Association of Homeland Study Groups, during First World War, 53–55 168 teacher training of Africans by, 48–51, Atiogbe, I. K., 131 109–110 Attah, Christian Baxter, 73, 216–217, 244 British colonial administration Atta-Mills, John, 242, 246, 251–252 northern British Togoland and, 155–161 Austin, Dennis, 18–19, 91, 106–108 post-independence refugees from Ghana autonomy and, 175–182 adapted education rhetoric and, 57–62 in Togo and Gold Coast, 8 teacher-catechist model and limitations Togo Republic and, 203–207 on, 49–51 British politics, postwar developments in, Togoland reunification movement goals 81–82 for, 141–145 British Togoland Avatime enclave, evangelization in, 44 Ablɔɖe as political force in, 2–3, 37–38 Avoidance of Discrimination Act, 172, 216 adult education availability in, 74–80, Awhaitey Affair, 216 104–109, 128–129 Awuma, Elia, 70, 72 African political history and, 93–97 Awuma, Gerald Otto, 36, 62, 70, 78, 136 class divisions in, 27–29 chieftaincy disputes and, 71–73, 97 economic opportunities for teachers in, Datsa and, 114 63–66, 63–68 National Liberation Movement of education for citizenship programmes in, Western Togoland and, 234–237 86–89 Togoland reunification and, 97–100, establishment of, 8 119–121, 123 ethnic sentiment in, 130–131 Awuma family, 70 Ewe-Württemburger ‘German scholars’ Ayeke, Kodzo, 67n.112, 120, 133, 173, and, 51–55 190, 214–215 failure of Ablɔɖe (freedom) movement in, Azamede, Kokou, 49–50, 70 29–32 German border with Dagomba and, Baeta, C. G. (Rev.), 69, 76 14n.37 Banibensu, Richard, 104–106, 174, 180 Gold Coast affiliation with, 153–155, Basel missionaries 249–253 conversions by, 44 integration into Ghana of, 1–2, 168–172, Ewe identity and, 39 193 teacher-catechist model and, 49–51 intelligentsia in, 33–80 Bawa, I. B., 234–237 land distribution under colonisation in, Bawumia, Mumuni, 158 15–17 Baynham, Simon, 223 literary practices and, 255–258 Benin, Ketu region in, 3–4 location of Ablɔɖe movement within, Benzies, 111–116 3–11 Bimoba Youth Association, 158 mission-trained teachers in, 37–38, 47–48

286 Index

British Togoland (cont.) Chakosi, 156 nationalist politics in, 41–43 Chambaas, A. A., 156–157 National Liberation Movement of chants and songs of reunification Western Togoland rhetoric concerning, movement, 139–142, 148–152 231–237 Chapman, C. H., 173–174 natural resources in, 139 Chapman, Daniel, 131, 188 northern territory in, 155–161 Chartist movement (Great Britain), 17 People’s Education Association and, 103, Chazan, Naomi, 239 128–129 Chieftaincies in Togoland plebiscite on reunification, 152–155, boycott of Gold Coast elections and, 161–164 118–121 population demographics in, 63, 65 British attempts at amalgamation of, primary education in, 55–62 71–73 propaganda pamphlets in, 123–124 Ghanaian annexation strategy for Togo refugees in Togo from, 175–182 and, 200–202 reunification movement and, 11–17, northern British Togoland issue and, 114–121 155–160 southern territory in, 161–164 opposition to Ghana independence from, teacher-catechist model in, 48–51 166 teachers as intermediaries in, 68 post-independence leadership from, trusteeship agreement for, 84–86 180–182 UN trusteeship system and, 10–11 Togoland Congress pressure in, 151 British Togoland: An Orphan or the Death Christianity of a Nation (Kedem), 250–253 Ablɔɖe (freedom) movement and, 20–21 Brown, David, 13, 52, 92, 154 African encounter with, 37–38 on Ablɔɖe post-colonial reformulation Asante invasion of Krepe and conversion and survival, 169, 172–174, 180 to, 43–45 on National Liberation Movement of Ewe language and emergence of, 12–17 Western Togoland, 233–237 National Liberation Movement of on Togoland Congress, 213 Western Togoland rhetoric and, Brown, Lalage, 78, 88–97, 102 231–237 Brydon, Lynne, 44, 54 political activism and, 197–199 Buem area, 3 citizenship Bund der Deutschen Togoländer, 52–55, British colonial education programmes 251 for, 86–89, 93–94, 106–109 Bureau of Current Pamphlets, 104 membership in PEA and, 104–109 Bureau of Ghana Languages, 155 Togoland Union framework for, 98–101 Bürgi (Swiss missionary), 40, 51n.64, 53 civilisation, Ewe concepts of, 46–48 Busia, Kofi, 104, 165, 209, 212–218, civil service 223–227, 239–245 ‘Apollo 568’ incident and, 224 missionary education as a path for, Cameroon 111–116 independence settlements in, 13 People’s Education Association nationalism in, 99n.47 membership from, 103 political history of, 22, 201, 250, 257 teachers as, 67–68, 76 The Case for a Reunited Togoland (Asare), class structure 125 colonial education for citizenship certification programmes and, 86–89 colonial-era expatriate teachers’ of PEA membership, 103–104 objections to, 110–116 Togoland nationalism and, 27–29 postcolonial opposition to, 106–109 Clerk, Reverend N. T., 60–62

Index 287

clothing, teacher training and conflicts over, Ghanaian annexation strategy for Togo 58–62 and, 200–202 Cocoa Marketing Board, as reunificationist integrationist solution and, 144–145 goal, 136 mass education supported by, 78 cocoa production northern British Togoland issue and, in British Togoland, 64–68 155–160 marketing issues for, 100 People’s National Party and, 239–240 post-independence disruption of, plebiscite defeat and, 161–164 178–182 political tactics of, 91, 94–95, 135–136, reunification politics and, 135–137, 148–152 177–178 in post-independence Ghana, 172–174 Coe, Cati, 58 print politics and, 145–152 Cohen, Andrew, 82–83 publications of, 124–129 Coleman, James, 13, 156, 162n.134 reunification movement and, 115–116, colonialism 130–135, 141–145 African political history and, 18–21 rise in Gold Coast of, 17 archives of, 25–27 suspicion of teachers in, 37, 219–222 Ewe-speaking regions and, 5–11 Volta River Project and, 139 intermediary role of teachers in, 67–68 conversion, manumission by, 43–48 land distribution in British Togoland and, Cooper, Frederick, 3n.7, 25, 123, 207 15–17 Coussey Commission, 85, 88, 92–95, 105, mass education and, 74–80 114–116, 132–133 ‘Oxford model’ of adult education and, Coward, Chance and Co., 163–164 86–91 Creech Jones, Arthur, 82–83, 86, 99–100 postwar British politics and, 82–86 cultural nationalism, missionary influence Togoland reunification and, 11–17 on, 41–43 Comité d’Aide aux Refugiés, 225–226 Comité de l’Unité Togolaise (CUT), Dagomba, border with British Togoland, 114–118, 131, 173–174, 182–185, 14n.37, 155–156 200–202 .See also Unité Togolaise Dahomey, French colonisation of, 6, 8 commercial occupations Daily Express newspaper, 216 negative views in British Togoland of, 64 Daily Graphic, 166 People’s Education Association Danquah, J. B., 104, 215–218, 239–245, membership from, 103 251–253 Communist Party (Germany), 127 Danquah-Busia Memorial Club, 240–242 community development, teachers’ Darko, Kwabena, 241–242 involvement in, 78–80, 109–110 da Rocha, B. J., 215 Conference of Independent States, 170 Datsa, E. K., 30, 36, 58–59 Contemporary Issues journal, 126–128 education of, 64–65, 76, 219 Convention People’s Party (CPP), 13n.32 memoir on teaching by, 109–116 Ablɔɖe Safui (Key to Freedom) newspaper reunification politics and, 114–116, coverage of, 193–199 151–152, 219–221 African political history and, 18–21 Debrunner, Hans, 40–43 All Ewe Conference and, 131–135 decolonisation Asante concessions to, 165 teacher-politicians’ emergence in the British colonial connections with, course of, 33 122–124 Togoland reunification and, 11–17 financial strength of, 149–150 De Gaulle, Charles, 186–187 French African colonies and, 187–191 De Guiringaud, Louis, 187 Ghana independence and, 165–167, Deku, A. K., 223 171–172 Deku, Zacharias, 50

288 Index

Denyo, C. K., 234–237 in British Togoland, 84–86, 255–258 destoolment of chiefs, 22–23, 23n.63, 50, northern British Togoland and scarcity of, 71 158–160 developmental decolonisation, reunification postwar initiatives in, 86–89 movement and, 140–141 reunification political strategies and, Dickson, A. G., 74–78, 93 146–152, 219–222 Dinge der Zeit - Zeitschrift für inhaltllliche social mobility and, 222 Demokratie (Contemporary Issues - Education for Citizenship, 74–75 Journal for a Democracy of Content), Edusei, Krobo, 173–174 126 Eglise Evangélique, 192 discourse ethics electoral politics. See also voter registration in adult education, 100–102, 116–121 Akan-Ewe cleavage and, 223–226 constitutional change and, 102–109 plebiscite defeat and, 161 Togoland reunification and, 116–121 in post-independence Ghana, 172–174, Djokotoe, Georges, 189 209–215, 239–245 Doing My Duty (Datsa), 109–116 Togoland reunification and, 122–124 Dome-Bankoe chieftaincy dispute, 71–72 in Togo Republic, 182–185 Douglas, R. M., 83–84 English fluency Dring, Sir John, 153 in adult education classes, 103–105 dukɔwo political units, 39–43 education for citizenship initiative and, Dumoga, Alfred, 152, 242–245, 250 85–86 Dumoga, Daniel Kumasi, 247 in missionary communities, 40 Dumoga, E. O. Kofi, 35–36, 42–43, 70, 242 PEA and role of, 93–94, 102–103 detention of, 216, 247 political activism of post-independence as Ghana’s ambassador to Dahomey, exiles and, 177–182 227–228 as political liability, 180–182 National Liberation Council and, 214 of political texts, 26–29 National Liberation Movement of post-independence shift from, 171–172 Western Togoland and, 234–237 print politics and, 124–129 reunification rhetoric and, 123–124 retraining of Togoland teachers in, 53–57 teaching career of, 67n.112 reunification movement and, 122–124, Togoland Union and, 118–119 139–142, 145–152 Dumoga, Kofi Daniel, 216 scholarship allocations and, 69–70 Dwami, Daniel K., 35 territorial government and, 99 Dzeletsu, Emmanuel, 179–180 enlightenment, Ewe concept of, 45–48 Dzeletsu, Manfred, 179 ethnic nationalism Dzigbe Local Council, 133, 136 ‘Apollo 568’ incident and, 224 missionary education and, 38–43 Ecker, Paul (pseud.), 125–127, 132, 141 Togoland reunification and, 13–17 écoles normales. See secondary schools Ettmueller, M. E., 205 economic conditions European missionaries, educational in British Togoland, 63–68 influence of, 37–38 colonialism and, 14–17 Evangelical Presbyterian Church educational opportunity and, 63–68 Anlo- and Peki-Ewes prominence in, in northern British Togoland, 159–160 68–69 for post-independence refugees, 175–182 certification of teachers by, 110–116 reunification movement economic goals Dickson’s mass education campaign and, and, 139–145 75 educational infrastructure. See also adult establishment of, 41–43 education; teachers; teacher training Ewe-Württemburger teachers in, 51–55 colleges formation of, 40–43

Index 289

scholarship allocations by, 12, 68–71 strength of Ablɔɖe movement and, 3–11 students from, 67–68 Togoland reunification and role of, teacher-catechist model and, 48–51 11–17, 122–167 teachers as employees of, 68–70, 79–80 Togo unification movement and, Togoland reunification movement and, 187–191 119–121 translation and application of ablɔɖe, training in British Togoland for, 142–145 56–62 Ewe Presbyterian Literature Committee, evangelist preachers, teachers and, 48–51 124 evangelisation, teachers as instruments for, The Ewe Newsletter, 27n.74 49–51 Ewe-Württemburger teachers Evening News, 189, 195 Bremen missionary programme for, EʋeKɔnuwo (Ewe Customs) (Obianim), 49–51 27n.74, 41n.33 leadership of Ewe Church and, 51–55 Ewe Church. See Evangelical Presbyterian political mobilisation of, 70 Church expatriate tutors Ewe Hymn Book, reunification chants and local students and, 106–109 songs from, 148–149 membership in PEA and, 104–109 Ewe identity extra-mural classes. See adult education Akan-Ewe political cleavage and, Eyadéma, Gnassingbé, 184–185, 226–230, 223–226 234–237 historical narratives of, 129–135 influence of European missionaries on, Fabian Colonial Bureau (FCB), 82–86, 37–43 99–100, 113–115, 136 National Liberation Movement of Famfantor, Josef, 143 Western Togoland and, 231–237 Ferguson (Rev.), 58 People’s Education Association and, Fifth Republic (France), 186 92–97 First World War plebiscite defeat and, 161–164 Bremen missionaries during, 53–55 religious encounters and, 43–48 colonialism in Africa and, 8 reunification movement and, 117–118, expulsion of German missionaries and, 130–135, 188 40–41 teachers associations and, 42–43 Fleku, S. Togbe, 126, 130–131, 146 Togo politics and, 226–230 Foli, Komla, 176, 178–179 Ewe language Former British Togoland Youth, 230 African political history and role of, Forrester-Paton (Rev.), 115 25–27 Foster, Philip, 66 colonial separation of speakers of, 6–8 Fourth International, 127 fluency as political asset, 180–182 Frafra Youth Association, 157–158 Ghanaian post-independence politics and, France 209–212 Ghana-Togo Union Movement and, instruction of teachers in, 62–68 199–202 local power structures in Togoland and, Togo Republic relations with, 183–191, 14–17 204–207 missionary influence on, 38–43 Free Church of Scotland (FCS), 53–55, 68 mother-tongue literacy programmes and, British Togoland teacher training and, 84–90 55–62 print politics and, 124–129, 154–155, mass education programme and, 77 191–199 reunification movement and, 115 propaganda pamphlets in, 123–129, Freitas, Paulin, 201–202 137–138 French Soudan, 68

290 Index

French Togoland, 2. See also Togo, economic development in, 138–139 Republic of geographic regions in, 4–11 cocoa production and, 135–136 Gold Coast integration into, 1–2, 37–38 decolonisation of, 171–172 independence in, 165–167 establishment of, 8 multi-party democracy in, 238–242 Ewe-Württemburger ‘German scholars’ plebiscite defeat and, 163–164 and, 51–55 political history of, 18–22, 30–32 exclusion from plebiscite, 153 political parties in, 150 independence of, 30, 173–174 post-independence political trends in, labour migration away from, 63 208–212 mass education campaign in, 74–80 power coalitions in, 212–215 mineral resources in, 139 preventive detention of opposition in, reunification politics in, 117–121, 215–218 144–145, 173–174 riots in, 166–167 Front de la Libération Nationale, 188 Togo Republic annexation sought by, Funke, Luise, 54 185–191, 199–202 Fynn, J. K., 5 underground activities of reunificationists in, 172–174 Gbedemah, Komla, 189–190, 212–213, Ghana Congress Party, 160 223–224 Ghana Constitutional Review Commission, General Certificate of Education (GCE), 1, 30–32 107–108 Ghana-Guinea Union, 187 German missionaries Ghanaianism, 239–242 challenges facing, 43–48 Ghana National Trading Corporation, Ewe community and, 39–43 224 infrastructural development and, Ghana-Togo Union Movement, 200–202 134–135 Ghanaian Times, 200 teacher training by, 48–51 Goka, Ferdinand Koblavi, 173, 189, 193 ‘German scholars’ in Ewe community, 251 Gold Coast First World War and dislocation of, adult education campaign in, 74–80, 51–55 104–109 retraining after First World War of, Anlos and Pekis in British Togoland from, 63–65, 69–70 68–69 German Togoland British Togoland association with, 1–2, colonial establishment of, 6–11 84–86, 118–121, 142, 153–155, Dagomba population in, 155 249–253 Ewe-Württemburger ‘German scholars’ chieftaincy structure in, 72 and, 51–55 colonial establishment of, 6–8 post-war partition of, 6–8, 40, 70, 138 constitutional change in, 85, 102–109 reunification movement and, 11–17, economic conditions in, 63, 66–68 29–32, 36–38, 143–144 education for citizenship programme in, Germany, Ewe-speaking missionaries 86–89 educated in, 49–51 failure of Ablɔɖe (freedom) movement in, Ghana 29–32 Acheampong coup in, 228–230 independence protests in 1948 and, Akan-Ewe political cleavage in, 223–226, 85–86 237 marginalisation of Togolanders in, British Togoland integration with, 1–2, 105–109 13, 37–38, 168–172, 193 opposition parties in, 162–164 colonial history in, 16–17 People’s Education Association and, democracy movement in, 209–212 92–97, 104–109

Index 291

reunificationist alliances in, 215–218 Kedem, Kosi, 1–2, 30–32, 249–253 riots of 1948 in, 89–91 Kekeli kple Nyateƒe (Light and Truth) secondary schools in, 66–68, 219 newspaper, 195 territorial nationalism in, 13 Kende, Elisa, 50 voter registration in, 153–155 Kenya, political history in, 22 Gold Coast Cocoa Marketing Board, 100 Ketu, 3–4 Gold Coast Education Ordinance, 55–62 Key, Philip, 144 Government Senior Boarding School, 159 Kimble, David, 86, 88–93, 96–97, 99 grassroots activism Klu, Sam, 192 post-independence Ghanaian politics and, Kodzi, B. K., 67n.112, 246–250 214–215 Kodzo, John W., 35 teacher-politicians and, 33–35 Komedja, Holiday, 192–199, 202, 231–237 Guggisberg, Gordon, 55–57 Komlateng (chief), 180 Guinea, independence in, 187 Kona, J. P., 158 Konkomba, 156 Hawkins, Sean, 25 Krepe, colonisation of, 5–6 Hinden, Rita, 99–100, 115 Asante invasion of, 6, 39–44, 143, historical narratives, reunification 194–195 movement use of, 129–135 missionary influence in, 39–43 Hodgkin, Thomas, 17–18, 20–21, 87–88 Kufuor, John Agyekum, 30, 242–249 Hope Press, 98, 124 Kühne, J., 39 Kuma, Kwame, 193–194 illiteracy, campaign in British colonies Kuma, S. W., 220 against, 74–75 Kwadzo, Isaac, 49–50 indigenous church, missionaries’ Kwaku II, Tenkoloe, 72 establishment of, 40–43 Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum, 245 indigenous practices, teacher-catechist Kwami, Nathaniel, 50 training and persistence of, 50–51 Kwasi, Agbade, 71–72 Institute of Adult Education, 108–109 integrationist approach to Togoland trust Labour Party (U.K.), postwar colonial territories policy and, 81–86 All Ewe Conference and, 131–135 Ladouceur, Paul, 159–160 Convention People’s Party and, land distribution 144–145 in British Togoland, 15 Ghana independence and, 165–167 chieftaincy disputes and, 71–72 northern British Togoland and, 155–160 Lange, Marie-France, 54–55 plebiscite in British Togoland and, Langlais, Henri, 225, 226–230 152–155, 161–164 language education for teachers, 63–68 United Nations and, 1–2, 132–135, Larson, Pier, 25–26 145–152 Laubach picture syllable chart, 76 intermediaries of state, teachers as, 67–68 Lawrance, Benjamin, 52 International Court of Justice, 139, 164 League of Nations, 82 International Missionary Council, 40 territorial mandated territories of, 8, Invention of Tradition (Hobsbawm and 51–55 Ranger), 19–21 legal profession, negative views in British Ivory Coast, Sanvi secession from, 187–188 Togoland of, 64 Leklebi-Liati-Ve trust territory, 103 Jézéquel, Jean Hervé, 68 Lennox-Boyd, Alan, 165 Joint Togoland Council, 132–135, 146 Lilley (Captain), 71 Juvento movement, 173, 182–193, 199, Limann, Hilla, 209, 239–242 202, 209 Lincoln University, 125

292 Index

linguistic diversity adult education as alternative to, Ablɔɖe movement location and, 3–11 100–102 in Ghana region, 4n.9 Datsa’s memoir about, 110–116 plebiscite defeat and, 161–164 ethnogenesis and, 38–43 literacy manumission by conversion and, African political history and role of, 43–48 25–27, 254–258 political influence on teacher-politicians colonial mass education programme and, of, 36–38 74–80 “Most Secret” Politics in Togoland (Antor reunification movement and role of, and Ecker), 125–126, 131–135, 145–152 152–153 literary practices. See also print politics Mote Kofi II, 71–73, 97, 120–121, 166, African political history and role of, 176, 215 25–27, 254–258 Movement for a Resurgent Togoland local government systems (MORETO), 246–249 African political history and, 18–21 Movement for the Democracy of Content, colonialism in British Togoland and, 125–129, 141 14–17 Antor’s connections with, 136 People’s Education Association and, 93–97 Murray, Rev. W. M., 59 political history and, 21–29 London Matriculation Examination, 112 Nanka-Bruce, 240 Nanumba, 156 Mally, Théophile, 202 National Alliance of Liberals (NAL), Mambii Party, 240 212–215, 223 Mamprusi Native Authority, 158 National Democratic Congress (NDC), manumission, conversion by, 43–48 241–245 Mass Education in African Society, 74 nationalism and nationhood materiality adult education programmes and in African culture, 196–199 development of, 87–89 encounter with missionaries, 45–48 in African political history, 17–21 Mau Mau insurgency (Kenya), 22 historical narratives of, 129–135 Mawuli Press, 124, 181–182 influence of missionary education on, Mazoyer, Henri Francois, 186, 204 40–43 Mbembe, Achille, 211–212, 214, 220 plebiscite defeat and, 161–164 McLean, J. A., 88 in postcolonial era, 170–174 Mead, T. A., 166 Togoland reunification and, 11–17 Medenu, Ludwig, 50 Togo Republic and, 186–191 Medie, F. Y., 71–73 National Liberation Council, 209, 212, Mensa, Gebhard Christophe Komla, 50 214–215, 223–226 Meyer, Birgit, 44 National Liberation Movement (Ghana), Mfojoh, Edward Kojo, 139, 175, 179, 13n.32, 163–165, 215–218 244–245 National Liberation Movement of Western Mia Denyigba newspaper, 124–125, Togoland, 231–237 154–155, 161–162 National Reconciliation Commission Middle School Leaving Certificate, 107 (Ghana), 30, 246–248, 250–253 Miescher, Stephan, 62 Native Authority (Northern Territories) military leadership in Ghana, politics and, Ordinance, 156–160 223–224 Nayiri, 157–158, 163 missionary education protest of Ghana independence by, 165 absence in northern British Togoland, Nazi genocide, 82 159 New Patriotic Party (NPP), 30, 241–253

Index 293

Niger ŋkuʋuʋu (Ewe concept of civilisation), 46–48 political history of, 22 Sawaba party in, 188 Obianim, S. J., 27n.74, 41n.33 Nigeria Odame, Alex, 216 adult education programmes in, 87–88 Ofori-Attah, William, 240 class divisions of nationalists in, 28 Ohene, Elizabeth, 220–221, 253 Nkrumah, Kwame, 18, 31, 91, 94, 114, 132 Ohene, Stephen K., 112, 219–220 Akan-Ewe cleavage and, 223–226 olaju (Yoruba term for civilisation), 46–48 _ British Togoland integration and, 193, Olympio, Sylvanus 232 assassination of, 182–185, 202, 209 Convention People’s Party and, 165 British support for, 203–204 Ghana independence and, 169–172, Ghana-Guinea Union and, 186–191 193–194, 257–258 Ghana’s annexationist ambitions and, Ghanaian annexation strategy for Togo 191–200, 226 and, 186–191, 194–202, 203–207 as Togo president, 171, 173, 175–176, hostility toward Olympio, 186n.50 181, 192–199, 208–209 northern British Togoland issue and, Operation Counterpoint of 1976, 230 155–157 Oquaye, Mike, 239 opposition parties challenge to, 215–218 ordination of teachers coup which removed, 209–212, 218 political mobilisation and, 70 populist tradition in Ghana politics and, promotion of teacher-catechists through, 238–242 61–62 post-independence refugees from regime Organisation of African Unity, 231–233 of, 175–182 Owusu, Victor, 216, 227, 240 reunification movement and, 139–140, Oxford Delegacy for Extra-Mural Studies, 150 86–89, 92–97, 100 Nkrumahism, 239–242 educational goals of, 106–109 non-self-governing territories, postwar PEA membership classifications by, classification of, 82n.1 102–104 Norddeutsche Missiongesellschaft (NMG), ‘Oxford model’ of adult education, 86–89 38–43, 51 Northern People’s Party (NPP), 155, pagan influences, education in British 158–160, 163–164, 215–216 Togoland and, 58–62 Northern Territories, 163–164 pan-African unity Notsé, 4 ethnic and territorial nationalism and, 13 migration narratives from, 38–43 Nkrumah’s vision of, 115–116, 257–258 November Rising of 1918, 127 Parti Togolais du Progrès, 118, 182–185, Ntri, Clephas, 155 195–199 Nugent, Paul, 8, 12–14, 30 party politics on Ablɔɖe post-colonial reformulation lack of commitment to ideology, 18–21 and survival, 169 in post-independence Ghana, 212–215, on Acheampong regime, 229–230 239–245 on cocoa production in British Togoland, Peace Preservation Orders, 166, 172 65 Pedersen, Susan, 8, 21 on Ewe identity, 41–43 Peel, John, 21, 46–47 on NDC, 245 Peki group on party politics in Ghana, 240–241, 253 cleavage with Ewe groups, 75 on plebiscite defeat, 161 enstoolment ceremonies in, 50 on post-independence refugees, 175, 179 People’s Education Association and, 92–97 on Togoland Congress, 135–136, 213 prominence in Evangelical Presbyterian Nyerere, Julius, 33 Church, 68–69

294 Index

People’s Education Association (PEA), 78, in northern British Togoland, 159 88–97, 174 teacher politicians from, 35–36 discourse ethics and, 100–102, 116–121 print politics. See propaganda texts membership classification in, 102–103 Ablɔɖe Safui (Key to Freedom) newspaper post-independence changes in, 108–109 and, 171–172, 191–199 social interaction through, 100–102 in African political history, 25–27 status of, 102–109 in British Togoland, 123–124 Togoland reunification movement and, oral alternatives to, 145–152 120–121 plebiscite defeat and, 161–164 People’s National Party (PNP), 239–242 reunification movement and, 124–129, Peterson, Derek, 16, 20–21 135–145 petitioning practices, impact in Togolands UN plebiscite and, 154–155 of, 8 professional development Pietist movement, Ewe culture and, 38–43 limited opportunities in British Togoland political activism. See also electoral politics for, 64–65 Ablɔɖe (freedom) movement and, 21–29 of teaching, missionary initiatives in, Christian framework for, 197–199 59–62 of exiled reunificationists, 174–182 Progress Party, 209, 212–215, 223–226, mass education and, 78–80, 91–97 228, 238 in postcolonial era, 168–172 propaganda pamphlets of post-independence refugees, 175–182 in African political history, 25–27 by post-integration Togoland activitsts, in British Togoland, 123–124 168 reunification movement and, 124–129, print politics and Togoland reunification, 135–145 124–129 public intellectuals, adult education reunification movement tactics for, programmes and, 104 147–152 Politics in Ghana (Austin), 18 Quarshie, John, 189 Popular Front Party (PFP), 240–242 Quills of the Porcupine (Allman), 22 Positive Action campaign, 94, 114–115 postcolonial political refugees race activities of, 168–172 adult education hierarchy and, 104 transnational history and, 182–185 nationalism in Togo Republic and, Prempeh College, 67n.112 186–191 Presbyterian Church of the Gold Coast, Ramseyer, F., 39 59–63, 68 Rassemblement du Peuple Togolais (RPT), mass education programme and, 77 226 secondary schools established by, 66–68 Ratepayers’ Association (Ghana), 240 Presbyterian Synod Committee, British Rawlings, Jerry, 30–31, 209–210, 240–245, Togoland educational programmes 247 and, 58–62 Read, Margaret, 74 Preventive Detention Act of 1958, 173–174, Red Cross International, 204–207 215–218, 236–237, 247 refugees from post-independence Ghana primary schooling Aliens’ Compliance Order and, 224–226 Ablɔɖe (freedom) movement and role of, economic and political activities of, 24n.68 175–182 in British Togoland, 55–68 Ghanaian annexation strategy for Togo competition for white-collar employment and, 200–207 as result of, 18–21 withdrawal from politics by, 213–215 expansion in Gold Coast of, 107–109 Roman Catholic students mass education campaign and, 75–80 in British Togoland, 67–68, 79–80

Index 295

political mobilisation of, 90–91 Talton, Benjamin, 156 rural communities Tanzania African National Union, 22 African political history and role of, teacher-catechist model 17–21 German approaches to, 48–51 ideal speech acts in public sphere of, as missionary educational ideal, 111–116 100–102 teachers activism in Evangelical Presbyterian salary scales, British Togoland teacher Church, 69–70 training programmes and, 60–62 chieftaincy disputes and, 71–73 Sallah, E. K., 224 colonial mass education programme and, Sawitzki, Sonja, 43n.37 75–0 scholarships, Evangelical Presbyterian decolonisation and role of, 33–35 Church allocation of, 68–70 economic conditions for, 63–68 secondary schools, absence in Togoland of, Ewe identity and, 42–43 66–68 German training approaches for, 48–51 Sekondi-Takoradi workers’ strike, 216 grievances against Anlo and Peki-Ewe self-determination community and, 67–68 postwar British colonial policy and, intermediary function of, 67–68 83–86 People’s Education Association in Togo Republic, 182–185 membership among, 92–97, 103 Selwyn-Clarke, Hilda, 115 political mobilisation of, 69–70, 73–80, Senoo, A. K., 36, 67, 89–90, 94, 96–97, 219–223 118–119 professional code adopted by, 79–80 Senoo, Constant, 89–90, 100–102 salary scales for, 60–62 Senoo, Michael, 37, 67, 89–92, 105–106, status in adult education of, 104–109 150–151, 244–245 Togoland reunification and, 35–36, Simpson, Albert, 131, 216, 234–237 109–116 slavery training colleges for teachers, 56–62 in Ewe-speaking area, 5–6, 143 teacher training colleges, 56–62, 66–68. See manumission by conversion and, also specific colleges 43–48 adult education as alternative to, missionaries’ awareness of, 39–43 100–102 social interaction, adult education classes as Tegbe, Mercy Akosua, 140n.53, 175, outlet for, 100–102 179–180 socialist paternalism, postwar British Terretta, Meredith, 22, 99n.47, 170, 250, colonial policy and, 83–86 256–257 social status territorial nationalism, Togoland of Ewe converts, 44–45 reunification and, 12–17 of PEA members, 102–109 Tété-Adjalogo, Têtêvi Godwin, 184–185, Société des Missions Evangéliques de Paris, 195 53 Thompson, Kojo, 240 Sorensen, Reginald, 99–100 Thompson, W. Scott, 185 Sosu, Amos Klutse, 190 Titmus, Colin, 104 South Mamprusi Youth, 157–158 Togbe Gabusu IV, 140n.53, 175, 179–180, St. Andrew’s University, 112 198–199 state employees, teachers as, 67–68 Togbe Tsedze Atakora VII, 243–245 state institutions, reunification movement Togo, Republic of, 139 attitudes concerning, 140–145 draft constitution for, 187 Steele, Tom, 104 Ghana’s annexationist ambitions for, Stoler, Ann, 15, 25 185–191, 199–202 Swedru Industrial School, 76 Ghanaian refugees in, 175–182, 225–226

296 Index

Togo, Republic of, (cont.) Ghana party politics and, 242–245 integration with Ghana, proposals for, Gold Coast election boycott and, 118–121 188–199, 226–230 historical narratives and, 129–135 political activism in, 171–172 internationalisation of, 97–100 print politics in, 191–199 mass education programme and, 78–80 refugee community in, 203–207 northern British Togoland issue and, state infrastructure in, 182–185 155–160 unification movement in, 187–191 oral vs. printed appeals and, 145–152 Togo Annual Review, 203 People’s Education Association and, 92–97 Togoland and Gold Coast: ‘Foward plebiscite defeat for, 160–164 Together to Freedom’, 126, 130–131 post-colonial reformulation and survival, Togoland Congress, 1–2, 36 168–172 Akan-Ewe cleavage and, 223–226 print politics and, 123–129, 135–145 educational status of members, 177–178 secondary education initiatives of, 67 Ghanaian annexation strategy for Togo statehood concepts of, 140–145 and, 200–202 teacher training and, 35–36 Ghanaian political opposition and, Togolese irredentism and, 226–230 215–218 United Nations petition and, 146–152 mass education supported by, 78 UN plebiscite and, 153–155 northern Togoland issue and, 155–160 Togoland Teacher’s Union, 70, 73, 75 party affiliations in Ghana and, 242–245, boycott of Gold Coast elections and, 248–249–253 118–121 plebiscite defeat and, 163–164 chiefs’ support for, 97 political alliances of, 135, 143, 150–152 international support for, 97–101 post-plebiscite reformulation and leadership of, 36–37 survival, 172–174, 213 People’s Education Association and, protest of Ghana independence by, 93–97, 100–101 165–167 Professional Code adopted by, 79–80 rallies held by, 147–152 reunification movement and, 114–116, reunification movement and, 116, 117–121 123–124, 130–135 Senoo as president of, 90 teacher training programmes and, 58–62, Togoland United Nations Association 220–222 (TUNA), 98–100 TOLIMO movement and, 234–237 Togoland Youth Association, 58, 114, 117, United Nations and, 146, 148 119 Togoland Farmers Association, 100, 117, Togo Nukae Hiawo? (Tsekpo), 29, 119 124–125, 194–195 Togoland Liberation Movement Togo Ŋutinya Akpa II (Togo History Part (TOLIMO), 234–237 II), 181–182 Togoland National College, 67n.112 Togo Observateur newspapers, 202 Togoland reunification movement Togo Presse newspaper, 182 access to education and, 109–116 Tordoff, Bill, 104n.62 British-CPP consolidation and, 122–126, Touré, Sekou, 187 165 Trans-Volta Togoland chants and songs of, 139–142, 148–152 adult education in, 89, 104–105 Datsa’s involvement in, 114–116 cocoa production and, 135–137 discourse ethics and, 116–121 electoral politics in, 172–174 economic goals of, 139–145 People’s Education Association and, ethnic identities and, 131–135 92–97 Ewe identity and, 11–17 reunification politics and, 132–135, failure of, 29–32, 36–38 137–138

Index 297

tribalism debate in African politics, 19–21 United Party (Ghana), 172–174, 202, Trotskyist movement, 127 216–218, 238 Trusteeship Agreement, termination of, Unité Togolaise, 200–202, 204–207 163–164 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 99 Trusteeship Council (U.N.), 84–85, 126, University College (Gold Coast), 105 128–129, 137, 146 Upper Volta, 188 plebiscite defeat and, 162–164 urbanisation Tse, A. K., 36, 112–113, 219, 221, 224 African political history and role of, Tsekpo, G. K., 130, 138–141, 143, 145 17–21 adult education expansion and, 98 in British Togoland, 63 chants and songs used by, 148–149 colonial education for citizenship plebiscite defeat and, 161–162 programmes and, 87–89 print politics and, 124, 130, 138–141, in Gold Coast, 63–68 143, 145, 151–152, 154–155, Ustorf, Werner, 43 194–195, 250 reunification movement and, 29, van der Linden, Marcel, 126 148–149, 161–162, 235 van Walraven, Klaas, 22, 170 skills in written Ewe of, 181–182 Venture magazine, 114 Tsiagbe, Kwaku Ansah, 247 Vernacular Literature Bureau, 154–155, Tsiagbe, Lawrence Kumatse, 247 181–182 Tsistsiwu, William, 76, 112 Vietor, J. K., 45n.42 Volta region, electoral politics in, 212–215, Union des Chefs et Populations du Nord 245–249 (UCPN), 182–185 Volta River Project, 139 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), voter registration 84 plebiscite in British Togoland and, United Association of Ghana Rationalists, 153–155 236–237 reunification movement and, 118–121 United Gold Coast Convention, 91, 238, 240–242 Waldheim, Kurt, 233 United National Convention (UNC), Watson Commission, 88 240–242 Weber, Josef, 127–128 United Nations Weissflog, Stephan, 45n.42 debate on Togoland question in, 168 Welch, Claude, 13 Ghanaian annexation strategy for Togo Westermann, Missionary, 46, 142 and, 201–202 Western Togoland Assembly, 168 integrationist approach of, 1–2, 132–135, Western Togo Refugees Union, 205–207 145–146, 153–155 white-collar employment National Liberation Movement of competition among educated Africans for, Western Togoland petition to, 231–233 18–21 plebiscite defeat and, 161–164 People’s Education Association postwar British colonial policy and, membership and, 103 82–86, 249–253 Wilkie (Rev.), 55–57 reunification politics and, 137, 145–152 Wolsey Hall, 112 Togo Republic elections and, 183 women trusteeship system for African colonies colonial mass education programme and, and, 8–11 77–80 visiting mission to Togoland, 145–152 Ewe nationalist chants and songs by, United Nations Charter, 83, 146, 164 133–135 United Nations High Commission for Togo unification movement and, Refugees, 175, 202–207 189–190

298 Index

Women’s Bible Class, Bremen missionaries’ Yagla, Wen’saa Ogma, 184 formation of, 54–55 Yahaya, Alhaji Dawuda, 155–156 Workers’ Educational Association, Ya Na, 155, 157 87–89 Yankah, Kwesi, 145 World Federation of United Nations Yayoh, Wilson, 71–72 Associations, 97–99 Young Pioneers’ Movement, 239–242, 247 writing, exercise of colonial power through, 25–27 Zachernuk, Philip, 28 Wuanka, Edward, 176, 178–180, 215, 249 Zahn, D. F. M., 48–51