THE WHITE PAPER ON IN AFRICA AfWA TOWARDS A LARGE SCALE PARTNERSHIP PROGRAM ON FECAL MANAGEMENT IN THE SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA COUNTRIES: RAPID ASSESSMENT REPORT OF COUNTRY SANITATION STATUS

JUNE 2017

Disclaimer :

This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for lntemational Development (USA/D) and the support of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF). The contents do not necessarily reflect the views of USA!D, United States Govemment or BMGF 5 31

6 39 8

11 42 13 15 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Summary country WASH and demographic statistics 18 Table 2: Study sample 21 Table 3: Country level summary demographic and WASH statistics 22

LIST OF PHOTOS

Figure 1 : chain 16 Figure 2: Sample Pit 23 Figure 3: Vacuum tankers 25 Figure 4: Semi-mechanized pit emptying 26 Figure 5: Manual emptying 27 Figure 6: Fecal sludge disposal methods 28 Figure 7: in Dakar 33 Figure 8: improvement 34 Figure 9: Typical Bio-center in Kenya- drawing and As built 35 Figure 10: FS re-use options - FS Burning to fire clay bricks 36 Figure 11 : Use of the Gulper for FS extraction 38

;! \\ COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 5 ACRONYMS

Ad eM Maputo Water Utility AfWA African Water Association AGER General Regulation Authority of Sao Tome and Principe AM COW African Ministers Council on Water BMGF Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation CAR Central African Republic CFAF CFA Francs CLTS Community Led Total Sanitation CRA Water Regulatory Council CUs Commercial Utilities DNA Designated National Authorities DRC Democratic Republic of Congo DWA Department of Water Affairs DWRD Department of Water Resource Development EA WAG Federal Institute for the Development, Treatment and Protection of Water ECOSAN EEC AS Economic Community of Central African States ELISAL (Angola) Empresa de Saneamento e Limpeza de Luanda, Lda FABRI Further Advancing the Blue Revolution Initiative FIPAG Water Investment Fund I=S Fecal Sludge FSM Fecal Sludge Management FSTP Faecal Sludge Treatment plant GDP Gross Domestic Product GDP Gross Domestic Product IDH Human Development Index IDWSD International Drinking and Sanitation Decade IN GO International Non-Governmental Organizations JMP Joint Monitoring Program LAs Local Authorities LEWA Lesotho Electricity and Water Authority M&E Monitoring and Evaluation MDGs Millennium Development Goals MK Malawi Kwacha MOC Communal Project Management MoF Ministry of Finance MoH Ministry of Health NDC National Development Corporation

6- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT ACRONYMS

NGO Non -Governmental organization NGOs Non -Governmental Organizations NWASCO National Water Supply and Sanitation Council OD Open ODF Free ONAS Office National de I'Assainissement du Senegal (National Sanitation Office of Senegal ONEA Office National pour I' Eau et I'Assainissement (National Office of Water & Sanitation) PDEA Master Plan for Water and Sanitation Systems in Sao Tome and Principe PNADD National Plan for the Environment and Sustainable Development in Sao Tome and Principe PNDS National Health Development Plan in Sao Tome and Principe PRONASAR National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Program PSSAC Politique Sous-Sectorielle de I'Assainissement Collectif du Togo (Sub-Sectorial Policy of Collective Sanitation ofTogo) SANDEC Department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SEPO Success, Failure, Potential and Obstacle SME Small and Medium Enterprise SONEB Societe Nationale des Eaux du Benin (National Water Company of Ben in) SONILS ltd Sonangol lntegrated Logistics Services) in Angola STC Scientific and Technical Council UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund USA ID U.S. Agency for International Development USD United States Dollars WAB Water Appointment Board WARM A Water Resources Management WAS COP Water and Company WASH Water Sanitation and Hygiene WHO World Health Organisation WOP Water Operators Partnership WRC Water Research Commission WSA Water Services Authority WSP Water Service Providers WSR Water Sector Reform wss Water Supply and Sanitation wuc Water Utility Corporation WWTP Waste water Treatment plant

COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT - 7 Accurate data from The direct consequence of the promo­ various sources tion of onsite sanitation systems is the highlight on the overall huge production of fecal sludge which status of access to drinking need to be properly managed. Without water and sanitation, inclu­ adequate treatment, the fecal sludge ding fecal sludge management produced from the existing non-sewer and the non-sewer sanitation in the sanitation systems constitute a signifi­ world. According to these statistics, cant environmental and health threat the sub-Saharan Africa region shows especially for children and women at the lowest access rate to drinking this particular moment that the world is water and sanitation despite conside­ on the "starting block" to kick off for the rable efforts made by African govern­ Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) ments and their partners. In line with "race". Up to now, manual emptying the Sustainable Development Goals practices are predominant compare to (SDG), main challenges on sanitation mechanical emptying system, and the for the next 15 years reside on how to cost of these services is prohibitive boost access to secure and safety (about USD50 to USD300 per trip). lt is sanitation system in peri-urban and therefore evident that, in the absence rural areas in the sub-Saharan coun­ of appropriate management of tries. Indeed, in the sub-Saharan Africa non-sewer and fecal sludge processes region, more than 65% of households which should include: (i) adapted are not connected to a sewer system draining, (ii) transportation, (iii) dispo­ while less than 31% of them have sal and (iv) treatment systems, the access to improved sanitation systems mission toward SDG in sanitation is and about 21% still rely on open air failed in advance. defecation. However, it has been noti­ cing that a substantial increase of the Many promising initiatives exhibiting number of pit latrines (from 50% to some replicable models and best 80% of the population) and septic practices have been experienced in tanks constructed during the "race" some African and Asian cites on fecal toward achieving the Millennium Deve­ sludge management strategies with lopment Goals (MDGs) on sanitation. various degrees of success. Most of

;! 8- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT ------\\ these activities conducted with the success that best practices can be support of the Bill & Melinda Gates quickly and efficiently spread across Foundation (BMGF) and the African African utilities and municipalities to (i) Water Association (AfWA) throughout improve urban sanitation, (ii) signifi­ the Water Operators' Program for cantly help improving performance of Africa (WOP-Africa), can inspire strate­ sanitation operators and consequently, gy and action plans to address the and (iii) boost the achievements of specific challenges on sanitation in quality access to sanitation to African Africa. Indeed, the BMGF had promoted researches on the deve- -=-=- lopment of some promi­ sing techno­ logies and approaches capable to reverse the worst situa­ tion of onsite sanitation practices to green and environmen­ tal friendly situations. In Senegal , a promising people. This is the case in Cote d'lvoire model for fecal sludge containment, with the winning support given by sustainable emptying services and ONAS of Senegal to ONAD that highly fecal sludge treatment has been deve­ contributed to operationalize the newly loped and marketed. The AfWA/WOP created sanitation company of Cote Africa program, had implemented d'lvoire. during its pilot phase (2009-2014) This report is the result of a rapid some peer-to-peer learning and bench­ assessment of stakeholder status in the marking partnerships that proved with sanitation sector in four sub-regions of

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 9 Sub-Saharan Africa, study undertaken the available institutional arrangement, from October to December 2015 under financial and operational issues, the coordination of AfWA. This assess­ human resources capacity and best ment specifically sought to: practices for replication . By identifying and exploring interesting and creative briefly characterize the sanitation situa­ examples of non-sewer sanitation and tion, particularly the status of fecal sludge management cases non-sewer sanitation and fecal sludge across Africa, we hope that this management highlighting opportunities manual serves its purpose of laying the and constraints, groundwork for future potential peer-to-peer learning partnership identify and explore a number of programs under AfWA/WOP Africa non-sewer sanitation and FSM cases in Program that will help increase and Africa that are potential models for expand the impact of AfWA on water replication , and sanitation in Africa. As such we do not doubt for a moment shortlist municipalities, utilities and that this report will improve the unders­ operators from the sub-regions as tanding of the situation of sanitation in potential mentors and mentees. urban and rural areas in Sub-Saharan Africa, and from that, this will influence We strongly invite WASH specialists to decisions of stakeholders on future read this report which contributes to strategies and policies related to pro­ improve knowledge sharing on sanita­ jects and programs to increase access tion sector while in lighting on the to sustainable sanitation in Africa. status of fecal sludge management,

;/ 10- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT ------\\ EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report presents results from a rapid assessment of fecal Sludge Management (FSM) system in sub-Saharan Africa coun­ tries. FSM in the context of this report refers to the activities required for the safe containment, collection/emptying, trans­ portation, treatment and disposal/ reuse of fecal sludge (FS) .

Efforts to improve fecal sludge management in sub-Saharan Africa have recently scaled up, concentrated efforts are largely in low-income urban settlements- where the FSM challenge is glaring and often neglected. The WHO JMP on sanitation indicates that more than 80% of the 2015 popu­ lations in these countries rely on on-site sanitation facilities, with trends indicating a gene-

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT -11 ral positive trajectory in similarly either not well regulated or sanitation improvements enforced and capacity limited , despite across the board. This a legal framework in all countries that implies continued reliance provides for the need for safe disposal on FSM in the region in and standards for waste water the near future , with discharge. Disposal and discharge of opportunities for innova­ FS locally in open drains and directly in tion and expansion of gardens/ open fields is common prac­ FSM, including business tice; the latter mainly in the major cities. models for improved latrine construction and The role for FSM past the containment emptying services. stage is mainly undertaken by urban authorities, although often this role is The rapid assessment either shared or delegated to water results indicate a general­ utility companies; the latter mainly ly informal and unrestric­ involved with transportation and treat­ ted system of FS emp­ ment components of the FSM chain. tying and transportation Civil society has also been a major comprising both public player in FSM with most initiatives and private sector. Emp­ undertaken in low-income/unplanned tying charges of up to settlements. USD 300 per trip have been reported which is Additionally there is limited and some­ prohibitive in a region with times conflicting responsibility and high poverty levels and detailed data on the state of sanitation low gross per capita in many countries . In some cases, national incomes. There where data exists it is difficult to come have thus been efforts in by making planning and development countries like Senegal, of solutions an onerous task. Malawi, Uganda, and South Africa to improve Challenges highlighted thus require and regularize this service that actors involved in the FSM chain by strengthening private are well identified and capacitated to sector participation undertake their roles and improve through piloting the ser­ service delivery in FSM. vice level agreement (SLA) model.

Treatment and disposal is

;! 12- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------\\ im- prove service delive­ ry.

In addition, the Fur­ ther Advancing the Blue Revolution Initiative (FABRI), funded by the U.S. Agency for International Deve­ lopment (USAID), has been The lack partnering with AfWA and the Afri- of access to improved drinking can Ministers Council on Water water and sanitation is an (AMCOW) to improve the water and acknowledged hindrance to economic sanitation sector services in countries and social development. Improving the across the continent. AfWA and ability of service providers to manage FABRI's joint approach has been to and deliver water and sanitation ser­ "scale-up" by working with large num­ vices effectively is critical to reducing bers of entities simultaneously for the access gap. maximum impact and increased repre­ sentativeness. Since 2005, the African Water Associa­ tion (AfWA) created a committee dedi­ Building on current work to reduce cated to sanitation and environment in non-revenue water in 20 utilities across Africa under its Scientific and Techni­ the continent, AfWA intends to use the cal Council (STC) and in 2008, a task same model to improve sanitation. force on fecal sludge management Working at both the national and local (FSM) was formed within this Com­ levels to expand the development, mittee. The mandate of these groups is monitoring, and use of national plans to advise African operators on addres­ and strategies while supporting private sing capacity building needs on sanita­ sector sanitation service provider tion and environmental issues in order engagement in implementation.

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT -13 As part of program This report presents a synthesis of the design, a rapid results from the different sub-regional assessment of assessments of the overall situation of stakeholder status in African stakeholders in the sanitation the sanitation sector in sector. The data in the sub-regions four sub-regions of report was gathered through a combi­ Sub-Saharan Africa nation of desktop review and data was undertaken during verification using interviews with rele­ the period October to vant stakeholders in the thirty one December 2015. Spe­ study countries. cifically, the assess­ The outcome of this report will contri­ ment sought to: bute to improve AfWA and its partners' knowledge on the sanitation sector in ..... • briefly characterize Africa in general, and on the status of the sanitation situa­ FSM and non-sewer sanitation in parti­ >< tion, particularly the cular, including the available institutio­ status of non-sewer nal, financial, operational, human LLI sanitation and fecal resource capacity and best practices sludge management, for replication . Furthermore, by iden­ ..... highlighting both tifying and exploring interesting and opportunities and creative examples of non-sewer sanita­ 2 constraints; tion and FSM cases across Africa, this study will lay the groundwork for future 0 • identify and initially potential peer-to-peer learning explore a number of partnership programs under AfWA (.) non-sewer sanitation Water Operators' Partnerships Africa and FSM cases in Program that will help increase and Africa that are poten­ expand the impact of AfWA on water tial models for repli­ and sanitation in Africa. cation;

• shortlist municipali­ ties, utilities and operators from the sub-regions as potential mentors and mentees.

;! 14- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------\\ COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT - 15 This section sets the tone for this study either slurry or solid , collected from by providing the context of water and on-site sanitation systems such as sanitation in the Sub-Saharan Africa. lt latrines, non-sewered public , presents an overview of the WASH septic tanks, aqua privies, , situation, key opportunities and containing (Tilley et al, constraints and further summarizes the 2008). The FSM chain represents an state of non-sewered sanitation therein. approach to safe containment, collec­ The discussion that follows considers tion and transportation, treatment and the fecal sludge management (FSM) storage, and disposal or reuse of fecal chain as represented in the figure 1 sludge that ensures health and environ­ below adapted from Strande (2015) mental protection while also closing the and the supporting environment. sanitation loop for increased sustaina­ Fecal Sludge generally refers to undi­ bility and economic development. gested or partially digested sludge,

,. .... I' I f ,.-·­ ,... ••• ·­

{/ 16- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT ------\\ 3.yovERALL WATER AND SANITATION STATUS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

3.1 Y The Statistics and General status

The contribution of improved water poverty being multi-faceted and an supplies and sanitation to human well­ impediment to key social services being and livelihood is widely including water and sanitation (UNECA acknowledged. lt is argued that univer­ 2015a). The demographic profile indi­ sal access to water and sanitation in cates continued population growth in Africa can bring an estimated annual the region coupled with increased economic benefit of $22 billion, from urbanization estimated at a rate of reductions in health care costs and 4.5%. UN Statistics indicate that by increased productivity from reduced 2035, urban populations will comprise illness. The WHO and others further up to 50%. This , combined with risks , state that inadequate sanitation is a vulnerabilities and challenges of pover­ major cause of preventable diseases. ty, implies social service delivery will continue to suffer. According to 2015 JMP estimates , there are 695 million people in A summary of the water and sanitation Sub-Saharan Africa without access to status in Sub-Saharan Africa region is sanitation . The 2015 population in the presented in table 1 below. In this study countries ranges from 0.2 million region , more than 60% of the popula­ in Sao Tome and Principe to 183.5 tion relies on on-site sanitation facilities million in Nigeria, with a total estimated (WSP , 2014) and open defection (OD) urban population of 373 million. Pover­ is still present, particularly in rural ty still remains synonymous with Africa. areas. Further analysis indicates a high As part of progress reporting on MDG percentage of urban population that status, Africa remained the region with use shared sanitation facilities. Sanita­ the highest income inequalities, with tion has also gained prominence over

1JMP estimates have been used for consistency, although it is acknowledge that some countries like Uganda have different sector performance measurement criteria with conflicting statistics; this being an issue of contention globally

------j) ------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT - 17 the years with more financing allocated proportional increase in improved to the sector in all the countries. Pro­ coverage, averaging 43 and 19 percent portionally there has been a positive points for water and sanitation respec­ trend in the WASH situation in the tively since year 1990. studied countries as shown by the

Table 1: Summary country WASH and demographic statistics

1000 -

800 - 600 - 400 - 802.7 200 - 307.4 495.2

0 <1111111 Population (million) Urban Rural Region

- Water coverage 0/o

86.5% 33.3% Urban 67.5% Rural ____.. Rural ____-- Region 55.7% Region 40 ~------~------~------~ 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 ..._ Total improved ..._ Piped on premises

;! 18- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------\\ - Sanitation coverage (0/o) 50

41.6% 33% Urban 40 Rural

30 Region

20 ~------~------~~------~ 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

A. Total improved A. Shared

30 -

25 -

20 -

15 - 28.8% 10 - 20.6% 5 - 7.3% 0 Urban Rural Region

Source: wssinfo.org, 2014

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT -19 A positive trajectory has been lopment goals, which Africa signed on recorded with declining OD rates over to and have commitments towards the last decade. Literature and anec­ providing safe water and sanitation to dotal evidence indicates that the shift all by 2030. This translates to along the sanitation ladder still involves increased investment in sanitation reliance on non-sewer sanitation. Fur­ improvements, and increased focus on ther amplifying the case for attention to improving processes/systems to FSM services in the region and oppor­ ensure that sanitation services are tunities therein . In September 2015, the effectively delivered and used. world adopted the sustainable deve-

3.1 .'f/' Institutional arrangements and legal framework

Common to all Sub-Saharan Africa gements, stakeholder responsibilities countries, is the decentralized gover­ and thus strengthen FSM in this region . nance structure for service delivery. In Decentralized governance implies most of the countries, there are specific that solutions can be loca- ministries responsible for water and sanitation with supporting regulations vices can which provide the basic framework for be brought water and sanitation service delivery. closer, The institutional responsibility for sani­ provided tation is often multi-sectorial and the rele­ shared among different line ministries vant including those responsible for water, actors health, environment, Local govern­ have ments, and housing. suffi­ cient Consequently, in practice the roles are capa­ fragmented , not well articulated and/or city. appreciated by key stakeholders/ duty bearers. In other cases, there is weak enforcement and available regulations and standards are not adhered to and/ or well known . Therein lies the opportu­ nity to clearly define procedural arran-

;/ 20- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT ------\\ 3.r OVERALL SANITATION SECTOR STATUS

Kenya Botswana 1 Cameroon Malawi Lesotho Cote d'lvoire CAR Tanzania Mozambique Gambia

-~- ~ Congo Uganda South Africa Guinea

Chad Namibia Mali .. Gabon Mauritania Equatorial Guin;I Nigeria Congo D. R. Senegal SaoTome and To go Principe ----- Table 2: Study sample

Urban sanitation is a cross-cutting common to all countries. sector that is rarely the responsibility of Table 3 below gives a summary of a single institution. This assessment sanitation statistics for each country. noted that majority of the study coun­ General characteristics for the study tries had similar characteristics. lt is countries indicate a heavy reliance on noted that there are efforts to improve on-site sanitation as indicated by the FSM in majority of the countries albeit limited sewerage coverage and high the policy and institutional gaps pre­ latrine coverage. Generally urban sented. Challenges of limited or no sanitation in most of the countries specific regulatory provisions for FSM leaves a lot to be desired with only particularly with regard to latrine emp­ Angola, Botswana, Equatorial Guinea, tying, limited human resources and South Africa and Senegal registering infrastructure capacity, informal nature access figures in excess of 65%. and high costs of emptying service are

______COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 21 Table 3: Country level summary demographic and WAS~ statistics Country Population Sanitation Access Latrine coverage% Sewerage National Urban Urban National coverage% Million % % % Urban National Urban National Angola 22.8 44.1 88.6 51.6 14.3 23 .0 32.0 18.0 Ben in 10.9 44.0 35.6 19.7 54.8 33.4 2.0 1.0 Botswana 2.1 57.4 78.5 63.4 56.0 54.6 2.0 1.0 Burkina Faso 17.9 29.9 50.4 19.7 79.6 34.1 2.0 0.0 Burundi 10.8 12.1 43.8 48.0 64.6 94.1 11.0 1.0 Cameroon 23.4 54.4 61.8 45.8 77.6 82.5 2.0 1.0 CAR 4.8 40.0 43.6 21.8 91.6 72.1 0.0 0.0 Chad 13.6 22.5 31.4 12.1 63.1 26.7 3.0 0.0 Congo 4.7 65.4 20.0 15.0 86.0 82.6 0.0 0.0 Cote d'lvoire 21.3 54.2 32.8 22.5 47.5 42.9 15.0 7.0 DRC 71.2 42.5 28.5 28.7 80.3 81.5 1.0 0.0 Equatorial 0.8 39.9 79.9 74.5 33.5 23.5 12.0 9.0 Guinea Ethiopia 98.9 19.5 27.2 28.0 78.2 60.9 0.0 0.0 Gabon 1.8 87.2 43.4 41.9 59.1 63.6 38.0 33.0 Gambia 2.0 59.6 61.5 58.9 65.8 80.0 5.0 2.0 Guinea 12.3 37.2 34.1 20.1 74.6 66.3 0.0 0.0 Kenya 46.7 25.6 31.2 30.1 60.1 74.8 0.0 0.0 Lesotho 2.1 27.3 37.3 30.3 84.0 0.0 7.0 0.0 Malawi 17.3 16.3 47.3 41.0 84.7 92.4 2.0 0.0 Mali 16.3 39.9 37.5 24.7 87.3 84.3 0.0 0.0 Mauritania 4.1 59.9 57.5 40.0 43.6 32.4 4.0 2.0 Mozambique 27.1 32.2 42.4 20.5 77.1 57.7 0.0 0.0 Namibia 2.4 46.7 54.5 34.4 9.7 12.1 63 .0 33.0 Nigeria 183.5 47.8 32.8 29.0 46.5 51.9 9.0 5.0 Sao Tome and 0.2 65.1 40.8 34.7 6.6 6.2 6.0 6.0 Principe Senegal 15.0 43.7 65.4 47.6 68.7 65.6 11.0 5.0 South Africa 53.5 64.8 69.6 66.4 12.3 32.7 0.0 0.0 Togo 7.2 40.0 24.7 11.6 38.5 29.1 0.0 0.0 Uganda 40.1 16.1 28.5 19.1 86.8 73.2 0.0 0.0 Tanzania 52.3 31.6 31.3 15.6 67.8 74.2 0.0 0.0 Zambia 15.5 40.9 55.6 43.9 61.5 68.3 25.0 10.0

22- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------37 NON-SEWER AND FSM STATUS IN THE REGION

3.3y Collection and transportation

According to UN country statistics on and unlined pits latrines. Ground water sanitation, majority of the Sub-Saharan contamination is reported as a key risk Africa countries have very low sewe­ from on-site sanitation systems, rage coverage with only Namibia recor­ notably for countries like Botswana ding a high at 63%. Other countries where ground water is the main with appreciable coverage figures are source. Appropriate latrine technolo­ Angola, Gabon and Zambia with 32%, gies, standards and policy enforce­ 38% and 25% respectively. This ment are key areas for consideration to implying the heavy reliance on address this challenge. non-sewer sanitation; the statistics further indicate that fecal containment is pre-dominantly through pit latrines on-site. Non-sewer status is typified by the pit latrines with coverage figures ranging from to 6.6% in Sao Tome and Principe to 91.6% in Central African Republic. An opportunity for latrine construction and emptying services.

A further analysis indicates that majo­ rity (21) of the study countries recorded latrine coverage above 50%, 11 of which exceed 70%. Further analysis for the detailed statistics that constitute the above latrine coverage figures indicate that dry toilets comprise the largest proportion. Generally, non-sewer sanitation comprises water closets and wet pits connected septic tanks and dry latrines with either lined

------i) ------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 23 A. l=igure 2: Sample Pit latrines

Full pits are either abandoned or emp­ 1Om3. FSM in the region is characte­ tied , this dependent on availability of rized by an informal system of FS space and funds for construction of emptying and transportation. This new facilities, cost of emptying ser­ assessment found that the FS removal vices and such like. Emptying these and haulage is largely unrestricted facilities is typically done every couple with limited or no formal obligations of years , the rate depending on the and service levels. However, in some age and type of facility as well as FS cities in several of the countries for accumulation rates that are typically example Benin, Burkina, Mali, Gabon, higher in unplanned settlements and Central Africa Republic, Senegal , institutions with higher latrine stance Malawi, Kenya and Uganda have ratios. associations for service providers and Emptying of cesspits is done using some have started formalizing the both manual and mechanical methods. process through, for example, pilots The latter is mainly through vacuum on service level agreements. trucks of capacity between 6m3 to

;! 24- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------\\ A. f=igure 3: Vacuum tankers

Cesspit emptiers exist in many of the suffocate the FSM chain especially in major towns, albeit unregulated and low income settlements. often unaffordable. Charges are made To address this challenge, some appro­ based on volume of sludge and/ or priate solutions for semi-mechanized pit trip. Costs per trip up to USD 300 in emptying like the "gulper", "Evac" and the central African region , USD 150 in mupet have been introduced. However, West Africa (Gambia) and USD 50 in many of these solutions have not sur­ East Africa have been noted. These vived past the pilot phase due to seve­ costs are very prohibitive for most ral reasons mainly relating to institutio­ urban dwellers and will continue to nalization and O&M.

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 25 .A. f=igure 4 : Semi-mechanized pit emptying

Manual pit emptying has not been urban dwellers. Municipalities like regulated, neither are standards for eThekwini in Durban, South Africa have occupational health and safety made some strides in improving this enforced for this service. The high sector through development and pro­ demand for these services continues to motion of appropriate hand tools as sustain the status quo, largely because shown below. they continue to provide an affordable option especially for the low-income

;! 26- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------\\ Bucket emptying hand tools Manual emptying

.&. ~igure 5 : Manual cesspit emptying

3.3.j/ Treatment and disposal

Several literature points to challenges of desludging and treatment; majority of this FS is emptied in a haphazard manner and not safely disposed of. Results from this assessment attribute some of these challenges to limited institutional capacity including the absence of infrastructure and appropriate technologies for treatment of the FS. Generally, deliberate fecal sludge treatment initiatives are minimal and are concentrated in larger cities. According to stakeholder consultations, in the towns with sewerage systems, FS treatment is considered as part of the sewerage I WW

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 27 management operations, many of mainly in the major cities. Nyirenda which use biological treatment me­ and Holm (2015) reiterate this , noting thods involving lagoons and activated that in Malawi, FS is (unsafely) dis­ sludge treatment units. Also, fecal posed of directly in gardens or in open sludge disposal is not well regulated in ditches acting as "transfer stations" general and indiscriminate and unsafe from which private transporters collect disposal in open drains, fields and for private gardens. gardens is common practice; the latter

A. ~igure 6: Fecal sludge disposal methods

Further, existing WWTP are not functioning effectively since operations are not well controlled; in some instances, the WWTP will have the same tipping point for both activated FS from cesspits and WW from sewers, which compromises the efficien­ cy of treatment functions like BOO removal since optimal operating conditions cannot be guaranteed.

;! 28- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------\\ 3.3)Y Supporting enabling environment

The role for FSM management in urban ciety organizations and NGOs like areas is not clearly cut, and at policy Water for people, WSUP and Water Aid, level is shared among several sectoral have also been a major player in FSM , ministries. At operational level, it is especially in low-income/unplanned majorly the responsibility of urban settlements where sanitation improve­ authorities, although often the role is ments are a critical need. The regulato­ either shared or delegated to water ry framework in most countries exists ______...... """"'. utility compa- albeit with some gaps on roles related to management of non-sewer sanita­ tion. actors, The region has seen more attention to notably FSM over the last five years particularly civil in low-income urban settlements. There are some targeted efforts to improve FSM in all the countries. For example, in most of the capital cities there are initiatives to improve the emptying and hauling stages of the FS chain. Techno­ logical interventions and business models that target the sustained enga­ gement of the private sector in emp­ tying and transportation services are being tested (e.g. research on treat­ ment technologies, use of the localized emptying solutions like the MAPET and VACUTUG and engagement of private sector using service level agreements (SLAs), dedicated FSM projects targe­ ting informal settlements in major cities).

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 29 3.3.y Key FSM challenges in the region

Sanitation and in particular FSM in • Poor governance and the inadequacy or urban areas still remains a challenge lack of specific laws to regulate the despite the considerable efforts made sub-secto0· the latter limiting the effec­ tiveness of financing to effect any impro­ by the states and their respective vements. partners over the years to commit­ ments as prescribed in the MDGs , • Rapid urbanization contributing to the National strategy documents and now proliferation of informal settlements, the SDGs. Studies undertaken in the characterized by unplanned infrastruc­ region on FSM , including WSP (2014) ture and dismal sanitation provisions if any The high-density of the informal and Morella et al (2008) continue to settlements coupled with other challen­ highlight several challenges related to ges such as lack of tenure limit the FSM. Country level assessments also solutions that would be technically and reiterated these as outlined in the financially viable. below: • Inadequate capacity in the sector in • A history of focusing on sewerage over terms of infrastructure, human resource FSM, leading to poor development of numbers and skills, financing, regulation solutions to improve fecal sludge mana­ and involvement of private sector as gement. development partners. The limited availability at national/eve! of experts to • Unplanned and irregular provision of conduct of national and capacity buil­ FSM,· largely managed in the informal ding. sector by private businesses. Efforts to improve FSM are focused in informal • Project driven FSM initiatives that are not settlements, excluding the large popula­ institutionalized and seldom survive past tion in peri-urban areas that use septic the pilot or end of project phase. This tanks. limits sustainability of solutions and improvements are short -lived. • Poor regulation and management of the FSM cycle e.g. in most cities, contain­ • The opportunities in the FSM value ment is an unregulated household chain are several as earlier outlined. !t is responsibility, often resulting in construc­ imperative for African governments and tion of simple pit latrines that cannot be their development partners to optimize emptied. Collection is poorly regulated, the benefits if any sustainable urban leading to illegal dumpingi treatment and sanitation improvements are to be disposal facilities are largely lacking. made.

;! 30- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------\\ COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT - 31 Research and practice has shown that tunity for improved engagement. This is service delivery along the FSM chain is also supported by an enabling environ­ still challenging. Countries are ment: stable governments that are com­ constrained financially due to competing mitted to the well-being of populations, community needs. Technologies are not institutions mandated for sanitation exist well developed and used, regulation with varying levels of capacity. Below are exists to facilitate FSM activities but the presented some best practices and provisions therein are not adequately promising initiatives that could be repli­ implemented and I or enforced. Howe­ cated. ver, this dismal situation presents oppor-

i. Promising models for FS containment. sustainable emptying services and FS treatment- Case of Senegal

The ongoing initiative to improve FSM as • business development support to part of the fecal sludge market structu­ emptiers through (ij a guarantee fund ring program supported by the Bill & that provides low rate credit to emp­ Melinda Gates Foundation presents tiers for purchase of new trucks and promising practices and options. The spare parts; (iij setting up a call center project aims to: for customer management; (iiij policy revision to allow for licencing of emp­ • reduce the cost of emptying, increase tiers; (iv) and improve infrastructure to the income of emptiers, enable sustai­ reduce truck haulage distances and nable management of sites developed thus opex to maximize returns for unloading and professionalize the emptying activity • developing appropriate on-site options for flood zones • improve Non-sewer sanitation in flood zones So far the project is still ongoing but presents promising replicable models in Key activities include: the three areas of FS containment, Pit emptying and FS transportation services • testing the Omni-Processor as an and FS treatment. The omni processer is optimal FS treatment option that pro­ reported to treat about 30% of the FS in duces electricity, promotes re-use Dakar and is currently producing the through producing potable water and three by-products. ash for soil conditioning

;! 32- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------\\ • ~igure 7: Omni processor in Dakar

ii. Partnerships- potential for facilitating and improving FSM Case of Malawi

One of the objectives of the Malawi The collaborative model succeeded in Peri-Urban Water and Sanitation Project, rolling out 70,000 latrines through sanita­ an European Investment Bank (EIB) tion awareness building and marketing; funded project, was to provide basic training slab builders; setting up private sanitation to 468,000 people in low emptying services using the income areas of the cities of Blantyre and Gulper; Nibbler (van Gilst, Thomas Lilongwe through increasing latrine cove­ 2008). rage. The project gave WaterAid, an NGO, small local concessions for the provision of services through kiosks and associated public sanitation facilities.

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 33 A. Latrine - before situation A. Latrine - project intervention

A. ~igure 8: Latrine improvement

iii. Innovative options for FS treatment Cases studies of Kenya and Kampala, Uganda

The practice of reuse of FS as an energy have rolled out the concept mainly targe­ source (biofuel) has advanced in Kenya, ting informal and unplanned settlements, notably are the initiatives involving with a unique sanitation challenge. production at specially designed public Bio-centers are a sanitation innovation sanitation facilities locally referred to comprising a multi-purpose sanitation Bio-centers. Several projects cham­ structures (see figure 9 below) with toilet pioned civil society organizations inclu­ and -facilities2 like operated on ding Umande Trust, GOAL and WSUP pay per use basis3 that are designed to

2 In some cases like existing toilets have been connected to discharge into the bio-centre and increase capacity 3 This is only for facilities located in public places for communal use

;! 34- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------\\ produce bio-gas and liquid fertilizer at institutions (e.g. schools). Chowdry through in dome and Kone (2014) highlight the high cove­ structures. These structures are typically rage levels, with over 100 bio-centers managed by community groups, serve recorded in only Mombasa, Kisumu and as community information and resource Nairobi. The biogas from these units is centers, have space for other activities harvested and used mainly as cooking like kiosks. fuel for beneficiaries at the facility. Daily These centers originally targeted impro­ output from a bio-center has been vement of sanitation and livelihood infor­ reported as 12 m3 of gas per day. mal settlements but have also been used

A. Bio-centre drawing A. Bio-centre example as built

A. ~igure 9 : Typical Bio-center in Kenya -drawing and As built

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 35 According to Munala et al (2015), several space rental for meetings and entertainment successes and benefits have been (e.g watching football matches) and (iv) ope­ reported for this concept. For example in rating a local grocery. Jasho Letu slum, Nairobi, the bio-center established in 2007 has positively impac­ Other initiatives include the FaME project in ted the community with increased inco­ Uganda. FaME is a collaborative research mes, improved sanitation and commu­ project that aims to demonstrate innovative nity financial management capacity. and profitable resource recovery options for Several revenue streams including (i) fecal sludge treatment products that will from toilet and showers where daily and generate revenue to improve the service monthly payment options available, all chain, and increase public and environmental less than USD 24 ; Weekly revenues of health in urban centers of Sub-Saharan Ksh. 7,000 (US$ 77.78) a week from this Africa. In Kampala, Uganda, the project is source have been registered (ii) sale of piloting an industrial kiln (see figure 1 0 below) cooking fuel (Ksh. 87(US$ 1) per litre) as a demonstration of the technical and which has the additional benefit of gree­ financial viability of using dried fecal sludge ner energy options to the community (iii) as a solid biofuel to burn clay products.

4 One time use Ksh. 5 (US$ 0.05) and Ksh. 10 (US$ 0.11) for toilet and shower respectively with monthly use costs at Ksh.150 (US$ 1.7)

;! 36- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT------\\ In general, energy producing options already in use, however, there is a health have highest revenue compared to risks to workers if not well handled. The status quo/end-use in agriculture. In most promising FS end-use industrial addition, about 70% of surveyed indus­ applications were the Clay industries and tries were willing to use the FS provided: the blacksmiths who were able to use it did not emit foul smell when burnt and their existing infrastructure/systems to it gave an equivalent or greater calorific optimize the kilns (Niwagaba, 2014). value when compared to the fuels

iv. Advancing safe FS containment case of CLTS in Ethiopia

The sanitation activities in Ethiopia are The campaign used women to drive largely driven by donors e.g. the WSP latrine construction, educate the popula­ funded program financed the Commu­ tion on the risks associated with open nity-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) program defecation and the benefits of safe sani­ that has contributed to significant reduc­ tation. The volunteer health promoters tion in open defecation. were tasked to lead by example; to make house calls (accompanied by The Southern Regional Health Bureau health workers) to persuade househol­ applied the CLTS approach, based on ders to build latrines; and to supervise "zero subsidy" but allowing the communi­ the latrine construction. Morella et al ties to develop own-sanitation solutions (2008) report that pit latrine ownership that were affordable. The Health Bureau rose by over 200% from< 13% in Sep­ utilized a mass communication campaign tember 2003 to >50% in August 2004. to create awareness and advocate to households to construct their own latrines. The mass campaigns coupled with close collaboration with all key stakeholders helped to create buy-in, to build capacity and solicit volunteer health promoters.

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 37 v. Latrine emptying technologies - case of Gulper Tanzania

The region has seen more into including the Gulper, VACUTUG and Maped In 2007, WaterAid, in association with the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine introduced a hand pump for emptying pit latrines. This Gulper pump consists a long vertical stainless steel rod (pump rod), raiser pipe, and two non-re­ turn valves. The pump rod is connected to a T-handle and an uPVC pump which lifts the fecal sludge.

A. !=igure 11 : Use of the Gulper for I=S extraction

;/ 38- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT ------\\

Fecal sludge management is the weak tic business models for FSM is vital for link of past or planned programs in the the sector. Such model should include African cities and countries. Given the not only the emptying truck cost, but huge number of African cities without a also additional costs for operation and FSM strategy management plan, the few maintenance as well as sludge treatment example of good practices shown in the ones to complete the FSM cycle as a cases studies highlighted in section 4, safe and environmentally sustainable demonstrate to some extent, some business. commitments toward improving FSM services in some cities/countries. The Many African cities do not have sufficient innovation exhibited also allude to reduce FS treatment facilities due to the high reliance on traditional methods and infrastructure structure development potential for investment in knowledge costs or the very low volume of fecal management for improved learning on sludge collec­ FSM and to develop appropriate solu­ ted. The tions. There are also opportunities for bu- supporting local research for the deve­ lopment and promotion of urban sanita­ tion solutions and hence, turning sanita­ tion from its current subsidies compo­ nent of urban service into a fruitful business opportunity which can attract financing.

Whether the pit emptying service of on-site facilities is done ma­ nually or mechanically, most of the operators involved on this part of the chain of FM are private and hence there is a strong need of a minimal regulation by the city authorities. This highlights the potential market for mechanization of collection system, and the need for institutional reforms to restructure the FSM systems to enhance private sector participation.

So far as business is concerned, the need for developing and adopting realis-

;/ 40- COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT ------\\ siness model should integrate mecha­ role changes are envisaged is thus nisms to improved coordination between necessary. the involved stakeholders which include: the regulatory bodies and the municipal The similarity of contexts between the authorities; but also, the recognition of countries also provides opportunity for the role of the private sector involved in promote peer-to-peer learning collection and transportation. partnerships as a cross learning approach between/among similar enti­ The private emptiers should be reco­ ties, cities and countries. Such approach gnized as a fundamental stakeholder in is recommended for spreading good the FSM chain. This has to an extent practices and share knowledge deve­ been acknowledged, as evidenced by loped within successful pilot projects. work in Senegal, Kenya, Malawi and Among the partnerships being imple­ Uganda where sanitation service level mented, capacity development com po­ agreements (SLAs) are being piloted and nent could include thematic such as: there is operating space for private sector albeit unregulated. This may • resource recovery reuse of FS as a bio include development of guidelines and fuel source reported in Burkina Faso, regulatory instruments to govern their Malawi and Uganda, operations. This may also require identifi­ cation of a business model that aims at • models for improving latrine emptying financial sustainability of the emptying service - PSP promotion as implemented business including marketing, provision using the SLA in Kenya, Malawi and of tax and business incentives to pro­ Uganda mote expansion of coverage and scope of operations say to include management Design of the mentorship program of water supply systems or Public water should be cognizant of the complemen­ points. tarity of roles and mandates of Urban Local authorities and sanitation utilities Argue on the need for a better articula­ where ever they exist regarding FSM. In tion of the roles and standards particular­ such cases, a tripartite model is thus ly pertaining to FS containment and recommended involving both parties as emptying services is another challenge to mentees to the identified mentor. By be considered. The assessment has also design, Local authorities or sanitation highlighted the overlapping roles of water utility should have to take lead utilities and Local authorities in practice role/champion achievement of men­ albeit the regulatory provisions. Institutio­ torship program objectives given the nal strengthening to clearly roles, build overarching on-sanitation mandate. sufficient performance capacity as well devise transitional arrangements where

------j) ------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 41

Chimulambe, E., L. Cogswell and S. (2012) Business Analysis of Fecal Sludge Stoveland (2007) Lilongwe and Blantyre Management: Emptying and Transporta­ Sanitation Marketing and Hygiene Pro­ tion Services in Africa and Asia motion Strategy, MIWD, Lilongwe. Elvira Morella, Vivien Foster, and Manda (2009) Water and sanitation in Sudeshna Ghosh Banerjee (2008) Clim­ urban Malawi: Can the Millennium Deve­ bing the ladder: The State of Sanitation lopment Goals be met? A study of infor­ in Sub-Saharan Africa. Background mal settlements in three cities Paper 12 (Phase I) Africa Infrastructure Jenkins etal (2015) "Pit Latrine Emptying Country Diagnostic Behavior and Demand for Sanitation GIZ (2015) Sanitation Activities in Tanza­ Services in Oar Es Salaam, Tanzania" in nia International journal of environmental KATUKIZA Alex, Nyenje Philip and Kan­ research and siime Frank (2014) Slum Sanitation: The Rochelle Holm, James Madalitso Tembo SCUSA project. A presentation made at and Bernard Thole (2015) A compara­ the UNESCO-IHE Refrsher Course. tive study of faecal sludge management Unciersity of Cape Town in Malawi and Zambia: Status, challen­ Jacqueline Thomas, Niklaus Holbro, Dale ges and opportunities in pit latrine emp­ Young (2013) A Review of Sanitation and tying. Hygiene in Tanzania. A report prepared WSP (2014): The Missing Link in Sanita­ for Msabi tion Service Delivery A Review of Fecal Kenneth Musabe (2013) National Faecal Sludge Management in 12 Cities. Sludge Assessment for Small Towns in WHO and UNICEF (2000) Global Water Uganda. A report prepared for the Supply and Sanitation Assessment Ministry of Water and Environment Report,2000 Moumie Maoulidi (201 0). A Water and AM COW (2011) An AM COW Country Sanitation Needs Assessment for Status Overview: Water Supply and Kisumu City, Kenya. MCI Social Sector Sanitation in Ethiopia Turning Finance Working Paper Series No 12/201 0 into Services for 2015 and Beyond Worldbank (2012): Africa: Economics of UNICEF (2014) Sanitation Priority Sanitation Initiative; Country Factsheet 2015: Ethiopia http://www. wsp.org/content/africa-eco­ Abebe Beyene, Tamene Hailu, Kebede nomic-impacts-sanitation; accessed Faris and Helmut Kloos ( ) Current state 17/11/2015 and trends of access to sanitation in Andy Peal and Barbara Evans, lsabel Ethiopia and the need to revise indica­ Blackett, Peter Hawkins and Chris Hey­ tors to monitor progress in the mans (2015) A Review of Fecal Sludge Post -2015 era Management in 12 Cities Annexure A.6 Sangeeta Chowdhry and Doulaye Kone Kampala, Uganda A report prepared For

------COUNTRY SANITATION REPORT- 43 WSP Urban Global Practice Team proach for implementation and opera­ Peter Hawkins, lsabel Blackett, and tion' Chris Heymans (2013) Targeting the WASREB, 2014 A Performance Review Urban Poor and Improving Services in of Kenya's Water Services Sector 2012- Small Towns Poor-Inclusive Urban Sani­ 2013 tation: An Overview. A report for WSP. Niwagaba, Charles (2014) Innovations in KCCA (2014) Improving Faecal Sludge sanitation ~ view of RTIC and other Management (FSM) for On- Site Sanita­ developments. A presentation made at tion in Kampala City, Uganda. A report the UNESCO-IHE Refresher Course in prepared as part of the grant " City Cape Town. Partnerships for Urban Sanitation Service Thomas van Gilst (2008) Malawi Water Delivery in Africa and South Asia" sup­ and Sanitation Project - Contributing to ported by DFID and Bill and Melinda the Millennium Development Goals for Gates Foundation Water and Sanitation Hywas Engineering Consultants & http://www. one. org/international/is­ Partners (2011) Landscape Analysis and sues/water-and-sanitation/ Business Model Assessment in Fecal UNECA (2015a) Assessing Progress in Sludge Management, Extraction and Africa toward the Millennium Develop­ Transportation in three Cities of Ethiopia ment Goals, 2015 (Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa and Hosaena). United Nations Economic Commission A report prepared for the Bill and Melinda for Africa, (2015 b): Gates Foundationlinda strand Africa Regional (2015) in Faecal Report on the Sludge Sustainable Manage­ Development ment, Goals Sum- sys­ tems ap-

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