Kazan

Syria

Crimea

e

r

Nizhniy

Novgorod

i

Cyprus p

Anatolia m

Moscow

Russia E

Black Sea

Alexandria

n

Constantinople

Ukraine a

Rhodes

Egypt m

o

Podolia t t

Volhyn ia

Moldavia

Bulgaria

O Crete

Athens

Walachia

Bucharest

Riga

Morea

Livonia Estonia

Serbia

negro

Riga

Galicia

Monte-

Warsaw ia Transylvania an

Finland lb n Belgrade A

Prussia

Mediterranean Sea

Pest

Poland-Lithuania

Courland e

Krakow

Ottoman Hungary

Buda

d y

Stockholm r

Bosnia

a

g e n

u

Silesia H Ragusa

w

Croatia S

Naples

Bohemia

Berlin

Sicily

Copenhagen

Naples Venice Papal

States

Saxony

Prague

Tripoli

y Oslo

Brandenburg

a

w Holy r

o N - k r a m D n e Roman

Florence

Empire

Rome Europe c. 1556

Tunis

Hesse

Hamburg

burg

Cologne

Genoa

Milan

Tunis

Corsica

Sardinia

Württem-

Palatinate

Swiss

Confed. Savoy

Brussels

Lorraine

Sea

Amsterdam

North

Provence

Provence

Dauphine

Geneva

Artois

s

y Paris

Lyons

c

d

i

n r Flanders

Charolais

a a

e

m Roussillon

France l

r Algiers

Edinburgh

a

o

B N

n

o Algiers

London

England g

Wales y

a = Venetian territory

= Spanish Habsburgs

Scotland

n r a A t t i r

Dublin

B

Navarre Ireland Madrid

Granada

Spain

Castile

Ceuta Portugal

= Austrian Habsburgs

= Ottoman tributaries

= Ottoman Empire

Ocean

Atlantic

Lisbon

xlii The Renaissance & Early Modern Era Foundation of the Saud Dynasty

Mid-15th century Foundation of the Saud Dynasty 1450’s Saudi Arabia, the only country named after its ruling It was during this time that the Saud emerged. family, and one that has thrived into the twenty-first Little is known of the Saudis before the 1700’s. In- century, was founded after the establishment of the deed, they and similar desert dwellers are sometimes re- Saud Dynasty, which hails from the harsh desert ferred to as a people without a history. It is known, how- heartland of the Arabian Peninsula. ever, that the Saud family in Arabia can be traced back to the fifteenth century, although their presence predates 4t Locale: Dir yah, central Najd region of the Arabian this. They hail from the harsh Najd Desert of central- 4t Peninsula (now Dir yah, Saudi Arabia) north Arabia and have inhabited this extremely arid land, Categories: Government and politics; religion; known for its Bedouin camel herders. expansion and land acquisition Some profess that the Saudis are descendants of the Key Figure Bani Hanifah tribe, an oasis-dwelling people who lived Mani4 al-Muraydi (fl. mid-fifteenth century), Anazah in Riyadh (the current capital of Saudi Arabia), which tribe member and founder of Dir4tyah settlement was probably settled by the first millennium b.c.e. Many others trace Saudi genealogy to the Anazah, a large and Summary of Event powerful confederation of tribes known for their Arab For the past three thousand years, the Arabian Peninsula lineage. The Anazah primarily were located in the cen- has been inhabited by Semitic-speaking people, making tral Najd region but also dwelled in parts of the western the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia a relatively young nation Hijaz, and members could be found scattered throughout that was not established officially until 1932. This large the peninsula. The Anazah were subdivided into several and diverse country covers 80 percent of the peninsula tribes and within each were various powerful families, and comprises almost 1 million square miles, an area ap- including the ruling families of what is now Kuwait (the proximately one-third the size of the United States. al-Sabah) and what is now Bahrain (the al-Khalifah). This vast landscape had been traversed by tribes In 1446-1447, according to chroniclers, an ancestor of whose cultures were largely reflective of nomadic Bed- the Saudis, the Anazah tribesman Mani4 al-Muraydi, ouin life and desert conditions. Occasionally, however, founded the settlement of Dir4tyah, which was approxi- tribal members would settle along caravan routes and at mately nine miles north of Riyadh. He perhaps came oases (like that of Mecca) and develop villages. A tribal from Qatif, the second largest oasis of the eastern prov- leader or family would sometimes establish rule over ince, and with his son and their respective families began such settlements, as did the Saud clan in the oasis of farming the lands around Dir4tyah. Thus, from the fif- Dir4tyah. teenth century on, it is likely that the Saudis were not The mercantile and pilgrimage cities of Mecca and Bedouins per se but instead were a sedentary group. Medina, both in the eastern Hejaz region near the Red Within the next few hundred years, apparently, they es- Sea, were thriving by 622, the year of the Hegira (flight) tablished themselves as a landholding merchant class of of the Prophet Muwammad (c. 570-632). Within a few Najd and acquired cultivated land and wells around the years after the death of the Prophet, Islam had spread Dir4tyah settlement. Artisans inhabited the settlement, widely, and pilgrimages to Mecca and Medina increased too. greatly. Islamic political power, which was often accom- Palm dates were the main crop of Dir4tyah in the fif- panied by intellectual vitality, left the region, however. teenth century and throughout most of its history, but Under the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750), Damascus be- livestock was raised, too. Limited trading in the Najd came the Islamic capital, and under the 4Abb3sid caliphs, took place usually in the northern and central regions, the capital became Baghdad. By 900, the Islamic seat where routes were marked by pilgrims from Syria and would move even farther from the Arabian Peninsula Iraq traveling to Mecca and Medina. By 1300, however, and, consequently, so did intellectual vigor. Thus, for al- many pilgrims found it easier to go around Najd’s inhos- most the next one thousand years, Arabia, specifically pitable desert landscape and difficult mountain barrier. the core area of what is now Saudi Arabia, was a largely Dir4tyah, in the southern Najd, was not located on a trade isolated and uncultivated terrain where the way of life or pilgrimage route and thus remained quite isolated. changed little from the time of the Prophet Mowammad. There was, however, some trading between the Dir4tyah 1 Foundation of the Saud Dynasty The Renaissance & Early Modern Era

Saudi village and settlements of eastern Arabia and Ku- early 1700’s, however, the Saudis began their extraordi- wait and Bahrain. nary feat of unifying under their banner the expansive There is little doubt that the Saud clan was skilled at terrain and the diverse tribes of Arabia. warfare. For centuries in Arabia, there had been ongoing tribal invasion, whereby neighboring settlements were Significance raided for their animals and other booty. Counterraids The Saud Dynasty, made up of descendants of a powerful and, at times, tribal feuds, followed. Battles were fre- Arabian confederation, has survived for hundreds of quent, fought not only for booty but also to dispel bore- years in one of the harshest environments of the Middle dom and the abject poverty of brutal desert life. Fighting East, often without adequate sustenance or supplies, and was small scale, however, and since rules of Arabian certainly without luxuries. The early twenty-first century chivalry were well respected, few individuals were seri- sees the Saudis, direct descendants of ancient Arab peo- ously injured. Indeed, raids and battles were often ples and their cultures, living in Najd still. viewed more as sport than malicious aggression. The Saudis also were leaders of their region for gener- As the leaders of Dir4tyah, the Saud clan certainly ations, a remarkable amount of time in a place where, as a would have coordinated supporters and would, in turn, matter of course, loyalty was fleeting. Unlike most Mid- have served as defenders during attacks. It is also likely dle Eastern countries, the Saudis of Najd have never been that the Saud Dynasty spirited their own raids on Bedou- under foreign control and have experienced little, if any, ins and other settlement people. In any event, they must outside cultural influence. have been successful at warfare, for leaders of the time had —Lisa Urkevich to keep fighting and winning to maintain their positions, and Saudi leaders kept their stronghold for centuries. Further Reading In the fifteenth century, the clan was not called Al-Rasheed, Madawi. A History of Saudi Arabia.New “Saud,” which is actually a given, or first, name. Sur- York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. An accessi- names were not used in Arabia, but one would be known ble, scholarly history written by a social anthropolo- as “ibn” or “bint” (son of or daughter of), followed by gist. one’s father’s name. The eponym for the name “Saudi Peterson, J. E. Historical Dictionary of Saudi Arabia Arabia” is Saud ibn Muwammad ibn Mughrin (d. 1725), Asian Historical Dictionaries 14. Washington, D.C.: an eighth-generation descendant of Mani4 al-Muraydi, Scarecrow Press, 1993. An excellent dictionary that who became emir of Dir4tyah in the 1710’s. Mughrin was includes terms, people, regions, and brief histories. not a significant historical figure, but his son, Muwam- Extensive bibliography. mad ibn Saud, who became emir of Dir4tyah in 1726, Vassiliev, Alexei. The History of Saudi Arabia. London: combined his power with that of the strict Salafi/ Saqi Books, 1998. The most comprehensive history Wahhabi Muslim Muwammad ibn 4Abd al-Wahhab and of Saudi Arabia to date. Well cited, including many established the first Saudi state. Russian sources. The Saud Dynasty was unable to extend its power be- yond the small village of Dir4tyah, a settlement that may See also: Late 15th cent.: Mombasa, Malindi, and have had about seventy families only, beyond the fif- Kilwa Reach Their Height; May, 1485-Apr. 13, 1517: teenth century. When joined with Wahhabi Islam in the Mamlnk-Ottoman Wars.

2 The Renaissance & Early Modern Era Champa Civil Wars

1450’s-1471 Champa Civil Wars 1450’s The Kingdom of Champa, unable to maintain a stable seaborne raids to the north. Cham raiders continued to royal system, suffered through decades of civil wars, pillage land contested with the Vietnamese empire, which fatally weakened the kingdom against the called Dai Viet. These raids had earned the Cham the en- Vietnamese. The Vietnamese defeated Champa in a mity of the Vietnamese, who had fought each other for battle that ended Cham power in Southeast Asia. more than fourteen hundred years. After King Maija Vijaya raided the Vietnamese prov- Locale: Central and South Vietnam ince of Hoa Chau (near modern Quang Tri) for two con- Categories: Wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; secutive years, the Vietnamese struck back in 1446. The government and politics; expansion and land civil unrest against Maija Vijaya’s rule helped the suc- acquisition cess of the Vietnamese punitive expedition. In 1446, Key Figures Vietnamese forces captured Champa’s capital of Vijaya, Qui Lai (d. 1449), king of Champa, r. 1446-1449, who and Vietnam intervened directly in the Champa civil war. was installed by the Vietnamese Maija Vijaya was captured, deposed, and deported to Qui Do (Bi Do; d. 1458), king of Champa, r. 1449- Vietnam, together with his wives. The Vietnamese made 1458, and younger brother of Qui Lai one of his cousins, Qui Lai, the new king of Champa. Ban La Tra Nguyet (Tra Duyet; d. 1460), king of Even though Qui Lai was a son of Jaya Sinhavarman, Champa, r. 1458-1460 his installment by the Vietnamese angered many Cham, Ban La Tra Toan (d. 1471), king of Champa, r. 1460- who violently opposed his rule. Despite the reoccupation 1471 of the capital, Vijaya, by Champa soon after the Vietnam- Le Thanh Tong (1442-1497), emperor of Vietnam, ese departed, the nation did not regain political stability. r. 1460-1497 After just three years, Qui Do succeeded his older brother, Qui Lai, as the new king. Summary of Event In 1458, Ban La Tra Nguyet killed Qui Do and The Kingdom of Champa suffered from civil wars at a usurped the throne. In an effort to shore up the nation’s time that was already highly volatile for the state and the position against the Vietnamese, King Tra Nguyet sent region. The Vietnamese had been pressuring Champa his younger brother Ban La Tra Toan to the Ming court in from the north, and wars with the Cambodians had alien- Beijing. Tra Toan’s mission was to ask the Chinese em- ated Champa from that state. Only a unified kingdom peror for the throne of Vietnam. Nominally, China still could hope to survive in these circumstances, but unity considered both the Dai Viet Empire and the Kingdom of eluded Champa. Champa as dependent vassal states. In 1407, a Chinese The death of Champa’s successful king Jaya Sinha- invasion of Vietnam had saved Champa from a Vietnam- varman V (r. 1401-1441) ushered in a period of civil ese onslaught. While China had ruled Vietnam briefly strife. From its beginnings in the first and second century from 1407 until 1428, Champa had been able to recover b.c.e., Champa had always been a less centrally orga- some land lost to Dai Viet. King Tra Nguyet’s strategy nized and less ethnically homogeneous state than its was to look to China as a possible ally, but the Ming court neighbors and rivals. The people along the coast were de- declined any intervention in Vietnam, where it had suf- scendants of maritime nomads from Malaysia and Indo- fered a military defeat and had been expelled. The Viet- nesia, for example, while the uphill Cham consisted of namese were made alert by these events, and as civil mountain tribes such as the Rhade and Jarai. Once an or- strife troubled Champa, they launched a few raids there. derly royal succession had been disrupted, the socio- Tra Toan became king of Champa in 1460, upon the political structure of Champa invited prolonged strife. death of his brother. Yetsome Cham still were opposed to By 1450, Champa was a nation populated by a mix of his rule, which rested on his family’s violent accession. people whose diversity and rather loose political associa- Unfortunately for the fate of Champa, while the country tion worked against, rather than toward, a unified nation. was suffering from civil discord, Vietnam saw the coro- After Maija Vijaya (r. 1441-1446) won the contest to nation of a strong and energetic emperor, Le Thanh Tong. succeed his uncle, Jaya Sinhavarman, in 1441, Champa’s From the Vietnamese point of view, the Cham were civil unrest continued, and it did not give up its habit of barbaric pirates who needed to be stopped and defeated if 3 Champa Civil Wars The Renaissance & Early Modern Era

Dai Viet was to enjoy peace on its southern border. The All of Champa north of the Cu Mong Pass (below what is Cham considered the Vietnamese robbers of their old now An Nhon), including the destroyed city of Vijaya, lands. Yet civil war weakened Champa considerably. In was annexed to Dai Viet. The rest of Champa to the south the years leading up to 1470, clashes between the forces was divided into three dukedoms, each too weak to resist and people of Champa and Dai Viet continued. While Le the Vietnamese. Champa’s civil wars had ended with its Thanh Tong strengthened his army, Tra Toan still had to defeat at the hands of their enemies. fight with rivals to his throne. Diplomatic efforts to re- Significance solve the increasing crisis came to no avail. The civil wars that had disrupted Champa also acceler- Even though his hold over his kingdom was not abso- ated its fall, preventing the Cham from effectively mar- lute, King Tra Toan allowed another raid into Hoa Chau, shaling national resources to withstand the Vietnamese in 1469. Emperor Le Thanh Tong accelerated his troop invasion of 1470. Champa’s unwillingness to end its build up and intensified military training. In October of raids into territories wrested from it by the Vietnamese, 1470, King Tra Toan invaded Hoa Chau with a huge com- however, destroyed all chances for a peaceful accommo- bined land and naval force. Contemporary Vietnamese dation of the two peoples. accounts show that the force had 100,000 soldiers, but By 1471, the loss of more than one-third of its terri- this number may be inflated. Faced with this, Le Thanh tory to Vietnam in the north effectively destroyed Tong readied his empire for war. A Vietnamese diplo- Champa as an independent power in Southeast Asia. In matic mission to Beijing in October and November of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Vietnam would 1470 ensured Chinese acquiescence. finalize its conquest of the remaining Cham territory. On November 28, 1470, Le Thanh Tong formally Since its foundation, Champa had been an Indianized launched his attack. In a speech, he used the Champa nation culturally, in stark contrast to the Chinese- civil war as an excuse for his invasion: The Cham people influenced culture of Vietnam. Champa had remained a were suffering from the illegitimate rule of Tra Toan, a Hindu nation well into the fifteenth century, at a time rule gained after his brother murdered the legitimate king when its neighbor Cambodia had become Buddhist, and Qui Do, and the Vietnamese were coming as liberators, represented a cultural link to India. not invaders. After naming more reasons for war, the After its defeat in 1471, the remainder of Champa be- Vietnamese army and navy of 150,000 men crossed into came quickly Islamized. Historians have set the date of Champa. Champa’s conversion to Islam at the 1471 defeat, rather The Cham of the border province of Quang Nam (a than in the early 1400’s, as previously believed. Many province that includes the modern city of Da Nang) sur- scholars believe that the massive defeat of the Cham at rendered quickly, enabling Le Thanh Tong to advance the hands of the non-Hindu Vietnamese led them to be- south in early 1471. In despair, King Tra Toan ordered his come severely disappointed with their religion, which younger brother to attack with soldiers mounted on five had failed to save them. In turn, the Cham looked to Islam thousand elephants. However, Le Thanh Tong learned of for salvation. Into the twenty-first century, the vast ma- the attack and took effective countermeasures. Well pre- jority of the approximately sixty thousand ethnic Cham pared, the Vietnamese soldiers struck at the Cham on surviving in Vietnam, and their peers in Cambodia and their elephants and defeated them. Tra Toan’s offer for southern China, have remained Muslim. negotiations went unanswered, and Le Thanh Tong ad- —R. C. Lutz vanced on Vijaya (near what is now Qui Nhon). On March 22, 1471, Vijaya fell to the Vietnamese. Further Reading The city was completely destroyed, and at least forty Chapuis, Oscar. A History of Vietnam. Westport, Conn.: thousand, if not sixty thousand, Cham were killed. Thirty Greenwood Press, 1995. Discusses the event in detail thousand other Cham followed their king Tra Toan and from both a Cham and a Vietnamese point of view. his wives into Vietnamese captivity. The Vietnamese cut Very readable. Includes maps, a bibliography, and an off the left ear of each of their prisoners of war and en- index. slaved them for life. When Tra Toan died of natural causes Guillon, Emmanuel. Cham Art. Translated by Tom on his way to Vietnam, Le Thanh Tong had the head of White. London: Thames and Hudson, 2001. A richly the Tra Toan’s corpse decapitated and displayed on his illustrated work with a valuable chapter on the history ship beneath a white flag and a sarcastic inscription. of Champa. Includes maps of the region as it appeared In April, 1471, the Champa civil wars came to an end. at the time of the civil wars. 4 The Renaissance & Early Modern Era Thai Wars

Maspero, Georges. The Champa Kingdom: The History Thurgood, Graham. From Ancient Cham to Modern Dia- of an Extinct Vietnamese Culture. Translated by Wal- lects. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999.

ter E. J. Tips. Bangkok, Thailand: White Lotus Press, Examines primarily the Cham language but also sur- 1450’s 2002. The first English translation of Maspero’s clas- veys Champa’s history using updated historical and sic 1928 history of Champa, from its origins to its de- anthropological sources. cline. Includes illustrations and chronological table of Champa kings. See also: Mar. 18-22, 1471: Battle of Vijaya; 1539: Phuong, Tran Ky. Unique Vestiges of Cham Civilization. Jiajing Threatens Vietnam. Hanoi, Vietnam: The Giio, 2000. An illustrated Related article in Great Lives from History: The guidebook to Cham ruins in Vietnam, with a useful Renaissance & Early Modern Era, 1454-1600: Le survey of Cham history, including its decline. Thanh Tong.

1450’s-1529 Thai Wars The Thai kingdoms of Chiang Mai, Ayutthaya, and Thai wars are usually identified in histories one by one, Sukhothai engaged in a series of rotating battles, in fact they represent rotating episodes in a continuing punctuated with fluid alliances and alternating drive for domination of Siam from the fourteenth century rivalries and coalitions. The disputes over kingship until external threats overrode them. and a drive for domination of Siam (modern Thailand) Throughout this period, Ayutthaya, the strongest of started in the fourteenth century. the kingdoms, was also involved in attempts to control the Malay provinces. The consolidation of Islam early in Locale: Thailand, Burma (now Myanmar), the century had made that faith a rallying point for Malay Cambodia identity against the Buddhist Thais. Ayutthaya was un- Categories: Wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; able to make the rich trading port of Melaka, or Malacca, government and politics; expansion and land a vassal state (the Portuguese did that in 1511), although acquisition Ayutthayadid dominate trade in the lower peninsula. The Key Figures kingdom grew wealthy by shipping grain south and re- Trailok (Borommatrailokanat; 1431-1488), king of ceiving luxury goods and Indian cotton for the lucrative Ayutthaya, r. 1448-1488, and archrival of Tilok king Chinese trade. Trade was a monopoly of the king, who Chiang Mai set his own price for anything he purchased before allow- Sri Sutham Tilok (1411-1487), king of Chiang Mai ing traders to sell what was left. who engaged in constant war with Ayutthaya Ayutthaya amassed a considerable treasury, enabling Ramathibodi II (1472-1529), king of Ayutthaya, Ramathibodi to build in 1503 a 50-foot statue of Buddha, r. 1491-1529, who strengthened and centralized his encrusted with 378 pounds of gold and the largest such kingdom statue in the world at that time. The kings of Ayutthaya also used their wealth to build a strong military and ac- Summary of Event quire modern military equipment. The expanding wealth The fifteenth century was a period of unrelenting war in of Ayutthaya allowed for social and cultural changes the Thai kingdoms. At various times, the kingdoms of as well. In the fifteenth century, the amalgam of Mon, Chiang Mai (in the north), Ayutthaya (south-central), Tai, and Khmer influences began to coalesce into what and Sukhothai (center) attempted to conquer one an- became recognized as Siamese culture, adding to ten- other. A series of fluid alliances pitted these states in a sions between Ayutthaya and the Lan culture of Chiang dance of alternating rivalry and coalition. The usual Mai. cause was succession—on the death of a ruler, two lead- The Thai War of 1387-1390 between Ayutthaya and ing sons would dispute the kingship and seek alliances Chiang Mai marked the start of the long series of con- from other Thai kingdoms, which often enough were flicts. The Thai War of 1442-1448 started after the king ruled by members of their extended family. While these of Chiang Mai was deposed by his sixth son, Sri Sutham 5 Thai Wars The Renaissance & Early Modern Era

Tilok, who proclaimed himself king. Another son took but the period after the 1464 cease-fire involved conspir- the deposed king to a vassal town, where the local gover- acies and armed clashes. In an odd turn of events, Trailok nor supported him by enlisting the aid of Ayutthaya, built himself a monastery and was ordained a monk. His which was eager to extend its power northward. Tilok’s astonished enemies came to the ordination ceremony and army, however, met his half brother and the governor on provided his robes, which is the highest form of merit for the march, killing them both. Tilok employed Lao spies a Thai Buddhist. From his monastery, however, Trailok to infiltrate the Ayutthayan army, where they sabotaged sent a sorcerer to Chiang Mai. The sorcerer spread dis- the war elephants by cutting off their tails and stamped- sension in the Chiang Mai court and caused the crown ing them. In the chaos that followed, Ayutthayan forces prince to be executed for treason. In 1466, Trailok re- were routed. Tilok also led small adventures against turned to his throne and sent emissaries to Chiang Mai, petty warlords, taking men and cattle for the impending but his duplicity was revealed, and the sorcerer-spy was major conflict, but he hoped also to weaken the smaller clubbed to death in a sack (the method of execution for a states on the fringe between the central plain (usually noble or a monk, which kept the executioner’s hands dominated but not controlled by Ayutthaya) and the from touching the condemned). Trailok’s diplomats mountainous redoubts of Chiang Mai. were assassinated on their return trip. Three years later, hostilities broke out again, this time The Thai War of 1474-1475 began with an Ayut- in the Thai War of 1451-1456. Ayutthaya remained an thayan invasion, but Tilok negotiated a cease-fire; also, expansive power, and after King Trailok succeeded to the his death in 1487 brought five years of peace. Then the throne in 1448, he strengthened his forces and plotted to Thai War of 1492 erupted over the theft of a crystal Bud- take Chiang Mai. Tilok opened the door to invasion when dha statue, stolen from Chiang Mai by an Ayutthayan he sided with a 1451 insurrection in Sukhothai, which royal prince who spent some time as a monk. Chiang Mai Ayutthaya has subdued into vassalage. A Sukhothai king Phra Yot invaded and retrieved the statue from prince asked Tilok for help in regaining Sukhothai inde- Ramathibodi. pendence. Tilok invaded but was driven back, and Trai- Ramathibodi reorganized his army, instituted com- lok pressed his advantage and occupied Chiang Mai the pulsory military training for all able-bodied males, and following year. The Laotians then intervened, forcing modernized the army’s command and staff, who also re- Trailok back but also compelling the Chiang Mai to de- ceived a new instructional manual on strategy and tactics. fend their territory. They counterattacked against Ayut- Ramathibodi then signed a peace pact with Portugal, thaya, but the indecisive Battle of Kamphaeng Phet which gave Portugal the right of residence in Siam and (1456) closed the campaign. the freedom to conduct missionary activities. In return, Historians believe the next war started in 1461, but in the Portuguese provided military training, guns, and am- reality, hostilities never ceased. Tilok mounted unsuc- munition. By the middle of the next Thai war, Ayutthaya cessful offensives in 1459 and 1460. The Thai War of was producing its own artillery pieces and using Portu- 1461-1464 began after a governor, who was an Ayut- guese mercenaries in the field. thaya vassal, defected to Chiang Mai and was named a The Thai War of 1500-1529 was a protracted conflict town headman there. Emboldened, Tilok moved south to in which Chiang Mai, threatened by the larger and more Ayutthaya, occupied its vassal state of Sukhothai, and powerful Ayutthaya, often took the offensive. King Ra- laid siege to Phitsanulok. With his forces drawn south, tana of Chiang Mai invaded in 1507 and engaged the en- Tilok was unprepared when China unleashed a surprise emy at Sukhothai, where he was pushed back after an ex- attack from the north, so he had to beat a hasty retreat to hausting battle. Ayutthaya pressed its advantage in 1508 defend his capital. This marked the first sign that forces and met Ratana at Phrae, where an equally bloody battle outside the region could take advantage of the continuing forced King Ramathibodi to withdraw. Another Ayut- warfare in Siam. In 1463, Trailok moved the Ayutthayan thayan incursion took place in 1510, followed by ongo- capital to Phitsanulok to centralize his authority and mili- ing skirmishes through the next five years. Ramathibodi tary control. Nevertheless, Tilok attacked Sukhothai took the offensive in 1515, and in the Battle of Lampang, again but was repulsed. At the Battle of Doi Ba (1463), he routed Chiang Mai and seized a sacred Buddha statue. deep in Chiang Mai territory, the Chiang Mai war ele- In the battle, Ayutthaya had the advantage of Portuguese phants drove the Ayutthayan infantry into a swamp and military training and artillery. The final decade of the war brought the war to a close. consisted of mopping-up exercises, and by 1529, the year The two kingdoms attempted a diplomatic settlement, Ramathibodi died, Sukhothai and Ayutthaya were firmly 6 The Renaissance & Early Modern Era Lodt Kings Dominate Northern India under Ayutthayan control. The following year, the Chi- Further Reading nese Empire recognized Ayutthaya as the legitimate heir Heidhues, Mary Somers. Southeast Asia: A Concise His-

of the Kingdom of Sukhothai. tory. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2000. A com- 1450’s Tilok died in 1487 and was replaced by his grandson; prehensive if concise history of Southeast Asia. Well Tilok’s only son and heir had been executed. The grand- illustrated. son was then deposed in favor of his own thirteen-year- Osborne, Milton. Southeast Asia. 7th ed. Chiang Mai, old son. Even with a cultural and religious revival dur- Thailand: Silkworm Books, 1994. Focuses on penin- ing this period, Chiang Mai went into protracted decline sular Southeast Asia. and engaged in a series of wars against Ayutthaya and Tarling, Nicholas, ed. The Cambridge History of South- incursions by tribal peoples on the northern frontier. Af- east Asia. New York: Cambridge University Press, ter 1526, the kingdom fell into disarray, with kings de- 1999. A detailed and scholarly multivolume presenta- posed and murdered, and Chiang Mai slowly disinte- tion of the region, with thorough treatment of the pen- grated. insular wars. Wyatt, David. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, Significance Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984. One of the best The Kingdom of Ayutthaya was consolidated but hardly short histories of Thailand, with good detail on the unified. It declined into a confederation of petty states medieval period and the wars. with self-governing principalities ruled by members of the royal family. Each state had its own army, and each See also: 1454: China Subdues Burma; 1469-1481: army saw constant fighting with other states. Added to Reign of the Ava King Thihathura; c. 1488-1594: the self-governing states were tributary states of various Khmer-Thai Wars; 1505-1515: Portuguese Viceroys degrees of loyalty. The king often attempted to maintain Establish Overseas Trade Empire; 1511-c. 1515: a balance among the feuding princes, any one of whom Melaka Falls to the Portuguese; 1527-1599: Burmese was capable of allying with others to topple him. Trailok Civil Wars; 1548-1600: Siamese-Burmese Wars; tried to stabilize the succession by naming an uparaja,or 1558-1593: Burmese-Laotian Wars; c. 1580-c. 1600: heir, a tricky situation in a polygamous society. He did Siamese-Cambodian Wars. succeed in forging a tighter and more loyal administra- Related articles in Great Lives from History: The tive system, however, and it is this achievement that is his Renaissance & Early Modern Era, 1454-1600: most significant legacy. Afonso de Albuquerque; Tomé Pires; Saint Francis —Norbert Brockman Xavier; Zhengde.

1451-1526 Lodi Kings Dominate Northern India The Lodt Dynasty was the last of several Delhi B3bur (

Islam first gained a major presence in India in the late dation for Sikhism. In the Lodt-ruled Punjab, the Hindu- tenth and early eleventh centuries under the military born N3nak (1469-1539), influenced by the more demo- leadership of sultan Mawmnd of Ghazni (r. 997-1030), cratic theology of Islam, abandoned the Hindu concept who plundered Indian cities and temples. Like Mawmnd, of caste and became the first guru, or divine teacher, of most of the later Delhi sultanate rulers were from Afghani- Sikhism, worshiping a single universal God. By the reign stan, the gateway into the Indian subcontinent long before of Sikandar Lodt, Bahlnl’s son, India was divided and the invasions of Alexander the Great in the 320’s b.c.e. fragmented both politically and spiritually. The Delhi sultans, the last of whom were the Lodts, ruled Sikandar Lodt ruled the Delhi sultanate from 1489 un- much of northern India for more than three centuries but til 1517, and was praised by his contemporaries as the were unable to extend their rule south into the Deccan. greatest of all Delhi sultans, a claim that should be ac- Religious differences were not always paramount, cepted with suitable caution. Following the practice of however, and alliances were often made across the sec- his father, Sikandar was a patron of artistic and intellec- tarian divide, and through the centuries, the fiercest op- tual endeavors and was a poet. His mother was a Hindu, ponents of the Delhi sultans were frequently their fellow and a first love was a Hindu princess. Although new mys- Muslims. tic sects blending Islam and Hindu emerged during his Muhammad of Ghor was assassinated in 1206. One of reign, Sikandar, perhaps because of guilt and as a reac- his Turkish generals (Aibak) subsequently established tion to the religion of his mother and his early love, was what is called the Slave Dynasty, so named because when an orthodox Muslim. He also was more iconoclastic in freed and given the opportunity, slaves were often both his destruction of Hindu temples than his peers. loyal and talented. The Slave Dynasty sultans ruled until Sikandar also established a second capital city at 1290, to be followed by the Khaljts from 1290 to 1320, #gra, near Delhi, signifying his ambitions to expand the Tughluqs from 1320 to 1413, and the Sayyids from Lodt rule farther south, and although much of #gra was 1414 until 1451. destroyed by an earthquake in 1505, he immediately or- Through the centuries, the Delhi sultanate was chal- dered its rebuilding. It was during his reign that the Por- lenged not only by rivals from within the Indian subcon- tuguese, led by explorer Vascoda Gama, reached India in tinent but also from without, notably the Mongols from 1498, the first Europeans to reach South Asia by sea, an Asia. In 1398, Mongol warrior Tamerlane (Timur) event that went unrecorded in Delhi. sacked Delhi, massacring or enslaving most of the city’s The last of the three Lodt sultans was Ibr3htm, who Hindu population. Tamerlane abandoned northern India ascended the throne with the death of his father in 1517. the following year, and the sultanate recovered, although Ibr3htm’s reign was a troubled one. Because of his aristo- it was smaller and more fragmented by the time the Lodts cratic and indolent ways, he failed to maintain the loyalty assumed power in Delhi by deposing the last of the of many of those who served Sikandar, and he faced sev- Sayyids in 1451. eral uprisings, including one by his younger brother, The Lodts were successful horse breeders, had been whom Ibr3htm captured and executed. A rebellion also ennobled, and had ruled the Punjab, to the west of Delhi, occurred in Bihar, to the east of Delhi, and another in La- under the Sayyids. The first of the Lodt sultans was hore in the Punjab, led by his uncle. R3n3 S3ng3 of Bahlnl Lodt, who reigned over Delhi and the Punjab for Mewar, the raja (chief) of the Hindu R3jput confederacy, nearly four decades. His reputation was that of a just headed another uprising against the Lodt sultan, in 1527. ruler, and during his reign, numerous Muslim herdsmen- The demise of the Lodt sultans and Ibr3htm came not peasants from Afghan settled in North India. from within India, however, but from the Lodt homeland, Like their Delhi sultanate predecessors, the Lodt kings from Afghanistan, where B3bur, a direct descendant of were Muslims, but during the years of Lodt rule several Tamerlane, had imperial ambitions. Initially, B3bur fo- non-Muslim religious movements achieved considerable cused on reestablishing the old Mongol Empire in Central significance. From the southern part of the subcontinent, Asia, although he did lead forays into India in 1505 and a devotional Hinduism known as bhakti spread north to 1519, but on neither occasion did he try to maintain a foot- the Ganges River area, giving Hinduism a new vigor. hold in the subcontinent. In 1525, he launched a major in- Kabtr (1440-1518), an illiterate Muslim inspired by the vasion. teachings of a Hindu sage, abandoned the sectarianism of Because of their expert mastery of horses, B3bur’s both Hinduism and Islam and founded a religious move- forces, like all Mughal armies, were both swift and mo- ment focused on simply loving God, which laid the foun- bile. That mobility gave them an advantage over larger 8 The Renaissance & Early Modern Era Lodt Kings Dominate Northern India armies, not least in India, where the debilitating climate ume 1 covers the period 712-1525, which includes a made it difficult to breed sufficient numbers of horses for section on the Lodt Dynasty. 3

war. In addition, B bur, although a skilled archer, was Haig, W., ed. The Cambridge History of India: Turks and 1450’s well acquainted with cannon and matchlock guns, a char- Afghans. Vol. 3. Cambridge, England: Cambridge acteristic similar to what was occurring in the west in the University Press, 1922. The third volume of this Muslim empires of the Ottomans in modern Turkey and multivolume history of India includes a discussion of the :afavids in Persia (Iran). There is little evidence to in- the reigns of the Lodt sultans. dicate that Ibr3htm and the Lodts had gunpowder tech- Jayapalan, N. Medieval History of India. Delhi, India: nology at their disposal. Atlantic, 2001. This history of medieval India in- During B3bur’s 1525 invasion, the Hindu R3jputs were cludes a discussion of the Delhi sultanate and the Lodt still in rebellion and the Lodt family was not united, for it kings. was Ibr3htm’s uncle who urged B3bur to attack the Delhi Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain. Administration of the Sultanate sultanate. Ibr3htm’s Lodt army met B3bur at Panipat, of Delhi. 1942. Reprint. New Delhi, India: Oriental north and west of Delhi, on April 21, 1526. Even though Books Reprint, 1996. Qureshi’s study remains the the Lodt forces outnumbered those of B3bur ten to one, it foremost analysis of the administrative and political helped that B3bur was an experienced and successful structures of the Delhi sultanate. military leader, much more so than Ibr3htm. After a stand- Streusand, Douglas E. The Formationof the Mughal Em- off of several days, the Lodt army attacked B3bur’s im- pire. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Ex- pregnable defensive position, and as the battle raged, the amines B3bur’s conquest of the Lodts and the estab- larger army became increasingly concentrated and im- lishment of India’s Mughal Dynasty. mobilized. It is estimated that fifteen thousand Lodt war- Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. New York:Ox- riors died at the Battle of Panipat, including Ibr3htm. The ford University Press, 2000. This widely accessible Lodt Dynasty and the Delhi sultanate had come to an end. and well-written work includes a description of the Delhi sultans and B3bur’s conquest of India. Significance It is not clear if Ibr3htm Lodt’s failure at the Battle of See also: 1459: R3o Jodha Founds Jodhpur; Early 16th Panipat was a result of his own inadequacies, or if the loss cent.: Devotional Bhakti Traditions Emerge; 1507: resulted from the superior military experience of B3bur End of the Timurid Dynasty; Dec. 2, 1510: Battle of (or B3bur’s mastery of gunpowder). Nevertheless, what- Merv Establishes the Shayb3ntd Dynasty; Apr. 21, ever the cause, the defeat of the Lodt sultans in 1526 1526: First Battle of Panipat; Mar. 17, 1527: Battle of proved to be one of the major turning points in the history Kh3nua; Dec. 30, 1530: Hum3ynn Inherits the Throne of India. B3bur established Mughal rule, and his succes- in India; 1540-1545: ShTrSh3hSnr Becomes Em- sors, including his son Hum3ynn, Akbar, Jah3ngtr, Sh3h peror of Delhi; 1556-1605: Reign of Akbar; 1578: Jah3n, and 4#lamgtr, made the Mughals one of India’s First Dalai Lama Becomes Buddhist Spiritual Leader; most famous and glorious dynasties. Feb., 1586: Annexation of Kashmir; 1598: Astra- —Eugene Larson khanid Dynasty Is Established. Related articles in Great Lives from History: The Further Reading Renaissance & Early Modern Era, 1454-1600: Bakshi, S. R., ed. Advanced History of Medieval India. Akbar; B3bur; Vasco da Gama; Hum3ynn; Ibr3htm 3 vols. Rev ed. New Delhi, India: Anmol, 2003. Vol- Lodt; Krishnadevaraya.

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