58 Journal of Multimodal Rhetorics

Beyond ‘Digital’: What Women’s Activism Reveals about Material Multimodal Composition Pedagogy Jessica Rose Corey | Syracuse University

In 1990, the Dignity Memorial Project (CP), what they thought of as an Vietnam Wall1 set up one of its first “in-your-face educational and healing tool” exhibits among the beaches, lighthouses, (“History of the Clothesline Project,” and seafood eateries of Cape Cod, para. 2). The CP, now an international Massachusetts. No one could have event, invites survivors (and those imagined that it would inspire a small remembering victims) of violence against group of its women viewers to create a women, primarily sexual in nature, to commemorative event of their own, one decorate tee shirts about their which would remain active even today, 26 experiences. These tee shirts then get years later. One of these women, a hung on a clothesline in a public space, survivor of domestic violence and rape, such as university campuses and other took the initiative to question, “Where is community settings (Fig. 1). The spread our wall? Where is our memorial?...Where of the Project to 41 states and 5 countries is the wall that commemorates the 51,000 indicates the continued and pervasive women killed in the war against women?” problem of violence against women, as (Hipple, 2000, p. 168). At that time, the well as organized resistance to that Maryland Men’s Anti-Rape Resources violence. For the past 25 years, many Center (MARS) released information colleges and community organizations which estimated that “[d]uring the 16 have turned to the CP to provide years of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, a temporary catharsis to survivors of sexual war that claimed the lives of 58,000 men assault and to raise public awareness of the in Southeast Asia, more than 51,000 issue. women were murdered in this country by As a feminist scholar and member of their husbands, male friends, dates, and Kent State University’s CP planning casual male acquaintances” (p. 168). committee, I set out to understand 1) The group of women moved by the written and visual literacy as it mediates Vietnam memorial and this startling women’s experiences of gender violence statistic then created the Clothesline and, 2) ways in which textual and

1 A travelling replica of the original Vietnam Wall. Spring 2017 (1:1) 57

Figure 1: Multiple decorated tees hang from a clothesline. Source: Clothesline Project visual artifacts help activists make sense of Gunther Kress (2003) asserts that a the construction and revision of cultural shift in visual culture requires a move narratives. My study, through rhetorical from literacy theories of linguistics to and semiotic analysis, involves questioning those of semiotics. He argues that semiotic how written and visual literacy function in change occurs when the change in mode relation to understandings of female echoes “the values, structures and embodiment and violence against women. meanings of the social and cultural world The New London Group (2014) suggests of the meaning-maker and of the socio- any “semiotic activity” as one that involves cultural group in which they are” (p. 40). design (available designs, designing, and The semiotic analysis in my study suggests the redesigned) (p. 194). In their view, that the change in people’s preferred discourse both reproduces and changes mode of communication may be from social conventions; design decisions and organic multimodal composing to digital products are always historically multimodal composing. In other words, interwoven with other texts. Likewise, generally speaking, engaging with the arts CP participants’ design decisions suggest at one time involved more interaction that the seemingly ubiquitous discourse of with tangible, rather than digital, digital composition influences materials (i.e scrapbooking, architectural understandings and use of composing designing, and drawing). Engaging with practices in other modes. More tangible materials may be less common specifically, the CP shows that alphabetic today. text presides, rhetorically, over Of course, all representations are opportunities for multimodal art in ways limited in their ability to reflect that are contrary to expectation. experiences (Kress, 2003). But while 60 Journal of Multimodal Rhetorics

Kress argues that images have supplanted is, teachers have allowed students to the use of text in communication, my consider rhetorical context to design a tee study shows participants relying on text. shirt that addresses a community issue Therefore, cultural trends related to (Odell and Katz, 2009). Moreover, mode, in some cases, may pertain more to similar to the CP, some teachers have divides between digital and non-digital asked students to research social issues and multimodal composing, rather than to create persuasive tee shirts pertaining to divides between textual and visual their chosen cause (Shankar-Brown, 2014, composing. p. 366). The rationale for such projects is Moreover, Janis Jefferies (2001) that graphic tee shirts are useful in the refers to the combination of linguistics and teaching of multiliteracies. Rajni Shankar- image as “scriptovisual” (p. 191) and Brown, for example, discusses her favorite observes how language and art take their tee shirt, decorated with the Schoolhouse status as subversive only in relation to the Rock logo; the shirt, as a conversation dominant. In other words, activists must piece, engages people in the literacies of use the language of the dominant viewing, speaking, and listening (2014, discourse even as they critique it; after all, 366). Moreover, “[t]he words textile and social critique by those in oppressed text both derive from the Latin texere, positions almost always involves elements which means ‘to weave,’ either through of disguise (p. 82). The issue becomes not cloth or story” (Hipple, 2000, 164). This whether art depicts the truth but how art weaving together of stories through cloth came to be, what it conveys, and who gets is evidenced across the tee shirts displayed implicated in it (Coogan, 2010, p.161). and collected in the CP. Explorations of visual rhetoric draw To engage in a systematic examination attention to the CP as a rich site for of the way written and visual questioning materials used in feminist communication rhetorically represent activism and what those materials suggest survivors’ narratives (or parts of them), I about dominant culture (Wysocki, 2005); turned to an analysis of a CP shirt the live audience of an event which collection at a large, public university includes previously constructed materials (Kent State). This CP collection consisted by anonymous creators (Hocks and of 74 tee shirts that yielded 897 data Balsamo, 2003); and the “active” points, which explore patterns in linguistic relationships formed among narrative and illustrated content, and how women images (Kress and VanLeeuwen, 2006) on use the content to position themselves in CP tee shirts. relation to their experiences of violence. James Clifford (1992) describes the This exploration also informs multimodal tee shirt as “that blank sheet, mystic composition pedagogy by further writing pad, so close to the body” (p. addressing Jody Shipka’s (2011) concern 114). Teachers use tee shirts as a writing about the ways in which multimodality has pad in the form of “T-shirt literacy”; that been overly conceptualized as “new Spring 2017 (1:1) 57

(meaning digital)” media and how such a (fantasy) and the ways in which CP narrow view of multimodality could participants communicate these constrain students’ composition practices interpretations (theme) guides the (pp. 7-8). Despite pushes toward understanding of the personal and public multimodal and more visual-laden appeals of the shirts as they engage ethos, composing in education (New London pathos, and logos. More specifically, my Group, 1996; Kress, 2003; DeVoss, interest in using data to understand divides Cushman, and Grabill, 2005; Takayoshi between the personal and the public and Selfe, 2007), only one participant in meant that I needed to form a connection my study communicated without the use between personal disclosure of characters, of words. This is in stark contrast to actions, and settings related to a CP Kress’s (2003) notion that words have participants’ experiences and the been subsumed by visual communications. rhetorical appeals used to engage the Therefore, I end the article with a public (viewers of the CP). Logos, ethos, discussion of what student activist and pathos, though not discussed compositions suggest about students’ specifically in the results and analysis, understanding of multimodality. facilitated a finite breakdown of the data, which could then be pieced together to identify larger patterns in and significant Methods contributions to understandings of feminist I took photographs of each tee shirt activism. (front and back, when relevant), assigning The rhetorical analysis, then, looks at each tee shirt a unique number and personal and public appeals of messages as organizing them into one digital image they relate to cultural narratives. The collection. I examined the collection as a semiotic analysis addresses how visuals whole, using rhetorical analysis (Foss, acquire meaning as elements related in a 2009) and/or semiotic analysis system, especially a social system. I was (Silverman, 2011). For the rhetorical looking for patterns in the visuals content analysis, I used Foss’s Fantasy-Theme rather than features (such as placement); Criticism to identify characters, actions, as such, traditional notions of semiotics and settings. Fantasy-Theme “is designed served my purpose of finding the to provide insights into the shared frequency of use of text and image, and worldview of groups” (2009, p. 97). the relationships between text and visuals. Here, “‘fantasy’ is the creative and Thus, extensive development of a scheme imaginative interpretation of events and a was not necessary. fantasy theme is the means through which I use David Silverman’s (2011) notion the interpretation is accomplished in of semiotic analysis, which involves communication” (Foss, 2009, pp. 97-98). examining signifiers and signified Therefore, tracking patterns in the concepts, the autonomous nature of interpretations of acts of sexual violence images, the arbitrary/unmotivated nature 62 Journal of Multimodal Rhetorics of images, and the relationships between about the relationship between text and images and concepts.2 Such an analysis images and to offer implications of such enables me to determine how images relationships for the field of rhetoric and acquire their meaning in the context of composition. other images, words, and the CP. In this project, then, the semiotic analysis looks at how images and their parts converge Results and Discussion and diverge to construct evidence of particular rhetorical approaches within WHAT STUDENT ACTIVIST COMPOSITIONS social narratives. In other words, SUGGEST ABOUT STUDENTS’ examination of the relationship between UNDERSTANDINGS OF MULTIMODALITY signifier and signified shows patterns in With this data, I argue that women’s participants’ conceptualizations of images’ activist messages align with patriarchal symbolic meaning. These patterns narratives, even as their activist messages implicate cultural narratives such as those attempt to counter narratives about related to gender communication (i.e. the women’s identity.3 This argument is frequent use of hearts). Cultural narratives supported by the finding that participants’ are also implicated in the idea of images visual messages rely on socially gaining their meaning from their constructed representations of concepts placement in a system, rather than from rather than on original representations of an inherent connection. The semiotic experiences. analysis established patterns in visual I also argue that activists employ content within social structures and textual and visual messages but rely on systems related to violence and activist text to make meaning. This argument is responses. Furthermore, these two supported by the finding that visuals’ methods enabled me to draw conclusions content show that participants tend to use

2 Semiotic analysis includes responding to the properties…Here the choice of one term following criteria: 1) “Signs bring together an necessarily excludes the other. Saussure calls these image or word (the ‘signifier) and a concept (the mutually exclusive relations paradigmatic ‘signified’).” 2) “Signs are not autonomous oppositions (Silverman, 2011, p. 330). entities—they derive their meaning only from the 3 CP participants receive no instructions for the place within a sign system. What constitutes a composing of their shirts other than that they linguistic sign is only its difference from other cannot use perpetrators’ names if perpetrators sights (so the colour red is only something which is were not found guilty by a court of law. From a not green, blue, orange, etc.)” 3) “The linguistic legal standpoint, disclosure without an official sign is arbitrary or unmotivated. This, Saussure guilty verdict can be considered slander. All other says, means that the sign ‘has no natural design decisions are determined by CP participants connection with the signified’.” 4) “Signs can be at their own discretion. Moreover, this argument put together through two main paths. First, there does not discount the agency of participants. One are possibilities of combining signs…Saussure calls of the findings, which falls outside of the scope of these patterns of combinations syntagmatic this article, explores in great detail how relations. Second, there are contrastive participants express agency in their messages. Spring 2017 (1:1) 57

Visual Categories Examples Frequency

Depictions of Bodies/Body Parts Stick figures or drawings of people, handprints, 19 happy and sad faces, mouth/lips, “female” symbol (circle with ‘+’)

Depictions of Awareness to Teal , purple ribbons, blue ribbons, TBTN 16 Social Causes logo, peace sign

Depictions of Emotion Hearts and tears 15

Depictions of Angel wings, candle, cross, demons 5 Religion/Spirituality

Depictions of Natural Elements Flowers, stars, ladybug 4

Depictions of Location “Downtown” buildings, home, and outline of a 3 state, arrow

Depictions of Social Guidelines “Anti” symbol (circle w/ diagonal line through it) 2

Depictions of Food Banana 1

Table 1: Semiotics Analysis results.

textual and visual components in their exclude detailed representations of work, but that these components do not experience and instead rely on “bumper function rhetorically in relation to one sticker” notions of activist another. (By “rhetorically,” I mean that communication. Table 1 provides a text and images do not support one categorization of the types of visual another in messages’ attempt to persuade representations found in the CP. or influence CP audiences.) Table 1 shows, then, that CP activists tend to gravitate toward common, socially constructed representations of concepts ACTIVISTS’ VISUAL MESSAGES RELY ON such as happiness, love, awareness, peace, SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED religion, liberation or healing, and faith. REPRESENTATIONS OF CONCEPTS Only 2 shirts (24 and 69) depict scenes Of 74 tee shirts, 48, or 65% of the from activists’ experiences with assault collection, include visual components in (Fig. 2); both of these representations fall their messages. These visual components into the category of Bodies/Body Parts.

58 Journal of Multimodal Rhetorics

Figure 2: Shirts 24 and 69 Figure 3: Shirts 3 and 1

These two shirts, then, rely on thinking about activism and action as participants’ imagination to design their separate from literate practices. shirts, to envision moments or scenes Repeatedly, given the opportunity to say from their attack, to determine which anything, and in any way, CP participants moments to illustrate on their shirts, and “play it safe.” They avoid profanity. For to determine how to portray those the most part, they avoid graphic textual moments. These shirts may show and pictorial representations of their evidence of preconceived notions about assault. And they rely on images such as elements such as the symbolism of color, androgynous figures, hearts, awareness but nothing routinely suggests their ribbons, and flowers and ladybugs. This meaning based on social evidence suggests that women have understandings of their elements. In other internalized culturally normative words, the images in Figure 2 would likely narratives about what it means to “speak receive different interpretations, as out,” either as survivors of assault, opposed to an image of a heart, which activists, or women in general. This would likely be described as representing evidence is made stronger by the fact that love. Examples of shirts that rely on shirt-making sessions are held in private, socially constructed representations can be often with one or a few people attending a seen in Figure 3. That participants’ visual single session—and with the shirts being messages rely on socially constructed collected over a number of years. In other representations of concepts all suggest the words, the possibility for groupthink presence of dominant narratives that decreases under these circumstances.5 influence individual composers’ design 4 Therefore, we are left to look to a larger decisions. In addition, participants’ influence than what the women may have invocations of the body suggest ways of on one another.

4 Dominant narratives, or patriarchal narratives, validating one another and showing the issue of are those that perpetuate the oppression of gender violence as more than anomaly). But women and other marginalized groups. evidence does not suggest that CP participants 5 Arguments exist for CP participants’ influence influence one another’s design decisions. on one another in regards to participation (i.e. Spring 2017 (1:1) 57

ACTIVISTS’ TEXTUAL AND VISUAL MESSAGES can’t make sense of any of their DO NOT FUNCTION IN RELATION TO ONE combinations. Here, the meaning of the ANOTHER shirt relies less on what the words are and Data suggest that activists see more on the presentation of the words in importance in both textual and visual this chaotic manner, which may represent representations. Seventy-three of 74 tee the fragmentation of identity or sense of shirts (99%) present some sort of written confusion after an assault. Though message, whereas 48 of 74 tee shirts symbiotic to an extent, with these shirts, (65%) use some sort of visual (even if it is activists place emphasis on the visual just the use of a heart to “dot” a linguistic element to convey meaning. “i”). As mentioned earlier, despite pushes Moreover, 23 shirts (48% of shirts toward multimodal and more visual-laden with visuals) have visuals that would no composing in education (New London longer make sense if the text were Group, 1996; Kress, 2003; DeVoss, removed from the shirts. Though these Cushman, and Grabill, 2005; Takayoshi shirts contain visuals, they rely on text to and Selfe, 2007), only 1 participant convey their meaning. Removing the text communicated without the use of words. from shirt 3, for instance, would leave us This one participant, moreover, relied on with a shirt with drawings of a heart and a the awareness and confetti-looking banana. Shirt 22 presents the Take Back dots, visuals that already offer some the Night (TBTN) logo, along with the standardization of form and meaning. phrase “Take Back the Night.” Without Of 48 shirts with visual the words, viewers would be presented representations, only 8 of them (16% of with a picture of a half moon and some shirts with visuals) have visuals that render stars contained in a circle. While people the text no longer sensible or at least less familiar with the issue of sexual assault or powerful if the visual is removed from the TBTN might recognize the symbol, the shirt. In this case, the meaning of the general population most likely would not; activist’s message relies on visual in addition, even if a viewer did not composition. For example, shirt 2 understand the meaning of “take back the presents a rebus; the statement, “One in night,” the text lends itself to a quick two women will be in a violent internet search far easier than the image relationship,” uses symbols to represent itself. To reach a vast audience, then, the “women” and “relationship.” Shirt 19 has shirt relies on the text. Shirt 60 has a the words, “MOMMY Please don’t make purple ribbon with the words, “Stand up me go over daddys [sic] anymore. Please! [&] speak out against sexual violence.” I  you”; this message appears on a Similar to the teal ribbon, the purple child’s shirt, used visually to create a more ribbon might symbolize numerous social powerful impact for an audience. Shirt 39 causes. It is only through the words on the is covered by a chaotic presentation of shirt that we connect the purple ribbon to what appear to be random words; viewers the issue of assault. Though symbiotic to 60 Journal of Multimodal Rhetorics

Figure 4: Shirts 33, 15, and 72. an extent, with these shirts, activists place influence of cultural narratives on such emphasis on the textual element to convey designs. meaning. Activists’ reliance on socially Overall, then, with only 1 of the 74 constructed representations of concepts shirts eliminating the use of words suggests that even in communicating altogether, and 23 shirts creating a against normative narratives regarding relationship between text and image that what women should say and how they depends on the text to make sense (versus should say it, activists adapt patriarchal 8 shirts that have a relationship between narratives into their messages. Again, text and image so that if image is activists tend to rely on pre-conceived removed, the text no longer makes sense), notions of their representations (happy activists seem to rely on text more than on faces, sad faces, hearts, and awareness visuals to communicate their ideas. While ribbons), representations already deemed 65% of tee shirts incorporate a visual appropriate by the general public. While element, 48% of these have visuals that these symbols may be easy to draw, depend on text to make any sense, and especially for novice designers, skill level only 16% use visuals that are necessary to does not explain the inclusion of these maintain the meaning of text. symbols. Hearts, for example, are not Finally, 16 shirts (33%) have neither inherently or instinctively associated with words nor visuals that make sense without the issue of sexual assault, and many of the the context of the larger CP. Messages on shirts make no direct linguistic reference these shirts include general statements to the hearts. It is not necessarily easier to such as “Speak Out Fight Brave” (shirt 15); dot an “i” with a heart than it is to dot an “I will take back my strength” (shirt 33); “i” with a dot. It is not necessarily easier to and “Not all scars are external” (shirt 72) include a heart or a happy face than it is to (Figure 4). These shirts also suggest the forgo the visual component altogether. Spring 2017 (1:1) 57

Therefore, no evidence directly explains rely on the same symbol for their own why activists made the choice to include causes, thereby making it an acceptable them; hearts could, however, represent option for survivors of sexual assault. emotional healing or a sense of victory. Because viewers are familiar with the Lives become shattered by sexual assault; symbolism of ribbons, they serve as a experiencing happiness, security, and a reliable and quick “go to” for people sense of wholeness—a reconfiguring of looking to broach a subject. In the case of identity—requires engagement in the CP, activists can rely on the context of cognitive and affective processes, which the CP, and the way that shirts work the hearts may represent. The hearts, together, to construct an understanding of similarly, may represent a sense of the issue, to bring attention to sexual victory, a statement that, though survivors assault or other forms of gender violence. have reason to not trust others or to Creating scenes from experiences, isolate themselves, they choose to interact linguistically or visually, makes great with others in ways that make themselves demands on the CP participants and the vulnerable, and to believe that positive viewers; in such cases, activists must experiences will come from this effort. revisit their experiences and try to find a Hearts may suggest conflicting emotions way to put those experiences into words toward intimate partners or friends who and images. This can be difficult, given committed acts of violence against them; that traumas are often referred to as acts of violence do not necessarily sever indescribable or unspeakable. Participants emotional ties to some perpetrators. The might figure that viewers who are not use of hearts also suggests something survivors will not be able to “understand” about the ways in which women are the experience, regardless of the detail conditioned to communicate, however. used. Personal disclosure also puts weight To what extent do the hearts really on the viewer; the viewer may be represent activists’ experiences and to disturbed by such disclosure, given the what extent were they used because they nature of the trauma and/or the fact that were an appropriate option among other the viewer feels helpless in confronting “feminine” symbols and “feminine” such an event. With these factors in mind, messages? awareness ribbons address issues in As for the awareness ribbons, they impersonal, appropriate ways for public provide another example of consumption. communication that considers what might Finally, that activists rely on text to be appropriate for a public audience. communicate, even when images are Awareness ribbons are used in activist included, challenges society’s current communication for many causes; a single emphasis on multimodal and digital color represents dozens of medical and communication. Perhaps participants social issues. In other words, national and recognize the immediacy that can come local organizations and individual activists with images; images can be quickly 62 Journal of Multimodal Rhetorics recognized in passing and draw a viewer’s “sticker” that conveys one’s emotions. attention to text, or communicate Instagram allows people to “create” to the messages in and of themselves. Tee shirts extent that users can alter photographs do suggest that participants look to images and video. But these tools do not engage to communicate (whether that be because users in what I conceptualize as “organic” they find images easier to work with, to creating—the kind which the CP allows. be a better rhetorical strategy for gaining The CP invites people to use materials viewers’ attention, or to align with an (shirts, paint, markers) to think of and increased focus on visual communication carry out creating a representation, as within the university and global setting). opposed to choosing from a menu of pre- But, almost all shirts used text, and more constructed representations. Participants than half of them used both text and do not provide evidence that they know images. Data suggest, however, that what to do with this opportunity. Calling participants did not have a developing or this finding into question implicates not developed understanding of how the two only activist communication but also modes could be used together to pedagogical practices related to these communicate more effectively. issues. With a desire to expand my own students’ understanding of multimodality, Conclusion: Multimodal in addition to explorations of digital Composition Pedagogy multimodality, I incorporate into my These findings raise questions about freshmen-level composition course a unit the importance of visual communication in on material multimodality. Using the our society as it pertains to audiences and research explored in my study of the CP, I communicators, or the receiver versus the have students in my freshman-level sender. Such questions counter Kress’s composition course read articles such as (2003) notion that visual communication Cornwell’s “T-Shirts As Wearable Diary: has supplanted linguistic communication. An Examination of Artifact Consumption Though technology has allowed people to and Garnering Related to Life Events,” engage in more visual communication, Cockrell’s “Where T-Shirt Culture Meets technology may fail to motivate people to the Black Protest Tradition,” Hipple’s create visual forms of communication. For “Clothing their Resistance in Hegemonic example, Tumblr offers the option to Dress: The Clothesline Project's Response upload video and pictures (though K. to Violence Against Women,” and Shannon Howard’s 2012 findings show a Shankar-Brown’s “Wearing Language: reliance on text to make meaning). Celebrating Multiliteracies through Pinterest invites users to choose among Graphic Tees.” I have students write an photographs to “pin” on their own boards. argumentative essay about social justice Facebook allows one to quickly choose a issues of their choosing and then design Spring 2017 (1:1) 57 tee shirts that address that particular issue, experiences including issues of beauty tee shirts which can be displayed like the and pleasure, taste and appreciation, CP. form and content, and delivery, My work with activist art is one of the art and craft, process and product, few spaces in which I find in-depth emotions and affect. This more discussions about multimodality outside of accommodating notion positions the the concept of “new media.” Even recent aesthetic, not as something set apart releases such as Jason Palmeri’s Remixing as a special , but as a mode of Composition: A History of Multimodal Writing everyday human experience. Pedagogy focus on digital writing. Accordingly, the act of reclaiming While I understand the focus on aesthetic experience delivers three digital writing in contemporary culture, as primary affordances in the context of Patricia Suzanne Sullivan points out in composition and new media studies Experimental Writing in Composition: (n.p.). Aesthetics and Pedagogies: Finally, Shipka, in Toward a Composition As with previous arguments about Made Whole, also argues for an experimental writing and mixed understanding of multimodality that genres, more contemporary arguments includes “writing on shirts, purses, and suggest that only (or especially) shoes, repurposing games, staging live through the use of new technologies performances, producing complex and media, students may be allowed to multipart rhetorical events, or asking express their unique individualities, students to account for the choices they articulate marginal or make while designing linear, thesis- underrepresented social realities, driven, print-based texts” and which and/or critique the limits of dominant allows students more and different ways sociopolitical discourses and the to “write, read, and perhaps most institutions that perpetuate these importantly, respond to a much wider discourses (p. 16). variety of communicative technologies - Similar to Sullivan’s argument about both new and not so new” (p. 9). Shipka aesthetic theory, argues: further notes that a focus on digital A useful conception of the aesthetic representation assumes an inability or lack has promise for deepening our of desire on students’ part to understanding and our teaching of communicate their ideas outside of digital multimodal composing practices. spaces. Such a conception would push against The CP seems to foster “writing [as] a fixed and limiting definitions in order way of learning, a way of looking for allies to accommodate a more inclusive who are looking for us, a way of winning view of multimodal composition recognition and resources vital to changing practices and speak to a range of minds and changing social relations” potentially audience-based (Tomlinson, 2010, p. 25). 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