ontana Negra : EI Pas ado Multicultural de Tucson Credits/Credi tos

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About the author: Bruce Hilpert served as the Sobre el autor: Bruce Hilpert sirvla de Director Curator of Public Programs at the State de Programas Publicos en el Museo Estatal de from 1985-2003. He has taught and Arizona desde 1985 a 2003. Ha ensenado y ha lectured extensively on the prehistory, history, dado conferencias extensamente sobre la and American Indian cultures of Arizona and the prehistoria, la historia, y las culturas greater Southwest, and recently co-authored The nativoamericanas y el Suroeste en general, y Chaco Handbook: An Encyclopedic Guide. recientemente ha coautorado The Chaco About the translator: Ellen Murphy is a bilingual Handbook: An Encyclopedic Guide. educator with 18 years of teaching experience. Sobre el traductor: Ellen Murphy es una She is currently the Curriculum Specialist at Davis educadora bilingUe con diez y ocho anos de Bilingual Magnet School in the Tucson Unified experiencia de ensenanza. Actualmente es School District. especialista de currlculo en la Escuela BilingUe Copyright @2004 Davis en el Distrito Escolar Unificado de Tucson. Derechos reservados @2004 Arizona Board of Regents Museo Estatal de Arizona A II Rights Reserved Mesa Directiva de Regentes de Arizona.

Cover Photo: The Santa Cruz, about 1904 Courtesy Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #24868

EI Santa Cruz, aprox. 1904 Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #24868 Contents/Contenido

Introduction/Introducdon ...... iv Chapter 1 RIo Nuevo: Rediscovering Tucson's History ...... 2 RIo Nuevo: Redescubriendo la historia de Tucson ...... 2 Chapter 2 RIo Nuevo: The Birthplace of Tucson ...... 6 RIo Nuevo: EI lugar de nacimiento de Tucson ...... 6 Chapter 3 The Changing Santa Cruz River ...... 10 EI cambiante Rio Santa Cruz ...... 10 Chapter 4 Priests and Presidios: Tucson's Spanish History ...... 14 Padres y presidios: La historia espanola de Tucson ...... 14 Chapter 5 A Tale of Two Countries: The Leon Family in Tucson 18 EI cuento de dos palses: La familia Leon en Tucson ...... 18 Chapter 6 Solomon Warner's Mill ...... 21 EI molino de Solomon Warner ...... 21 Chapter 7 The Chinese in Tucson ...... 26 Los chinos en Tucson ...... 26 Bibliography and Further Resources ...... 30 Bibliografla y recursos adicionales ...... 30 Introd uction/lntroduccion

This bilingual booklet on Tucson's multicultural Este folleto bilingLie sobre el pasado multicultural past is intended for intermediate through middle de Tucson es para estudiantes del nivel school aged students. It is designed to offer an intermedio. Esta destinado a ofrecer una vision overview of Tucson's early history, and to share general de la primera historia de Tucson y findings from the Rio Nuevo archaeological compartir los resultados de las excavaciones excavations conducted by Desert Archaeology, arqueologicos del proyecto RIO Nuevo conducido Inc. in downtown Tucson. The chapters in this por Desert Archaeology, Inc. en el centro de booklet cover events from prehistoric times up to Tucson. approximately 1900 through the stories of some Los capltulos en este folleto cubren los eventos of Tucson's earliest residents. At the Foot of the de los tiempos pre-historicos hasta aproxima­ Black Mountain is Part I of the story; stories damente 1900 at raves de las historias de los about the arrival of Jewish, Yaqui, and African­ residentes mas tempranos de Tucson. American immigrants, to name a few, await the "AI Pie de la Montana Negra" es la primera telling by future authors in Part II. parte de la historia; las historias acerca de la Some of the following chapters were adapted IIegada de los judlos, los yaqui, los afro­ from the Center for Desert Archaeology quarterly americanos, se contaran por autores futuros en la newsletter, Archaeology Southwest, (Vol. 15, No.2, segunda parte. Spring 2001) for younger readers. Tucson Algunos de los capltulos siguientes fueron educators are encouraged to incorporate this adaptados del periodico del Center for Desert booklet into their studies of local history and Archaeology Archaeology Southwest para lectores cultural heritage to help students develop their jovenes. Los maestros de Tucson estan invitados a own sense of place, an appreciation for diversity, incorporar este folleto entre sus estudios de and pride in their community. historia local y herencia cultural para ayudar a los This reader is an example of a teaching estudiantes a desarollar su propio sentido de resource that supports "Place-based" education. As lugar, un aprecio para la diversidad, y orgullo de su defined by the Rural School and Community Trust, comunidad. "Place-based learning is rooted in what is local-the Este librito es un ejemplo de un recurso para la unique history, environment, culture, economy, ensenanza que apoya la educacion basada en el literature, and art of a particular place. The lugar. Como explicado por el Rural School and community provides the context for learning, Community Trust, "EI aprendizaje basado en el student work focuses on community needs and lugar tiene sus rakes en 10 local-Ia historia unica, interests, and community members serve as el ambiente, la cultura, la economla, la literatura, y resources and partners in every aspect of teaching el arte de un lugar espedfico. La comunidad and learning. Together we have discovered that provee el contexto para el aprendizaje, el trabajo del estudiante se enfoque en las necesidades e intereses de la comunidad, y los miembros de la comunidad sirven de recursos y companeros en

. IV Introduction Modern acequias, or irrigation canals, in Marana. Acequias modernos, 0 canales de la irrigacion, Photograph by Helga Teiwes, Arizona State Museum en Marana. Fotografia por Helga Teiwes, Arizona State Museum

this local focus has the power to engage students cada aspecto de la ensenanza y el aprendizaje. academically, pairing real-world relevance with Juntos hemos decubierto que este enfoque local intellectual rigor, while promoting genuine tiene el poder de interesar a los estudiantes citizenship and preparing people to respect and live academicamente, emparejando pertinencia del well in any community they choose." mundo verdadero con el rigor intelectual, (http://www.ruraledu.org/topics/placebased.htm) mientras promueve la ciudadanla autentica y prepara a la g.ente a respetar y vivir bien en cualquier comunidad que escoge." (http://www.ruraledu.org/topics/placebased.htm)

In troduccfon v 1.1 Modern Picture of Rio Nuevo Area The 1.1 Fotografia moderna del area de RIO area west of downtown, the birthplace of Nuevo EI area al oeste del centro, el lugar ancient Tucson, is at the heart of the de nacimiento del Tucson antiguo, es el planned R,o Nuevo redevelopment project. corazon del proyecto planificado de Photograph: Adriel Heisy desarrollo R,o Nuevo. Fotografia: Adriel Heisy

2 RIO Nuevo: Rediscovering Tucson's History Rio Nuevo: Rio Nuevo: 1Rediscovering 1Redescubriendo Tucson's History la historia de Tucson Many people know that rio nuevo means "new river" in Spanish. But did you know that RIO Nuevo also means" A New Tucson?" Mucha gente sabe que rio nuevo significa "new In 1999, the citizens of Tucson voted to build a river" en espanol. iPero sabes que RIo Nuevo new city center-a project called "RIo Nuevo." tambien significa "un nuevo Tucson"? They decided to create a place where people will En 1999, los ciudadanos de Tucson votaron para gather to visit , celebrate holidays, hold crear un nuevo centro de 10 ciudad-un proyecto festivals, meet friends, eat dinner, and have fun! llama do "RIo Nuevo." Decidieron crear un lugar Where would be a good place to build this new donde se reunira 10 gente para visitor los museos, city center? How about in the oldest part of celebrar los dlas festivos, tener fiestas, ir de Tucson? City planners looked to the land between compras, reunirse con los amigos, cenar iy (sometimes called "A" Mountain) and divertirse! downtown. The area includes homes and iDonde serlo un buen lugar para construir este neighborhoods, the Tucson Community Center, nuevo centro de 10 ciudad? iPor que no en 10 parte parking lots, businesses, the I-lO freeway, lots of mas viejo de Tucson? Los encargados de los vacant land, and the deep channel of the Santa proyectos de 10 ciudad miraban 10 tierra entre 10 Cruz River. Pico de Centinela (tambien conocido como 10 The planners knew that this area was the site Montana "A") y el centro actual. EI area incluye of Tucson's earliest beginnings-ancient Indian pit hogares y vecindades, el Centro de 10 Comunidad de house villages, the Spanish presidio (fortress) Tucson, estacionamientos, negocios, 10 carretera founded in 1775, the San Augustin mission, the I-lO, mucha tierra deshabitada, y el cauce profundo mission gardens, and the irrigated fields of del RIO Santa Cruz. Mexican-American farmers of the 1800s. Most of Los proyectistas sablan que esta area era el these early Tucsonans settled in this area because sitio de los principios mas antiguos de Tucson­ they wanted to be near the Santa Cruz River. In antiguas casas indlgenas hechas en hoyos, el the old days, the river flowed along the surface presidio (fortaleza) espanol, establecido en 1775, of the ground all year and created a green desert 10 Mision de San Agustin, los jardines de 10 mision, oasis of lush grasses and tall cottonwood trees. y los campos regados de los rancheros mexicanos de los anos 1800. La mayo ria de estos primeros Tucsonenses se establecieron en esta area porque querlan estar cerca del RIO Santa Cruz. En esos dlas, el rio flula sobre 10 superficie de 10 tierra durante todo .el ano y creaba un oasis verde en el desierto de hierbas jugosas y alamos altos.

Rfo Nuevo: Redescubriendo fa historia de Tucson 3 But through the years, the area along the Santa Pero pasando los anOS, el area cerca del RIo Cruz changed. The stream cut a deep channel and Santa Cruz cambiaba. La corriente cortaba un then dried up as the city drilled deep wells to cauce prof undo y despues se secaba el rio provide water for Tucsonans. The adobe ruins of mientras la ciudad taladraba pozos hondos para the mission crumbled and melted. The fields grew proveer agua a los Tucsonenses. Las ruinas de over with weeds, and much of the vacant land was adobe de la mision se desmenuzaban y se turned into a trash dump. In the 1970s, the city derretlan. Los campos se cubrfan de hierbas malas tore down most of the homes in the historic y mucha de la tierra deshabitada se convertla en barrio on the east side of the freeway to build un basural. En los anos 1970, la ciudad derribo la the Tucson Community Center. mayorfa de los hogares en el barrio historico al Today, citizens and planners want to bring este de la carretera para construir el Centro de la Tucson's history alive through the creation of the Comunidad de Tucson. RIO Nuevo city center. They envision a Santa Cruz Hoy, los ciudadanos y los proyectistas quieren riverbed lined with native trees and grasses hacer vivir la historia de Tucson por medio de la watered by a small seasonal stream. They have creacion del centro RIO Nuevo. Ellos contemplan el hired archaeologists to study the area and find cauce del RIO Santa Cruz bordeado de arboles y the remains of ancient villages and the San hierbas nativas, regados por un riachuelo pequeno Augustin mission. There are plans to build copies que corre durante ciertas estaciones. Ellos han of ancient pit houses and perhaps the mission. empleado a arqueologos para estudiar el area y Museums of history and culture will tell the story encontrar las ruinas de pueblos antiguos y de la of Tucson's past and the people who came to live Mision de San Agustin. Hay planes para construir here from many different lands. New shops, replicas de las antiguas casas construidas en hoyos restaurants and attractions will entertain visitors. y tal vez de la mision. Museos de la historia y la Through the RIO Nuevo project, the city will use cultura contaran la historia del pasado de Tucson y its past to build a new and exciting future. de la gente que venia para vivir aqui desde muchas tierras diferentes. Nuevas tiendas, restaurantes, y diversiones entretendran a los visitantes. Por medio del proyecto RIO Nuevo, la ciudad usara su pasado para construir un futuro nuevo y emocinante. 1 .2 Presidio Excavation Archaeologist William Doelle excavates the foundations of the Tucson presidio. Photograph by Homer Thiel

1.2 Excavacion de Presidio Arqueologo William Doelle examina las eta pas de tierra en seguida de un segmento de la pared del Presidio de Tucson, la que se encontro en este lugar junto al Ayuntamiento entre los anos 1770 y 1850. Fotografia por Homer Thiel 4 Rio Nuevo: Rediscovering Tucson's History 1.3 The Convento Site A computerized picture of the San Agustin Mission, Tucson, AZ, as the mission might have appeared sometime around A.D. 1850. Digital image created by Doug Gann.

1.3 Sitio del Convento Una ilustradon creada en la computadora de la Mislon San Augustin, Tucson, AZ, como posiblemente hubiera parecido la mision en los anos A.D. 1850. Imagen digital creada por Doug Gann.

Que$+;on$ for 1);$Cu$$;on Pregu n+a $ para d;$cu+;r 1. Is change good for a neighborhood? Explain 1. GEs bueno cambiar una vecindad? Explica. your answer. 2. GEs bueno derribar los edificios viejos y 2. Is it good to tear down old buildings and build construir edificios nuevos, 0 es mejor restaurar new ones, or is it better to fix up the old ones? los viejos? Pour que? Why? 3. GPor que hay valor en saber la historia de 3. What is the value of knowing about the history nuestro pueblo? of our town? 4. GCu61es son algunas maneras que podemos usar 4. What are some ways that we can learn about para aprender sobre el pasado? the past?

Vocabu(arv Vocabu(ar;o adobe bricks made of sun-dried mud adobe ladrillos hechos de lodo secado por ancient very old los rayos del sol barrio (Spanish) neighborhood antiguo muy viejo citizens people who live in a city or town barrio vecindad envision to make a mental picture ciudadanos gente que vive en un pueblo 0 una mission a building that served as the ciudad headquarters for priests trying to contemplar hacer un dibujo en la mente convert people to their religion. Under deshabitada vada the Spanish in Arizona, missions mision un edificio que servia de oficinas usually included a church, offices, and centrales para los curas que farms. trataban de convertir a la gente a su RIo Nuevo a project in Tucson that is supposed religion. Bajo los espanoles en to create a new city center near Tucson, las misiones sollan incluir downtown that includes museums, una iglesia, oficinas, y granjas. shops, restaurants, theaters and RIo Nuevo un proyecto en Tucson que tiene historic sites. In Spanish, rio nuevo como su meta crear un nuevo centro means "new river." cerca del centro actual que incluye vacant empty museos, tiendas, restaurantes, teatros, y sitios historicos. En ingles tambien se llama "RIO Nuevo:'

RIO Nuevo: Redescubriendo la historia de Tucson 5 2.1 Pit House Pit houses were usually round or 2.1 Coso dehoyo Las casas de hoyo fueron rectangular, and with floors dug down into the normalmente circulares 0 rectangulares, y sus ground about 18 inches. Branches were sunk into pisos fueron excavados en la tierra hasta the holes at the outside edge of the floor, and aproximadamente 18 pulgadas. Ramas fueron bent over to form a dome-shaped frame. Brush metidas en los hoyos al margen del piso, y and mud plaster were added to make the walls. dobladas para formar un esqueleto en forma de This is an especially large, probably ceremonial cupula. Se agregaron mas plantas y argamasa de pithouse. Photograph by Jonathan Mabry, courtesy of lodo para hacer las paredes. Esta es una casa de Desert Archaeology, Inc. hoyo especial mente grande, probablemente para usos ceremoniales. Fotografia por Jonathan Mabry, cortesia Desert Archaeology, Inc .

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • 6 Rio Nuevo: The Birthplace of Tucson Rio Nuevo: Rio Nuevo: 2 The Birthplace 2 Ellugar de of Tucson nacimiento de

Do you know how old Tucson is? 50 years old? Tucson 500 years old? 5,000 years old? Many people say that Tucson was born in 1775 when Colonel Hugo O'Conor, a Spanish soldier, <.. Sabes tu cuantos anos tiene Tucson? <"50 anos? decided to build a presidio, or fort, near where <"500 anos? <"5,000 anos? the old Pima County Courthouse with the blue­ Mucha gente dice que Tucson nacio en 1775 domed roof stands today. cuando Coronel Hugo O'Conor, un soldado espanol, But Tucson is even older than that. When decidio construir un presidio, 0 fortaleza, cerca Father Kino arrived in 1691, he found an Indian dellugar donde hoy se encuentra el Tribunal del village beneath the slope of Sentinel Peak Condado de Pima, con el techo de baldosas azules y (sometimes known as "A" Mountain). The O'odham en forma de una cupula. called their village Shook Son, referring to the Pero Tucson es hasta mas viejo. Cuando lIego "black rock at the base" of the mountain. Padre Kino en 1691, encontro una aldea de indios The 0' odham were farmers who built their debajo de la Pico del Centinel. Los O'odham houses along the Santa Cruz River and used the lIamaron a su aldea Shook Son, referiendose a "Ia water to irrigate their fields of corn, beans and roca negra en la base" de la montana. squash. The river was very different in those Los O'odham eran granjeros que construlan sus days. It ran along the surface instead of in a deep casas a la orilla del RIO Santa Cruz y usa ban el channel and flowed most of the year. agua para regar a sus milpas de malz, frijoles, y Could Tucson be even older than that O'odham calabazas. EI rio era muy diferente en esos dias. village? Recently, archaeologists working on the Corrla sobre la superficie en vez de en un cauce RIO Nuevo project decided to try to find the profundo, y corria la mayor parte del ano. oldest villages in Tucson. <..Puede ser Tucson hasta mas vieja que esa aldea As they dug several feet beneath the ground, O'odham? Recientemente, arque610gos que they found the remains of a Hohokam village. The trabajaban en el proyecto RIO Nuevo decidieron Hohokam people lived in southern Arizona from tratar de encontrar las aldeas mas viejas de about A.D. 500 to 1500. They lived in "pit houses" Tucson. -one-room, domed homes dug about two feet into Mientras excavaban algunos pies debajo de la the ground. They were made of branches and superficie de la tierra, encontraron los restos de covered with mud to keep the rain out. The una aldea Hohokam. La gente Hohokam vivla en Hohokam made beautiful decorated with Arizona del sur desde aproximadamente 500 A.D. painted pictures of animals and birds. They carved hasta 1500. ViVian en "casas hechas en hoyos"­ shells from the Gulf of California in Mexico to casas de un cuarto, con el techo en forma de una make jewelry. They were also farmers, and the cupula, excavadas mas 0 menos dos pies debajo de archaeologists discovered evidence of their la superficie de la tierra. Eran hechas de ramas y irrigation canals. cubiertas de lodo para protegerse de la lIuvia.

Rfo Nuevo: EI lugar de nacimiento de Tucson 7 f . a . -wsP ·· t i.· ? em" • ... 11

Did people live in the RIO Nuevo area even Los Hohokam hadan alfarerla decorada con before the Hohokam? Archaeologists know that dibujos pintados de animales y pajaros. Tallaban when people live in an area for a long time, newer conchas del Golfo de California en Mexico para houses are often built on top of older houses. hacer artlculos de joyerla. Tambien eran They dug even deeper and made an exciting new granjeros, y los arqueologos descubrieron discovery! They found earlier pit houses built evidencia de sus acequias. beneath the Hohokam houses. These small houses <. Vivla alguna gente en la area de RIO Nuevo hasta dated to about 2000 B.C. The archaeologists were antes de los Hohokam? Los arqueologos saben que even more excited to find that these people were cuando la gente vive en un lugar durante un largo probably the first farmers in and tiempo, muchas veces construye casas nuevas built canals to water their crops. At that time, encima de las casas viejas. Excavaron un poco mas they were also beginning to make simple pottery hondo, e i hicieron un descubrimiento emocionante! and clay figurines. Encontraron casas de hoyo mas viejas aun Thanks to these archaeological excavations, we construldas debajo de las casas de los Hohokam. now know that Tucson is one of the oldest towns Estas casas chiquitas databan de aproximadamente in the United States. The next time you have a 2000 B.C. Los arqueologos estaban hasta mas birthday, think of the little village at the base of emocionados al descubrir que esa gente eran Sentinel Peak and wish Tucson a "Happy 4000th probablemente los primeros granjeros de Birthday!" Norteamerica y construlan canales para regar a sus cosec has. En esos dlas, tambien empezaban a hacer alfarerla basica y figurillas de barro. QueS't;onS' for l);S'cuS'S';on Gracias a estas excavaciones arqueologicas, 1. How would your life be different today if the ahora sabemos que Tucson es una de las ciudades Santa Cruz River still had water all year round? mas viejas de Estados Unidos. La proxima vez que What animals might live in the river? What celebras un cumpleanos, piensa en la aldea chiquita kind of plants would you find along the river? a la base de la Pico de Centinela, y desea a Tucson 2. How old is Tucson? Figure out how long ago "iFeliz cumpleanos por sus 4000 anos!" these events happened: a. Hugo O'Conor built a presidio ___ years ago. Pregu nt as'" a r a d;S'c ut;r 1. <'Como serla diferente tu vida hoy si el RIO Santa b. 0' odham farmers greeted Father Kino Cruz todavla tuviera agua todo el ano? <'Cuales ___ years ago clases de animales podrlan vivir en el rio? c. Hohokam people first lived in Tucson __ <'Cuales clases de plantas encontrarlas a la orilla? years ago 2. <'Cuantos anos tiene Tucson? Averigua hace d. The earliest farmers built canals in Tucson cuantos anos sucedieron estos eventos: __ years ago a. Hugo O'Conor construla un presidio. 3. Find the Gulf of California on a map. How far is Hace anos it from Tucson? How long would it take to drive b. Granjeros O'odham saludaron al Padre Kino. there? How long would it take to walk there? Hace anos Would the Hohokam walk or drive? c. La gente Hohokam vivla por primera vez en Tucson. Hace anos d. Los primeros granjeros construlan acequias en Tucson. Hace anos 3. Encuentra el Golfo de California en un mapa. <.Que tan lejos esta de Tucson? <'Cuanto tiempo necesitarlas para manejar hasta alia? <'Cuanto 8 Rio Nuevo: The Birthplace of Tucson i: && Voca b uta rv tiempo necesitarlas para caminar hasta alia? archaeologist a scientist who learns about the ('Caminarlan 0 manejarlan los Hohokam? lifestyle and history of people in the past by studying objects they have left behind. Pa(abras de vocabu(ar;o arqueologo un/a cientlfico/a que aprende acerca evidence a sign that something happened. del estilo de vida y la historia de la In archaeology, this is usually the gente del pasado al estudiar los objects that were left behind after objetos que dejaron atras. an activity. casa de hoyo una casa con el techo en forma de excavation an area dug up by archaeologists. cupula, hecho de ramas, matorral, y In archaeological excavations, all una capa exterior de lodo. EI piso objects found are mapped and fue excavado aproximadamente un described in detail. pie 0 dos debajo de la superficie. figurine a small figure, usually of a person or evidencia una senal que algo sucedio. En la animal, made of clay, stone, pottery arqueologla, estos son por 10 general or other material objetos que fueron dejados atras Hohokam the people who lived in southern despues de una actividad. Arizona between about A.D. 500 and figurilla una figura chiquita, por 10 general de 1500. They were successful farmers una persona 0 de un animal, hecho de and made beautiful pottery and barro, piedra, alfarerla, 0 de otro jewelry. material. irrigation supplying water to farms by using Hohokam la gente que vivla al sur de Arizona ditches entre aproximadamente 500 A.D. Y 0' odham the Indian people that have lived in 1500. Ellos fueron granjeros exitosos southern Arizona for at least the e hicieron alfarerla y joyas bonitas. past five centuries. The Tohono O'odham la gente india que ha vivido al sur de O'odham nation is just west of . Arizona durante por 10 menos los Tucson and includes the San Xavier cinco ultimos siglos. La Nacion Mission. Tohono O'odham se encuentra justo al oeste de Tucson e incluye la pit house a dome-roofed house built of Mision San Xavier. branches, brush and an outer layer presidio una fortaleza espanola construida of mud. The floor was dug about a foot or two below the surface. para proteger a las misiones y a los colonizadores en las fronteras de presidio a Spanish fortress build to protect Nueva Espana. Por 10 general 25-50 missions and settlers on the soldados estaban en un presidio. frontiers of New Spain. Usually regar proporcionar agua a la granja por 20-50 soldiers were at a presidio. medio de acequias (canales). Shook Son The name of the 0' odham village at Shook son el nombre de la aldea O'odham a la the base of Sentinel Peak. It means base de la Pico de Centinela. "black area at the base of ," Significa "area negra a la base de," referring to the black volcanic rock referiendose a la roca volcanica at the base of Sentinel Peak. negra en la base de la Pico de Centinela.

Rfo Nuevo: Ellugar de nacimiento de Tucson 9 3.1 The Santa Cruz Today The deep, dry riverbed 3.1 EI Santa Cruz hoy EI cauce profundo y seco del of to day's Santa Cruz River gives only a hint of RIO Santa Cruz de hoy nos da s610 una idea del rio the river that flowed freely 200 years ago. que flula libremente hace 200 anos.

3.2 Santa Cruz Acequia, 1909 A hundred years ago, water still flowed through "acequias" to irrigate small farms along the Santa Cruz River. Courtesy Arizona Historical Society/ Tucson #4249

3.2 Acequia del Santa Cruz, 1909 Hace cien anos, el agua todavla flula por "acequias" para regar a los campos de las granjas pequenas al lado del RIO Santa Cruz. Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/ Tucson #4249

10 The Changing Santa Cruz River The Changing EI cambiante Rio 3 Santa Cruz River 3 Santa Cruz GEn que piensas cuando oyes la palabra "rio"? La maY0rla de gente piensa en un riachuelo corriente con sus orillas bordeadas de arboles. Pero en ~at do you think of when you hear the word Tucson, otra imagen viene a la mente. Los Tucson­ "river?" Most people think of a flowing stream enses suelen pensar sobre el rio como un cauce with grassy, tree-lined banks. But in Tucson, seco y arenoso que infrecuentemente tiene agua a another image comes to mind. Tucsonans usually menos que IIueva. EI RIo Santa Cruz es el rio mas think of a river as a dry sandy channel that rarely profundo y mas seco de todos los "rlos" de Tucson. has water unless it rains. The Santa Cruz River is Pero el Santa Cruz no siempre era asf. En 1859, the deepest and driest of all of the "rivers" in Julius Froebel escribio que" ... las orillas del rio, Tucson. y el valle mismo, estan cubiertos de alamos y But the Santa Cruz was not always like this. In sauces, fresnos y platanos, robles y nogales. 1859, Julius Froebel wrote that" ... the banks of Algunas partes del valle son de una hermosura tan the river, and the valley itself, are covered with grande, rica y sencilla ... que serlan poplars and willows, ash-trees and plantains, oaks extraordinarias en cualquier parte del mundo." and walnut trees. Some portions of the valley are En esos dlas, el Santa Cruz flula sobre la of such grand, rich and simple beauty ... that superficie del desierto en vez de por un cauce they would be remarkable in any part of the profundo. En algunos lugares el rio flula libremente; world." en otros formaba cienagas, 0 estanques pantanosos. In those days, the Santa Cruz flowed along the A la base del Pico de Centinela, el RIO Santa Cruz surface of the desert rather than in a deep flulQ todo el ano. Esta provision constante de agua channel. In some places the river flowed freely; in atrala a los nativoamericanos al area que IIamamos others it formed cienagos, or marshy pools. Tucson en tiempos que se remontan a los 4,000 At the base of Sentinel Peak, the Santa Cruz anos. En poco tiempo, estos primeros granjeros River flowed year-round. This steady supply of empezaron a excavar canales para regar sus water attracted American Indians to the area campos en el llano de inundacion del Santa Cruz. that we call Tucson as early as 4000 years ago. Para la epoca de los Hohokam aproxima-damente Before long, these early farmers began to dig 3,000 anos mas tarde, una red de canales cortaba a canals to irrigate their farms in the floodplain of traves del llano al pie del Pico de Centinela. the Santa Cruz. By the time of the Hohokam Para 1780, estos canales hablan cambiado el about 3000 years later, a network of canals cut cauce del rio. Geronimo de la Rocha, un soldado across the flat plain beneath Sentinel Peak. espanol quien vis ito el Presidio de Tucson ese ano, By 1780, these canals had changed the course dibujo un mapa del Santa Cruz. Mostro dos of the river. Geronimo de la Rocha, a Spanish tributarios principales del rio con una isla entre los soldier who visited the Tucson Presidio in that dos. EI tributario al oeste de la mision fue year, drew a map of the Santa Cruz. He showed verdaderamente un canal grande, 0 acequia. two main branches of the river with an isla, or Los proximos dos siglos trajeron hasta mas island, in between. The branch to the west of the cambios al Santa Cruz mientras nuevos inmigrantes mission was actually a large canal, or acequia. entraron en tropel a Tucson. Durante los anos

EI cambiante RIO Santa Cruz 11 The next two centuries brought even more 1860, mientras creda la poblacion, los granjeros changes to the Santa Cruz as new immigrants excavaron mas acequias para IIevar el agua del rio a poured into Tucson. In the 1860s, as the population sus campos. EI ganado de los rancheros pastaban al grew, farmers dug more acequias to carry the lado del rio. Con la desaparicion de la mayo ria de river's water to their fields. Ranchers' cattle las hierbas del desierto, mas aguas de las IIuvias se grazed along the river. With most of the desert vaciaron hacia los canales en lugar de filtrarse en grasses gone, more rainwater ran off into the la tierra. En 1887, Sam Hughes excavo un gran stream rather than soaking into the ground. In canal nuevo en el lado este del rio. Dos anos mas 1887, Sam Hughes dug a large new canal on the tarde, fuertes corrientes de agua en el rio east side of the river. Two years later, floodwaters empezaron a cortar un cauce profundo rio arriba rushing through the river began to cut a deep del canal de Hughes. channel upstream from Hughes' canal. Para 1890, este cauce se habla cortado By 1890, this channel had cut deep into the profundamente en la tierra toda la distancia desde ground all the way from Tucson to the San Xavier Tucson a la mision San Xavier. Los Tucsonenses mission. Tucsonans caused more erosion by cutting causaron mas erosion, cortando la mayorla de los most of the trees along the river for firewood or arboles allado del rio para lena 0 para construir building houses. As the city sank wells deep casas. Mientras la ciudad cavaba pozos profundos beneath the ground, the water table dropped, and debajo de la tierra, se bajo el nivel del acuifero the river slowly dried up. By the 1930s the Santa subterraneo y el rio se secaba poco a poco. Para Cruz looked more or less like it does today-a · los anos 1930 el Santa Cruz pareda mas 0 menos deep dry river bed that is just a memory of the igual como hoy-un cauce profundo y seco que es beautiful flowing stream that first attracted solo un recuerdo de la hermosa corriente que people to Tucson. atrajo a la gente a venir a Tucson.

3.3 The Santa Cruz, about 1904 As late as 3.3 EI Santa Cruz, aprox. 1904 Tan reciente­ 1904, some branches of the Santa Cruz River mente como 1904, algunos tributarios del RIO still flowed along the surface, forming shallow Santa Cruz todavla flulan en la superficie de ponds and bogs in some areas. Courtesy Arizona la tierra, formando estanques po cos Historical Society/Tucson #24868 profundos y pantanos en algunas areas. Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #24868 12 The Changing Santa Cruz River 3.4 1890 photograph of the convento by A. S. Reynolds. Courtesy Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #2535.

3.4 Fotograffa de 1890 de la convento por A. S. Reynolds. Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #2535.

Questions for l)iscussion Preguntas para discutir 1. Where does the city of Tucson get much of its 1. iDe donde obtiene mucho su agua la ciudad de water? Tucson? 2. What caused the rivers in Arizona to dry up? 2. iCual fue la causa de que los rlOS de Arizona se 3. Will Tucson always have enough water for secaron? people to drink? 3. iSiempre tendra Tucson suficiente agua para 4. What is CAP water? tomar? 4. iQue es el agua CAP?

Vo c a f> u (a rv Vocaf>u(ario acequia (Spanish) irrigation ditch acequia canal de riego century a period of one hundred years cauce la parte mas profunda de un rio 0 de channel the deeper part of a river or stream; un riachuelo; un surco . , a groove clenaga un pantano 0 mar jal . / . , clenaga (Spanish) a swamp or marsh erosion un gastO- gradual de la tierra hecho erosion a gradual wearing away by water or por el agua 0 el viento wind llano una area plana de tierra floodplain the level ground along a river made of llano de tierra al mismo nivel al lado de un rio soil deposited during floods. inundacion hecha de tierra depositada durante isla (Spanish) island las inundaciones network a group of things connected in a net- nivel del un deposito de agua debajo de la like pattern. aculfero tierra subterraneo plain a flat stretch of land. water table a deposit of water beneath the red un grupo de cosas conectadas en la ground forma de una red siglo un perlodo de cien anos ••• •••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••• EI cambiante RIO Santa Cruz 13 4.1 Father Kino In 1692, Father Eusebio 4.1 Padre Kino En 1692, Padre Eusebio Francisco Kino, a Jesuit priest, visited Francisco Kino, un cura Jesuita, visito las the O'odham villages at Bac and Shook aldeas O'odham en Bac y Shook Son. Son. Courtesy Arizona Historical Society/Tucson Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #47,375 #47,375

4.2 Presidio Drawing The Spanish settlement at Tucson was founded in 1775 as a walled presidio, or military fortress. Courtesy Arizona Historical Society/ Tucson #59,715

4 .2 Dibujo del presidio La colonia espanola en Tucson se establecio en 1775 como un presidio amurallado, 0 fortaleza militar. Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/ Tucson #59,715

14 Priests and Presidios: Tucson's Spanish History Priests and Padres y Presidios: 4 presidios: Tucson's La historia Spanish History espanola de Tucson

he RIO Nuevo district is the birthplace of 6 distrito RIO Nuevo es el lugar de nacimiento Spanish Tucson. On either side of the Santa Cruz del Tucson espanol. En ambos lados del RIO Santa River archaeologists have discovered the Cruz los arqueologos han descubierto los cimientos foundations of Spanish buildings. The remains of de edificios espanoles. Las ruinas del presidio, 0 the Tucson presidio, or fortress, lie beneath fortaleza, de Tucson permanecen debajo de los modern downtown office buildings. On the west edificios modernos de oficinas en el centro. AI side of the river, rows of stone mark the site of lado del oeste del rio, hileras de piedras marcan el the San Augustin mission buildings and the walls of sitio de los edificios de la Mision de San Agustin y the mission gardens at the base of Sentinel Peak. las paredes de los jardines de la mision a la base When the Spaniards arrived at the O'odham del Pico de Centinela. village of Shook Son in 1699 they found a thriving Cuando IIegaron los espanoles a la aldea O'odham community of two hundred families. A Spanish de Shook Son en 1699, encontraron una comunidad missionary, Father Eusebio Kino, recalled a small prospera de doscientos familias. Un misionero village with "splendid fields" along the river. The espanol, Padre Eusebio Kino, recordo una aldea people greeted the strange visitors "with all pequena con "campos esplendidos" al lado del rio. kindness" and probably supplied them with food La gente saludaba a los visitantes extranos "con from their gardens. toda amabilidad" y probablemente les provela Two years earlier, a Spanish soldier traveling comida de sus jardines. with Father Kino described the nearby village of Dos anos antes, un soldado espanol viajando con San Cosme de Ouiar. Lt. Juan Manje's description Padre Kino describio la aldea cercana de San gives us a good idea of what Tucson was like 300 Cosme de Ouiar. La descripcion del Teniente Juan years ago: "There are good pasture and Manje nos da una buena idea de como era Tucson agricultural lands with a canal for irrigation. The hace 300 anos. "Hay prado bueno y tierras Indians harvest corn, beans, and cotton from which agrarias con un canal para el riego. Los indios they make cloth to dress themselves. Squash, cosec han malz, frijoles, y algodon de 10 cual hacen melons and watermelons were also raised." He tela para vestirse. Calabazas, melones y sandlas wrote that the O'odham were "dressed and tambien se cultivaban." Escribio que los O'odham adorned with painted cloth. They wear belts and estaban "vestidos y adornados de tela pintada. strings of beads around the neck." Llevan puestos cinturones y cadenas de cuentas The Spaniards brought many new things with alrededor del cuello ." them that would change the lives of the O'odham Los espanoles trajeron consigo muchas cosas forever. By order of Father Kino, "all were nuevas que cambiarfan para siempre las vidas de los informed . . . of the mysteries of our Holy Faith." O'odham. Bajo ordenes del Padre Kino, "todos

Padres y presidios: La historia espanola de Tucson 15 Within a few years, most of the Q'odham villagers fueron informados ... de los misterios de nuestra had joined the Catholic Church. The Spaniards Fe Sagrada." Dentro de pocos anos, la mayo ria de introduced wheat, corn, and beans to the fields, los aldeanos Q'odham hablan convertido a la religion and horses and cows grazed along the river. Catolica. Padre Kino trajo mas que la religion de su Unfortunately, they also brought new diseases hogar en Europa: pronto el trigo creda al lado del such as chicken pox, measles and flu that killed malz y los frijoles en los campos, y caballos y vacas hundreds of Q'odham. pastaban allado del rio. Desafortunadamente, Qver the next seventy-five years, Spanish tambien trajeron enfermedades nuevas como la priests from the mission at San Xavier to the viruela, el sarampion, y la influenza, que mataban a south visited Shook Son every few weeks. Then, in cientos de los Q'odham. 1775, Spanish soldiers settled across the river Durante los proximos setenta y cinco anos, from the village. Later they built an adobe-walled curas espanoles de la mision de San Xavier al sur presidio to protect themselves and the Q'odham visitaban Shook Son alguna que otra semana. from raiders. Entonces, en 1775, soldados espanoles se quedaron About 1800, priests directed Indian laborers in al otro lado del rio de la aldea. Mas tarde building a two-story adobe convento, a church construyeron un presidio con paredes de adobe compound that served as home and offices for the para protegerse a 51 mismos y a los Q'odham de los mission priests. A nearby granary stored the grain invasores, los Apache. grown in a mission garden. Indian fields surrounded Cerca de 1800, los curas dirigieron a los the walled garden and mission compound. labradores a construir un convento de adobe de dos In the early 18005, the presidio in Tucson and pisos, un recinto de iglesia que servia de hogar y de the mission village at San Xavier were the most oficinas para los curas de las misiones. Un granero important Spanish settlements in what is now cercano guardaba el grano cultivado en un jardln de Arizona. When many of the Indians fell ill and died la mision. Los campos de los indios rodeaban el each year, the priests convinced Q'odham from jardln amurallado y el recinto de la mision. other villages to live and work at the mission farms. En los principios de 1800, el presidio en Tucson With a flowing river, fertile fields, and plenty y la aldea de la mision en San Xavier fueron los of grass for the horses and cattle, the Q'odham asentamientos espanoles mas importantes en 10 village of Shook Son had taken on the new look of que es ahora Arizona. Cuando muchos de los indios the Spanish town of Tucson. The massive mission se enfermaron y murieron cada ano, los curas and the high-walled presidio towered above the convencieron a los Q'odham de otras aldeas a vivir fields and desert. Adobe houses and domed y trabajar en las granjas de las misiones. Spanish ovens sprang up among the brush houses Con un rio que corrla, campos fertiles, y hierba of the Q'odham. The new village of Tucson became en abundancia para los caballos y el ganado, la a cultural meeting place where Spanish priests and aldea Q'odham de Shook Son habla adaptado el soldiers lived among Q'odham farmers. aspecto del pueblo espanol de Tucson. La enorme mision y el presidio de muros altos se elevaban sobre los campos y el desierto. Casas de adobe y hornos espanoles en forma de cupula surgieron entre los jacales de los Q'odham. La nueva aldea de Tucson lIego a ser un punto de encuentro cultural donde los curas y soldados espanoles viVian entre los granjeros Q'odham.

16 Priests and Presidios: Tucson's Spanish History Questions for f)iscussion Pregu nta spa ra disc utir 1. We no longer have farms near downtown 1. Ya no hay granjas cerca del centro de Tucson. Tucson. Why not? GPor que no? 2. There are farms in nearby Marana. What do 2. SI hay granjas en Marana, que esta cerca. GQue farmers grow there? Where do they get water es 10 que cultivan los granjeros alii? GDe donde to water their crops? consiguen el agua para regar a sus cultivos? 3. Do you think the coming of the Spaniards was a 3. GCrees ttl que la IIegada de los espanoles fue good thing for the O'odham? Why or why not? una cosa buena para los O'odham? GPor que Sl 0 4. Why did diseases like measles or chicken pox por que no? kill so many O'odham? Do many people die from 4. GPor que las enfermedades como el sarampion y these diseases today? la viruela mataron a tantos O'odham? GMuere mucha gente de estas enfermedades hoy?

Vo c a f> u (a rv Vocaf>u(ario adorned decorated adornado decorado compound a group of buildings within a walled cimientos los soportes sobre los cuales se apoya una casa 0 una pared, muchas veces area. hechos de piedra 0 de cemento fertile rich in things that aid growth in fertil rico en las cosas que ayudan al plants crecimiento de las plantas foundations the supports upon which a house or granero un edificio para almacenar malz, trigo, y otros granos wall rests, often made of stone or concrete labrador trabajador mision una comunidad religiosa espanola con el granary a building for storing corn, wheat propos ito de convertir a los indios al and other grains catolicismo. Normalmente los laborer a worker asentamientos de las misiones inclulan una iglesia, oficinas para los curas, y mission a Spanish religious community granjas. intended to convert Indians to prado un campo cubierto de hierba Catholicism. Mission settlements presidio una fortaleza espanola construlda para usually included a church, offices proteger a las misiones y a los for priests, and farms. colonizadores en las regiones fronterizas de Nueva Espana. presidio a Spanish fortress built to protect Normalmente habla 20-50 soldados missions and settlements on the en un presidio. frontiers of New Spain. Usually prospera creciendo fuertemente 20-50 soldiers were at a presidio. recinto un grupo de edificios dentro de una pasture a grassy field area amurallada surrounded closed in on all sides rodeaban encerraban en todos los lados thriving to grow strong ••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••• Padres y presidios: La historia espanola de Tucson 17 5.1 Leon House Foundations The rock foundation of 5.1 Cimientos de la Cas a Leon c. 1870s EI cimiento the Francisco Solano Leon and Ramona Elias house, de piedra de la casa de Francisco Solano Leon y built in the early 1870s. The Leon house was one of Ramona Elias, construida en la primera parte de la the first built outside the walled presidio near the decada 1870. Fotografla por David Gregory banks of the Santa Cruz River. Photograph by David Gregory.

5.2 Leon Family c.1880-1890 5.2 La familia Leon c. 1880-1890 Ramona Elias de Leon Ramona Elias de Leon (centro) (center) was born in nacio en Tucson en 1823 cuando Tucson in 1823 when the el pueblo era todavla parte de town was still part of Mexico. Para el tiempo en que Mexico. By the time her nacieron sus dos hijas Marla daughters Marla (left) and (izquierdo y Cleofa (derecho), Cleofa (right) were born, Tucson habla IIegado a ser Tucson had become part of parte de Estados Unidos. the United States. Courtesy Cortesia Andy Romo. Andy Romo.

18 A Tale of Two Countries: The Leon Family in Tucson A Tale of Two El cuento de dos 5 Countries: 5 paises: La The Leon Family familia Leon en in Tucson Tucson

francisco Leon was born in Tucson in 1819, the son of francisco Leon nacio en Tucson en 1819, hijo de un a Spanish soldier. His wife, Ramona Elias, was born soldado espanol. Su esposa, Ramona Elias, nacio aqui here five years later. Although they were both born cinco anos despues. Aunque los dos nacieron dentro de within the walls of the Tucson presidio, they were born las paredes del presidio de Tucson, i nacieron en dos in different countries. palses diferentes! How can that be? When Francisco was born, Tucson (Como puede ser? Cuando Francisco nacio, Tucson was still part of New Spain and ruled by the King of todavla era parte de Nueva Espana y fue gobernado Spain. In 1821, Mexico broke away from Spain and por el Rey de Espana. En 1821, Mexico se independizo became its own country. Like the United States, the de Espana y lIego a ser su propio pais. Como los Estados people of Mexico fought a war to win their Unidos, la gente de Mexico peleo una guerra para ganar independence. When Ramona was born, she was a su independencia. Cuando nacio Ramona, ella fue citizen of the new country of Mexico. ciudadana del nuevo pais de Mexico. The change from New Spain to Mexico made little EI cambio de Nueva Espana a Mexico hizo poca difference to people on the northern frontier in Tucson. diferencia en la frontera nortena en Tucson. Ellos They were far away from the capital in Mexico City. estaban lejos de la capital de Mexico. Generalmente, la Mostly, life in the small village around the presidio vida en el pueblo alrededor del presidio se centro en la centered on farming and meeting the needs of daily life. agricultura y en satisfacer las necesidades de la vida When he grew up, Francisco Leon followed in his diaria. father's footsteps and joined the Mexican army. He Cuando lIego a ser adulto, Francisco Leon siguio los served at the Tucson presidio and married Ramona pasos de su padre y se enlisto en el ejercito mexicano. Elias. In the 1840s, they built a house just west of the Servia en el presidio de Tucson, y se caso con Ramona presidio overlooking the farms along the Santa Cruz Elias. En los anos 1840, construyeron una casa justo al River. The three-room house was typical of those oeste del presidio con una vista de las granjas al lado found in the Mexican outpost. It was built around a del RIO Santa Cruz. La casa de tres cuartos fue zagucin, or central breezeway, and had a kitchen, a caracterlstica de las que se encontraban en la bedroom and a living room. The rear courtyard fortaleza mexicana. Fue construida alrededor de un probably had an adobe oven, a ramada to provide zaguan,o pasillo abierto central, y tuvo una cocina, una summer shade, chicken coops, and a small corral. The recamara, y una sala. EI patio de atras probablemente high courtyard wall provided protection for the Leon tuvo un horno de adobe, una ramada para proveer family during occasional raids by . sombra en el verano, gallineros, y un corral pequeno. La Ramona and Francisco had twelve children, but only alta pared del patio proporciono proteccion a la familia eight lived to become adults. Without a doctor, many Leon durante los ataques intermitentes de los Apaches. children died of diseases in Tucson at that time. Ramona y Francisco tuvieron doce hijos, pero

EI cuento de dos parses: La familia Leon en Tucson 19 The Leon family was very well educated, and four of solamente ocho sobrevivieron hasta ser adultos. Sin the children attended college. When archaeologists doctores, muchos ninos morran de enfermedades en excavated the house in 1999, they found many pencils, Tucson en esa epoca. La familia Leon fue bien educada, ink bottles, chalk and fragments of slate chalkboards. y cuatro de los ninos asistieron a la universidad. Cuando The family was also very musical. It is said that they los arqueologos excavaron la cas a en 1999, encontraron owned the first piano in Tucson. Archaeologists found muchos lapices, bote lias de tinta, gis, y pedazos de pieces of chalkboard with five parallel lines for writing pizarra. La familia tambien se interesaba por la musica. musical notes. Se dice que poseyeron el primer piano en Tucson. Los The Leon family was also very religious. A daughter, arqueologos encontraron pedazos de una pizarra con Cleofa Leon, became a Sister of st. Joseph, the first cinco Ifneas paralelas, para escribir notas musicales. order of nuns in Tucson. Archaeologists found a brass La familia Leon tambien fue muy religiosa. Una hija, and wood crucifix that may have belonged to her. Cleofa Leon, se hizo Hermana de San Jose, la primera Francisco was active in the church and the Tucson orden de monjas en Tucson. Los arqueologos community. He served in the Arizona Territorial encontraron un crucifijo de laton y madera que Legislature for three terms. posiblemente pertenecfa a ella. Francisco fue activo en When Francisco died in 1893, he was living in la iglesia y en la comunidad de Tucson. Sirvio en la another country-the United States of America. Yet, Legislatura Territorial de Arizona durante tres he had never left Tucson! In 1848, the U.S. fought a perrodos. war with Mexico and took the land that is now the Cuando se murio Francisco en 1893, vivra en otro . Six years later, the u.s. pars-los Estados Unidos de America. Aunque i nunca bought Tucson and most of southern Arizona from habra salido de Tucson! En 1848, EEUU peleaba una Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase. guerra contra Mexico y tomo la tierra que ahora es In their lifetime, Francisco Leon and Ramona saw Estados Unidos del oeste. Seis anos despues, EEUU many changes. Tucson grew from a small Spanish compro de Mexico Tucson y la mayorra del sur de military post of several hundred people to an American Arizona en la Adquisicion Gadsden. town of more than 10,000. Yet, no matter which Durante sus vidas, Francisco y Ramona vieron country it was in, the Santa Cruz River continued to muchos cambios. Tucson crecio de un puesto militar flow through the valley and provide a lifeline for a espanol pequeno de unos centenares de personas a una growing Tucson. ciudad Americano de mas que 10,000. De todos modos, no importa en cual pars estaba, el Rro Santa Cruz continuaba fluyendo por el valle y provera un cordon umbilical para un Tucson cresciente.

20 A Tale of Two Countries: The Leon Family in Tucson Ques+ions for f)iscussion Pregu n+a s "a ra discu+ir 1. What happened to the 0' odham farmers and 1. iQue paso con los granjeros O'odham y sus their fields along the Santa Cruz River when campos al lado del RIo Santa Cruz cuando los Mexican farmers moved into the valley around granjeros mexicanos IIegaron al valle de Tucson? Tucson? 2. iComo refleja la vida actual en Tucson el hecho 2. How does life in Tucson today reflect that we de que hemos sido una parte de diferentes have been a part of different countries in the palses en el pasado? past?

Vo c a f> uta rv vocaf>u(ario corral a pen for animals, especially for cordon umbilical algo que provee las cosas horses or cows necesarias para un grupo de courtyard a yard enclosed by a wall gente crucifix a small cross with the crucified corral un lugar con cerca para guardar

figure of Jesus los animales t especialmente los independence freedom from control by another caballos y el ganado person or country crucifijo una cruz pequena con la figura crucificada de Jesus legislature an elected body that makes laws for a group of people independencia libertad del control de otra persona opals lifeline something that provides things legislatura un cuerpo elegido que hace leyes necessary for life para un grupo de gente New Spain the name given to Mexico when it was Nueva Espana el nombre dado a Mexico cuando still ruled by Spain estaba todavla gobernado por parallel lying in the same direction but Espana always the same distance apart paralelas situadas hacia la misma direccion ramada (Spanish) a freestanding porch pero siempre a la misma distancia made of poles and branches patio una area fuera de la casa dentro de zaguan (Spanish) a central room in a un muro Mexican home with a front entrance ramada un portal sin fijacion hecho de to the street and a rear entrance postes y ramas to the walled courtyard zaguan un cuarto central en un hogar mexicano con una entrada enfrente a la calle y una entrada atras al patio amurallado

•• ••••••••••••• • ••• ••• ••• ••••• • •••••••••••••••• EI cuento de dos parses: La familia Leon en Tucson 21 6.1 Warner's Mill, about 1878 Solomon Warner built 6.1 EI molino de Warner, aprox. 1878 Solomon a mill for grinding wheat into flour at the base of Warner construy6 un molino en 10 base del Pico de Sentinel Peak in 1874. Courtesy Arizona Historical Centinela para moler trigo y hacer 10 harina. Society/Tucson #49,347 Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #49,347

6.2 Warner's Lake Solomon Warner dammed up the Santa Cruz River south of Sentinel Peak to provide a steady supply of water to his mill. Courtesy Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #12,565

6.2 EI lago de Warner Solomon Warner repres6 el RIO Sante Cruz 01 sur del Pico de Centinela para proveer un suministro constante de agua 01 molino. Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #12,565

22 Solomon Warners Mill Solomon EI molino de 6 Warner's Mill 6 Solomon Warner

In the 1870s in Tucson, most people looked at En los anos 1870 en Tucson, la mayo ria de la the Santa Cruz River as a source of water for gente vela al RIO Santa Cruz como un origin de drinking, washing clothes and watering their agua para tomar, lavar la ropa, y regar los campos. fields. But others looked at the river as a source Pero otros velan el rio como un origin de poder. of power. Before gasoline engines and electricity, - Antes de los motores que usaban la gasolina 0 la flowing rivers provided energy to run flourmills electricidad, las corrientes de los rlOS provelan la and sawmills. energla para hacer funcionar a los molinos de When Spaniards introduced wheat to the harina y los molinos de aserrar. O'odham farmers along the Santa Cruz, they used Cuando los espanoles introdujeron el trigo a los their stone manos and metates and hand power to granjeros 0' odham al lado del Santa Cruz, usa ban grind the grain into flour to make tortillas and sus manos y metates de piedra y la fuerza de la bread. To make this job easier, an American mano para moler el grano y hacer harina para immigrant to Tucson decided to build a flour mill tortillas y pan. Para hacer mas facil este trabajo, that used water to turn giant millstones. In 1874, un americano que habla inmigrado a Tucson decidio Solomon Warner bought land at the foot of construir un molino de harina que usaba el agua Sentinel Peak and got permission from Bishop para hacer girar las gigantes piedras de maier. En Salpointe to build a canal through the mission 1874, Solomon Warner compro tierra a la base del property to run the mill. Pico de Centinela y recibio permiso del Obispo To get power from the river, Warner built a Salpointe para construir un canal en la propiedad large waterwheel. Waterwheels look like the de la mision para hacer funcionar el molino. paddlewheels on Mississippi riverboats. The Para conseguir poder del rio, Warner construyo flowing water of the river pushed against the una gran rueda hidraulica. Las ruedas hidraulicas crossbars (paddles) of the wheel, causing it to se parecen a las rued as de paletas de los bar cos turn. The spinning waterwheel was connected with del RIO Mississippi. EI agua de la corriente del rio a series of gears to two large round millstones empujaba los travesanos (paletas) de la rueda, that crushed the wheat into flour. Mr. Warner causandola girar. La rueda hidraulica, que giraba, built a dam upstream and created a lake to fue conectada con una serie de engranajes ados provide plenty of water to run his mill. piedras de moler grandes y redondas que molieron Before long, many of the farmers along the el trigo para hacer harina. EI Sr. Warner construyo Santa Cruz brought their wheat to Solomon una presa rio arriba y creo un lago para proveer Warner and paid him to grind it into flour. At suficiente agua para hacer funcionar el molino. harvest time, farmers' wagons lined up along what Dentro de poco, muchos de los granjeros al lado is now Mission Road to deliver their crop to del Santa Cruz trajeron su trigo a Solomon Warner Warner's Mill. After a few days, they would y Ie pagaron para molerlo y hacer su harina. En el return to take home their sacks of flour. tiempo de la cosecha, los vagones de los granjeros formaron una linea a 10 largo de 10 que ahora es la Calle Mission para entregar su cosecha al Molino de Warner. Despues de unos pocos dlas, regresarlan para lIevar sus sacos de harina. EI molino de Solomon Warner 23 In 1878 Mr. Warner decided to add a stamp mill En 1878 Sr. Warner decidio anadir un molino de to his operation. A stamp mill was a large machine machacar. Un molino de machacar era una maquina that crushed ore to get at the silver or gold in grande que machacaba la mena para poder conseguir the rocks. The stamp mill also ran off water la plata 0 el oro en las piedras. EI molino de power. machacar tambien funcionaba con el poder del agua. But, even the addition of the stamp mill did not Pero, hasta anadiendo el molino de machacar no make the mill more profitable for Mr. Warner. He hizo mas lucrativo el molino para Sr. Warner. found it hard to compete with the Eagle Flour Mill Encontraba diffcil competir con el Molino de across the river. And as the years rolled by, Harina Aguila (Eagle Flour Mill) al otro lado del rio. farmers grew less and less wheat along the Santa Y mientras pasaban los anos, los granjeros Cruz. Finally, Mr. Warner stopped operating the cultivaban menos trigo al lado del Santa Cruz. mill. Although it was no longer used, the old stone Finalmente, Sr. Warner acabo con la operacion del mill remained a landmark at the base of Sentinel molino. Aunque ya no se usaba, el molino viejo de Peak for many years. His home still stands on the piedra permaneda como un lugar conocido a la same location today just west of Mission Road, base del Pico de Centinela durante muchos anos. and the ruins of the mill are nearby. EI hogar del Sr. Warner todavla existe en el mismo lugar justo al oeste de la Calle Mission, y las ruinas del molino estan cerca.

6.3 Tucson, 1852 by Bartlett In 1852, when artist John Bartlett painted this view of Tucson from Sentinel Peak, the Convento de San Agustin towered over the farmlands along the Santa Cruz River. Courtesy Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #41,347

6.3 Tucson, 1852, por Bartlett En 1852, cuando el artista John Bartlett pinto esta vista de Tucson desde la del Pico de Centinela, el Convento de San Agustin Se destacaba sobre los campos agrkolos al lado del RIO Santa Cruz. Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #41,347

24 Solomon Warner's Mill Questions for ()iscussion Pregu nta spa ra disc utir 1. How did Mr. Warner's mill change the face of 1. (Como cambio la aparencia del valle Santa Cruz en the Santa Cruz valley in Tucson? Tucson el molino del Sr. Warner? 2. Why did farmers grow less wheat in Tucson in 2. iPor que cultivaban menos trigo en Tucson los the 1890s? granjeros durante los anos 1890? 3. What kind of power do you think we use to 3. iQue clase de poder crees que usamos para grind wheat into flour today? moler el trigo para hacer harina hoy?

Vo c a f> u (a rv Vo c a f> u(a rio landmark something easily seen that serves as lucrativo produciendo un beneficio economico a guide lugar algo facilmente visto que sirve de gUla mana and (Spanish) A pair of stones used for conocido un par de piedras usadas para moler metate grinding grain into flour. The grain is mano y el grano para hacer harina. Se coloca placed on a rectangular grinding metate el grano en la piedra rectangular de stone (metate), and a smaller stone moler (el metate), y una piedra mas (mano) is rubbed back and forth to pequena (la mano) se frota hacia crush the grain. adelante y hacia atras para machacar mill building containing machinery for el grano. grinding grain into flour mena rocas que contienen plata, oro, cobre millstones a pair of large round stones used to u otros minerales. Se debe beneficiar crush grain into flour la mena para sacar los metales ore rocks containing silver, gold, copper molino un edificio que tiene la maquinaria or other minerals. Ore must be para moler el grano que convierte en processed to remove the metals. harina. paddlewheel a wheel with paddles fixed around it piedras de un par de piedras grandes y redondas to move a boat through the water moler usadas para machacar el grano para profitable producing a financial benefit hacer harina waterwheel a wheel turned by water and used to rueda de una rueda con pal etas conectados pal etas do work alrededor de ella para mover un barco por medio del agua rueda una rueda que se hace girar con el hidraulica agua y que se usa para hacer trabajo

•••• ••• ••• • ••••••••••••••• • •• ••••••••••••••••• • EI molino de Solomon Warner 25 7.1 Don Chun Wo and Lily Leung Don Chun Wo 7.1 Don Chun Wo y Lily Leung Don Chun Wo y su and his wife, Lily Leung, came to Tucson at esposa, Lily Leung, estaban invitados a venir a the invitation of their uncle who had moved to Tucson por su tlo, quien se habra mudado a Tucson from China about 1880. Courtesy Arizona Tucson desde China aproximadamente en 1880. Historical Society/Tucson #16532 Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #16532

7.2 Tucson, 1880 Some of the Chinese laborers who helped build the Southern Pacific railroad from San Diego to Tucson stayed to became farmers in Tucson in the 1880s. Courtesy Arizona Historical Society/ Tucson #18,233

7.2 Tucson, 1880 Algunos de los trabajadores chinos quienes ayudaban a construir el ferrocarril Padfico del Sur (Southern Pacific) de San Diego a Tucson se hicieron granjeros en Tucson en los anos 1880. Cortesia Arizona Historical Society/Tucson #18,233

26 The Chinese in Tucson The Chinese in Los chinos en 1 Tucson 1 Tucson "If one rides around outside [Tucson] one might "Si uno pasea afuera [en Tucson] se puede suppose himself in a foreign land. I have imaginar que esta en una tierra extranjera. He addressed half a dozen men in succession saludado a la mitad de una docena de hombres without being able to talk with them. 1/ sucesivamente sin poder hablar con ninguno.1/ -Ellsworth Huntington, March 20, 1910 -Ellsworth Huntington, March 20, 1910

L you lived along the Santa Cruz River in Tucson Si vivlas al lado del R,o Santa Cruz en Tucson en in 1900, you would hear many different 1900, oida muchos idiomas diferentes-espanol, languages-Spanish, German, English, French, and aleman, ingles, frances, y hasta chino. Tucson era even Chinese. Tucson was a growing town, and the una ciudad creciente, y habla ranchos, minas, y nearby ranches, mines and railroads attracted ferrocarriles cerca que atralan a trabajadores de workers from all over the world. In 1870, the todo el mundo. En 1870, el censo muestra que las census shows that people living in Tucson were personas que vivian en Tucson eran originarios de born in 23 different countries outside the United 23 palses diferentes fuera de Estados Unidos y States and Mexico. Tucson was like a little United Mexico. iTucson era como una Naciones Unidas Nations! pequena! In 2001, archaeologists working on the R,o En 2001, arqueologos trabajando en el proyecto Nuevo project found a well near the San Augustin RIO Nuevo encontraron un pozo cerca de la mision mission at the foot of Sentinel Peak. It helps tell San Agustin a la base del Pico de Centinela. Este the story of some of these immigrants to Tucson pozo ayuda a contar la historia de algunos de estos in the late 1800s. The well, which was later used inmigrantes que vinieron a Tucson en la ultima as a trash pit, was filled with objects that came parte de los anos 1800. EI pozo, que mas tarde se from China-soy sauce, jugs, rice bowls, and usaba como un basural, estaba Ilene de objetos que ceramic soup spoons. vinieron de China-cantaros de salsa de soya, Who used these items from China? By reading receptaculos de arroz, y cucharas ceramicas para old newspapers and letters, the archaeologists la sopa. were able to learn how Chinese people came to iQuien usaba estos artkulos de China? Leyendo Tucson and about their lives there. Beginning in los periodicos y carras antiguas, los arqueologos the 1850s, many Chinese men came to California podlan aprender como la gente china vino a Tucson for the gold rush or to help build the Central y acerca de sus vidas aquL Empezando en los anos Pacific railroad. After the railroads were 1850, muchos hombres chinos vinieron a California completed in 1869, some moved to Arizona. The para minar el oro 0 para ayudar a construir el first Chinese immigrants traveled to Tucson by ferrocarril Padfico Central (Central Pacific). stagecoach in the mid-1870s. By 1876, Tucson had Terminados los ferrocarriles en 1869, algunos se its own Chinese restaurant. Other Chinese mudaron a Arizona. Los primeros inmigrantes workers helped build the Southern Pacific chinos viajaron a Tucson por medio de diligencias a railroad, which reached Tucson in 1880. mediados de los anos 1870. Para 1876, Tucson tuvo A number of these railroad workers who had su propio restaurante chino. Otros trabajadores been farmers in China were attracted to the chinos ayudaron a construir el ferrocarril Padfico

Los chinos en Tucson 27 fertile fields along the Santa Cruz River. They del Sur (Southern Pacific), el cuaillego a Tucson decided to make Tucson their home. Before long, en 1880. they had rented small farms along the river and Unos cuantos de estos trabajadores del grew fresh vegetables to supply the families, ferrocarril quienes hablan sido granjeros en China restaurants and markets in Tucson. estaban atraldos a los campos fertiles al lado del In 1897, Clara Ferrin wrote that the Chinese RIO Santa Cruz. Decidieron hacer sus hogares en farmers lived in "small huts built of adobes and Tucson. Dentro de poco, hablan alquilado granjas ornamented with tin cans" near their fields at the pequenas cerca del rio y cultivaban vegetales base of Sentinel Peak. The farmers went "house frescos para proporcionar a las familias, to house selling vegetables" as early as five o'clock restaurantes y mercados de Tucson. in the morning so "the vegetables will not be En 1897, Clara Ferrin escribio que los granjeros withered by the sun and will be fresh when they chinos vivian en "jacales pequenos construidos de arrive in the market." Miss Ferrin said what a adobe y adornados de latas" cerca de sus campos "great disadvantage it would be to us if the a la base del Pico de Centinela. Los granjeros iban vegetable chinamen were all removed from "de casa en cas a vendiendo vegetales" tan Tucson." temprano como a las cinco de la manana para que But not all the people in Tucson were pleased to "los vegetales no se marchitaran y estuvieran see the newcomers from China. They saw them as frescos cuando lIegaran al mercado." La Senorita a threat to their jobs and the American way of Ferrin dijo que "serla una gran desventaja para life. In mining towns such as Bisbee, they were nosotros si se quitaran de Tucson los chinos que barred from working in the mines but were given vendian vegetales." jobs collecting firewood or making charcoal. Some Pero no toda la gente de Tucson estaban Chinese men started their own businesses, such as contentos de ver a los recien lIegados de China. grocery stores or laundries. Los vieron como una amenaza a sus trabajos y a la In 1894, the Arizona Daily Star described Chan manera de vida americana. En los pueblos mineros Tin-Wo as "a most prosperous groceryman" who como Bisbee, estaba prohibido que trabajaran en was "about as honest and square in his dealing as las minas, pero les dieron trabajos recogiendo lena men are generally made." He spoke English well o haciendo carbon de lena. Algunos hombres chinos and became a citizen in 1881. Chan was the first iniciaron sus propios negocios, como tiendas de Chinese-American to vote in Tucson and became a comestibles 0 lavanderlas. member of the Republican Party. En 1894, el periodico Estrella Diaria de Arizona Although there was a great deal of prejudice in (Arizona Daily Star) describio a Chan Tin-Wo Arizona against the Chinese, Tucsonans were more como "un vendedor de comestibles muy prospero" open than many to people of different que era "tan honesto y honrado en sus backgrounds. Today, the descendants of these transacciones como general mente se hadan los early Chinese immigrants are part of the Tucson tratos entre los hombres." Hablaba bien el ingles y community who look back proudly on their part in se hizo ciudadano en 1881. Chan fue el primer the history of the RIO Nuevo area. chinoamericano que voto en Tucson y se hizo miembro del partido Republicano. Aunque habla una gran cantidad de prejuicio en Arizona contra los chinos, los Tucsonenses estaban mas abiertos hacia la gente de herencias diferentes. Hoy, los descendientes de estos primeros inmigrantes chinos son partes de la comunidad de Tucson quienes piensan en el pasado con orgullo por su contribucion en la historia del area de RIO Nuevo. 28 The Chinese in Tucson Questions for f)iscussion Pregunta s "a ra disc utir 1. Why do you think so many Chinese came to 1. iPor que crees que tantos chinos vinieron a America in the mid-l800s? Estados Unidos durante el medio de los anos 2. Why did your ancestors come to Arizona? l800? 3. Do you know Chinese-Americans living in Tucson 2. iPor que vinieron tus antepasados a Arizona? whose ancestors were farmers in Tucson? 3. iConoces tu a gente chinoamericana viviendo en Tucson cuyos antepasados eran granjeros en Tucson?

Vo c a f> u (a rv Vocaf>u(ario census an official count of the people living adornado decorado 0 con el propos ito de in a certain area parecer bonito descendant a person born of a certain family or censo cuenta oficial de la gente viviendo en group; an offspring such as a child, una area espedfica grandchild, or great-grandchild descendiente una persona nacida de cierta familia disadvantage at a loss, or in a state that favors o grupo; prole como un hijo, nieto, 0 someone else bisnieto immigrant a person who comes to live in a new desventaja con perdida, 0 en un estado que country from another country favorece a alguien mas ornamental decorated or intended to look inmigrante una persona que viene de otro pais a pretty vivir en un nuevo pais poblacion el numero de personas viviendo en una area

7.3 A Farm in Tucson, c. 1900 7.3 Una granja en Tucson, c. 1900 Para la By the early 1900s, many of the primera parte de los anos 1900, muchas de farms along the Santa Cruz River las granjas al lado del R,o Santa Cruz se were irrigated with well water. regaban con agua de pozos. Cortesia Arizona Courtesy Arizona Historical Society/ Historical Society/Tucson #2926 Tucson #2926 Los chinos en Tucson 29 Bibliography and Further Resources Books on Place-Based Education Project Archaeology. "Intrigue of the Past: A Eberhart, Frances, ed. The Community as Teacher's Activity Guide for Fourth through Classroom: A Teacher's Manual. New York: Seventh Grades." u.s. Department of the Historic Districts Council, 2001. Interior/Bureau of Land Management, n.d. Rogovin, Paula. The Research Workshop: Bringing Simpson, Roy. "Encounters-Fourth Grade the World into Your Classroom. Portsmouth: Teachers' Guide: An integrated approach to Heineman, 2001. Teach ing about the natural and human history of Southern Arizona." Tubac: Tumacacori National Sobel, David. Mapmaking With Children: Sense of Historical Park, n.d. Place Education for the Elementary Years. Simpson, Roy. "Life Along the Santa Cruz River: A Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1998 Second Grade Teacher's Guide." Tubac: Sobel, David. Place-Based Education: Connecting Tumacacori National Historic Park, n.d. Classrooms and Communities. Orion Society, 2004. Steinberg, Adria and David Stephen. City Works: Children's Literature-Local/Regional Exploring Your Community. New York: The New Albert, Richard E. Alejandro's Gift. vancouver: Press, 1999. Raincoast Books, 1994. Wigginton, Eliot, ed. The Foxfire Book: Hog Dressing, Ancona, George. Earth Daughter: Alicia of Acoma Log Cabin Building, Mountain Crafts and Foods, Pueblo. New York: Simon and Schuster Books for Planting by the Signs, Snake Lore, Hunting Tales, Young Children, 1995. Faith Healing, Moon-shining. Anchor Books, 1972. Baylor, Byrd. When Clay Sings. New York: Charles Winston, Linda. Grandpartners: Intergenerational Scribner's Sons, 1972. Learning and Civic Renewal, K-6. Portsmouth: Baylor, Byrd. One Small Blue Bead. New York: Heineman, 2001. Athenium, 1992 Teachers' Guides/Textbooks Baylor, Byrd. The Way to Make Perfect Mountains: Native American Legends of Sacred Mountains. EI Campbell, Julie, et al. Studies in Arizona History. Paso: Cinco Puntos Press, 1997. Tucson: The Arizona Historical Society, 1993. Crum, Sally. Race to the Moonrise: An Ancient Condon, Kathleen. "Sense of Place." City Lore Journey. Ouray: Western Reflections Inc., 1999. Teacher's Guide Series #3, n.d. Encinas, Carlos. The New Engine/La Maquina Escobar, Deborah. Creating History Documentaries: Nueva. Walnut: Kiva Publishing, 2001. A Step-by-Step Guide to Video Projects in the Classroom. Waco: Prufrock Press Inc., 2001. Garza, Carmen Lomas. Family Pictures/Cuadros de familia. San Francisco: Children's Book Press, Gaines, Lonnetta. "Immigration/Migration." City 1990. Lore Teacher's Guide Series #1, n.d. Garza, Carmen Lomas. In My Family/En mi Familia. Gronemann, Barbara. Hohokam Arts and Crafts. San Francisco: Children's Book Press, 1996. Scottsdale: Southwest Learning Sources, 1994. Guiberson, Brenda. Cactus Hotel. New York: Henry McKoy, Kyle. Downtown Underground: Archaeological Holt and Co., 1991. Clues to Tucson's Past. Tucson: Arizona Historical Society, 2002. Johnson, Tony. Desert Song. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books for Children, 2000. Monfort, Betsy. "A Journey in Time: Visiting the Hohokam Culture-Teacher Guide." National Park Lowell , Susan. The Three Little Javalinas. Foundation and the S.W. Parks and Monuments Flagstaff: Northland Press, 1997. Association, n.d. 30 Bibliography and Further Resources Millard, Anne. A Street Through Time: A 12,000- Nabhan, Gary. Gathering the Desert. Tucson: Year Walk Through History. New Delhi: DK Press, 1985. Publishers, 1998. Nyhuis, Jane. "Desert Harvest: A Guide to Roberts, Virginia. "Outpost in the Desert: The Vegetable Gardening in Arid Lands." Tucson: Story of Tucson Under the Spanish Flag." Tucson: Growing Connections, Inc., 1982. Designs in Time, 1979. Oral History Publications Roberts, Virginia. "Pioneers in the Desert: The Story of Tucson , Arizona Territory." Tucson: All Through the Years by Menlo Park students Designs in Time, 1979. Huellas del Pasado by Davis Bi lingual students Orabone, Laura. Elena and the Coin : Exploring Conversations by Carrillo students Tucson 's Presidio Heritage. Tucson: Center for Seeds of Knowledge by Lawrence Intermediate Desert Archaeology, 2000. students Stanley, Jerry. Frontier Merchants: Lionel and Looking into the Westside by Tucson Pima Arts Barron Jacobs and the Jewish Pioneers Who Council/Tucson Youth Development Settled the West. New York: Crown Publishers, 1998. Websites Wheatley, Nadia, and Donna Rawlins. My Place. Arizona State Museum Brooklyn: Kane/Miller Book Publishers, 1992. www.statemuseum.arizona.edu Downtown Underground: Archaeological Clues to Adult Non-fiction-Local Interest Tucson's Past. Download free pages. Griffith, James S. Hecho a Mano: The Traditional http://www.rionuevo.org/rionuevo/news/teachers_ Arts of Tucson's Mexican American Community. manual.htm) Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2000. Arts Resources for Teachers and Students Martin, Patricia. Images and Conversations: http://www.carts.org/carts_home.html Mexican Americans Recall a Southwestern Past. Louisiana Voices Folklore Project Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1996. www.louisianavoices.org/edu_home.html Sheridan, Thomas E. "Del Rancho al Barrio: The Montana Heritage Project Mexican Legacy of Tucson." Tucson: The Arizona http://www.edheritage.org Historical Society, 1983. National Register of Historic Places-Teaching With Ibid. Los Tucsonenses. Tucson: University of Historic Places http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/twhp/ Arizona Press, 1986. The Library of Congress American Folklife Center Swartz, Deborah, and William H. Doelle. http://www.loc.govlfolklife/ Archaeology in the Mountain Shadow: Exploring The Orion Society http://www.oriononline.org/ the Romero Ruin. Tucson: Center for Desert Archaeology, n.d. Place Matters http://www.placematters.net / Tellman, Barbara, Richard Yarde and Mary The Rio Nuevo Project www.rio-nuevo.org Wallace. Arizona 's Changing Rivers: How People The Rural School and Community Trust Have Affected the Rivers. Tucson : The University http://www.ruraledu .org of Arizona Water Research Center, n.d. University of Arizona Library "Through Our Parents Eyes" community history online exhibits Gardening http://www.library.arizona.edu/parents/ Caduto, Michael J. and Joseph Bruchac. Native Native Seed Search www.nativeseeds.org American Gardening: Stories, Projects and Recipes for Families. Golden: Fulcrum Publishing, 1996. Bibliograffa y recursos adicionales 31