COMPENDIUM OF TRAINING MATERIALS FOR IMPROVING MANAGEMENT OF THE IMPACT OF OIL AND GAS ON AND ENVIRONMENT Module 2: Applied Biodiversity

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SEPTEMBER 2017 This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Tetra Tech.

This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development by Tetra Tech, through USAID/ Environmental Management for Oil Sector (EMOS) Project, Contract No. AID-617-C-13-0008.

Tetra Tech 159 Bank Street, Suite 300 Burlington, Vermont 05401 USA Telephone: (802) 658-3890 Fax: (802) 495-0282 E-Mail: [email protected]

Tetra Tech Contacts:

Vaneska Litz, Project Manager ([email protected]) Jones Ruhombe, Chief of Party ([email protected])

COMPENDIUM OF TRAINING MATERIALS FOR IMPROVING THE MANAGEMENT OF THE IMPACT OF OIL AND GAS ON BIODIVERSITY AND ENVIRONMENT

MODULE 2: APPLIED BIODIVERSITY

SEPTEMBER 2017

DISCLAIMER The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... I ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...... III INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT ...... 1 1. BACKGROUND ...... 1 2. PROCESS OF DEVELOPING THE COMPENDIUM ...... 2 3. AIMS AND SCOPE OF THE COMPENDIUM ...... 2 4. WHO IS THE COMPENDIUM FOR? ...... 2 5. ARRANGEMENT OF THE COMPENDIUM ...... 4 6. HOW TO USE THE COMPENDIUM ...... 5 7. A NOTE ON SOURCES ...... 5 8. THE CONTENT OF THIS MODULE ...... 5 REFERENCES ...... 6 LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC BIODIVERSITY CONCEPTS ...... 7 Syllabus ...... 7 Detailed Notes ...... 7 References ...... 23 LECTURE 2: BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS IN THE ALBERTINE GRABEN ...... 25 SYLLABUS ...... 25 DETAILED Notes ...... 26 REFERENCES ...... 28 LECTURE 3: ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS, SERVICES AND THREATS ...... 29 SYLLABUS ...... 29 DETAILED NOTES ...... 30 REFERENCES ...... 40 LECTURE 4: SCALES OF CONSERVATION ...... 42 SYLLABUS ...... 42 DETAILED NOTES ...... 43 REFERENCES ...... 55 LECTURE 5: ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND TROPHIC WEBS ...... 56 SYLLABUS ...... 56 DETAILED NOTES ...... 57 FIELD PRACTICE ...... 66 REFERENCES ...... 66 LECTURE 6: BELOWGROUND BIODIVERSITY ...... 68 SYLLABUS ...... 68 DETAILED NOTES ...... 69 REFERENCES ...... 77 LECTURE 7: FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD/TROPHIC WEBS ...... 78 SYLLABUS ...... 78 DETAILED NOTES ...... 79 INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRACTICAL EXERCISE ...... 87 REFERENCES ...... 90 LECTURE 8: CYCLES OF CRITICAL NUTRIENT ELEMENTS ...... 91 SYLLABUS ...... 91 DETAILED NOTES ...... 91 REFERENCES ...... 103 LECTURE 9: POLITICAL ECOLOGY ...... 105 SYLLABUS ...... 105 DETAILED NOTES ...... 105 REFERENCES ...... 110

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LECTURE 10: FLORA/ FAUNA SPECIES-HABITAT RELATIONSHIPS AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS ...... 111 10.1 FAUNA SPECIES-HABITAT RELATIONSHIP AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS ...... 111 SYLLABUS ...... 111 DETAILED NOTES ...... 112 PRACTICAL EXERCISE ...... 123 REFERENCES ...... 123 10.2 FLORA SPECIES-HABITAT RELATIONSHIP AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS ...... 125 SYLLABUS ...... 125 DETAILED NOTES ...... 125 REFERENCES ...... 128 10.3 AQUATIC SPECIES-HABITAT RELATIONSHIP AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS ...... 130 SYLLABUS ...... 130 DETAILED NOTES ...... 131 REFERENCES ...... 142 10.4 AND BAT SPECIES-HABITAT RELATIONSHIP AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS ...... 144 SYLLABUS ...... 144 DETAILED NOTES ...... 145 REFERENCES ...... 150 LECTURE 11: OVERVIEW OF BIODIVERSITY AND ITS .... 152 SYLLABUS ...... 152 DETAILED NOTES ...... 152 REFERENCES ...... 166 LECTURE 12: COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION ...... 167 SYLLABUS ...... 167 DETAILED NOTES ...... 168 CASE STUDIES ...... 176 REFERENCES ...... 181 LECTURE 13: IN SITU AND EX SITU CONSERVATION ...... 183 13.1 IN SITU AND EX SITU CONSERVATION (PART 1) ...... 183 SYLLABUS ...... 183 DETAILED NOTES ...... 183 REFERENCES ...... 196 13.2 IN SITU AND EX SITU CONSERVATION (PART 2) ...... 197 SYLLABUS ...... 197 DETAILED NOTES ...... 197 REFERENCES ...... 204 13.3 BIODIVERSITY GENE BANKING AND INVENTORY ...... 205 SYLLABUS ...... 205 DETAILED NOTES ...... 205 REFERENCES ...... 208 LECTURE 14: SCENARIO MODELING OF CONSERVATION PLANNING ...... 209 SYLLABUS ...... 209 DETAILED NOtes ...... 210 REFERENCES ...... 220 LECTURE 15: HUMAN AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION CONFLICTS ...... 221 SYLLABUS ...... 221 DETAILED NOTES ...... 221 REFERENCES ...... 238

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AAC Annual Allowable Cut ACODE Advocates Coalition for Development and Environment ARKS Record Keeping System ASP Amnesiac Shellfish Poisoning BCWC Biodiversity Conservation Working Circle C Carbon CARPE Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment CBC Community Based Conservation CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBFM Community-based Forest Management CBNRM Community-Based Natural Resources Management CBO Community-Based Organization CCD Convention to Combat Desertification CFC Chlorofluorocarbons CFM Community Forest Management CFP Ciguatera Fish Poisoning CFR Central Forest Reserve CHMP Chimpanzee Health Monitoring Protocol CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CLIWC Community Livelihood Improvement Working Circle CMS Convention on Migratory Species of Wild

CO2 Carbon Dioxide CR Critically Endangered CSO Civil Society Organization DD Data Deficient DRC Democratic Republic of Congo DSP Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning EN Endangered EPI Environmental Pillar Institution ERWC Ecotourism and Research Development Working Circle

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ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Analysis EW Extinct in the Wild EX Extinct GnRH Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone GnRH-A Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Agonist H Hydrogen

H2O Water

H2S Hydrogen Sulfide hCG Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin HQ Headquarters HWC Human-Wildlife Conflict IAS Invasive Alien Species ICCA Indigenous and Community Conserved Area IDP Internally Displaced Person IP Indigenous Person IPBES Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISIS International Species Information System ISSMI Integrated Stock Survey and Management Inventory iTOL Interactive Tree Of Life ITPGRFA International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature JFM Joint Forest Management KMU Kalinzu Management Unit LC Least Concern LG Local Government LMMA Locally-Managed Marine Area MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment MUIENR Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources

N2 Nitrogen NaFIRRI National Fisheries Resources Research Institute NEMA National Environment Management Authority NFA National Forestry Authority

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NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NH4 Ammonia

NO2 Nitrites

NO3 Nitrates NRM Natural Resource Management NRS Natural Resource Services NSP Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning NT Near Threatened O Oxygen O&G Oil and Gas PA Protected Areas Pb Lead PCR polymerase chain reaction PFM Participatory Forest Management

PO4-3 Phosphate PSP Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning PWC Production Working Circle Q&A Question and Answer RFLP Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism RTE Rare, Threatened and Endemic SAMUKA Sango Bay-Musambwa Island-Kagera Wetland System SCIP Support for Community Initiated Projects SD Sustainable Development SDF Spent Drilling Fluids SMART Specific Measurable Assignable Realistic Time-related SNP Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms SPF Slow Programmable Freezing SPP Species SSR Simple Sequence Repeats STOIIP Stock-Tank Oil Initially in Place UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNCED UN Conference on Environment and Development UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

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UNESCO United Nations Scientific, Educational, and Cultural Organization UNESCO-MAB UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNP Uganda National Parks USAID United States Agency for International Development USDA United States Department of Agriculture UWA Uganda Wildlife Act VNTR variable Number Tandem Repeat VU Vulnerable WDF-RS Wildlife Development Fund – Revenue Sharing WDPA World Database of Protected Areas WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

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INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT

1. BACKGROUND A wide variety of ecosystems are found in Uganda’s Albertine Graben, including montane forests, tropical moist forests, savannah woodlands, grasslands, wetlands, and open water (lakes and rivers). The rich and varied flora of the region provides habitat for a wide diversity of species (NEMA, 2012a) and the region is a global biodiversity hotspot, forming part of the Afromontane Archipelago that stretches from the Horn of Africa to the tip of southern Africa. The Albertine Graben also is the site of oil reserves, and over 3.5 billion barrels of stock-tank oil initially in place (STOIIP) had been established.1 As a result, the oil and gas sector is expected to grow with considerable economic benefits for Uganda. Nevertheless, development of oil and gas in the Albertine Graben will inevitably come with negative impacts on the environment and society. Accordingly, the Government of Uganda’s (GOU) National Oil and Gas Policy (2008) states as a matter of principle, the need to balance human development, the environment, and biodiversity in pursuit of sustainable development. Various studies (NEMA, 2012b; Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, 2013; Lahm, 2014) have shown that government agencies and civil society organizations (CSOs) currently have inadequate capacity to monitor and manage the impacts of oil and gas development on the environment and biodiversity. Assessment of the training needs of staff of the local governments (LGs) in the and Environment Pillar Institutions (EPIs) established that the staff were generally well trained in their respective professions, but that they lacked the requisite knowledge and skills to monitor and deal with the impacts of oil and gas activities on the environment and biodiversity. They were not trained for this during formal training at college, since oil and gas is a recent development in Uganda (USAID, 2014). The USAID Capacity Assessment Assistance Report for the Environmental Management of the Oil Sector Activity (2014a) noted that: Staff (both field and HQ) of the EPIs already possess a solid skill and knowledge base on which to build. As such, the Activity can focus its efforts on ‘topping up’ staff skills with specific knowledge about O&G. It was also re-confirmed that the largest needs (biggest capacity gaps) are at the field level … While a few field staff reported that they had attended awareness-raising sessions on potential environmental and social impacts of oil and gas, no one reported that they had received any technical training of any kind, to date. There is a strong, pent-up demand for such training, and ample opportunity for the Activity to enhance knowledge and skills at these levels where ‘the rubber meets the road’ … Much of the required training and capacity building involve the practical training in the collection and testing of physical samples—whether water, soil, air, tissue, or blood—or other field data, such as species counts, transects, tree girth, or other parameters. In pursuit of these capacity gaps, Tetra Tech is implementing the USAID/Uganda Environmental Management for the Oil Sector Activity (hereinafter called the “Activity”) to support Ugandan private, civil society, and public sector institutions at national and sub-national levels to improve their capacity to manage, monitor, and mitigate the impacts of oil and gas development activities on the environment and biodiversity in general, and in the Albertine Graben in particular. As a direct contribution to the knowledge and skills development, the Activity has developed a set of training and resource materials that are crafted to meet the different training needs identified by the Activity.

1 STOIIP is the volume of oil in a reservoir prior to production.

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All the training and resource materials have been organized into a compendium, which serves as a one-stop resource center for the development of training, outreach and awareness materials related to oil and gas development and its impacts on the environment and biodiversity in Uganda.

2. PROCESS OF DEVELOPING THE COMPENDIUM As has been mentioned above, all Activity-sponsored studies on national and local capacity to monitor and manage oil and gas impacts on the environment and biodiversity showed that EPI and LG staff are inadequately equipped with the knowledge, skills, and necessary logistical support to fulfill their mandates (see USAID, 2014a and USAID, 2014b). To this end, the Activity designed short training courses for EPI and LG practitioners who need additional knowledge and technical skills to collect, analyze, and interpret field data for the planning and implementation needed to monitor oil and gas activities effectively, especially in areas where their institutions hold management mandates. Development of the short courses began with training needs assessment of the EPIs and the LGs. Alongside the training needs studies for EPIs and LGs, the EMOS team undertook similar assessments for the training institutions (universities and technical training institutions in the environment and natural resources sector), in recognition of these institutions’ significant contributions to formal capacity building.

The assessments led to identification of 99 “lectures” on specific topics.2 These lectures were then grouped into nine modules. As the process of identifying the lectures generated more content than had been anticipated for the short courses, it was decided to compile this compendium as a source book for development of targeted curricula. The Activity then invited a number of experts in a variety of fields to develop outlines for each of the lectures and then re-configured the content. The experts also prepared detailed teaching notes and put together teaching materials for each lecture.

3. AIMS AND SCOPE OF THE COMPENDIUM This compendium is not designed as a textbook on the impacts of oil and gas on the environment and biodiversity. It is designed along the lines of a curriculum, but not for a specific course. It is designed as a resource document for trainers, instructors, professors, and others who provide knowledge and skills at the interface between the oil and gas development activities and the environment and biodiversity. It provides a generic syllabus and detailed notes that will guide those who will be teaching the subject matter, either through formal curricula or informal training programs. It draws from a wide range of resources that are available in online libraries.

4. WHO IS THE COMPENDIUM FOR? a) Target Audiences This compendium was developed with EPI and LG mid-level managers in mind. The content and design are aimed at this cadre of in-service personnel who will apply what they learn immediately upon returning to their duty stations. But this compendium is also a reference document from which curricula targeting other groups will draw content and obtain guidance about teaching methods and materials. The mid-level managers link the senior managers and the frontline staff. Therefore, it is easy to customize training curricula and programs from the compendium to suit the needs of either category of target groups. On the other hand, mid-level managers are the primary products of

2 In this compendium, the term “lecture” refers to the units within the module. Each topic within a lecture can be taught in a number of one-hour teaching periods employing a variety of teaching methods, including the lecture method.

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universities and therefore, the compendium will provide useful material for the design of curricula for undergraduate and post-graduate training. During preparation of materials for this compendium, the target audiences for whom curricula and training programs could be developed are shown below: TABLE 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF TARGET GROUPS TARGET GROUP CHARACTERISTICS Senior Managers (e.g., directors, national This group makes policy and strategic level heads of departments, chief management decisions for their organizations. administrative officers, and resident They give directions to staff who implement district commissioners) their decisions, and influence budget allocation and release of actual funds. Many will have progressed along their career paths, and their main motivations will be to make better-informed decisions rather than obtaining additional academic qualifications.

Mid-level Managers (e.g., inventory, land These are normally subject matter specialists, management specialists, project some at the sub-national level. Members of this coordinators, National Forestry target group translate policy/strategic decisions Authority [NFA] Range Managers, into actionable plans and design tools, supervise Regional Water Officers, Senior Game data collection, interpret data generated from Wardens, Heads of LG Departments, the field, and advise senior management. NFA Sector Managers; UWA Game Wardens, etc.) Most hold university degrees, in many cases at the master’s level. Their job descriptions usually require them to train others. Many will be on their way up the career ladder, therefore their motivations will be to enhance their upward mobility in their career or to widen the pool of potential jobs. They will be interested in formal academic qualifications to boost their curricula vitae. Frontline Staff Operating at This group implements actions at the Management Unit/Community Level management unit level, collect data and transmit (e.g., NFA Forest Supervisors, UWA it to headquarters, are in day-to-day contact Game Rangers, Assistant Fisheries with communities, and carry out law Officers, LG Assistant Forest Officers, enforcement. Assistant Agriculture Officers, and Sub- County Technical Staff) Some members of this group hold university degrees, diplomas, and/or certificates in the areas of their specialization. Job descriptions usually require them to sensitize and train local communities. The younger members of this target group will be interested in a formal academic qualifications to boost their curricula vitae. In addition, on- the-job practical training will be very useful to standardize data collection methods and improve data quality.

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TARGET GROUP CHARACTERISTICS Staff in Universities and Technical This group educates people entering service in Training Institutions – Relevant Colleges the oil and gas, environment and natural at MAK, MUST, KYU, NFC, UWTI, and resources sectors at national and sub-national UPIK levels. Most of the trainees will have advanced degrees in their areas of specialization. They will be expected to undergo the same training before they can be called upon to train others. b) Curriculum Developers The compendium will be useful to trainers, educators, and other curriculum developers at all levels of learning. The modules, topics, and sub-topics are resource materials that can be of value in the areas of applied biodiversity or the oil and gas value chain. The trainer may adopt and/or adapt the outlines in the syllabus according to the target group and emerging knowledge and technology. However, in the process of adopting and adapting, the teacher should be guided primarily by the learning needs of the target group (translated into learning outcomes) rather than the trainer’s convenience in delivering the material. c) Public Education and Awareness Programs The compendium will also be useful to those seeking content to develop public information and awareness programming in the relevant field. d) Researchers, Policy Makers, and Planners The compendium will be a useful source of technical information to those engaged in research, policy development, and planning about the interface between oil and gas and the environment and biodiversity.

5. ARRANGEMENT OF THE COMPENDIUM The compendium is structured along a modular approach. There are nine different modules as outlined in Table 2 below. The modules are published as separate standalone documents, but together they make the whole part of the compendium. TABLE 2: LIST OF MODULES IN THE COMPENDIUM MODULE TITLE Module 1 Phases in the Oil and Gas Value Chain Development Module 2 Applied Biodiversity Module 3 Ecotoxicology Module 4 Impacts of Oil and Gas Operations on the Environment and Biodiversity Module 5 Socioeconomic and Health Impacts Module 6 Monitoring Oil and Gas Threats and Impacts Module 7 Environmental Data Acquisition and Use Module 8 Policy, Legal, and Institutional Framework for Oil and Gas Development Module 9 Mitigation of the Impacts of the Oil and Gas Industry

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Each module consists of a number of lectures. Where the scope of a lecture is quite broad, it has been broken down into “sub-lectures.” Each lecture/sub-lecture made up of two parts: i) A syllabus that outlines the teaching objectives, learning outcomes, and an outline of lecture content (topic, suggested teaching/learning methods and materials, and estimated time to cover each topic; and ii) Detailed notes, in most cases arranged following the topics outlined under the relevant syllabus. Some lectures end with guidance on prolonged field work aimed at building the skills of trainees in accordance with the stated learning outcomes.

6. HOW TO USE THE COMPENDIUM Each module can be taught as a short course or training program. However, it will often be necessary to bring in topics from other volumes to strengthen the teaching/learning process in a particular volume. For example, a short course based on Module 9 (Mitigation of the Impacts of the Oil and Gas Industry) may need to include some topics from Module 4 (Environmental Impacts Threats and, Risks), or even from all the other volumes. Because the notes have been compiled by different experts, the style in which they were originally prepared has not altered much during the editing process. Some were prepared as PowerPoint presentations and have been converted into narrative for inclusion in the compendium. Others present high levels of detail, while others are presented in outline format and will require the trainer to do much more reading during lesson preparation. The lecture syllabus and the detailed notes are interlinked. The user will normally start with the syllabus to determine the outline of a particular course or program. The individual trainer will then proceed to use the detailed teaching notes as a starting point for lesson preparation for a given lecture. References have been given to stimulate further reading.

7. A NOTE ON SOURCES The Compendium draws on a wide range of sources, most of which are available online for educational use. All efforts have been made to credit the authors of materials that are either directly quoted or paraphrased as content in the compendium. Quotations are used to identify material within sections that has been directly quoted, and the source is identified parenthetically at the end of the quotation. However, in the case where whole subsections have been drawn wholesale from sources, the source is identified at the top of the subsection and quotations are not used. Finally, where sources have been paraphrased, the source of the idea is acknowledged parenthetically. A list of references is included at the end of each section within the compendium to enable compendium users to easily access and credit sources in the development and use of their own materials.

8. THE CONTENT OF THIS MODULE The module is arranged into 11 different chapters. Chapter 1 provides general background information on how the compendium was developed, the aims, target beneficiaries, how it can be used and how it is arranged. Subsequent Chapters (2 through 16) are the lectures covered under the module. The lectures for Module 2 (Applied Biodiversity) are outlined in Table 3 below.

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TABLE 3: LIST OF LECTURES UNDER MODULE 2 (APPLIED BIODIVERSITY)

LECTURE TITLE 1 Introduction to Basic Biodiversity Concepts 2 Biotic and Abiotic Factors in the Albertine Graben 3 Ecosystem Functions, Services and Threats 4 Scales of Conservation 5 Ecological Diversity and Trophic Webs 6 Belowground Biodiversity 7 Food Chains and Webs 8 Cycles of Critical Nutrient Elements 9 Political Ecology 10 Flora/Fauna Species-Habitat Relationships and Vulnerability to Oil and Gas A. Fauna B. Flora C. Aquatic Habitats D. and Bats 11 Overview of Biodiversity and its Conservation in Uganda 12 Community-Based Conservation 13 In Situ and Ex situ Conservation A. In situ and Ex situ Conservation (Part 1) B. In situ and Ex situ Conservation (Part 2) C. Biodiversity Gene Banking and Inventory 14 Scenario Modeling of Conservation Planning 15 Human and Biodiversity Conservation Conflicts

REFERENCES Government of Uganda (GOU). (2008). National Oil and Gas Policy. Lahm, S.A. (2014). Head-Start Institutional Mapping for Gap Identification Final Report, March 2014. Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development. (2013). Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of Oil and Gas Activities in the Albertine Graben, Uganda. Draft SEA Report, September 2013. National Environment Management Authority (NEMA). (2012a). The Environmental Monitoring Plan for the Albertine Graben 2012–2017. NEMA. (2012b). A Capacity Needs Assessment for the Environmental Pillar Institutions in Uganda – Final Report, September 2012. Petroleum Exploration and Production Department. (2014). Progress of Petroleum Exploration and Development in Uganda. Paper presented in the Dialogue with Civil Society Organizations: “Enhancing Environment Compliance in Uganda’s Oil and Gas Sector, July 2014. USAID. (2014a). Consultancy for Capacity Assessment Assistance Report. Report for the USAID Environmental Management for the Oil Sector Activity. USAID. (2014b). Training Needs Assessment for District and Sub-County Level Officials Final Report. Report for the USAID Environmental Management for the Oil Sector Activity.

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC BIODIVERSITY CONCEPTS

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) To provide a background in basic biodiversity and ecological concepts; and (ii) To impart knowledge of these concepts as a foundation for understanding the complexity of biological diversity and ecosystem functions and services and how they are affected by oil and gas activities. Learning Outcomes The participants will be able to: (i) Explain the concepts related to biodiversity and ecosystems; (ii) Appreciate the importance of ecosystems systems and their services; and (iii) Explain the landscape approach to resource management. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment

1. Definition of biodiversity Q&A to generate a definition and then harmonize with classical definitions 2. The three key elements of Mini-lecture interspersed with Q&A to build on trainees’ biodiversity: genetic, knowledge and experience organismal and ecological 3. Species richness, evenness, Mini-lecture interspersed with Q&A to build on trainees’ and diversity knowledge and experience 4. Ecosystem services Discussion in buzz groups, demonstrations 5. Elements and range of Lecture, Q&A, group discussions ecological diversity 6. Food webs and trophic Lecture, Q&A levels in ecosystems 7. Landscapes and management Lecture, Q&A, demonstrations. Group discussion: prepare a approaches list of identified ecosystem services, food webs and trophic levels provided by the abiotic and biotic components within the selected site. 8. Field trip(s) Observe the concepts discussed above in real life

DETAILED NOTES DEFINITION OF BIODIVERSITY What is Biodiversity? Biological diversity—or biodiversity—is the term given to the variety of life on Earth and the natural patterns it forms.

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It is the result of billions of years of evolution, shaped by natural processes and, increasingly, by the human influence. Formal Definitions “‘Biological diversity’ means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems” (Convention on Biological Diversity [CBD], 1992, Article 2). “Broad unifying concept, encompassing all forms, levels and combinations of natural variation, at all levels of biological organization” (Gaston and Spicer, 2013). Whichever definition is used:  One can refer to the biodiversity of a given area or volume of ‒ The land or sea; ‒ A continent or an ocean basin; or ‒ The entire planet Earth.  Likewise, one can speak of biodiversity at present, at a given time or period in the past or in the future, or over the entire history of life on Earth. Origins of Biodiversity The biodiversity that we see on Earth today has evolved over a long period of time. Life originated from simple microscopic organisms that evolved into small plants and animals, and eventually into the more sophisticated species that we know today. During that time the earth experienced many turbulent periods, including tectonic movements and extreme temperature fluctuations. As a result, many species became extinct, leaving the only the fittest who were able to adapted to the new environment. As massive extinctions occurred, vacant niches were created and organisms evolved over millions of years to fill the vacancies that were left by the extinctions.

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FIGURE 1.1: EVOLUTION OF BIODIVERSITY ILLUSTRATED

Source: Graham et al., 2008

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FIGURE 1.2: EVOLUTION OF BIODIVERSITY AGAINST THE GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

Source: Singh-Cundy & Cain, 2012

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KEY ELEMENTS OF BIODIVERSITY Source: Sodhi and Ehrlich, 2010 The three key elements of biodiversity are intimately linked and share some features in common. These are: genetic diversity, organismal diversity (known by other authors as species diversity), and ecological diversity (alternatively called ecosystem diversity). Genetic Diversity Genetic diversity refers to the genetic composition and variations in the genetic makeup of different individuals within a given population and between populations. Populations with higher genetic diversity are known to be more stable and more resilient to stress factors (environmental and biological, including human-induced and anthropogenic). Inbreeding may lead to low genetic diversity, which can decrease a species ability to survive and reproduce, increasing its vulnerability to extinction. Inbreeding is one of the key drivers of low genetic diversity and variability, which in turn is one of the drivers to species extinction.  Genetic biodiversity encompasses the components of: ‒ The genetic coding that structures organisms; and ‒ Variation in the genetic make-up between individuals within a population and between populations. Evolutionary processes act on this raw material. Populations with more genetic diversity tend to be larger, more stable than those that wildly fluctuate, and at the center of species’ geographic ranges, rather than on the periphery. Organismal Diversity Organismal diversity encompasses the full taxonomic hierarchy and its components, from individuals upward to populations, subspecies and species, genera, families, phyla, and beyond to kingdoms and domains. Measures of organismal diversity include some of the most familiar expressions of biodiversity, such as the numbers of species (species richness). SPECIES RICHNESS, EVENNESS AND DIVERSITY Definitions Species richness:  Number of different species represented in an ecological community, landscape, or region.  Does not take into account the abundances of the species or their relative abundance distributions. Species evenness:  Quantifies how equal the abundances of the species are. Species diversity:  Variability within and between species within a given population and between populations.  Takes into account both species richness and species evenness.  The effective number of different species that are represented in a collection of individuals (a dataset).

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The measurement of species diversity:  Species diversity is influenced by species richness. All else being equal, communities with more species are considered more diverse.  For example, a community containing 10 species would be more diverse than a community with five species.  Species diversity is also influenced by the relative abundance of individuals in the species found in a community.  Evenness measures the variation in the abundance of individuals per species within a community.  Communities with less variation in the relative abundance of species are considered to be more “even” than a community with more variation in relative abundance. Why diversity? How is it measured? Source: Magurran, 1988  Diversity is a central theme in ecology (how many species, ecosystem types there are).  Diversity is an indicator of ecosystem health and well-being.  Considerable debate surrounds its measurement.  Diversity consists of two components: The variety, numbers, and richness (of genes, species or ecosystems) and the relative abundance.  Most measures of diversity (diversity indices) use either or, better still, combine both parameters.  Diversity is has predictable latitudinal linkages (environmental suitability and extremity factors).  Within a given latitude or ecosystem or climatic zone, diversity is influenced by area. Diversity Indices and their Usage:  There are numerous diversity indices, each with advantages and disadvantages, and different users choose different indices.  Example:

Margalef’s (DMg) diversity index and Menhinick’s (DMn) index respectively, where:

DMg = (S – 1)/ln N; and

DMn = S / N; S = number of species and N = number of individuals Examples of Diversity Indices Usage from the Albertine Rift data are shown in Table 1.1. Data were derived from equal 20 by 50 meter plots established in different habitat types within the Kaiso-Tonya area of the Albertine rift and enumerated for woody plant species of 5 centimeters diameter at breast height and above. TABLE 1.1: WOODY PLANT BIODIVERSITY IN THE ALBERTINE RIFT

Site No. of Species Total No. Individuals DMg Kaiso Escarpment 8 39 7.727704158 Kabakete Hill Side 7 62 6.757701129 Wambabya River 11 19 10.66037673 Kabakeete Hill Top 8 75 7.768383844

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FIGURE 1.3: ESTIMATES IN THOUSANDS OF DIFFERENT TAXONOMIC GROUPS

Source: Sodhi, S. S. and Ehrlich, P. R. (eds), 2010, p.30 Knowledge of many micro-organisms is poor but increasing. Of the 34 known animal phyla, the phylum Chordata is the most well-known since it includes humans and other vertebrates; however, not all are vertebrates. All chordates are united in that they share similar features at some stage in their life. In the case of humans and many other vertebrates, these features may only be present in the embryo (Regents of the University of California, 2016). According to the University of California at Berkeley, these features include:  Pharyngeal Slits - a series of openings that connect the inside of the throat to the outside of the “neck”. These are often, but not always, used as gills.  Dorsal Nerve Cord - a bundle of nerve fibers which runs down the “back”. It connects the brain with the lateral muscles and other organs.  Notochord - cartilaginous rod running underneath, and supporting, the nerve cord.  Post-Anal Tail - an extension of the body past the anal opening. The “population” is a particularly important element of biodiversity:  It provides an important link among the different groups of elements of biodiversity.  Population: A group of organisms of the same species (or other groups within which individuals may interbreed) occupying a particular space.  At the population scale, consider linkages between biodiversity and the provision of Ecosystem Services (e.g., think of insects, bats, birds, and soil microbes, in addition to commonly-held ideas of ecosystem services of wetlands, soils, rivers, and forests).

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES What are Ecosystem Services? The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005 (MEA, 2005) defines ecosystem services as:  Supporting services—e.g., nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production;

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 Provisioning services—e.g., food, freshwater, timber and fiber, medicine, fuel;  Regulating services—e.g., climate regulation, flood regulation, disease regulation, water purification; and  Cultural services—e.g., aesthetic, spiritual, educational, recreational Ecosystem Functions in Uganda a) Protective functions and supportive services:  Soil erosion control on slopes;  Soil stabilization and water catchment protection;  Climate amelioration;  Water purification;  Flood regulation;  Soil formation;  Primary production;  Pollution control through absorption of pollutant gases;  Disease regulation;  Carbon sequestration;  Nutrient recycling;  Habitat for different species of wild plants and animals; and  Gene pool for conservation purposes and future use. b) Provisioning/consumptive functions:  Wood for structural and construction purposes;  Fuel wood for domestic and industrial use;  Food products in form of fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, bush meat, and fish;  Medicine for both humans and their livestock as well as for wild animals;  Fiber for construction and for handicrafts and industrial use;  Food supplements and additives;  Resins, gums, dyes, and tannins; and  Ornamental plants and animals (compound plants, ornamental animals, pets). c) Psycho-social services:  Cultural values (totems for some clans, homes for some ancestral spirits, at least presumed so);  Aesthetic values (beauty of nature through tourism and other forms of recreation);  Sport hunting grounds;

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 Historical (both cultural and political in nature) sites; and  Homes for some indigenous communities. d) Educational and scientific services:  Ecological and wildlife research;  Source of genes for breeding and improvement of domesticated varieties;  Source of stock for ex situ conservation centers;  Medical research (trial of medicines, vaccines, standard dose determination);  Soil research; and  Bio-prospecting related research (search for new products for medical and commercial value). Threats to Ecosystems/Species a) The human being is the greatest threat to natural ecosystems:  Ecosystem fragmentation (because of agricultural expansion resulting from human population growth);  Overexploitation (logging, poaching/ hunting, fuel-wood production, medicines, foods, fibers);  Habitat loss (conversion to other land-uses: urbanization, industrial development, mining, infrastructure);  Pollution because of poor industrial, domestic and mining waste disposal such as petroleum waste;  Overgrazing by domestic animals (use beyond carrying capacity);  Misguided political programs/ political pressures; and  Human-induced fires. b) Invasive (alien) species – displacement and out-competing indigenous species. c) Naturally occurring fires (caused by lightning, spontaneous fires from peat bogs). d) Climate change – making habitats unsuitable for certain species’ survival. Ecosystems through their different goods and services to human beings have a tremendous role to play in human well-being and can be an infinite resource for human survival if managed and exploited in a sustainable manner. There is a need to balance the needs for today’s generation with those of the future generations if the ecosystems are to last forever and keep providing their invaluable goods and services.

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FIGURE 1.4: ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING ILLUSTRATED

Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005, p.vi Consequences of Ecosystem Exploitation  Improved human well-being from goods and services (if use is in harmony with the ecosystem ability to replenish itself and recover).  Excessive exploitation leads to ecosystem degradation and species extinction, undermining the sustainability of ecosystem services.  Increased levels of poverty for some people resulting from displacement and deprivation. ELEMENTS AND RANGE OF ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Ecological Diversity  “Encompasses the scales of ecological differences from populations, through habitats, to ecosystems, ecoregions, provinces, and on up to biomes and biogeographic realms” (Sodhi and Ehrlich, 2010).  While this element of biodiversity is perhaps the most immediately apparent to people, it is not always obvious where one habitat, ecosystem, etc. ends and another begins.  Consequently, numerous methods have been developed to distinguish among the elements of ecological biodiversity, with considerable variation in their results.  This is complicated by the fact that some of the elements of ecological diversity have both abiotic and biotic components.

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The CBD defines an ecosystem as “a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit” (CBD, Article 2, 1992). Figure 1.5 shows the interrelated components of an ecosystem, including habitat, species, and abiotic factors. Figure 1.6 summarizes some of the biotic and abiotic factors that influence ecosystems. FIGURE 1.5: THE COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. FIGURE 1.6: ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ECOSYSTEMS

Source: Coletta, 2014. Elements of Ecological Diversity According to Sodhi and Ehrlich, 2010, there are multiple elements of ecological diversity, one of the three levels within biodiversity. In addition to ecological diversity, the other two levels of biodiversity include genetic diversity and organismal diversity (Sodhi and Ehrlich, 2010). Some of the elements of ecological diversity include:  Province: biogeographical zone characterized by 25 to 50 percent endemic flora or fauna (e.g., Cape Floristic Province, South Africa).

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 Ecoregions: “large areal units containing geographically distinct species assemblages and experiencing geographically distinct environmental conditions” (Sodhi and Ehrlich, 2010).  Species assemblage: “describes the collection of species making up any co-occurring community of organisms in a given habitat or area (e.g., grazing mammals of grasslands)” (FAO 2012).  Biomes: Provinces and ecoregions can in turn be grouped into biomes, “global-scale biogeographic regions distinguished by unique collections of species assemblages and ecosystems” (Sodhi and Ehrlich, 2010).  Ecosystem: “a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit. An ecosystem may be large (forest, savanna) or small (pond)” (CBD, 1992). FIGURE 1.7: GLOBAL FRESHWATER ECOREGIONS

Copyright 2008 by The Nature Conservancy and World Wildlife Fund, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Source: © TNC/WWF 2008 (www.feow.org).

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FIGURE 1.8: VEGETATION BIOMES OF SOUTH AFRICA

Source: University of the West Cape, 2013. Other Components of Ecological Diversity  Catchment: an area with several, often interconnected water bodies (streams, rivers, lakes, swamps, marshes, groundwater. coastal waters). Management approaches differ according to focus and discipline (hydrology, forests, human use, and integrated approach).  Community: groups of organisms of two or more different species living together within the same habitat or geographical area where they are likely to interact through trophic and spatial relationships (e.g., vegetation, birds).  Habitat: A terrestrial, freshwater or marine geographical unit or an airway passage that supports assemblages of living organisms, individual organisms, and their interactions with the non-living environment (IFC PS6).  Ecological niche: An organism’s niche is its unique position or adaptive role in the ecosystem (e.g., giraffe, baobab tree, crocodile, dung beetle).  A habitat denotes the physical place. The characteristics of a habitat can be used to help define the niche, but cannot describe it entirely.  Carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment.

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FOOD WEBS AND TROPHIC LEVELS IN ECOSYSTEMS Figure 1.9 provides an example of a simplified trophic pyramid (a) and food web (b) in a northern Boreal terrestrial ecosystem. Figure 1.10 provides another example of food web relationships at a finer scale, with soil as the ecosystem. FIGURE 1.9: PYRAMID TERRESTRIAL TROPHIC LEVELS AND FOOD WEB

Source: Odum & Barrett, 2005.  Trophic level: Any class of organisms that occupy the same position in a food chain, as primary consumers, secondary consumers, and tertiary consumers.  Food webs largely define ecosystems, and the trophic levels define the position of organisms within the webs. But these trophic levels are not always simple integers because organisms often feed at more than one trophic level. For example, some carnivores also eat plants, and some plants are carnivores. FIGURE 1.10: THE SOIL FOOD WEB

Source: Ingham, E. R., n.d.

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LANDSCAPES AND MANAGEMENT APPROACHES A landscape can be a difficult term to define due to the challenge of delineating boundaries to encompass desired landscape features from a diversity of perspectives. The field of landscape ecology deals with the definition of landscapes, and considers the resource, user, or system to which the concept of a landscape must be defined. The differences in the definition of a landscape concept may make communication and management in interdisciplinary projects difficult, thus it is important for the landscape manager/ research to clearly define the scope of the landscape. The essential first step in any landscape-level research or management endeavor is to define the landscape, since the many perspectives considering landscapes use different definitions of a landscape. McGarigal (2000) stresses that a landscape may be defined from multiple perspectives, including ecological, wildlife, silvicultural, hydrological, or recreational. Depending on the perspective, the definition will need to be modified to fit the perspective that is being applied. For example, McGarigal (2000) describes an ecological landscape as “a mosaic of interacting ecosystems or an area spatially heterogeneous in at least one factor of interest.” He describes a landscape from a wildlife perspective as “a heterogeneous distribution of habitat (patches or gradients” (McGarigal, 2000). In more general terms, Forman and Godron (1986) define a landscape as a “heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar form throughout.” Turner et al. (2001) describe a landscape as “an area that is spatially heterogeneous in at least one factor of interest.” Regardless of the definition of a landscape, the concept is well understood. McGarigal (2000) states that the structure of landscapes is user defined (pattern), which in turn influences its function (process); the interaction between pattern and process defines the landscape concept. Landscape structure is defined by the particular spatial pattern being represented by its composition and configuration (McGarigal, 2000). Landscape composition is defined by spatial elements that are distinguished in a map, which are considered to be relevant to the landscape function under consideration. Configuration is the spatial character, arrangement, and context of the elements within a landscape (McGarigal, 2000). Landscape function is defined by the phenomena that are being considered; the hydrologic landscape function would differ greatly from that of the wildlife services landscape, for example. In general, landscape function is defined as the services that landscapes provide, including biological diversity, nutrient cycling, clean water, etc. (McGarigal, 2000). CARPE Landscape Management Approach FIGURE 1.11: BASEMAP OF CARPE PROGRAM LANDSCAPE

Source: CARPE, 2016.

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The Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) was first authorized by the U.S. Government in 1995 and was initially proposed as a 20-year regional initiative divided into three strategic phases. The strategic objective of CARPE is to reduce the rate of forest degradation and loss of biodiversity in the Congo Basin by increasing local, national, and regional natural resource management capacity. The majority of CARPE funds are allocated to support activities in designated landscapes. By implementing a landscape approach to natural resource management, CARPE works to assure that conservation activities are integrated into commercial forest exploitation and address the unsustainable environmental practices of a myriad of local communities subsisting throughout the tropical forest landscapes. The program began in four countries: the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of Congo. Since its beginning, five additional countries have been added; , Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, , and Sao Tome and Principe. CARPE currently works within eight key biodiversity landscapes in the six principal forested countries of Central Africa: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of Congo; and continue to support the coordination of the Greater Virunga Landscape of DRC, Uganda, and Rwanda.. Several of CARPE’s landscapes are transboundary and are recognized by international agreements promoting cooperation on environmental monitoring and law enforcement. These eight landscapes form the pillar of CARPE’s regional conservation strategy and cover an area of 1,427,230 square kilometers (km2). FIGURE 1.12: ECHUYA FOREST LANDSCAPE

Source: Gorilla Highlands, 2017. The Albertine Rift forms part of the Greater Virungas Landscape and is the object of a smaller-scale project with two other landscapes — the Mukura Forest Landscape (Rwanda) and Kibira-Rusizi Landscape (Burundi) — to promote and support collaborative actions at all levels, protect biodiversity and restore the ecosystems and their services, enhance communities’ sustainable livelihoods, and empower stakeholders to take informed decisions and address environmental challenges. Echuya forest is a montane rainforest located in Kabale and Kisoro Districts in southwestern Uganda at altitudes ranging between 2,270 and 2,570 meters. The area under forest cover declined from 13,320.3 hectares in 1954 to 3,730.7 hectares in 1990 and the current size consists of 34 km2 of a mixture of closed canopy tropical broad-leaved forest and bamboo forest.

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FIGURE 1.13: CONSERVATION AREA MANAGEMENT CONCEPT IN UGANDA

Source: Oluput et al 2009. Murchison Falls Conservation Area is made up of Murchison Falls National Park (3,893 km2), Karuma Wildlife Reserve (678 km2) in the east and southeast, and Bugungu Wildlife Reserve (474 km2) in the southwest.

Queen Elizabeth Conservation Area is composed of Queen Elizabeth National Park (1,978 km2), Kyambura Wildlife Reserve (154 km2), and Kigezi Wildlife Reserve (269 km2) and is 2,401 km2 in size.

REFERENCES CARPE. (2016). Congo Basin Satellita Imagery Resources. CARPE landscape basemap. http://carpe.umd.edu/images/landscapes/CARPE_BaseMap_landscapes.jpg Coletta, R. (2014). Biology Keystone Review. Module 2. Ecology. https://sites.google.com/site/pwcolettabio/chapters-3-6-ecology Rich Coletta 2014 FAO. (2012). FAO Technical Guidlines for Responsible Fisheries. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Forman, R.T. and Godron, M., (1986). Landscape ecology. 619pp. Jhon Wiley & Sons, New York. Gaston, K. J., & Spicer, J. I. (2013). Biodiversity: an introduction. John Wiley & Sons. Gorilla Highlands. (2017). Echuya Forest. http://gorillahighlands.com/other-attractions/?=echuya- forest Graham, Joseph, Newman, W. and Stacy, J. (2008) The Geological Time Spiral. USGS General Information Product 58. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/2008/58/ Ingham, E. R. Soil Food Web, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053 868

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Magurran, A.E. (1988). Ecological Diversity and Its Measurement. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press McGarigal, K. (2000). What is a Landscape? Teaching lecture. University of Massachusetts Amherst. http://www.umass.edu/landeco/teaching/landscape_ecology/schedule/chapter3_landscape.pdf Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC., p.vi. Odum, E. P.; Barrett, G. W. (2004). Fundamentals of Ecology (5th ed.). Cengage Learning. Olupot, W., McNeilage, A. J., & Plumptre, A. J. (2009). An analysis of socioeconomics of bushmeat hunting at major hunting sites in Uganda. Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Working Paper, 38. Regents of the University of California. (2008). Introduction to the Chordata. UC Berkeley. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chordata/chordata.html Singh-Cundy, Anu, and Cain, M.L. (2012). Discover Biology. Ch. 19. The Evolutionary History of Life. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York. Sodhi, N.S. and P.R. Ehrlich, eds. (2010). Conservation Biology for All. Oxford University Press Inc., New York, New York, USA The Nature Conservancy and the World Wildlife Foundation. (2008). Freshwater Ecoregions of the World. http://www.feow.org/ Turner, M.G., Gardner, R.H. and O’Neill, R.V., (2001). Landscape ecology in theory and practice (Vol. 401). New York: Springer. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. (2008). Managing Invasive Plants. https://www.fws.gov/invasives/volunteersTrainingModule/invasives/plants.html United Nations. (1992). Convention on Biological Diversity. University of the West Cape (WCW). (2013). South Africa’s Biomes. http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/BDC321/ekapa%20Cape%20Towns%20lowlands/biomes/intro.htm #2

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LECTURE 2: BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS IN THE ALBERTINE GRABEN

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) To provide a basic understanding of biotic and abiotic factors in the Albertine Graben; and (ii) To demystify commonly misused or misunderstood biotic and abiotic factors in Albertine Graben. Learning Outcomes By the end of the lesson, trainees will be able to: (i) Define biotic and abiotic factors; (ii) State biotic and abiotic factors; (iii) Explain biotic and abiotic factors in the Albertine Graben; and (iv) Clarify commonly misused or misunderstood biotic and abiotic factors in Albertine Graben. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment

1. Definition of biotic and Use case studies to outline the methods and guide trainees abiotic factors to use their experience to bring out biotic and abiotic factors. 2. Biotic and abiotic factors Outline the concepts and ask trainees to use their influencing the knowledge and experience to show how the factors play out biosphere/ecosystem in practice. 3. Impact of biotic and abiotic Use a real-life case study to identify the key impacts. factors on biodiversity 4. Human activities in the Use a real-life case study to identify the key human activities. Albertine Graben 5. Effect of changing one factor Use a real-life case study to identify the key changes, on other factors in the preferably visiting Queen Elizabeth National Park and taking Albertine Graben ecosystem observations along Kazinga channel flora and fauna. 6. Field practice Use a real-life case study to identify the key changes, preferably visiting Queen Elizabeth National Park, and make observations along Kazinga channel flora and fauna.

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DETAILED NOTES DEFINITION OF BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS “The living things in an ecosystem are called biotic factors. Living things include plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, and more. The nonliving parts of an ecosystem are called abiotic factors. In an ecosystem, some abiotic factors are sunlight, temperature, atmospheric gases, water, and soil” (Quizlet, 2017). TABLE 2.1: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOSPHERE AND ECOSYSTEM

Abiotic versus Biotic Comparison Chart

Abiotic Biotic Introduction In ecology and biology, abiotic components Biotic describes a living component of an are non-living chemical and physical factors in ecosystem; for example organisms, such as the environment which affect ecosystems. plants and animals. Examples Water, light, wind, soil, humidity, minerals, All living things — autotrophs and gases. heterotrophs — plants, animals, fungi, bacteria. Factors Affect the ability of organisms to survive, Living things that directly or indirectly affect reproduce; help determine types and organisms in environment; organisms, numbers of organisms able to exist in interactions, waste; parasitism, disease, environment; limiting factors restrict growth. predation. Affects Individual of a species, population, Individual of a species, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere. community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere. Source: Diffen, 2017. BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOSPHERE/ECOSYSTEM The levels of organization in Figure 2.1 show how organisms and ecosystems are nested within the larger hierarchy of the environment. Starting at the molecular level, the hierarchical progression of molecules, organisms, ecosystems and the biosphere is illustrated in Figure 2.2.

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FIGURE 2.1: THE ECOSYSTEMS

Source: Sazol Inzalo Foundation, 2013.

FIGURE 2.2: THE LINKAGE AMONG MOLECULES ORGANISMS, ECOSYSTEM AND BIOSPHERE

Source: Raven and Berg, 2008.

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IMPACT OF BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS ON BIODIVERSITY Biotic and abiotic factors interact to affect biodiversity in a number of ways. Factors such as resource availability, habitat suitability, and community assemblage interact and contribute to the stability and equilibrium of a location’s biodiversity. Factors such as precipitation, sunlight exposure, and altitude interact to determine the land cover of an area, and in turn, the community that it may sustain. Interspecies interactions such as competition, predation, and mutualism are biotic factors that affect the ability of a species to survive and persist in an area. Biodiversity is also heavily impacted by human activities and development. Some of the most biodiverse regions of the world are the most vulnerable to human activities. HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN THE ALBERTINE GRABEN Oil and gas activities:  Occur on a local, regional, and global scale; and  Speed up changes to ecosystems locally and globally.  Examples: Urbanization, global climate change, introduced species. EFFECT OF CHANGING ONE FACTOR ON OTHER FACTORS IN ALBERTINE GRABEN ECOSYSTEM Within the Albertine Graben ecosystem, direct changes to the environment through natural or anthropogenic processes will affect the abiotic and biotic factors described above. The complex interactions within an ecosystem are coupled systems that are affected by interconnected feedback loops. Affecting one aspect of these systems will feed back to affect all other systems to which the component is related. The significance of abiotic and biotic factors in the Albertine Graben ecosystem comes in their interactions with each other. For a community or an ecosystem to survive, the correct interactions need to be in place to reach equilibrium. In nature, the geographical boundaries of these systems are difficult to measure. Although we consider an individual “ecosystem” or “landscape,” these systems are connected to larger systems such as the global water and carbon cycle. Affecting one component within one system may lead to changes to other components within and outside of the system.

REFERENCES Buchmann, N. (2000). Biotic and abiotic factors controlling soil respiration rates in Picea abies stands. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 32(11), 1625-1635.4 Diffen. (2017). “Abiotic vs. Biotic.” Diffen LLC, n.d. Web. http://www.diffen.com/difference/Abiotic_vs_Biotic Martinez-Alvarez, R. M., Morales, A. E., and Sanz, A. (2005). Antioxidant defenses in fish: biotic and abiotic factors. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 15(1-2), 75-88. Quizlet. (2017). Biology Unit 7: Ecology Flash Cards. Web. https://quizlet.com/132691741/biology-unit-7-ecology-flash-cards/ Raven, P. H., Berg, L. R., & Hassenzahl, D. (2008). Environment 8th Edition. Wiley & Sons Sasol Inzalo Foundation. (2013). “Interactions and interdependence within the environment.” MST Workbooks. Republic of South Africa. Web. http://www.mstworkbooks.co.za/natural- sciences/gr8/gr8-ll-02.html

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LECTURE 3: ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS, SERVICES AND THREATS

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) Provide a basic understanding of concepts related to ecosystems as a foundation for understanding the interconnectedness of landscapes; (ii) Clarify commonly misused or misunderstood terms and concepts; and (iii) Highlight the importance of consideration of cumulative impacts in resource management planning, monitoring, and research design. Learning Outcomes The participants will be able to: (i) Explain the importance of ecosystem functions and services; (ii) Appreciate threats to ecosystems, their causes and drivers; and (iii) Apply appropriate measures to avoid or minimize the impacts of threats on ecosystems. Outline of Lecture Content

Suggested Approach, Methods and Topic and Subtopic Equipment 1. The energy transfer continuum among Lecture, Q&A, discussions; schematic diagrams ecosystems 2. Aquatic ecosystems: functions, services Lecture, Q&A, discussions; schematic diagrams and threats 3. Ecological zones of lakes and wetlands Lecture, Q&A, discussions; schematic diagrams 4. Functional dynamics of a wetland Lecture, Q&A, discussions; schematic diagrams 5. Linkages among habitat-species-ecosystem Lecture, Q&A, discussions; schematic diagrams services 6. Threats, causes, and drivers of threats to Videos followed by group discussions freshwater ecosystems 7. The water-soil-terrestrial ecological Lecture, Q&A, discussions continuum 8. Key functional groups and ecological Lecture, Q&A, discussions, demonstrations services of soil ecosystems 9. Feedback mechanisms among abiotic Lecture, Q&A, discussions elements, soil, and vegetation 10. Major threats to forest and savanna Videos followed by group discussions ecosystems in Uganda 11. Long-term ecological viability of the Lecture, Q&A Albertine Rift Valley Group work: identify several types of potential impacts on ecosystem functions and services and propose measures to avoid or minimize the impacts. 12. Field trip(s) Observe the concepts discussed above in real life.

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DETAILED NOTES ENERGY TRANSFER CONTINUUM IN TERRESTRIAL, AQUATIC, AND SOIL ECOSYSTEMS The below graphic depicts three ecosystems (terrestrial, aquatic, and soil/belowground) as separate and connected elements of ecological diversity. It introduces the theme of food webs and energy transfer and storage among land, soil, water, and organisms as a continuum, and also as separate ecosystems with specific habitats and species. It is meant to set the stage for critical thinking about monitoring Valued Ecosystem Components under the auspices of the Environmental Monitoring Plan for the Albertine Graben. FIGURE 3.1: RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ORGANISMS IN A FOOD WEB

Source: MacMillan/McGraw-Hill, 2017. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS: FUNCTIONS, SERVICES, AND THREATS Water links all of Earth’s biomes, covering nearly 75% of the total Earth surface (Speer, 1995a). There are two major types of aquatic ecosystems, marine (oceans and estuaries), and fresh water (ponds and rivers) (Speer, 1995a). Freshwater ecosystems are defined as having a low salt concentration, and as a result, species within these systems are adapted to living in areas with low salt concentrations (Speer, 1995a).  According to Vaccari (2005), there are three main types of freshwater ecosystems: – Lentic: slow moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes; – Lotic: faster moving water such as streams and rivers; and – Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time (Vaccari, 2005).

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ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF LAKES AND WETLANDS Within freshwater systems, particularly ponds, there are three different zones that are determined by depth and distance from the shoreline (Speer, 1995a). These zones include: Source: Speer, 1995a  Littoral zone: the topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond. This zone is shallower and able to absorb more heat from sunlight; as a result, it can sustain a community of algae, rooted wetland plants, and freshwater invertebrates. Wetland littoral zones provide important habitat for larval stages of insects and fish, including odonates (dragonflies and damselflies), which are major indicator species for environmental health.

 Limnetic zone: Offshore zone near the water surface. This area receives sunlight and as a result supports a community of photosynthetic algae and species that feed on them.

 Profundal zone: Deep offshore zone that receives little to no sunlight and is colder and denser than the other zones described. Detritus collects in this zone, and the biological community is dominated by heterotrophs that rely on this material. FIGURE 3.2: PRIMARY ZONES WITHIN LAKE ECOSYSTEM

Source: Mc-Graw Hill, 2017. FUNCTIONAL DYNAMICS OF A WETLAND Functions and Services of Freshwater Habitats All aspects of freshwater ecosystem functioning are not fully understood. A more thorough understanding of the ecosystem services they provide, and how human activities affect the quality, function, and availability of these services, is necessary for land management and development. According to Braga (1999), the ecosystem services provided by healthy freshwater ecosystems include: Source: Braga, 1999  Transportation (can be provided by degraded systems);  Freshwater storage (in glaciers, watersheds);  Flood control (can be provided by degraded systems);

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 Nutrient deposition in floodplain agricultural areas;  Natural purification of wastes;  Habitats for biological diversity, including animal and vegetable food sources and other natural products;  Moderation and stabilization of urban and natural microclimates;  Nutrient retention;  Aesthetics and mental health; and  Recreation (sport fishing, hunting, boating, swimming). LINKAGES AMONG HABITAT-SPECIES-ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Source: Braga, 1999 Most of the services provided by freshwater ecosystems result from the biological activity of the diverse assemblage of aquatic organisms within those systems (Braga, 1999).  Wetlands and floodplains are usually linked to other freshwater systems such as rivers and lakes on the surface or through the water table (Braga, 1999).  Water quality of wetlands is highly influenced by the associated aquatic ecosystem, soil, and type and amount of existing emergent vegetation (Braga, 1999).  Floodplains of rivers provide essential habitat and feeding grounds for breeding and rearing of many aquatic, avian, and terrestrial species, and are integral parts of associated riverine ecosystems (Braga, 1999).  Permanently flooded wetlands are vital due to their usually rich plant biodiversity and constitute important habitats for wildlife and riverine fishes (Braga, 1999). THREATS, CAUSES, AND DRIVERS OF THREATS TO FRESHWATER ECOLOGY Threats to Freshwater Ecosystems  Freshwater systems are considered to be especially fragile and at high risk due to the number of stressors that affect these systems;  The ecological integrity of an aquatic ecosystem is degraded when its ability to absorb a stress has been exceeded by the stressor.  According to Loeb (1994), stress can result from physical, chemical or biological alterations of the environment: Source: Loeb. 1994 ‒ Physical alterations include changes in water temperature, water flow and light availability; ‒ Chemical alterations include changes in the loading rates of nutrients, oxygen consuming materials, and toxins; and ‒ Biological alterations include the introduction of exotic species.

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Causes and Drivers of Threats to Freshwater Ecosystems  The combined effects of these stressors may result in the loss and decline of freshwater ecosystems. According to Darwall et al. (2005), the leading causes of freshwater species’ decline and ecosystem degradation are: Source: Darwaal et al., 2005 ‒ Habitat loss and degradation; ‒ Water withdrawal; ‒ Overexploitation and pollution; and ‒ Introduction of non-native species.  Most and ecosystems are subjected to multiple interacting stresses.  The major drivers contributing to freshwater ecosystem decline include an ever-increasing demand for water by the human population for irrigation, production of hydroelectric power, or domestic and industrial water supply. Potential Impacts of Oil and Gas Development on Freshwater Ecosystems  Oil and gas activities can affect aquatic ecosystems, including ponds, swamps, marshes, rivers, streams, and lakes, through: ‒ Clearance of wetland vegetation, leading to changes in the sensitive balance of water chemistry and downstream water flow and erosion patterns; ‒ Introduction of alien-invasive species and fragmentation of wetland habitat, which will also have implications for native flora and fauna; and ‒ Disposal or leakage of chemicals and wastes in or near lakes, swamps and marshes which can have long-lasting implications because of much lower dispersal and assimilation rates than in marine environments. THE WATER-SOIL-TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGICAL CONTINUUM FIGURE 3.3: THE AQUATIC-SOIL-TERRESTRIAL CONTINUUM Due to the inter-connectedness of natural ecosystems, the deleterious effects of oil and gas development within one ecosystem type may affect components of other systems. Figure 3.3 shows the soil food web and how it is connected to aquatic and terrestrial systems. Affecting this system will lead to negative feedback that will affect related systems.

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Source: Ingham, E. R. Soil Food Web, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053868. In order to understand the potential effects of oil and gas development within soil and aquatic systems, it is necessary to understand the connected components of the water cycle, as depicted in Figure 3.4. FIGURE 3.4: UNDERSTANDING BASIC HYDROLOGY. STRUCTURE OF THE WETSPA HYDROLOGICAL MODEL. WATER AND ENERGY TRANSFER BETWEEN SOIL, PLANTS AND ATMOSPHERE

Source: Nyenje and Batelaan, 2009. “Groundwater flows underground until the water table intersects the land surface and the flowing water becomes surface water in the form of springs, streams/rivers, lakes and wetlands” (ERCA, 2014). “Baseflow is the continual contribution of groundwater to rivers and is important source of flow between rainstorms. Groundwater continues to discharge as baseflow because of the new recharge of rainwater in the landscape” (Ibid.).

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Figure 3.5 is a simplified illustration of a well-known ecosystem to point out interdependencies among water, soil, and the biotic (vegetation, animal life) and abiotic elements and biogeochemical processes. FIGURE 3.5: EAST AFRICAN WOODED SAVANNA ECOSYSTEM

Source: Gunther, 2014. FIGURE 3.6: SIMPLIFIED LOW TO MID-ALTITUDE FOREST ECOSYSTEM

Source: Exploring Nature, 2017. Similar taxa (species groups) and relationships of flora and fauna in the soil and terrestrial ecosystems occur in Ugandan forests. Tropical forest dynamics, composition, and function are sensitive to changes in climate, especially changes in rainfall. Soil chemical and physical characteristics are strongly related to aboveground productivity and forest structure and dynamics. Nutrient recycling is important. Belowground resource availability controls the above ground biomass and community structure.

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KEY FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND ECOLOGICAL SERVICES OF SOIL ECOSYSTEMS The functional groups within the soil ecosystem each play a particular role in the overall function and provisioning of ecosystem services of soils. According to Wall and Nielsen (2012), functional groups of soil biota include: Source: Wall and Nielsen, 2012  Microsymbionts, such as mycorrhizal-forming fungi and nitrogen-fixing bacteria, help plants acquire nutrients, which can increase plant productivity;  Decomposers help release nutrients from organic material, which promotes nutrient cycling;  Soil ecosystem engineers (ants, termites, worms) alter the physical soil structure (e.g., by burrowing and promoting the formation of micro- and macro- soil aggregates); Their activities increase soil stability, water holding capacity, and water infiltration rates and aeration, while also limiting soil erosion. TABLE 3.1: ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PROVIDED BY SOIL AND ITS BIOTA

Source: Wall & Nielsen, 2012. FEEDBACK MECHANISMS AMONG ABIOTIC ELEMENTS, SOIL, AND VEGETATION Figure 3.7 illustrates the interactions of key physical and biotic factors that determine the ecological response of plants to water (left) and the course of water flow through the soil-water-atmosphere continuum (right).

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FIGURE 3.7: HIERARCHY OF PLANT EFFECTS ON SOIL BIOTA AND VICE VERSA

Source: Wolters et al., 2000. The environmental factor most directly correlated with plant productivity is water. Plants are composed of water, carbon-containing organic compounds, and non-carbon-containing inorganic elements such as potassium and nitrogen. Water comprises a large percentage of a plant’s total weight and is used to support cell structure for metabolic functions, to carry nutrients, and for photosynthesis. Soil characteristics (edaphic factors) such as texture, nutrient composition, and depth are important factors to determine the competitive relationships and growth rates of plants. Not all plants have the same nutrient use efficiency (amount of nutrients used to produce a given amount of biomass). The role of herbivores in ecosystem productivity is extremely important largely because they consume photosynthetic tissue. Activities such as pollination, seed dispersal, and soil aeration are no less important but have less direct impact on productivity. Main threats to Uganda’s biodiversity:  Overharvesting;  Habitat loss, degradation, and modification;  Loss of genetic diversity and viable populations;  Climatic change; and  Invasive alien species.

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FIGURE 3.8: UGANDA BIODIVERSITY TRENDS FROM 1962-2008

Source: National Biodiversty Data Bank, 2008. MAJOR THREATS TO FOREST AND SAVANNA ECOSYSTEMS Main categories of threats to forests: Source: Plumptre et al., 2002  Hunting wild animals for meat;  Illegal harvesting of timber and other plant products;  Charcoal making;  Encroachment for farmland/habitat conversion; and  Mining. Main categories of threats to savannas: Source: Mugerwa and Zziwa, 2014  Encroachment and tree removal/habitat degradation;  Conversion to farmland (cropland and grazing lands/rangelands);  Overgrazing by domestic livestock;  Hunting wild animals (removes wildlife/ecosystem link);  Alteration of surface water patterns; and  Excessive burning.

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FIGURE 3.9: RANKINGS FROM 1 (HIGHEST) TO 5 (LOWEST) OF THE VARIOUS THREATS TO EACH OF THE FOREST RESERVES STUDIED IN UGANDA IN THE PRE-OIL EXPLORATION ERA

Source: Plumptre et al., 2002 The characteristics of East African grasslands and savannas (grassland with woody vegetation) are similar to those of other grassland systems globally. According to Speer (1995b), the unifying characteristics of grasslands include:

Source: Speer, 1995b  Porous soils with rapid water drainage;  Thin layer of humus (the organic portion of the soil created by partial decomposition of plant or animal matter), which provides vegetation with nutrients;  Predominant vegetation consists of grasses and forbs (small broad-leaved plants that grow with grasses);  Support for different grass species due to disparities in rainfall and soil conditions;  Deciduous trees and shrubs are scattered across the open landscape;  Usually only one or a few species of grass are more successful in a particular area due to thigh species diversity and competition; and  Presence of frequent fires and large grazing mammals kill seedlings, keeping tree and shrub densities low. LONG-TERM ECOLOGICAL VIABILITY OF ALBERTINE RIFT VALLEY In view of existing pressures, will the Albertine Rift Valley ecosystems, their dynamic processes, flora and fauna remain ecologically viable in the long term in the face of oil activities and infrastructure development? Is it prudent to think in terms of prevention and avoidance of “ecological collapse?” Ecological Extinction and Collapse Source: Estes et al., 1989  Ecological extinction: “the reduction of a species to such low abundance that, although it is still present in the community, it no longer interacts significantly with other species.”

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 “Unless a species interacts significantly with other species in the community (e.g., it is an important predator, competitor, symbiont, mutualist, or prey) its loss may result in little to no adjustment to the abundance and population structure of other species”  Ecological collapse: refers to a situation in which an ecosystem suffers a dramatic change which reduces its ability to sustain organisms dependent on that system. This is often accompanied by mass extinction.  Usually, an ecological collapse can be precipitated by a disastrous event occurring on a small time scale such as the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction of dinosaurs widely is believed to have been caused by the impact of an asteroid. Some examples of impacts identified during environmental and social impact analysis (ESIAs) at savanna oil exploration sites in Uganda:  Terrestrial and aquatic fauna and habitats: ‒ Sedimentation, erosion, or contamination of seasonal and permanent water sources with impacts on fauna and flora; ‒ Altering local hydrology via erosion, impeded drainage and pollution during road construction; and ‒ Pollution of aquatic ecosystems as a result of contamination of surface water by fuels, oils, and waste.  Geological resources: ‒ Compaction of soil in the area and loss of soil function; and ‒ Contamination of soil because of oil and chemical leakage from equipment and machinery. These are examples of impacts identified during oil exploration in savanna ecosystems of northwestern Uganda. How will areas under development for oil and gas production be affected, considering the infrastructure to be developed (pipelines, feeder roads, refinery, permanent workers’ communities, upgrading and enlargement of existing road networks, increased traffic, increased human population growth and need for basic natural resources?

REFERENCES Barbour, M.G., Burk, J.H. and W.D. Pitts. 1987. Terrestrial Plant Ecology, Second Edition. Menlo Park, California: The Benjamin Cummings Publishing Company, Inc. Braga, 1999. https://commdev.org/userfiles/files/1904_file_Integrating_Freshwater_Braga_Eng.pdf Darwall, W.R., & Vie, J.C. (2005). Identifying important sites for conservation of freshwater biodiversity: extending the species based approach. Fisheries Mgmt. Ecol. 12(5): 287-293. Essex Region Conservation Authority (ERCA). (2014). Essex Region Source Protected Area. Updated assessment report. “Water Protection Glossary.” Estes et al. The ecology of extinctions in kelp forest communities. Conservation Biology. 3: 252-264. 1989. Exploring Nature. (2017). Exploring Nature Science Education Resource. “Forest Food Webs.” Web. http://www.exploringnature.org/db/view/1812 Gunther, T. (2011). National Geographic Education Blog. “The Thorny Circle of Life.” Web. https://blog.education.nationalgeographic.com/2014/10/20/the-thorny-circle-of-life/

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http://www.essexregionsourcewater.org/downloads/2014/assessment-report-glossary.pdf Ingham, E. R. Soil Food Web, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053 868. Loeb, S. L. (1994). Biological Monitoring of Aquatic Systems. CRC Press. ISBN 0-87371-910-7. McGraw-Hill. (2009). Lake Zones. In: “Aquatic Habitats.” Biology 301 Ecology, Evolution, and Society. University of Texas. McGraw-Hill. (2017). A Food Web. In: “Food Webs”. Introductory Biology. University of Pennsylvania. Mugerwa, S. & Zziwa, E. (2014). Drivers of grassland ecosystems’ deterioration in Uganda. App. Sci. Report. 2(3): 103-111. National Biodiversity Data Bank. (2008). The state of Uganda’s biodiversity. Sixth biennial report. Eds. Pomeroy, D. & Tushabe, H. Nyenje, P.M. & Batelaan, O. (2009). Estimating the effects of climate change on groundwater recharge and baseflow in the upper Ssezibwa catchment, Uganda. Hydrological Sci. Jo. 54(1): 713-726. Plumptre, A.J., Masozera, M, Fashing, P.J., McNeilage, A., Ewango, C., Kaplin B., and Liengola, I. (2002). Biodiversity surveys of the Nyungwe Forest Reserve in S,W, Rwanda. Wildlife Conservation Society. Working Paper. No. 19. Speer, B. (1995a). UCMP Glossary 5: Ecology. “The Aquatic Biome.” University of California Berkeley. Spencer, B. (1995b). UCMP Glossary 5: Ecology. “The Grassland Biome.” University of California Berkeley. Vaccari, D. A. (2005). Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0-471-74178-7. Volkmar W,, Whendee L. S., Bignell, D.E., Coleman D.C., Lavelle, P., Van Der Putten, W.H., Van Veen, J.A. (2000). Effects of Global Changes on Above- and Belowground Biodiversity in Terrestrial Ecosystems: Implications for Ecosystem Functioning. BioScience. 50 (12): 1089- 1098. Wall, D. H. & Nielsen, U. N. (2012) Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Is It the Same Below Ground? Nature Education Knowledge 3(12):8

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LECTURE 4: SCALES OF CONSERVATION

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) Introduce the trainees the concepts of scales of biodiversity – at genetic, species, and population/ecosystem levels; and (ii) Equip the trainees with skills to identify the impacts of oil and gas development on biodiversity at these levels. Learning Outcomes The trainee will be able to: (i) Define the concepts and values of biodiversity: genes, species, and ecosystem diversity; (ii) Explain threats to conservation of biological diversity, including wild and domestic biodiversity; and (iii) Classify species using International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List criteria on the basis of threats. Outline of Lecture Content

Suggested Approach, Methods and Topic and Subtopic Equipment 1. Introduction Q&A to build on trainees’ experiences and knowledge

2. Elements of biodiversity Brainstorming as a class in plenary 3. Biodiversity in different contexts 4. Scales: How do we quantify biodiversity? Q&A to build on trainees’ experiences and knowledge 5. IUCN classification of species on the Mini-lecture on background to IUCN Red List; basis of threats handout on Ugandan species on the IUCN Red List

In groups, trainees are guided to prepare a list of locally threatened species. 6. Conservation planning strategies at the Group discussion followed by plenary with the landscape scale trainer filling gaps 7. Field work During a field trip, help trainees to identify some of the species on the IUCN Red List, but also those that are threatened locally. The trip is done in combination with other activities.

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DETAILED NOTES INTRODUCTION Definition of Biodiversity  The term biodiversity is short form for biotic diversity or biological diversity.  Biodiversity is our living legacy to future generations.  Biodiversity may be defined as the number, variety and variability of living organisms at all levels within a region. Levels of Diversity  There are three levels of diversity that are usually highlighted: a) Genetic diversity: the amount of genetic variation within a species; b) Species or organismal diversity: number of species within a region/ecosystem/habitat; and c) Ecosystem or ecological diversity—including functional variety and the variety of interactions: ‒ Variation among ecosystems, communities, landscapes; and ‒ Variation within ecosystems. Genetic Diversity  Genetic diversity may be described as “any measure that quantifies the magnitude of genetic variability within a population” (Hughes et al., 2008). Genetic diversity is a fundamental source of biodiversity, and may be described by discrete allelic states or continuous genetic traits (Hughes et al. 2008). Within an organism, the components that contribute to genetic diversity include nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA and RNA), alleles (variations within a gene), genes (codes for other molecules), and chromosomes (macromolecules containing genes in eukaryotic cells). The variation, organization, heritability, and diversity among and within these components contribute to multiple levels of genetic diversity (Hughes et al., 2008.). Genetic diversity provides raw material for evolution by natural selection (Fisher 1930). In order for evolution to occur, there must be genetic variation among the offspring produced; thus, the most “fit” genotypes and phenotypes will be selected from the population through natural selection (Dekker, 2005).  Genetic diversity may be caused by external or internal sources. External sources of genetic diversity are environmental changes, whereas internal changes are caused by mutation and recombination in chromosomes, genes, and DNA (Dekker, 2005). Mutation is defined as “a sudden heritable change in the genetic material, most often an alteration of a single gene by duplication, replacement, or deletion of a number of DNA base pairs” (Dekker, 2005).  “Mutations can be caused by copying errors in the genetic material during cell division and by exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses, or can occur deliberately under cellular control during processes such as meiosis or hypermutation. In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into germline mutations, which can be passed on to progeny, and somatic mutations, which cannot be transmitted to progeny. Mutations, when accidental, often lead to the malfunction or death of a cell and can cause cancer. Mutations are considered the driving force of evolution, where less favorable (or deleterious) mutations are removed from the gene pool by natural selection, while more favorable (beneficial or advantageous) ones tend to accumulate” (Maki, 2002).

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 Recombination results in new combinations of genes and is thus a secondary source of genetic diversity, and is defined as “any process that gives rise to a new combination of hereditary determinants, such as the re-assortment of parental genes during meiosis through crossing over; mixing in the offspring of the genes and chromosomes of their parents” (Dekker, 2005).  Evolutionary potential is determined by the amount of genetic variation. It varies across species depending on: ‒ Life history; ‒ Life span; ‒ Dispersal patterns; and ‒ Population size.

 Measures of genetic diversity: ‒ Phenotypes: . Can be used to measure genetic variation, e.g., eye color, blood type, flower color. ‒ Allozymes: . Variant forms of an enzyme coded for by different alleles at same locus. . Codominant markers considered neutral. . Can be influenced by natural selection. ‒ Microsatellites, aka Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs): . Poldymorphic loci in nuclear or organelle DNA. . Repeating units of one to six bases pairs. . Codominant markers considered neutral. ‒ Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs): . DNA sequence variation of a single nucleotide ATCG. . Co-dominant; opportunities for thousands of loci. ‒ Gene sequence: . Gene is a locatable region of genome region associated with a function. Species or Organismal Diversity  The species is the basic unit of biological classification: ‒ The mostly widely accepted definition of a species is “an individual belonging to a group of organisms having common characteristics and are capable of mating with one another to produce fertile offspring (UCMP, 2017). ‒ Although this general definition is widely accepted, there are a number of definitions of the “species concept:” . Morphological Species Concept: “species are the smallest groups that are consistently and persistently distinct, and distinguishable by ordinary means” (Cronquist, 1978).

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. Biological Species Concept (Isolation Concept): “groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups” Mayr (1942). . Mate Recognition Concept: “…that most inclusive population of individual biparental organisms which share a common fertilization [mate recognition] system” (Paterson, 1985). . Phylogenetic Species Concept: “A phylogenetic species is an irreducible (basal) cluster of organisms, diagnosably distinct from other such clusters, and within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent” (Cracraft, 1989). . Darwin’s concept: a term “arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other, and that it does not essentially differ from the term variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms” (Darwin, 1859).  Biodiversity is usually measured in terms of species.  Species diversity does not equal species richness. Species diversity may be defined as the “variety (number) of species and their relative abundance and distribution in a region where species richness only considers the variety of species in a region” (Raitt, 2017).  Species diversity does not equal taxonomic diversity. Taxonomic (or taxic) diversity refers to the “diversity of taxa higher in the classification hierarchy than the species. Thus if all the conditions of the species are the same, 2 species belonging to the same genus have a lower taxonomic diversity than 2 species belonging to different families while having the same amount of species diversity” (Raitt, 2017). Ecosystem or Ecological Diversity

 An ecosystem or ecological system is defined as a “functioning unit of interacting organisms (plant, animal, and microbe = biocoenosis) and “their interactions with their physical and chemical environment (biotope) often linked to an area” (Raitt, 2017).

 Ecosystem diversity is defined as the “variety of ecosystems within a bigger landscape and their variability over time” (Raitt, 2017).

 Ecological diversity is variously regarded as the “variety of ecosystems in an area and their interactions or intra-ecosystem variety” (Raitt, 2017). FIGURE 4.1: EXAMPLE OF INTERACTIONS IN FORM OF A FOOD WEB IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Source: Univ. of Colorado, 2004.

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ELEMENTS OF BIODIVERSITY Conservation can be viewed at different scales:  Local/micro level (habitat, species, and genetic diversity therein);  Ecosystem level (at a slightly larger level covering larger populations and communities sometimes traversing national boundaries);  Landscape level (several ecosystems interconnected with/interrelated to different interdependent species, ecosystems and resources such as a river basin); and  Biome level/phytochorion/regional center of endemism scale could cover an entire continent or even traverse neighboring continents. At the local level, we may be interested in a given species — say an endangered species or several of them and their habitat. Species conservation can achieve remarkable results within a relatively short time if the right interventions are put in place. However, because of the small population involved, the conserved species may soon suffer from habitat fragmentation and inbreeding. This may sooner or later cause the species to succumb to extinction pressure and disappear, unless numerous such efforts are taken within different localities, preferably interconnected by corridors. The beauty of local habitat conservation is that it usually involves a relatively small area within one country with similar policies. Therefore deciding appropriate conservation methods are much easier since there are fewer stakeholders and the same policy framework. At the ecosystem level, the scale is larger, sometimes crossing borders and international boundaries. Much can be achieved when you target a greater area comprised of numerous species and populations. An example of cross-border ecosystems is the mountain gorilla population that stretches between Uganda, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Larger areas that cross international boundaries require agreements to be made between the participating countries that may have varying interests. Decision-making can take longer and so can management interventions. As long as there is a clear understanding of the risk, it is usually possible for technical staff in the concerned countries to agree on scientific principles to inform management, as long as there is a conducive political environment. At the landscape level, we are looking at different ecosystems, habitats (some natural, others modified by human activities), and different forms of land use. For example, if we are interested in conserving a river basin, we have to interest ourselves in the different ecosystem types as well as land uses along the river, but also along its catchment area. These types may include mountains (with or without glaciers); montane forests on the lower slopes of the mountains and hills; forests (may be natural or plantations) on the lower slopes; agricultural land and farms lower down the slopes toward the plains and along the river; human settlements and urban areas within the catchment area, with associated infrastructure such as roads, industries along the catchment; the river deltas; and estuaries and the lake or sea in which the river empties its contents. Whereas there may be numerous genuine stakeholders in such a scenario, we may have to agree not whether farming will be allowed, but definitely on what farming methods will be used, soil and water conservation techniques, whether pesticides for example may be used and which ones and perhaps if used, how far from the river bank, especially if the river is a habitat of a diversity of aquatic species. Conservation of the lake or river ecosystem will therefore to a large extent depend on what is being done by these other stakeholders in the entire catchment area and much more can be achieved by them working together. A good example here is the Nile Basin Initiative that brings together all countries that are covered by the Nile Basin to agree on modalities of sustainable utilizing both the shared river, but also its entire catchment area. Needless to say many countries and stakeholders are involved and, as such, a lot of time is spent in negotiations and reaching agreement on what needs to be done. Being a greater area can be useful in attracting larger financial resources when all concerned pool their resources.

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At the biome level: Although different authors have given different definitions of biomes, there are some common convergences. In Africa, we talk about tropical rainforests, tropical seasonal forests/ savannas, tropical woodlands/scrublands, and tropical deserts/semi-deserts. Sometimes, effective conservation of biological diversity may require such a concerted effort that may require crossing continents and even call for global initiatives (United Nations Forum on Forests). This initiative requires international treaties or some other form of mutual understanding between involved countries. But we can also approach it continentally — to look at African rainforests for example, involving the African countries where there are rainforests. The effort is tremendous but so are the results as well, so long as you share a similar vision on where you want to go and the problems you want to solve. Concerns of this nature have led to negotiation and adoption as well implementation of several Multilateral Environment Agreements, such the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS). FIGURE 4.2: ELEMENTS OF BIODIVERSITY

Ecological Genetic Organismal Diversity Diversity Diversity

Biomes Kingdoms Bioregions Phyla Landscapes Families Ecosystems Genera Habitats Species Niches Subspecies Populations Populations Populations Individuals Individuals Chromosomes Genes Alleles Nucleotides Source: Heywood & Watson, 1995.  A biome is: ‒ The largest ecological unit; ‒ Determined by temperature and precipitation; and ‒ Defined by dominant vegetation.  An ecosystem is: ‒ Large ecological unit including biotic and abiotic components; ‒ Has different species composition that contributes to global species diversity; and ‒ Diversities vary in species richness.

 High diversity ecosystems include: ‒ Tropical rainforests; ‒ Temperate rainforests; ‒ Coral reefs; and ‒ Fynbos.

 Low diversity ecosystems include: ‒ Arctic tundra (trophic structure); and ‒ Florida Everglades (low nutrients).

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BIODIVERSITY IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS

 The definition given earlier defines biodiversity as a scientific concept.

 Biodiversity may also be considered as a social/political construct or in the context of measurement and quantification. The Social/Political Context of Biodiversity

 The term is used in science, the media, and parts of the public arena.

 Use is linked to the loss of the natural environment and its contents.

 In some instances, the word “biodiversity” is regarded as referring not only to the variety of life but also to the value of this life. Biodiversity is perceived as a value or as having a value. This link to conservation raises some issues: ‒ Biodiversity crisis; ‒ High biodiversity as measured by species richness does not equal high conservation priority; and ‒ How does one judge the success of conservation goals and actions?  Biodiversity may be viewed as a source of useful products. SCALES: HOW DO WE QUANTIFY BIODIVERSITY? There cannot be a single all-encompassing measure of biodiversity, but aspects of biodiversity may be quantified.

 The choice of what aspect of biodiversity to measure depends on the purpose the measurement will be used for.

 If the chosen aspect of biodiversity is not directly quantifiable, measuring something correlated to the aspect of interest is an option. This alternative is termed a surrogate measure: ‒ An example of a surrogate measure is the use of fossil family diversity as a surrogate for fossil species diversity. ‒ Species richness may be a surrogate measure for biodiversity.

 Several different ways of looking at biodiversity exist that may be quantified. Some Examples of Measures of Aspects of Biodiversity

 Most measures are concerned with either the genetic or the species level.

 Species richness (the number of species) at different scales is a frequently used measure of biodiversity: ‒ This measure is usually taxon related or limited, e.g., the number of plant or animal species without considering microbes.

 Indices may be based on models of diversity: ‒ The Shannon-Wiener Index is a commonly used diversity index. It is also known as the Shannon Index or the Shannon-Weaver Index. The Shannon Index is a non-parametric index of species diversity used to compare the biodiversity of different areas.

 Biomass measures productivity – a different aspect of biodiversity. In plants, it may be limited to the aboveground biomass.

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 Alpha diversity (α diversity) is the species richness within a community or habitat.

 Beta diversity (β diversity) measures “the rate and extent of change in species” composition along a gradient between habitats.

 Gamma diversity (γ diversity) is the species richness “of a range of habitats in” a given area, which comprises “the α diversity of the habitats” combined “with the extent of the β diversity between them.” Perceptions of Biodiversity Biodiversity may be viewed in the context of:

 Evolutionary time;

 Radiation of species or other taxa from a single ancestor;

 Diversity within a selected taxon over time;

 Total number of species that have ever existed; or

 Biodiversity may be regarded “as a characteristic of natural communities.” FIGURE 4.3: THE PHYLOGENETIC TREE OF BIODIVERSITY

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Source: Pennisi et al., 2003.  Biodiversity may be considered globally and collectively: ‒ Approximately 1.4 to1.8 million species have been described. ‒ How many species are there in total at present? This is the current researcher’s question. New species are being discovered or described every day. ‒ How much we know about biodiversity depends on location and taxon. ‒ One may look at where biodiversity is concentrated.

 The numbers of species tend to increase as one moves toward the equator. Biodiversity and Extinctions

 The classical Big Five mass extinctions identified by Raup and Sepkoski (1982) are widely agreed upon as some of the most significant: End Ordovician, Late Devonian, End Permian, End Triassic, and End Cretaceous (Swarts, 2014).

 These and a selection of other extinction events are highlighted below: Source: Swarts, 2014 . 488 million years ago — a series of mass extinctions at the Cambrian-Ordovician transition (the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events) eliminated many brachiopods and conodonts and severely reduced the number of trilobite species (Swarts, 2014). . 444 million years ago — at the Ordovician-Silurian transition, two Ordovician-Silurian extinction events occurred, probably as the result of a period of glaciation. Marine habitats changed drastically as sea levels decreased, causing the first die-off; another occurred between 500 thousand to a million years later, when sea levels rose rapidly. It has been suggested that a gamma ray burst may have triggered this extinction (Swarts, 2014). . 360 million years ago — near the Devonian-Carboniferous transition (the Late Devonian extinction), a prolonged series of extinctions led to the elimination of about 70 percent of all species. This was not a sudden event, with the period of decline lasting perhaps as long as 20 million years. However, there is evidence for a series of extinction pulses within this period (Swarts, 2014). . 251 million years ago — at the Permian-Triassic transition (the Permian-Triassic extinction event) about 95 percent of all marine species went extinct. This catastrophe was Earth’s worst mass extinction, killing 53 percent of marine families, 84 percent of marine genera, and an estimated 70 percent of land species (including plants, insects, and vertebrate animals) (Swarts, 2014). . 200 million years ago — at the Triassic-Jurassic transition (the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event), about 20 percent of all marine families as well as most non-dinosaurian archosaurs, most therapsids, and the last of the large amphibians were eliminated (Swarts, 2014). . 65 million years ago — at the Cretaceous-Paleogene transition (the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event) about 50 percent of all species became extinct (including all non-avian dinosaurs). This extinction is widely believed to have resulted from an asteroid or comet impact event (Swarts, 2014). . Present day — the Holocene extinction event. A 1998 survey by the American Museum of Natural History found that 70 percent of biologists view the present era as part of a mass extinction event, the fastest to have ever occurred. Some, such as E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, predict that man’s destruction of the biosphere could cause the extinction of one-half of all species in the next 100 years (Swarts, 2014).

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. Research and conservation efforts, such as the IUCN’s annual Red List of threatened species, all point to an ongoing period of enhanced extinction, though some offer much lower rates and hence longer time scales before the onset of catastrophic damage. The extinction of many megafauna near the end of the most recent ice age is also sometimes considered a part of the Holocene extinction event” (Swarts, 2014). Other Terms and Definitions

 Keystone vs. dominant species: . Keystone species are defined as “a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance”, and as a result, play a critical role in maintaining the structure of ecological communities (Paine, 1995). Classic examples: . Wolves and other predators maintaining community equilibrium; . Starfish as keystone predator and intertidal food webs; and . Tropical figs as keystone resource.

 Keystone predators: . Maintain species diversity by stabilizing the food web and preventing competition (e.g., lions, fish eagles, crocodiles).

 Dominant species: . The more complex the community structure, the more likely there will be a dominant species (e.g., coniferous forest, temperate deciduous forest versus tropical rain forest). . Dominant species can also promote diversity (such as oaks). IUCN CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES ON THE BASIS OF THREATS The Concept of Endemism, Rarity, and Threats among Species of Biodiversity

• A species is said to be endemic to a given geographical area if it is known to naturally exist only in that particular area, such as Encephalartos whitelockii ( river gorge south of ); Aloe mubendiensis (granite rock outcrops in the Mubende to Kyenjojo area); Cercopithecus l’hoestii (Albertine rift); Distylodon comptum (Budongo forest); and kangaroos (Australia).

• A species is said to be rare if its total population and number of individuals is relatively low compared with other species. A species can be globally rare, but locally abundant with restricted range, or made up of few individuals scattered over a wide range.

• Rarity can be: ‒ Natural (for example, predators are naturally less than their prey in numbers, or because of inefficient means of reproduction such as in Cycads—male and female plants separate and pollinated by a specific species of beetle per Cycad species); ‒ Dispersal, such as Guarea cedrata or G. Mayombensis (producing heavy seeds that can move naturally, and having no edible part on the fruit to attract large animal dispersal); ‒ Because of the restrictive nature of their natural habitats, inhabiting rare habitats; or ‒ Human induced, for example as a result of overexploitation, and fragmentation, and destruction of pollinators.

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• A species can be rare but have a stable or growing population; or be rare and have a decreasing population, in which case it is regarded as “Threatened,” whereby it may become extinct if the cause of threat is not removed or controlled. The IUCN Threat Categories The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria were developed for use at the global level (to assess the risk that taxa would become globally extinct). Source: IUCN, 2012 1. Extinct (EX) – A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form. 2. Extinct in the Wild (EW) – A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form. 3. Critically Endangered (CR) – A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Critically Endangered and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. 4. Endangered (EN) – A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Endangered, and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. 5. Vulnerable (VU) – A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Vulnerable, and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild 6. Near Threatened (NT) – A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future. 7. Least Concern (LC) –A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. 8. Data Deficient (DD) --A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat. Reading Assignment What criteria qualify a species for each of the threat categories (CR, EN, or VU) under the IUCN?

 The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria were developed for use at the global level (to assess the risk of taxa becoming globally extinct).

 The criteria can be applied at sub-global levels, but it is essential to note that they were not originally designed for this purpose. However, IUCN developed a set of guidelines to help national and regional red listers to apply the criteria at these levels.

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 Only the status of wild populations in the natural range are considered when assessing taxa. (Captive populations and populations introduced for reasons other than conservation are NOT included in the assessment.) The assessment reflects the status of taxa in their natural habitat.

 All described taxa can be assessed using the IUCN system, and in some cases we will accept assessments of undescribed taxa, but only if these are clearly distinct species (description may already be under way), voucher references are supplied with the assessment, information is available on the range of the species and there is a conservation benefit to including the taxon on the Red List. (DD and LC undescribed species are not accepted for inclusion on the Red List.) The CITES Threat Categories/CITES Appendices The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an international treaty that aims at protecting species that are threatened through international trade, leading to unsustainable utilization, that could lead to their extinction if no protective measures are instituted. In light of nature of the threat (international trade), parties to the treaty commit themselves to help each other through a system of cooperative enforcement of the treaty across international borders. The species are listed into three different appendices, each having its distinct level of protection and a set of criteria that are used to determine which species qualifies for which Appendix. Appendix I is the most Endangered and therefore the most protected, with trade in Appendix I virtually being prohibited except under very exceptional circumstances, which have to be approved by the meeting of the Conference of Parties to the Convention.  Appendix I includes all species threatened with extinction, where trade must be subjected to particularly strict regulation, and only authorized in exceptional circumstances (such as All Ugandan Cycads: Encephalartos equatorialis, E. whitelockii, E. septentrionalis and E. macrostrobilus); and African Elephants (Loxodonta africana), Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei), and Black and White Rhinoceros species as examples.  Appendix II includes those species that are not necessarily threatened now with extinction, but that may become threatened unless trade is strictly regulated (all Ugandan orchids, aloe species, and Prunus Africana). Appendix II also includes the “look-alike species,” those that are likely to be confused with those already listed under CITES. Trade in Appendix II species and their specimens is allowed but with special permits issued by the CITES Management Authority of the country of origin of such species, which are issued only after the Scientific Authority responsible for conservation of the species in question has confirmed that the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild.  Appendix III contains species that are subject to regulation within the jurisdiction of a party and for which cooperation of other parties is needed to control the trade in the country where it is under risk. Trade in Appendix III species is allowed provided the specimen is accompanied by a Certificate of Origin issued by the Management Authority of the exporting country, confirming that the specimen being exported is NOT from the country that has listed it (where it is threatened).

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FIGURE 4.4: CYCADS: SOME OF THE IUCN AND CITES LISTED SPECIES

Left: Encephalartos whitelockii (Whitelock’s cycad) in its natural habitat; Kanara village above the River Mpanga gorge, , about 23 km south of Kamwenge town; Photo by David Hafashimana (November 2004). Critically Endangered (since 2010) B1ab(ii,iii,v)+2ab(ii,iii,v) ; previously regarded VU (2003). Right: Encephalartos species (spp.) in Ex Situ environment; Photo by: David Hafashimana (January 2, 2016) CONSERVATION PLANNING STRATEGIES AT THE LANDSCAPE SCALE

 Ecosystems have no hard boundaries. As such, it is most times prudent to conserve the biodiversity that inhabits these ecosystems at a larger scale such as landscapes.

 Some species (such as elephants) require wide areas larger that small ecosystems for ranging in their lifetime; as such, they may require landscapes/corridors between ecosystems to survive. Biodiversity Conservation Landscape/Corridors

 This biologically and strategically defined sub-regional space is selected as a unit for large-scale conservation planning and implementation purposes. It is defined by: ‒ Scale; ‒ Connectivity; ‒ Resilience; ‒ Broad-scale threats; and ‒ Human welfare. Principles for Landscape/Corridor Delineation  Areas necessary to conserve globally threatened species.

 Areas necessary to conserve area-demanding species or the persistence of key ecological processes on threatened species or key biodiversity areas depend.

 As a strategic space for conservation action, to address proactively existing and emerging threats to biodiversity from different scales and incorporate conservation into development planning: ‒ Boundaries are to capture a system of key biodiversity areas, connectivity, areas required for viable populations and ecological processes, and strategic areas for responding to threats or tackling development priorities. Objectives of a Corridor Strategy

 Persistence of wide-ranging species and ecological processes.

 Balancing with local social and economic development and cultural priorities and dynamics.

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 Forward thinking to anticipate future changes.

 Maintain resiliency of socio-economic strategies – coping mechanisms, natural buffers. Examples of Landscape/Corridor Conservation in the Region

 Greater Virunga Landscape.

 Murchison-Semliki Landscape.

REFERENCES Cracraft, J. (1989). Speciation and its ontology: the empirical consequences of alternative species concepts for understanding patterns and processes of differentiation. Speciation and its Consequences, 28-59. Cronquist, A. (1978). Once again, what is a species? In Symposium on Biosystematics in Agriculture. Beltsville, Md.(USA). 8-11 May 1977. Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of the species by natural selection. Dekker, J. (2005). “Genetic Diversity.” Agronomy 517 Weed Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. Iowa State University. Web, Fisher, R. A. (1930). The distribution of gene ratios for rare mutations. Proc. R. Soc. Edinb 50: 205- 220. Hughes, A. R., Inouye, B. D., Johnson, M. T., Underwood, N., & Vellend, M. (2008). Ecological consequences of genetic diversity. Ecology letters, 11(6), 609-623. IUCN. (2012). IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 3.1. Second edition. Maki H. (2002). Origins of spontaneous mutations: specificity and directionality of base-substitution, frameshift, and sequence-substitution mutagenesis. Annual Review of Genetics 36:279-303. Mayr, E. (1942). Systematics and the origin of species, from the viewpoint of a zoologist. Harvard University Press. Paine, R.T. (1995). “A Conversation on Refining the Concept of Keystone Species”. Conservation Biology. 9 (4): 962–964. Paterson, H. E. (1985). The recognition concept of species. Harvard University Press. Pennisi, E. (2003). Modernizing the tree of life. Science 300(5626): 1692-1697. Raitt, G. (2017). “Notes towards biodiversity chapter 1.” Studylib. Web. http://studylib.net/doc/7878365/talk Raup, D. M., & Sepkoski, J. J. (1982). Mass extinctions in the marine fossil record. Science, 215(4539), 1501-1503. Swarts, R. (2014). “Mass Extinction.” New World Encyclopedia. Web. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Mass_extinction&oldid=981152. Univ. of Colorado. (2004). “Got Energy?: Spinning a food web.” Biology Lesson. Teach Engineering. Web. https://www.teachengineering.org/activities/view/cub_bio_lesson03_activity1 University of California Museum of Paleontology (UCMP). (2008). Understanding Evolution. Web. http://evolution.berkeley.edu/

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LECTURE 5: ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND TROPHIC WEBS

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) To provide a basic understanding of concepts related to ecology to serve as a foundation for understanding ecological diversity; (ii) To clarify commonly misused or misunderstood terms and concepts; and (iii) To highlight importance of including trophic diversity and ecological decay processes in resource management planning and monitoring. Learning Outcomes The trainee will be able to: (i) Articulate selected concepts in ecological diversity. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment 1. Introduction Q&A to identify the key elements combined with a mini lecture giving an overview of ecological diversity 2. Concepts of ecological diversity Outline the concepts and ask trainees to use their knowledge and experience to show how the concepts play out in practice. 3. Terrestrial biome: tropical Use a real-life case study to identify the key rainforest components. 4. Deciduous forests and grasslands Use a real-life case study to identify the key components. 5. Ecological diversity and sampling Demonstration and practice intensity 6. Ecological diversity as an index of Use a real-life case study to identify the key ecosystem health components. 7. Ecological diversity includes trophic Use a real-life case study to identify the key levels components. 8. Example of a trophic cascade in a Use a real-life case study to identify the key marine environment components. 9. Decomposers and detritivores in Use a real-life case study to identify the key terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems components. 10. Field practice Visit a nearby ecosystem to observe the application of the concepts in practice. Preferably the ecosystem chosen should be having most of the elements discussed above.

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DETAILED NOTES INTRODUCTION Key Elements of Biodiversity FIGURE 5.1: ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: A KEY ELEMENT OF BIODIVERSITY

Source: Sodhi and Ehrlich, 2010. Ecological Diversity  “Encompasses the scales of ecological differences from populations, through habitats, to ecosystems, ecoregions, provinces, and on up to biomes and biogeographic realms” (Sodhi and Ehrlich, 2010).  While this element of biodiversity is perhaps the most immediately apparent to people, it is not always obvious where one habitat, ecosystem, etc. ends and another begins.  Consequently, numerous methods have been developed to distinguish among the elements of ecological biodiversity, with considerable variation in their results.  This is complicated by the fact that some of the elements of ecological diversity have both abiotic and biotic components. CONCEPTS OF ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Source: Magurran 1988  Ecological diversity: ‒ Includes the variation in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems; ‒ Is the largest scale of biodiversity, and within each ecosystem, there is a great deal of both species and genetic diversity; ‒ Considers the variation in the complexity of a biological community, including the number of different niches, the number of trophic levels, and other ecological processes; ‒ Includes the variety and the relative abundance of species; the niche width describing the diversity of resources that an organism (or species) utilizes; and ‒ Habitat diversity, which measures the structural complexity of the terrestrial or aquatic environment or the number of communities present;  No community consists of species of equal abundance. Normally, the majority of species are rare, while a number are moderately common, with the few remaining species being very abundant.

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TERRESTRIAL BIOME: TROPICAL RAINFOREST FIGURE 5.2: THE BIOMES OF THE WORLD

Source: Moeller, 2017. FIGURE 5.3: DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION TYPES AS A FUNCTION OF MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITAITON

Source: Forseth, 2010.

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FIGURE 5.4: TERRESTRIAL BIOME

Source: Ayensu, 1980. DECIDUOUS FORESTS AND GRASSLANDS FIGURE 5.5: FORESTS: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIRD SPECIES DIVERSITY, PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY AND STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY (FOLIAGE HEIGHT) IN A DECIDUOUS FOREST IN EASTERN USA

Source: Magurran, 1988. Terrestrial Biome: Grasslands (Savannas) Source: Forseth, 2010 Savannas cover 60 percent of Africa and represent a transition from tropical forests to deserts;  Trees are usually drought deciduous. Several savanna types associated with differing rainfall patterns, height of the water table, and soil depth can be distinguished by their relative abundance of trees and grass.

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 Fire plays a major role in the balance between trees and grasses. Fires release nutrients in dead plant litter. Soil usually insulates seeds and belowground rhizomes of grasses from fire damage.  Up to 60 percent of the vegetation biomass is consumed in a given year by the rich diversity of herbivores.  Dung beetles are important components of the nutrient cycle by breaking down animal droppings. Herbivore density is mirrored by a great variety of predators and scavengers. FIGURE 5.6: TERRESTRIAL BIOME: A TREE SAVANNA IN

Source: National Geographic Society, 2012. There are many different components of the plant and animal communities, including insects and belowground organisms in the ecosystem. Savannas are located north and south of tropical forest biomes and are characterized by lower yearly rainfall and longer dry seasons. Grasslands are often found in between deserts and forests, and are called transitional biomes; current desert or forested areas may have been grasslands meanwhile current grasslands may transition into these land cover types based on temperature, precipitation, grazing, and fire (Bittner, 2017). Grasslands grade into deciduous forest biomes on their wetter margins, and deserts on their drier margins. “The type of grassland community that develops, and the productivity of grasslands, depends strongly upon precipitation. Higher precipitation leads to tall grass prairie with a high biodiversity of grasses and forbs. Lower precipitation leads to short grass prairies and arid grasslands” (Explore Biodiversity, 2003). “Many of the world’s largest terrestrial animals are found in grasslands. Disturbances due to grazers increase local biodiversity by creating openings that rare species can colonize. Large grazers also accelerate plant decomposition through their droppings, creating nutrient hotspots that alter species composition (“Explore Biodiversity, 2003).

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ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND SAMPLING INTENSITY Studying ecological diversity is related to sampling intensity. FIGURE 5.7: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF VASCULAR PLANT SPECIES RECORDED AND SAMPLING EFFORT, IN WALK SURVEYS AND QUADRAT SURVEYS CARRIED OUT IN A WOODLAND IN APRIL

Source: Magurran, 1988. FIGURE 5.8: DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE INDICES: FISH DIVERSITY IN THE ARABIAN GULF

Source: Magurran, 1988.

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The above graphic emphasizes the importance of long-term sampling to yield the most accurate estimate of species diversity and abundance. It has been proposed that species communities can be divided into three classes: rare species (65 percent) of the total, species with intermediate population sizes (25 percent), and very abundant species (10 percent). ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AS AN INDEX OF ECOSYSTEM HEALTH FIGURE 5.9: ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS: DIVERSITY AS AN INDEX OF ECOSYSTEM HEALTH. FISH DIVERSITY AND POLLUTION

Source: Magurran, 1988. The above graphic shows that the diversity of fish in Galveston Bay, Texas, USA, increased with increasing distance from Baytown, a site of considerable effluent discharge. The measurement of diversity can be applied to: 1. Conservation: species-rich communities are better than species-poor ones; and 2. Environmental monitoring: the assumption is that adverse effects of pollution will be reflected in a reduction in diversity or by a change in the shape of the species abundance distribution. ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY INCLUDES TROPHIC LEVELS Source: Primack, 1998  Biological communities are organized into trophic levels that represent ways in which energy is obtained from the environment: ‒ Photosynthetic species (primary producers) obtain energy directly from the sun. In terrestrial ecosystems, higher plants (such as flowering plants, gymnosperms, and ferns) are responsible for most photosynthesis. In aquatic ecosystems, seaweeds, single-celled algae, and blue-green algae are most important. ‒ Herbivores (primary consumers) eat photosynthetic species. For example, gazelles and grasshoppers eat grass, and crustaceans and fish eat algae. ‒ Carnivores (secondary consumers or predators) eat other animals. Primary carnivores (e.g., foxes) eat herbivores (e.g., rabbits); secondary carnivores (fish) eat other carnivores (frogs).

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‒ Omnivores (mixed diet generalists) combine direct predation with scavenging behavior and plant foods in their diet (e.g., jackals). ‒ Parasites, pest, and disease-causing organisms form an important subclass of predators. Parasites are important in controlling densities of prey species, including animals and plants. ‒ Detritivores (decomposers) are species that feed on dead plant and animal tissues and wastes, breaking down complex tissues and organic molecules. The most important are fungi and bacteria, but a wide range of species play a role. Examples of detritivores: vultures and other scavengers tear apart and feed on dead animals; dung beetles feed on and bury animal dung; and worms break down fallen leaves and other organic matter. If detritivores were not present to release mineral nutrients by breaking down organic matter, plant growth would decline greatly. FIGURE 5.10: A MODEL OF A FIELD ECOSYSTEM SHOWING THE TROPHIC LEVELS AND SIMPLIFIED ENERGY PATHWAYS

Source: Primack, 1998. “Energy and matter move up trophic chains, and some compounds, including various toxins, may bio-accumulate at upper trophic levels. The concept of trophic level has generated a sizeable literature yielding useful ecological models, such as trophic cascades, and debates about top-down versus bottom-up regulation of herbivores” (Dyer, 2012). Trophic cascade is defined as “an

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ecological phenomenon triggered by the addition or removal of top predators and involving reciprocal changes in the relative populations of predator and prey through a food chain, which often results in dramatic changes in ecosystem structure and nutrient cycling” (Carpenter, 2010). EXAMPLE OF A TROPHIC CASCADE IN A MARINE ENVIRONMENT Source: Silliman and Angelini, 2012  Aleutian Islands and Alaska: sea otters, sea urchins, and kelp algae;  Sea otters, which feed on sea urchins, were hunted to near extinction;  Sea urchins graze on kelp, a microalgae, which forms an ecosystem;  Where sea otters were absent, the herbivorous urchins overgrazed kelp, creating barren areas where kelp “forests” formerly existed; and  After sea otters were reintroduced and expanded into new areas, kelp ecosystems recovered as the otters predated the urchin populations. FIGURE 5.11: SEA OTTER AND SEA URCHIN

Sea otter, (Enhydra lutris) eating sea urchin Source: Vancouver Aquarium, 2015

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DECOMPOSERS AND DETRITIVORES IN TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS FIGURE 5.12: MICROFAUNA COMMUNITIES: DIVERSITY OF DETRITIVORES, DECOMPOSERS AND MICROBIVORES IN TERRESTRIAL AND SOIL ECOSYSTEMS

Source: Malcolm, 2013. Other examples of trophic levels in soil ecosystems include: Microherbivores (feed on bacteria and fungi); Resources of decomposers: Dead bodies of animals/carrion; feces and other excreted products; and dead plant material.

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FIGURE 5.13: DIVERSITY OF DETRITIVORES IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS: A FRESHWATER INVERTEBRATE FEEDING GUILD

Source: Malcolm, 2013. In freshwater ecosystems, detritivores are diverse and separate into different guilds. Together, this community breaks down detritus in a stream or lake. Detritivores feed on dead or dying plant or animal material once it has been fragmented and processed to varying extents by both decomposers and physical even

FIELD PRACTICE  Attendees will divide into smaller working groups.  Each working group will select a specific terrestrial or aquatic site in the Albertine Graben, create an outline of trophic levels for the site, and identify threats, the potential for trophic cascades because of development impacts, and particular monitoring needs for each site.

REFERENCES) Ayensu, E.S., ed. (1980 The Life and Mysteries of the Jungle. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. Bittner, S. (2017). “Grasslands.” Boundless Biomes. Ask a Scientist. Arizona State University. Web. http://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/grassland Brown, J.H. (1995). Macroecology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press Carpenter, S. (2010). “Trophic Cascade.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., Trophic Cascade, https://www.britannica.com/science/trophic-cascade

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Dyer, L.A. (2012) “Trophic Cascade.” Oxford Bibliogrpahics. Oxford University Press. Web. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199830060/obo- 9780199830060-0075.xml Explore Biodiversity. (2003). “Grasslands.” Biomes of the World. The Wild Classroom. Web. http://www.thewildclassroom.com/biomes/grasslands.html Forseth, I. (2010) Terrestrial Biomes. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):11 Ingham, E. R. Soil Food Web, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053 868. Magurran, A.E. (1988). Ecological Diversity and Its Measurement. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press Malcolm, S. (2013). “Lecture 12: Decomposition and Detritivory.” BIOS 3010:Ecology Lecture. Western Michigan University. accessed at: http://homepages.wmich.edu/~malcolm/BIOS3010-ecology/Lectures/L12-Bios3010.pdf Moeller, K. (2017). “Boundless Biomes.” Ask a Scientist. Arizona State University. Web. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/biomes 2 National Geographic Society. (2012). “African Savanna.” Nat Geo Education. Web. http://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/african-savanna-illustration/ Primack, R.B. (1998). Essentials of Conservation Biology. Second Edition. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. Silliman, B. R. and Angelini, C. (2012) Trophic Cascades across Diverse Plant Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):44. Sodhi, N.S. and P.R. Ehrlich, eds. (2010). Conservation Biology for All. Oxford University Press Inc., New York, New York, USA Vancouver Aquarium Aquablog. (2014). http://www.aquablog.ca/2014/10/sea-otters-a-natural-history/

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LECTURE 6: BELOWGROUND BIODIVERSITY

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) Provide a basic understanding of concepts related to soil ecosystems to enhance understanding of potential impacts of development on soils; (ii) Clarify commonly misused or misunderstood terms and concepts; and (iii) Highlight importance of including belowground biodiversity in resource management planning, monitoring, and research design. Learning Outcomes The participants will be able to: (i) Describe the examples, key functions and interactions of soil ecosystems and soil biota; (ii) Explain the impact of climate and climate change on the above and belowground biodiversity; and (iii) Advocate for consideration of belowground biodiversity in development projects. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment 1. Belowground biodiversity and ecosystem Lecture, Q&A on the basis of trainees’ functioning knowledge and experiences 2. Soil ecosystems and belowground Lecture, Q&A on the basis of trainees’ biodiversity knowledge and experiences 3. Key functional groups of soil biota Lecture, Q&A on the basis of trainees’ knowledge and experiences 4. Key species in soil communities Lecture, Q&A on the basis of trainees’ knowledge and experiences 5. Interaction between above- and Lecture, Q&A, and group discussions on the basis belowground organisms on research papers done on the subject 6. Soil organisms, nutrient cycling, and the Lecture, Q&A on the basis of trainees’ soil-water-atmosphere system knowledge and experiences 7. Soil community macro-ecology Lecture, Q&A on the basis of trainees’ knowledge and experiences 8. Belowground biodiversity and ecosystem Lecture, Q&A on the basis of trainees’ services knowledge and experiences 9. Effects of global climate change on Lecture, buzz groups above- and belowground biodiversity 10. Field exercise Physically examine some components of belowground biodiversity.

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DETAILED NOTES BELOWGROUND BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING  All terrestrial biodiversity depends on the “terre” (French for soil), which is influenced by temperature regulation, flood regulation, availing food nutrients through leaf litter, and mineral leachates.  The biodiversity of underground soil influences the aboveground soil.  Aboveground impacts such as deforestation, soil erosion, flooding, fire, oil spill, and general pollution affect the soil biota.  Soil ecosystems and belowground biodiversity are highly diverse with numerous organisms in the soil that play a major role in the functioning of the soil and aboveground ecosystems. Each functional group plays a specific role in the overall function and provisioning of ecosystem services of soils. FIGURE 6.1: SELECTION OF BELOWGROUND ORGANISMS

The selection of organisms includes ectomycorrhizal (a) and decomposer fungi (b), bacteria (c), nematode (d), tardigrade (e), collembolan (f), mite (g), enchytraeid worm (h), millipede (i), centipede (j), earthworm (k), ants (l), woodlice (m), flatworm (n) and mole (o). Source: Bardgett and van der Putten, 2014. Source: Bardgett and Van der Putten, 2014  “The immense diversity of microorganisms and animals that live belowground contributes significantly to shaping aboveground biodiversity and the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems;”  “Our understanding of how this belowground biodiversity is distributed, and how it regulates the structure and functioning of terrestrial ecosystems, is rapidly growing;”  “Soil biodiversity plays a key role in determining the ecological and evolutionary responses of terrestrial ecosystems to current and future environmental change.”

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SOIL ECOSYSTEMS AND BELOWGROUND BIODIVERSITY  Range of soil biota: – Single-celled microorganisms such as bacteria; – Nematodes live in water film on surface of soil aggregates; – Soil fungi (including root ecto- and endo-mycorrhizal fungi); – Underground higher plants, such as root parasites (such as Hydnora species, Thonningia species); – Micro-arthropods that live in air-filled soil pores; – Larger soil animals, such as earthworms, termites, ants, and other ecosystem engineers that can manipulate the soil structure and create their own habitat; and – Leaf litter fauna (mollusks, land crabs) and burrowing animals such as rodents.  “This biota plays a large role in the regulation of many of the processes occurring in soils and the services that depend on them” (Wall and Nielsen, 2012);  “Soil biota are essential for biogeochemical cycling, which supports plant production and also affect global climate regulation, primarily by influencing global carbon dynamics” (Wall and Nielsen, 2012). KEY FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF SOIL BIOTA  Each functional group plays a particular role in the overall function and provisioning of ecosystem services of soils.  Microsymbionts, such as mycorrhizal-forming fungi and nitrogen-fixing bacteria, help plants acquire nutrients which can increase plant productivity.  Decomposers help release nutrients from organic material, which promotes nutrient cycling.  Soil ecosystem engineers, burrowing micro-invertebrates such as ants, termites, and worms), alter the physical soil structure (e.g., by burrowing and promoting the formation of micro- and macro-aggregates), which may increase soil stability, water-holding capacity, water infiltration rates and aeration, while also limiting soil erosion.  Burrowing macroinvertebrates: reptiles, amphibians, and mammals. Digging and burrowing change soil temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability to the extent that these disturbances increase environmental heterogeneity.

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FIGURE 6.2: MICROARTHROPOD SOIL BIOTA

Microarthropods extracted from a single soil core measuring 3.5 cm diameter and 5 cm depth collected in a woodland, Scotland. Abundances often amount to several hundreds of thousands of individuals per square meter. Source: Wall and Nielsen, 2012. KEY SPECIES IN SOIL COMMUNITIES Source: Wall and Nielsen, 2012 Key species in soil communities have a disproportionately large effect on function compared with the number of species.  Earthworms facilitate decomposition by fragmenting litter, thus increasing the surface area and preconditioning the litter for decomposition by other invertebrates and the microbial community;  Earthworms redistribute the fragmented litter and enhance the soil structure by burrowing (e.g., increase aeration, water infiltration);  Some species of termites have a comparable function in savannas;  Through physical and chemical transformation of soil, arthropods (animals with an exoskeleton and segmented body) and nematodes (worms) provide modified habitats for soil microorganisms and other soil fauna; playing an important role in the cycling of nutrients; and  Rhizobia (a group of bacteria) are micro-symbionts of plants which influence primary productivity in ecosystems. Belowground Organisms Modify the Environment for Aboveground Species and Vice Versa Source: Hooper et al., 2000  “Aboveground diversity promotes belowground diversity by increasing the variety of food resources (litter quality and composition), the range of environmental conditions (temperature, humidity), or the structural complexity of habitats;”  “A high diversity of resources and species in soil feedback to a high diversity aboveground, where certain species or functional groups are closely linked to groups belowground, such as endomycorrhizal fungal species and plant diversity;”  “In soils, termites, earthworms, and ants mix organic and mineral materials to form organomineral complexes that influence soil structure and fundamental soil processes; and”  “Invasion or extinction of burrowing macroinvertebrates (reptiles, amphibians, and mammals) have strong effects on plants in ecosystems where soil engineers play a role.

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INTERACTION BETWEEN ABOVE- AND BELOWGROUND ORGANISMS Interactions between aboveground and belowground biodiversity: Source: Hooper et al., 2000  “The numbers of plant and animal species above and belowground may be correlated when direct ecological linkages exist, in which case the diversity is considered causally related.”  “Aboveground diversity promotes belowground diversity, or vice versa, by increasing the variety of food resources (litter quality, composition), the range of environmental conditions (temperature, humidity), or the structural complexity of habitats.”  “Plant diversity leads to increased diversity of mutualistic soil microflora, the first link of a cascade of effects resulting in increased diversity of other soil animal groups.”  “The complexes influence soil structure and fundamental soil processes such as carbon mineralization, carbon sequestration in complex organic matter, nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and other processes which are determinants of plant growth.  These physical, chemical, and biotic modifications lead to environments to which plant roots are attracted or in which seeds may germinate, potentially feeding back to aboveground diversity.” FIGURE 6.3: WATER TRANSPORT IN VEGETATION

The course of water flow through the soil-water-atmosphere system and vulnerability to potential contamination of water and soil. Source: Barbour, Burk, and Pitts, 1987. The above diagram shows the interactions of the physical and biotic factors that are the most important in determining the ecological response of plants to water. A continuous path for water exists from the soil, through the root, stem, and leaf, and into the atmosphere. The figure illustrates the feedback mechanisms between soil and plants, and how plants and soil biota are vulnerable and can be impacted by contaminated water.

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SOIL ORGANISMS, NUTRIENT CYCLING, AND THE SOIL-WATER-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM Contribution of Soil Organisms to Nutrient Cycling Source: Barbour, Burke, and Pitts, 1987  The action of micro-organisms in the cycling of nutrients has been well studied.  In the nitrogen cycle, microbial action can immobilize nitrogen or can mineralize it.  Microbial decomposition contributes to nutrient regeneration in soils because of ingestion and digestion of bacteria and fungi by other organisms.  Metazoan animals (e.g., nematodes) account for 10 percent. The bulk (90 percent) is the result of metabolism by protozoan microorganisms.  Protozoan digestion and mineralization of bacteria play a vital role in the intra-system cycle of nutrients.  There are more than 20,000 known species of protozoa that live in water and soil. Some feed on bacteria, while others are parasites and feed off their hosts. Plant Species Richness and Soil Nematode Communities Source: Eisenhauer et al., 2011  “Changes in plant diversity may induce distinct changes in soil food web structure and accompanying soil feedbacks to plants;”  “Soil microbial communities, and the key ecosystem processes that they mediate, are significantly altered by plant species richness, and in particular, higher levels of plant production;”  “Species-rich plant assemblages support a higher proportion of microbivorous nematodes stimulating nutrient cycling and hence plant performance;”  “Overall, food web complexity is likely to decrease in response to plant community simplification mainly from the loss of common species which likely alter plant – nematode interactions.” SOIL COMMUNITY MACRO-ECOLOGY Source: Decaëns, 2010  “Soil biological communities comprise species from virtually all the principal taxonomic groups found in terrestrial ecosystems.”  “Soil organisms probably represent as much as 25% of the 1.5 million described living species worldwide, representing as much as five times the known biodiversity of forest canopy.”  “At a local scale, belowground species richness is also much higher than that found in vegetation or above-ground fauna.”  “The main factor constraining soil biodiversity is the compact and heterogeneous nature of the soil matrix.”  “The matrix provides unrivalled potential for niche partitioning, thus allowing high levels of local diversity;”  “This heterogeneity is otherwise strongly increased by the omnipresent activity of ecosystem engineers that generate patchiness at a range of spatio-temporal scales.”

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FIGURE 6.4: BODY SIZES OF SOIL BIOTA

Representation of the main taxonomic groups of soil organisms on a body-size basis. Source: Decaëns, 2010. Some Evidence Suggests that Species Richness is More Important in Certain Soils Source: Wall and Nielsen, 2012  “Positive biodiversity-ecosystem function relationships are more pronounced in species-poor soil ecosystems than species-rich ecosystems and such ecosystems may therefore be more sensitive to species loss.”  “However, there is some evidence that functionally redundant species can be important for soil ecosystem functioning.”  “The stability (i.e., resistance and resilience) of ecosystem services to disturbance and stress generally appear to be more strongly related to species richness, a pattern that has also been observed in many other habitats.”  “Even though the number of species present in soils may not always appear to have a strong direct influence on ecosystem services, scientists have generally concluded that soil biodiversity is important for the provision of ecosystem services.”  “Thus, conserving soil biodiversity is of high value to ensure the continued provision of ecosystem services.” BELOWGROUND BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Source: Wall and Nielsen, 2012  “Anthropogenic activities impact the diversity of organisms found in ecosystems aboveground and belowground, and thus influence the provision of ecosystem services.”  “Increasing scientific interest in the link between biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services but research focused mainly on aboveground systems.”  “Although the biodiversity-ecosystem functioning relationship has been better explored in aboveground terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems than in soil systems, there is growing evidence for a similar relationship belowground.”

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FIGURE 6.5: TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

The term “ecosystem services” was defined in the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment as “The benefits people obtain from ecosystems, both natural and managed.” Source: MEA, 2005. The above graphic presents the classification of ecosystem services as described in the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. FIGURE 6.6: ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PROVIDED BY SOIL AND ITS BIOTA

Source: Wall and Nielsen, 2012. EFFECTS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE ON ABOVE- AND BELOWGROUND BIODIVERSITY Source: Wolters et al., 2000  “Depending on the context, changes in soil structure may dramatically affect plants by altering the physical properties that control plant growth, i.e. resistance to root penetration, water availability and aeration.”  “Changes in plant community structure simultaneously alter both engineering and provision of food resources to soil biota.”

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 “This is because plant species generally differ in a variety of attributes (e.g., phenologies, growth rates, nutrient- and water-use efficiencies) that differentially alter soil physiochemical properties, accumulation of soil organic matter, and nutrient availability.” FIGURE 6.7: HIERARCHY OF PLANT EFFECTS ON SOIL BIOTA AND VICE VERSA

Source: Wolters et al., 2000. Major Causes of Global Change to Above- and Belowground Biodiversity Source: Wolters et al., 2000  “Most of the vegetation change occurring today is likely to cause a major shift in plant life form and ecological strategy because it alters the proportion of woody and herbaceous plants.”  “Two areas are particularly important: – Intensification of land use; and – Catastrophic events caused by changes in both climate and atmospheric inputs affecting the boundaries of communities at their ecological limits.”  “In both cases, all levels of the ecological hierarchy governing the interactions among species at both sides of the above- and belowground interface are either strongly affected or particularly sensitive to environmental change.” Need for Monitoring to Detect Alterations in Ecosystem Function Caused by Environmentally Induced Changes Source: Wolters et al., 2000  “In systems most vulnerable to global change, the demography and phenology of dominant and keystone species both above- and belowground governing engineering, provision of food resources, and direct interactions should be monitored in long-term efforts.”  “A proper understanding of both changing interactions between above- and belowground organisms and feedbacks between atmosphere and biosphere that may occur through shifts in vegetation types will allow the development of more reliable global change scenarios of ecosystem functioning that include soil biota and soil processes.”

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REFERENCES Barbour, M.G., Burk, J.H. and W.D. Pitts. (1987). Terrestrial Plant Ecology, Second Edition. Menlo Park, California: The Benjamin Cummings Publishing Company, Inc. Bardgett, R.D. and van der Putten, W.H., (2014). Belowground biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Nature, 515(7528), pp. 505–511. Eisenhauer N, Migunova VD, Ackermann M, Ruess L, Scheu S. (2011). Changes in Plant Species Richness Induce Functional Shifts in Soil Nematode Communities in Experimental Grassland. PLOS ONE 6(9). Hooper, D.U., Bignell, D.E., Brown, V.K., Brussard, L., Dangerfield, J.M., Wall, D.H., Wardle, D.A., Coleman, D.C., Giller, K.E., Lavelle, P. and Van Der Putten, W.H., (2000). Interactions between Aboveground and Belowground Biodiversity in Terrestrial Ecosystems: Patterns, Mechanisms, and Feedbacks. Bioscience, 50(12), pp.1049–1061. Decaëns, Thomas. (2010). Global Ecology and Biogeography, Global Ecol. Biogeogr.. 19, 287–302 Assessment, M.E., (2003). Assessment: Ecosystems and human well-being: A framework for assessment. Wolters, V., Silver, W.L., Bignell, D.E., Coleman, D.C., Lavelle, P., Van Der Putten, W.H., De Ruiter, P.,Rusek, J., Wall, D.H., Wardle, D.A. and Brussard, L., (2000). Effects of Global Changes on Above-and Belowground Biodiversity in Terrestrial Ecosystems: Implications for Ecosystem Functioning. Bioscience, 50(12), pp.1089–1098. Wall, D. H. and Nielsen, U. N. (2012) Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Is It the Same Below Ground?, Nature Education Knowledge, 3(12):8

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LECTURE 7: FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD/TROPHIC WEBS

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) Provide a basic understanding of food chains and webs to serve as a foundation for understanding principles of community organization; (ii) Clarify commonly misused or misunderstood terms and concepts; and (iii) Highlight importance of considering complex feeding relationships in resource management planning, monitoring, and research design. Learning Outcomes The participants will be able to: (i) Explain the feeding relationships among the various species in a community and energy transfer in an ecosystem; (ii) Describe the types of food chains and structure of food webs and trophic levels; and (iii) Explain how feeding interactions represented by the food webs affect species richness of communities and ecosystem productivity and stability. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment

1. Introduction to the concepts of Q&A followed by summary of the concepts. Participants food webs and chains guided to give appropriate examples. 2. Structure of food webs and Lecture interspersed by Q&A. The participants are trophic levels guided to develop food chains and food webs through buzz groups and these are then discussed as examples. This is then concluded by viewing and discussing the diagrams provided by the trainer. 3. Bottom-up vs. top-down control Lecture mixed with Q&A to build on the trainees’ knowledge and experiences 4. Theories of food webs Lecture mixed with Q&A to build on the trainees’ knowledge and experiences

Case study: interaction food web among several species 5. Food webs and energy flow webs Start with simulations of energy flows in ecosystems in ecosystems and lead on to discussions in groups with the ecosystem listed being covered at the same time. This is followed by group presentations and plenary discussions. 6. Principles of community Buzz groups with the facilitators filling in gaps during organization general discussions in class

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DETAILED NOTES INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPTS OF FOOD WEBS AND CHAINS Source: Hui, 2012  “A food web is an important conceptual tool for: – Illustrating the feeding relationships among species within a community; – Revealing species interactions and community structure; and – Understanding the dynamics of energy transfer in an ecosystem.”  “Normally, food webs consist of a number of food chains meshed together;”  “Each food chain is a descriptive diagram including a series of arrows, representing the flow of food energy from one feeding group of organisms to another.” Types and Descriptions of Food Chains Source: Hui, 2012  “There are two types of food chains: – Grazing food chain, beginning with autotrophs; and – Detrital food chain, beginning with dead organic matter.”  “In a grazing food chain, energy and nutrients move from plants to the herbivores consuming them, and to the carnivores or omnivores preying upon the herbivores.”  “In a detrital food chain, dead organic matter of plants and animals is broken down by decomposers, e.g., bacteria and fungi, and moves to detritivores and then carnivores.” STRUCTURE OF FOOD WEBS AND TROPHIC LEVELS Source: Hui, 2012  “All species in the food webs can be distinguished into: – Basal species (autotrophs, such as plants), – Intermediate species (herbivores and intermediate level carnivores, and – Top predators (high level carnivores such as fox);”  “These feeding groups are trophic levels. Grouping species into different functional groups or trophic levels helps simplify and understand the relationships among these species.”  “Basal species occupy the lowest trophic level as primary producers. They convert inorganic chemicals and use solar energy to generate chemical energy;”  “The second trophic level consists of herbivores (first consumers);”  “The remaining trophic levels include carnivores that consume animals at levels below them;”  “The secondary consumers (trophic level 3) in the following desert food web include birds and scorpions;” and  “Tertiary consumers make up the fourth trophic level including bird predators and foxes.”

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FIGURE 7.1: SIMPLIFIED SIX-MEMBER FOOD WEB IN A DESERT GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

Source: Hui, 2012. “This figure shows a simplified food web in a desert ecosystem. In this food web, grasshoppers feed on plants; scorpions prey on grasshoppers; kit foxes prey on scorpions. While the food web showed here is a simple one, most feed webs are complex and involve many species with both strong and weak interactions among them (Pimm et al., 1991). For example, the predators of a scorpion in a desert ecosystem might be a golden eagle, an owl, a roadrunner, or a fox” (Hui, 2012). BOTTOM-UP VS. TOP-DOWN CONTROL Source: Hui, 2012  “The structure of food webs suggests that productivity and abundance of populations at any given trophic level are controlled by the productivity and abundance of populations in the trophic level below them;”  “This phenomenon is called bottom-up control; e.g., plant population densities control the abundance of herbivore populations which in turn control the densities of the carnivore populations;”  “Thus, the biomass of herbivores usually increases with primary productivity in terrestrial ecosystems”  “Top-down control occurs when the population density of a consumer controls that of its resource; e.g., predator populations control the abundance of prey species;”  “Under top-down control, the abundance or biomass of lower trophic levels depends on effects from consumers at higher trophic levels.”

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FIGURE 7.2: TROPHIC LEVELS IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Each of these food chains includes five trophic levels. The arrows indicate the direction of food transfer between trophic levels. Source: Wyong Shire Council, 2017. FIGURE 7.3: SOIL FOOD WEB

Source: Ingham, E. R., n.d.

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THEORIES OF FOOD WEBS Source: Polis and Strong, 1996  Green World hypothesis is primarily “top down.” Abundance at each level is set, directly or indirectly, by consumers at the top of the chain.  Exploitation Ecosystem Hypothesis: “strong consumption leads to alternation of high and low biomass between successive trophic levels…Variability in the number of trophic levels exerts profound consequences on community structure” (Polis and Strong 1996).  The authors argue that ecological research has demonstrated that food webs in nature contain hundreds to thousands of species connected via multiple links of various strengths in the same and different habitats.  Omnivorous consumers are common and should be part of linear food chains and “trophodynamics.” Omnivory has two essential effects on the dynamics of consumers, resources, food webs and communities: – It diffuses the effects of consumption and productivity across the trophic spectrum, rather than focusing them at particular trophic levels; – It affects dynamics by feeding on “non-normal” prey, increasing the size of consumer populations and promoting “top down” control and depression of “normal prey;” – Frugivory, granivory, herbivory, detritivory and even coprophagy are common subsidies for many predators. FIGURE 7.4: THE DYNAMICS OF OMNIVORY

A) Consumer populations can be increased by eating resources from several different parts of the trophic spectrum. B) Spatial subsidy: species in one habitat receive energy, detritus, or prey from other habitats. Consumers also move among habitats. Source: Polis and Strong, 1996. The above models, which represent natural complexity and the importance of omnivory, are offered to replace the classic simple linear models. “Reinfusion of energy from the detrital channel into the “classic” grazer-based food web channel can occur throughout the trophic spectrum” (Polis and Strong, 1996).

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FIGURE 7.5: CONNECTIONS BETWEEN TROPHIC LEVELS

Source: Polis and Strong, 1996. FOOD WEBS AND ENERGY FLOW WEBS IN ECOSYSTEMS Source: Primack, 1998  Food chains are not isolated, but linked together into food webs or “food cycles.”  “The feeding interactions represented by the food webs may have profound effects on species richness of communities, and ecosystem productivity and stability” (Ricklefs, 2013).  Relationships vary in their importance to energy flow and dynamics of species populations.  Some trophic relationships are more important than others in dictating how energy flows through ecosystems.  Some connections are more influential than others on species population change. FIGURE 7.6: FOOD WEB OF EAST AFRICAN SAVANNA ECOSYSTEM

Source: National Geographic Society, 2012.

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Principal Characteristics of Tropical Savannas that Influence the Composition of Food Webs Source: FAO, 2002  Transition zone between closed tropical forests and open desert steppes.  Marked seasonality with alternating wet and dry seasons.  Dynamic nature of relatively simple system with fewer species compared with tropical forests.  High but rapidly changing quality of primary production.  Relatively rapid turnover and decomposition rates.  Moderate to high risk of soil erosion and flooding.  Fire-dependent (repatriation of nutrients, insects). 7.7: SIMPLIFIED LOW TO MID-ALTITUDE FOREST FOOD WEB

Source: Exploring Nature, 2017. General Characteristics of African Tropical Semi-Deciduous Forests Source: FAO, 2002  Tropical forest dynamics, composition, and function are sensitive to changes in climate, especially changes in rainfall.  Soil chemical and physical characteristics are strongly related to aboveground productivity and forest structure and dynamics.

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 Nutrient recycling is important. Belowground resource availability controls the aboveground biomass and community structure of tropical forests. 7.8: FOOD WEB CASE STUDY

Source: Ricklefs, 2013. “The solid arrows represent direct effects, and the dashed arrows indirect effects; the nature of the effect is indicated by + or -. Fish have indirect effects, through a trophic cascade, on several terrestrial species: dragonfly adults (-), pollinators (+), and plants (+)” (Ricklefs, 2013).

ECOLOGY AND FOOD WEBS OF WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS Source: Cherry, 2011  Development of diverse wetland plant communities fuels complex food webs that not only sustain microbial communities through large inputs of detritus to wetland soils but also support diverse communities of animals that utilize wetlands for part or all of their lives.  Detritivores, such as shredding insects and crayfish, can utilize dead plant material as their primary energy source, while others (e.g. snails) help process organic matter for subsequent use by other organisms.  Herbivory of algae by invertebrates and small fish and of plant biomass by some invertebrates, birds, and mammals (e.g., grasshoppers, geese and rodents) is a significant energy source for primary consumers in many wetlands.  Secondary production by these primary consumers supports higher trophic levels, including predatory insects, fishes, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals.

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FIGURE 7.7: FOOD WEB IN A COASTAL SALT MARSH. IMPORTANT PRIMARY PRODUCERS, HERBIVORES, AND CARNIVORES LISTED IN ORDER OF IMPORTANCE

Source: Adapted from Cherry, 2011. Spartina is a type of marsh vegetation. The upper group of herbivores are insect species; the lower group are shellfish, snails and echinoderms. Eurytium (Carnivore) is a species of salt water marsh crab. Clapper Rail (carnivore) is an aquatic ecosystem wading bird that preys on shellfish, snails. Raccoon: a common small omnivore/carnivore (5 kilograms) in North America. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION Source: Primack, 1998  The greatest biomass in terrestrial ecosystems is usually composed of primary producers and consumers in aquatic systems;  Species can be organized into general trophic levels, but the requirements or feeding habits of some may be restricted;  The more common situation is for one species to feed on several other species at a lower trophic level, to compete for food with several species at its own trophic level, and be preyed on by several species at the next highest level;  Species at the same trophic level that use the same resources are considered a guild of competing species;  Species-specific ecological requirements influence the inability of many species to increase in abundance within a community;  A low supply of any one resource (e.g., food, water, minerals, shelter, and nesting sites) may limit the size of the population (‘limited resource’) or even eliminate it from the community.

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7.10: DIAGRAM OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION AND FOOD WEB IN GATUN LAKE, PANAMA

Source: Primack, 1998. Phytoplankton (floating plants) such as green algae are the primary producers at the base of the web. Zooplankton, tiny microscopic floating animals, are primary consumers, and not photosynthesizers, but they—along with insects and algae—are crucial food sources for fish in aquatic ecosystems.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRACTICAL EXERCISE The instructor should take information from the document on red tide algae and trophic transfer of toxins to organisms living in ocean ecosystems, with high potential to cause poisoning in human populations. Include the implications for the health of the ecosystem, wildlife, plants, substrate, and humans, including economic and recreational benefits. The attendees will divide into smaller working groups and create a plausible scenario of toxic substances released into a freshwater ecosystem in the Albertine Rift Valley (lake, river, wetland, or small stream) and trace the transfer of the toxic substance among the trophic levels in nature and to human populations. THE TROPHIC TRANSFER OF TOXINS THROUGHOUT THE FOOD WEB: A CASE STUDY ON THE ECONOMIC AND MEDICAL IMPACTS OF RED TIDE Background The following case study was prepared for the Southeast Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association by Lucaya Lcukey-Bethany. This case study is based on an interview with Dr. Gabriel Vargo, a geological oceanographer who specializes in phytoplankton ecology and dynamics of harmful algal blooms. Abstract Red Tide is a naturally occurring phenomenon in which single-celled algae proliferate at an alarming rate; eventually becoming visible to the naked eye. Human pollutants are exacerbating this natural problem. The toxins produced by these algae are gradually being ingested by larger organisms and are quickly moving up the food web into species harvested for human consumption. This case study

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will display the significant medical and economic implications from red tide and its subsequent affects on all organisms. The Broad Picture “Trophic transfer” is defined as dietary bioaccumulation. It is considered the major mechanism for contaminant accumulation in organisms higher up in the food web. In other words, toxins ingested by single-celled organisms are subsequently eaten by larger and larger organisms, compounding the amount of toxin at each level in comparison to the amount of tainted food eaten. Red tide is considered to a very rapid growth, (or “bloom”) of specific types of algae, (one species contains a red pigment which eventually becomes visible from above). While scientists are attempting to discover the true catalyst for this natural phenomenon, human pollutants such as waste materials are a possible contributing factor to the increased cases of red tide that have been documented in the past few years. The introduction of nitrates from human waste materials into the ocean waters can serve as a type of fertilizer which may promote the growth of natural algae (Gulf of Mexico Foundation, 2011). While the food web was once considered a veritable “chain,” recent studies have indicated a much larger amount of interaction than originally perceived, thus resulting in a web of constant cause-and- effect relationships. Sea creatures that use ocean plants as a primary source of nutrients are affected first, while those preying upon the smaller grazing organisms quickly become affected. Alarmingly high levels of marine mortality rates may be a first indication of toxic algae levels found in some water supplies. These toxins will eventually poison shellfish and other popular seafoods for human consumption. This results in dangerous poisons introduced to the human digestive system. Four of the five most documented types of human poisoning have already been found in the United States, and the fifth case is predicted to make an appearance very soon. Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) comes from domoic acid and can be fatal, within 24-48 hours one may experience sever gastrointestinal discomfort and some alarming neurological affects, some resulting in death. In 1987 four people died of this poisoning in the United States. Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) results from the toxin ciguatoxin or maitotoxin and is possibly fatal, there is no way to test the food before consumption to see if the toxin is present and treatment of the poison can take years for a full recovery. The Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta estimates that only 2-10% of all Ciguatera poisonings are actually documented, while 50,000 people who live in tropic or sub-tropic areas suffer from Ciguatera annually. Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) is the only one that has not yet reached the U.S. and is also non-lethal—a full recovery is expected within three days, although rehabilitating gastrointestinal problems are expected to occur. Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) is almost identical to CFP but much less severe; however, wave action in the shallow coastal regions can create an aerosol from the toxin brevetoxin which will result in asthma-like symptoms in beachgoers. Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) is possibly fatal, and total heart failure can occur within 24 hours of ingesting the toxin saxitoxin, there is no antidote yet survivors are expected to recover fully (WHOI, 2012). Economically, the red tide can prove disastrous. The disintegration of the commercial fishing industry is only one of many possible losses in necessary revenue. Beach closings and a fall in tourism can spell disaster for many coastal cities and Caribbean island countries. Clean-up efforts can become monumental, and the monetary affects of treatment not only for subsequent poisonings, but also bacterial infections stemming from massive amounts of decomposing marine life on the local beaches can become financially devastating effects. Some sort of concentrated and comprehensive effort to find both a cause and possible antidote for algae toxicity must be employed as quickly as possible in order to preserve the world’s oceans. Indications of a Growing Problem Evidence of a continued red tide are beginning to alarm ocean scientists and economists alike, scientist Don Anderson and a highly specialized team of algae researchers have discovered the possibility that the Alexandrium cells within red tide algae have produced cysts, or seed-like forms of

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the algae which embed themselves in seafloor sediments off of the coast of New England after the dissipation of the red tide that has recently plagued Massachusetts. These cysts lie dormant until growing conditions become once more favorable—this leads to the prediction that red tide is a phenomenon just waiting for the right moment to invariably strike (WHOI, 2017) Continued red tide could have disastrous affects, when considering those casualties that have already occurred from a temporary problem. In 1991 over one hundred pelicans were found dead near Monterey Bay, California—their deaths attributed to the high toxicity of the fish found in their stomachs after the red tide troubled the area. In past years of red tide instances off the coast of Massachusetts 14 humpback whale corpses were beached within one month in the year 2004 alone 107 dolphin deaths were attributed to the red tide, and in 1996 over 150 manatees were killed off the coast of Florida; this was approximately ten percent of the entire endangered species population (WHOI, 2012). Economically, the results are equally staggering. Estimates in the 1970s found that an average-sized bloom lasting three to four months could cost the state of Florida alone over 20 million dollars, and the 1995-96 bloom cost over double that figure (START, 2015). Today’s findings are even more alarming: the cost of red tide cleanup, beach closings, and medical treatments can and will cost over 50 million dollars per year (WHOI, 2012). Governor Mitt Romney has declared a state of financial crisis in Massachusetts, asking for more than $24 million in order to deal with the current red tide problem, and findings have shown that the commercial fishing industry is losing more than 3 million dollars a week during a red tide event (Esterbrook, 2005). Beach closings and inaccessible marine tourist hotspots have also had a drastic impact on the tropical and subtropical economy. One third of all Americans visit the United States’ coastal regions each year, a total of 910 million trips and spending almost $44 billion. This money goes towards supporting the local economies—hotels, restaurants, and private entrepreneurs alike. Fishing is also an American pastime which has significant monetary ramifications. There are an estimated 35 million anglers who were estimated to spend $38 billion in 1996 alone, and the numbers are only increasing. That is one out of every six Americans of age sixteen spending over $1,000 in pursuit of their sport. The sport of kayaking or canoeing was a $99 million-dollar industry in 1996—also, these industries provided nearly seven million jobs in that year and generated sales reaching $450 billion, most of which were attributed to the recreation and tourist economic activity (US EPA, 2017). With continued effects from red tide manifesting themselves, the tourist economy will crumble as endangered species take on new onslaughts, leaving devastating numbers behind. Goals The catalyst, which begins the algal bloom process, is the first culprit to identify; once that is completed, there must be a concentrated effort to stem the red tide, as well as a genuine cut-back on human waste materials dumped into the oceans. Continued protection of endangered species must be increased, as well as a more in-depth analysis of the implications of a food web where all organisms form a very intricate global relationship. Only through continued research and a certain open-mindedness for the necessary funds to be granted can the destructive process of red tide be stopped before there are more cases of economic, medical, and biological crisis (Exploring Nature, 2017). Questions and Scenarios Provide short but concise answers to the following questions: 1. Are there any potential benefits that could result from the red tide? If so, what could they be and how could they help benefit society?

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2. What are some theories of how algal blooms occur and how they are sustained? 3. What are some harmful implications of red tide that have not been addressed in this case study? 4. Assume you are putting together a proposal for an inland community to help financially support red tide research, how would you convince them that this is a sound and necessary investment?

REFERENCES Cherry, J. A. (2011). Ecology of Wetland Ecosystems: Water, Substrate, and Life. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):16 Esterbrook, J. (2005). “Mass. Declares Red Tide Disaster.” CBS News. Web. http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mass-declares-red-tide-disaster/ Exploring Nature. (2017). Exploring Nature Science Education Resource. “Forest Food Webs.” Web. http://www.exploringnature.org/db/view/1812 Gulf of Mexico Foundation. (2015). “Conservation.” Web. http://www.gulfmex.org/conservation/ Hui, D. (2012). Food Web: Concept and Applications. Nature Education Knowledge 3(12):6 Luckey-Bethany, Lucaya. The Trophic Transfer of Toxins throughout the Food Web: A Case Study on the Economic and Medical Impacts of Red Tide. Southeast Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association (SECOORA). http://secoora.org/classroom/observing_overview/teachers_interview_scientists/toxins_tran sfer#bibliography National Geographic Society. (2012). “African Savanna.” Nat Geo Education. Web. http://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/african-savanna-illustration/ Pimm, S.L., Lawton, J.H. and Cohen, J.E., (1991). Food web patterns and their consequences. Nature, 350(6320), p.669. Polis, G.A. and D. R. Strong. (1996). Food web complexity and community dynamics. The American Naturalist 147 (5): 813-846. Primack, R.B. (1998). Essentials of Conservation Biology. Second Edition. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. Ricklefs, R.E. (2013).The Economy of Nature. 6th edition. W.H. Freeman and Company. New York. Solutions to Avoid Red Tide (START). (2015). “Red Tide.” Web. http://start1.org/red-tide/ United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). (2002). Workshop on Tropical Secondary Forest Management in Africa, 3.15 Country paper: Uganda--Reality and Perspectives, Uganda Country Paper, Written by Hudson J Andrua, Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment, , Uganda. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). (2017). “Harmful Algal Blooms.” Web. https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/harmful-algal-blooms Woods Hole Oceanogrphic Institute (WHOI). (2012). Oceanus Magazine. Web. http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/ Woods Hole Oceanogrphic Institute (WHOI). (2017). “Human Health” Harmful Algal Blooms. Web. http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/impacts/human-health Wyong Shire Council. (2017). “8.2 A Local Ecosystem.” Blueplanet. Web. http://www.blueplanet.nsw.edu.au/biology-food-chains-and-food-webs/.aspx

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LECTURE 8: CYCLES OF CRITICAL NUTRIENT ELEMENTS

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) Provide a basic understanding of factors which control nutrient cycles; (ii) Clarify commonly misused or misunderstood terms and concepts; and (iii) Highlight importance of considering nutrient cycling dynamics in resource management planning, monitoring, and research design. Learning Outcomes The participants will be able to: (i) Explain the importance and processes of nutrient cycling; and (ii) Apply the concepts of nutrient cycling in soil and water conservation. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment 1. Overview of factors that control nutrient Lecture, Q&A. Case study: Eutrophication in cycles ; discussion and exercise 2. Nutrient cycling in the hydrologic cycle Lecture, Q&A, diagrammatic representations 3. The nitrogen cycle Lecture, Q&A, diagrammatic representations 4. The phosphorous cycle Lecture, Q&A, diagrammatic representations 5. The carbon cycle Lecture, Q&A, diagrammatic representations

DETAILED NOTES NUTRIENTS AND NUTRIENT CYCLING Productivity in Ecosystems Source: Jordan, 1985  “Productivity, the rate at which biomass is synthesized, is an important ecological parameter” (Vidyasagaran and Paramathma, 2014).  “Ecosystem productivity is an index which integrates the cumulative effects of the many processes and interactions that are proceeding simultaneously with an ecosystem” (Vidyasagaran and Paramathma, 2014).  There are many factors that control productivity such as predation, disease, and competition, factors which regulate productivity of a species, population, or a community of plants or animals.  Factors important in controlling productivity, and which have patterns caused by global and regional trends, are solar energy, water, and nutrients.  There is a limit to the intensity, size, and duration of disturbance which ecosystems can withstand and still maintain productivity and ability to recover.

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Nutrients and Nutrient Cycling Source: Jordan, 1985  A nutrient is a substance that provides nourishment for growth or metabolism in living organisms.  Plants and animals absorb nutrients through gas and soluble salts.  Nutrients needed in large quantities (carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, and hydrogen) are called macronutrients.  Trace elements such as phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur are called micronutrients.  Although clay and rocks in soils or on lake bottoms are composed of minerals, only those chemical elements such as calcium and phosphorus that are released when minerals are weathered actually cycle through ecosystems.  “Biogeochemical cycling” is generally used to describe the cycling of elements on a global scale.  “Nutrient cycling” is generally used to address cycles of ecosystems and time scales of lifespans of larger organisms. Nutrient Storage and Flux Source: Barbour, Burke and Pitts, 1987  Nitrogen is often the primary limiting nutrient in many communities, including grassland and forest biomes. Recovery following disturbance could be similarly limited.  Time frames for nutrient cycling vary: ‒ Metabolic processes may turn over elements in minutes; ‒ For example, in photorespiration, carbon is moved from the atmosphere into the plant and back in a matter of minutes; ‒ Nutrients in leaf litter in a forest may turn over within an ecosystem annually or require several years or decades; and ‒ Some biogeochemical processes (e.g., deposition, tectonic movements that exposes sediments, and subsequent retrieval by some root system) may require hundreds to millions of years and thus are of little ecological importance. Essential Elements in Higher Plants Source: Barbour, Burke and Pitts, 1987 Essential elements and inorganic compounds are categorized by plant physiologists according to relative quantities required by plants for adequate nutrition. Major nutrients (macronutrients) are required in large amounts. Those required in only small or trace amounts are minor nutrients (micronutrients). The table below shows the relative composition of the various essential elements in higher plants (expressed as percentage of dry weight concentrations).

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TABLE 8.1: RELATIVE COMPOSITION OF ELEMENTS IN HIGHER PLANTS

Element % dry wt. Element % dry wt. Carbon 45.0 Sulfur 0.1 Oxygen 45.0 Chlorine 0.01 Hydrogen 6.0 Iron 0.01 Nitrogen 1.5 Manganese 0.005 Potassium 1.0 Boron 0.002 Calcium 0.5 Zinc 0.002 Magnesium 0.2 Copper 0.0001 Phosphorus 0.2 Molybdenum 0.0001

Ecological Processes of Nutrient Cycling Source: Lavelle et al., 2005  “Nutrient cycling describes the movement within and between various biotic or abiotic entities in which nutrients occur in the environment.”  “These elements can be extracted from their mineral or atmospheric sources or recycled from their organic forms, enabling uptake to occur and ultimately returning them to the atmosphere or soil.”  “Nutrient cycling is enabled by a diversity of organisms and leads to creation of physical structures and mechanisms that regulate fluxes of nutrients.”  “These structures and processes act as buffers to limit losses and transfers to other ecosystems.”

The diagram below is a simplified graphic representation of the nutrient cycle. FIGURE 8.1: SIMPLIFIED GRAPHIC OF THE NUTRIENT CYCLE

Source: USDA, 1995.

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Fertility and Nutrient Cycling Source: Lavelle et al., 2005  “Fertility is the potential of the soil, sediment, or water system to supply nutrient elements in the quantity, form, and proportion required to support optimum plant growth.”  “The largest flux of nutrients is their release from organic materials resulting from decomposition by microbial communities.”  “Microbial activity depends primarily on the availability of a food source and on regional and local climatic, edaphic (soil properties), or hydrological factors.”  “Locally, biological parameters such as the chemical composition of organic material (depending on the plant community that produced it) and soil invertebrates present act as proximate determinants of fertility.”  “The maintenance of fertility is necessary for ecological processes (e.g., succession) and for persistence and stability of ecosystems.”

The diagram below shows the flow of various ecological processes in an ecosystem, including the transfer of free energy, organic matter; and mineral materials and/or water. FIGURE 8.2: GENERAL REPRESENTATIVE DIAGRAM OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Source: Jasper, 2005.

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Nutrient Pathways Source: Jordan, 1985  Pathways of nutrient flow through soil systems are complex.  Nutrient loss or recycling depends to a large extent on the dynamics of nutrients along these pathways.  Nutrients released from decaying leaves, wood, and animal carcasses usually do not move directly to the soil or tree roots, but pass through a series of small-scale cycles within the organic matter portion of the soil.  For decomposing leaves, cycles often begin with soil arthropods chewing the leaves. As particles pass through their digestive systems, complex organic compounds are changed to simpler compounds more readily utilized by other soil organisms.  Decomposition of wood and leaves begins with invasion of tissue by bacteria and fungi which alter the nature of the substrate.  Compounds excreted from fungi continue to break down complex organic compounds in leaves and wood, favoring bacterial activity.  The succession of organisms during decomposition is complex, involving numerous species, depending on the ecosystem. Tropical Rainforest Water and Nutrient Cycles The diagram below shows the rainwater and nutrient cycles in the rainforest. FIGURE 8.3: SIMPLIFIED PRESENTATION OF TROPICAL RAINFOREST WATER AND NUTRIENT CYCLES

Source: BBC, 2017.

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Comparison of Tropical and Temperate Soils, Litter Layers, and Tree Root Systems Source: Ayensu, 1980 Most tropical soils have developed on ancient land surfaces that have been exposed to weathering (sun, wind, and water) for millions of years. By temperate standards, they are extremely deep and tree roots are shallow and extended horizontally. The unweathered rock may be covered by 30 centimeters to 60 meters of weathered material, of which some of the mineral nutrients have been removed by percolating rainwater. Although tropical forest soils are deep and ancient, they are often fragile. Most soils in temperate zones have developed on material deposited or reworked since the last Ice Age ended 12,000 years ago and are still relatively rich. Tree roots are deep and extend vertically. Litter layers are thin in tropical forests because of more rapid decomposition. See Figure 8.4.

FIGURE 8.4: COMPARISON ROOT SYSTEMS IN TROPICAL AND TEMPERATE FOREST Tropical Temperate

Source: Jordan, 1985a. Comparison of Nutrient Retention in Tropical Rain Forest and Temperate Forest Source: Ayensu, 1980 A high proportion of nutrients in tropical forests are not in the soil, but held in plants. Most of the nutrients and roots are near the surface where plant litter is decomposing and releasing them. In temperate forests, nutrients and roots are more evenly distributed NUTRIENT CYCLING IN THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE Source: Covich et al., 1999  “Water is “re-used” in the hydrologic cycle: evaporation from surface waters and transpiration by plants provide water vapor for cloud formation and precipitation back to Earth’s surface;”  “Water enters the belowground water table and recharges aquifers;”  “Much of flowing water eventually passes through the subsurface zones, where a rich faunal diversity contributes to a wide range of ecological services;”

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 “The freshwater benthic biota (microbes to macrofauna) mediate biogeochemical transformations and act directly to prevent the buildup of carbon in the sediments and the deoxygenation of bottom waters;”  “They also sequester and move contaminants and excess nutrients from ground waters and sediments while influencing the flux of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane).” Benthic Invertebrates, Energy Flows and Nutrient Cycling in Freshwater Ecosystems Source: Covich et al., 1999 Benthos: organisms attached to, living on, in, or near the seabed, river or streambed, or lake floor. Benthic macroinvertebrates burrow deeply into layered sediments and accelerate nutrient cycling. Burrowing bivalves, crayfish, tubificid worms, and aquatic insect larvae mix the sediments, aerate deeper layers of sediments, and increase rates of recycling of macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic carbon) and micro-nutrients (trace elements) by bioturbation and fecal production. Mysid shrimp, amphipods, and gastropods enhance microbial growth and nutrient cycling through their mixing of surface sediments and breakdown of organic detritus. FIGURE 8.5: NUTRIENT INFLOW AND OUTFLOW IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS

Source: Covich et al., 1999. The roles of benthic macro-invertebrates in cycling nutrients and controlling nutrient outflows from ecosystems: The benthos transforms organic detritus from sedimentary storage into dissolved nutrients that can be mixed into overlying waters and used by rooted plants (macrophytes) and algae (phytoplankton) to enhance primary productivity. Some benthic species are omnivores and feed on macrophytes, algae, and zooplankton. Many benthic species are consumed by fishes. Through their mixing of sediments and consumption of diverse resources, benthic invertebrates can, directly and indirectly, influence microbial production and release of greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4), toxic gases (H2S and NH4), and nitrogen (N2).

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THE NITROGEN CYCLE Source: Lenntech, 2017a  “Nitrogen is a part of vital organic compounds in microorganisms, such as amino acids, proteins, and DNA.”  “Nitrogen in the gaseous form cannot be absorbed and used as a nutrient by plants and animals; it must first be converted by nitrifying bacteria, so that it can enter food chains as a part of the nitrogen cycle.”  “During the conversion of nitrogen, cyanobacteria first convert nitrogen into ammonia and ammonium during the nitrogen fixation process. Plants can use ammonia as a nitrogen source.”  “After ammonium fixation, the ammonia and ammonium that are formed are transformed further during the nitrification process. Aerobic bacteria use oxygen to convert these compounds.”  “Plants absorb ammonium and nitrate during the assimilation process, after which they are converted into nitrogen-containing organic molecules, such as amino acids and DNA.”  “Animals cannot absorb nitrates directly. They receive their nutrient supplies by eating plants or plant-eating animals.” FIGURE 8.6: SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Source: Jasper, 2005. Although the nitrogen conversion processes often occurs and large quantities of plant nutrients are produced, nitrogen is often a limiting factor for plant growth. Water flowing across the soil causes this problem. Nitrogen nutrients are water-soluble and, as a result, they are easily drained away, so that they are no longer available for plants. When nitrogen nutrients have served their purpose in plants and animals, specialized decomposing bacteria will start a process called ammonification to convert them the nutrients in dead animal and plant matter into ammonia and water-soluble ammonium salts. After the nutrients are converted back into ammonia, anaerobic bacteria will convert them back into nitrogen gas, during a process called denitrification.

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FIGURE 8.7: CONTRIBUTION OF SOIL MICROFAUNA TO FOREST LITTER DECOMPOSITION AND RELEASE OF NITROGEN

Source: Malcolm, 2013. FIGURE 8.8: SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Source: Lenntech, 2017a.

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THE PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE Source: Lenntech, 2017b  “Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals and can be found in water, soil, and sediments.”  “Unlike the compounds of other matter cycles, phosphorus cannot be found in air in the gaseous state.”  “Phosphorus is usually liquid at normal temperatures and pressures.”  “It cycles mainly through water, soil and sediments. In the atmosphere, phosphorus is mainly found as very small dust particles.”  “Phosphorus is most commonly found in rock formations and ocean sediments as phosphate salts.”  “Phosphate salts that are released from rocks through weathering usually dissolve in soil water and will be absorbed by plants.”  “Because the quantities of phosphorus in soil are generally small, it is often the limiting factor for plant growth.”  “Animals absorb phosphates by eating plants or plant-eating animals.” FIGURE 8.9: SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

Source: Lenntech, 2017b. Phosphorus moves slowly from deposits on land and in sediments, to living organisms, and much more slowly back into soil and water sediment. Phosphorus cycles through plants and animals much faster than it does through rocks and sediments. When animals and plants die, phosphates will return to the soils or oceans again during decay. Afterward, phosphorus will end up in sediments or

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rock formations again, remaining there for millions of years. Eventually, phosphorus is released again through weathering and the cycle starts over. THE CARBON CYCLE Source: Lenntech, 2017c  “The carbon cycle consists of two parts: the terrestrial and aquatic cycles.”

 “The carbon cycle is based on carbon dioxide (CO2), which can be found in air in the gaseous form and in water in dissolved form.”  “Terrestrial plants use atmospheric carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to generate oxygen that sustains animal life.”  “Aquatic plants also generate oxygen; they use carbon dioxide from water.”  “The process of oxygen generation is called photosynthesis.”  “During photosynthesis, plants and other producers transfer carbon dioxide and water into complex carbohydrates under the influence of sunlight.”  “The oxygen that is produced during photosynthesis will sustain non-producing life forms, such as animals, and most micro-organisms.”  “Animals are called consumers, because they use the oxygen that is produced by plants.”  “Carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere during respiration of consumers, which breaks down complex organic compounds and converts the carbon back to carbon dioxide for reuse by producers.” FIGURE 8.10: THE TERRESTRIAL CARBON CYCLE

Source: Lenntech, 2017c.

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Not all organic matter is immediately decomposed. Under certain conditions, dead plant matter accumulates faster than it is decomposed within an ecosystem. The remains are locked away in underground deposits. Fossil fuels will be formed when layers of sediment compress this matter after many centuries. Long-term geological processes may expose the carbon in these fuels to air after a long period of time, but usually the carbon within the fossil fuels is released during human- caused combustion processes. Although the combustion of fossil fuels mainly adds carbon dioxide to air, some of it is also released during natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions. FIGURE 8.11: THE AQUATIC CARBON CYCLE

Source: Lenntech, 2017c. In aquatic ecosystems, carbon dioxide can be stored in rocks and sediments. It will take a long time before this carbon dioxide will be released through weathering of rocks or geologic processes that bring sediment to the surface of water. Carbon dioxide that is stored in water will be present as either carbonate or bicarbonate ions. These ions are an important part of natural buffers that prevent the water from becoming too acidic or too basic. When the sun warms up the water, carbonate and bicarbonate ions will be returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. The diagram below illustrates the carbon flow. CASE STUDY OF EUTROPHICATION OF INLAND WATERS: LAKE VICTORIA, EAST AFRICA Source: Lavelle et al., 2005  “Observations in 1990–91 in the center of Lake Victoria were compared with data from 1960– 61.”

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 “The results indicated a stronger stratification, with less oxygen in a greater part of the deep zone of the lake.”  “This eutrophication process results mainly from an increase of human activities in the watershed, with increased inputs of nutrients linked with urbanization, deforestation, and cultivation.”  “Some shift in the phytoplankton population has also occurred.”  “The increase in nutrients first led to an increase in diatoms. The resulting depletion in dissolved silicon promoted a shift in the diatom species and finally the establishment of blue-green alga (Cyanophycea).”  “Introduction of alien fish species such as Lates niloticus (Nile perch) and four species of Oreochromis (tilapia) also contributed to a strong modification of the trophic food web, with probable feedback on the phytoplankton community, as well as the fish community, with a strong decrease in the number of the endemic cichlids species.”

REFERENCES Ayensu, E.S., ed. (1980). The Life and Mysteries of the Jungle. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. Barbour, M.G., Burk, J.H. and W.D. Pitts. (1987). Terrestrial Plant Ecology, Second Edition. Menlo Park, California: The Benjamin Cummings Publishing Company, Inc. BBC. (2017). “Impact of human activity on the environment.” BBC BItesize. Web. http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/z79p34j/revision/8 Chapman. S.B. (1986). Production ecology and nutrient budgets. In: Methods in Plant Ecology, P.D. Moore and S.B. Chapman, eds. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp. 1-61. Covich, A.P., M. A. Palmer, and T. A. Crowl. (1999). The Role of Benthic Invertebrate Species in Freshwater Ecosystems. BioScience Vol. 49 No. 2: 119-127. Jasper, S. (2005). “Ecosystem Ecology.” BIO 213 Lecture Notes. University of Texas. Web. http://www.lifesci.utexas.edu/faculty/sjasper/bio213/ecosystem.html Jordan, C.F. (1985a). Amazon Rain Forests. American Scientist. 70(4): 394-401. Jordan, C.F. (1985b). Nutrient Cycling in Tropical Forest Ecosystems. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Lavelle, P., R. Dugdale, R. Scholes, A. A. Berhe, E. Carpenter, L. Codispoti, A.-M. Izac, J. Lemoalle, F. Luizao, M. Scholes, P. Tre´guer, and B. Ward. (2005). Chapter12. Nutrient Cycling. In: Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005. Lenntech. (2017a). “Nitrogen cycle.” Web. http://www.lenntech.com/nitrogen-cycle.htm Lenntech. (2017b). “Phosphorus cycle.” Web. http://www.lenntech.com/phosphorus-cycle.htm Lenntech. (2017c). “Carbon cycle.” http://www.lenntech.com/carbon-cycle.htm Malcolm, S. (2013). “Lecture 12: Decomposition and Detritivory.” BIOS 3010:Ecology Lecture. Western Michigan University. accessed at: http://homepages.wmich.edu/~malcolm/BIOS3010-ecology/Lectures/L12-Bios3010.pdf USDA. (1995). “Soil Quality.” RCA Issue Brief #5. Web. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/?cid=nrcs143_014198

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Vidyasagaran, K. and Paramathma, M. (2014). Biomass prediction of Casuarina equisetifolia, forest. plantations in the west coastal plains of Kerala, India. Indian Journal Scientific Research and Technology 2(1):83-89.

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LECTURE 9: POLITICAL ECOLOGY

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) Provide a basic understanding of political ecology and its relationship to other disciplines, socio- political activism, and nature conservation; (ii) Clarify commonly misused or misunderstood terms and concepts; and (iii) Encourage critical thinking and discourse regarding the linkages among politics, conservation, and oil development in Uganda. Learning Outcomes The participants will be able to: (i) Explain the concepts and practice of political ecology; and (ii) Advocate for the application of political ecology in the management of environment and natural resources. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment

1. Introduction Lecture, Q&A, building on the trainees’ knowledge and experiences 2. Scope and applications of Lecture, Q&A, discussions political ecology Case study: wildlife policies in three African countries Opinion piece: North-South environmental politics 3. Relationship of political ecology Lecture, Q&A, building on the trainees’ knowledge and to anthropology and geography experiences 4. Political ecology, biological Lecture, Q&A, building on the trainees’ knowledge and conservation, and experiences environmental justice 5. Field exercise Trainees visit the local decision makers to discuss with them selected issues concerning political ecology.

DETAILED NOTES INTRODUCTION Overview of the Origins of the Field of Political Ecology Source: Peet and Watts, 1996 The field of political ecology appears to have emerged in reaction to certain features of human ecology or ecological anthropology as it was practiced in the 1960s and early 1970s.  In particular, there was a reaction to the neglect of the political dimensions of human/environment interactions.  The term “political ecology” was coined in English by Frank Thone in an article published in 1935, and in French (“Écologie politique”) by Bertrand de Jouvenel in 1957.  The origins of the discipline in the 1970s and 1980s were a result of development of radical developments in geography and cultural ecology.

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 Historically, political ecology has focused on phenomena in and affecting the developing world.  The questions of conservation and wilderness are also central. Description of the Field of Political Ecology Source: Forsyth, 2008  Political ecology is at the confluence between ecologically rooted social science and the principles of political economy.  It explicitly aims to represent an alternative to “apolitical” ecology.  The field synthesizes the central questions asked by the social sciences about the relations between human society and its bio-cultural-political complexity, and a significantly humanized nature.  Political ecology addresses ecology’s concerns with the biological and physical environment and emphases an holistic analysis that connects with the more social and power-centered field of political economy.  This burgeoning field has attracted scholars from the fields of anthropology, forestry, development studies, environmental sociology, environmental history, and geography.  Despite varied backgrounds, these researchers advocate fundamental changes in the management of nature and the rights of people. SCOPE AND APPLICATION OF POLITICAL ECOLOGY The broad scope and interdisciplinary nature of political ecology lends itself to several definitions and understanding. Bryant and Bailey (1997) developed three fundamental assumptions in practicing political ecology: First:  Costs and benefits associated with environmental change are distributed unequally.  Changes in the environment do not affect society in a homogenous way — political, social, and economic differences account for uneven distribution of costs and benefits.  Political power plays an important role in such inequalities. Second:  Unequal distribution of natural resources inevitably reinforces or reduces existing social and economic inequalities.  In this assumption, political ecology runs into political economies, as any change in environmental conditions must affect the political and economic status quo. Third:  The unequal distribution of costs and benefits and the reinforcing or reducing of existing inequalities hold political implications in terms of the altered power relationships that are produced. Application of Political Ecology Source: Robbins, 2012  Conservation is a human process that defines what nature is.

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 Political ecology attempts to provide critiques as well as alternatives in the interplay of the environment and political, economic and social factors.  The discipline has a normative understanding that there are very likely better, less coercive, less exploitative, and more sustainable ways of doing things.  From these assumptions, political ecology can be used to: – Inform policymakers and organizations of the complexities surrounding environment and development, thereby contributing to better environmental governance; – Understand the decisions that communities make about the natural environment in the context of their political environment, economic pressure, and societal regulations; and – Look at how unequal relations in and among societies affect the natural environment, especially in the context of government policy. Scope and Influences of Political Ecology Source: Walker, 2005  Political ecology’s movement as a field since its inception in the 1970s has complicated its scope and goals.  Critics stress that it has transitioned from an approach in which cultural ecology and ecology maintained key positions to an emphasis on the “politics” of political ecology.  This stress has raised questions as to the differentiation with environmental politics as well as the field’s use of the term of “ecology.”  Political ecology will often utilize the framework of political economy to analyze environmental issues.  Early and prominent examples of this were: – The Political Economy of Soil Erosion in Developing Countries by Piers Blaikie in 1985, which traced land degradation in Africa to colonial policies of land appropriation, rather than over-exploitation by African farmers; and – Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria by Michael Watts in 1983, which traced the famine in northern Nigeria during the 1970s to the effects of colonialism, rather than an inevitable consequence of the drought in the Sahel. Political Ecology: Case Study of Decisions Shaping Wildlife Policy in Three African Countries Source: Gibson, 1999  As a result of wildlife’s multiple roles and values, wildlife policies have been the center of numerous disputes between individuals and groups in Africa and have influenced international relations: – European governments created policies to control the ivory trade; – Colonial administrators created parks, disenfranchised Africans, and prevented Africans and certain Europeans from hunting and from owning firearms; – European farmers pushed for regulations to eliminate those wildlife species that harbored disease and animals that killed their stock; – Certain Africans lobbied their government representatives to prevent the creation of natural parks and game reserves;

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– Other Africans struggled to gain influence over the safari hunting trade; and – Others sought outright ownership of wild animals found on their traditional lands. The author examined all of these actions and actors and how they influenced and shaped the development of wildlife policy in Zambia, and Zimbabwe.  Major conclusions of the research and analyses: – In each of these cases, individuals and groups at local, regional, and national levels competed for favorable policy and losers opposed policies through legal and illegal activities; – Creating wildlife policies that work means more than establishing the trends and performance of biological systems and passing laws to protect them; – It demands an understanding of the most important political and economic actors and the institutions that affect their behavior; and – That is, understanding local and national politics and how they are influenced by existing individual and higher level interests prior to policy development. Opinion Piece: Why Environmental Politics Looks Different from the “South” Source: Naham, 2005  Naham (2005) examines the purpose and definition of “global environmental politics:” – Viewed from the “North,” it is self-explanatory and seeks to improve the state of the “global environment;” and – Viewed from the “South,” it is employed to improve the state of the “global environment” and “global politics.”  Global environmental politics is one subset of discussions within the larger enterprise for more just and meaningful North-South relations.  What the “South” wishes is not simply economic development, but a say in the political decisions that affect its destiny. The danger is that the distinction is too often distilled only to its economic dimensions. Conclusions: Environmental Politics and “North-South” Relations  In the political evolution of sustainable development, from the 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development to the 2002 Johannesburg Summit on Sustainable Development, individual countries of the “South” have their specific interests and environmental concerns, which they pursue individually.  However, as a united group of the “South,” the politics of sustainable development, or global environmental politics within that, is one of the many means to seek a reform in, and more balanced, “North-South” relations on all levels. RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL ECOLOGY TO ANTHROPOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY Source: Perry, 2003  Within anthropology, Eric Wolf studied political economy in local cultures by addressing their role as a part of the world capitalist system, as opposed to earlier political economists and anthropologists who viewed those cultures as too isolated.  Julian Steward’s and Roy Rappaport’s theories of cultural ecology shifted the functionalist- oriented anthropology of the 1950s and 1960s toward a more scientific anthropology,

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incorporating ecology and environment into ethnographic study, yet were later criticized for ignoring the impact of environment on political and economic factors.  Recognizing these flaws in political economy and cultural ecology, geographers and anthropologists worked with the strengths of both to form the basis of political ecology.  This approach focuses on issues of power, recognizing the importance of explaining environmental impacts on cultural processes without separating out political and economic contexts.  These approaches tended to emphasize local, minority, and indigenous knowledge, but are in turn criticized by some as pre-supposing certain kinds of political factors in the explanation of environmental changes. POLITICAL ECOLOGY, BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Sources: Sutton and Anderson, 2004; Willow, 2014  Sutton (2004) defines political ecology as “the study of the day-to–day conflicts, alliances, and negotiations that ultimately result in some sort of definitive behavior; how politics affects or structures resource use.”  When speaking of political ecology and nature conservation, there is a divergence of ideas, issues, and potential troubles, especially when viewing conservation through biodiversity and the creation of conservation units (national parks and reserves).  It is a matter of who is involved and what the parties eventually want the outcome to be, such as the views from often diverse perspectives of non-government organizations (NGOs), local people, and the government of the occupied land.  All parties must consider their involvement and interests: – Are the actions of local people contributing an asset to the conservation area or are they in effect causing more harm than good, and according to whom? – Are the NGOs helping the situation and for whose benefit? – What is the government’s role: what are existing laws and policies and are reinterpretation or “rethinking” in order?  The environmental justice movement, also related to political ecology, investigates social and environmental inequity in relation to subjects such as: – Socio-political marginalization from land and resource use and community awareness; – Socio-cultural impacts of environmental degradation and disempowerment of indigenous populations; and – Environmental discrimination (inequitable distributions of environmental burdens such as pollution or industrial facilities.  Examples in Uganda: Advocates Coalition for Development and Environment (ACODE), Oil in Uganda, Open Society Initiative for East Africa, Greenwatch. Conclusion: The Broad Scope of Political Ecology has Diverse Applications Source: Greenberg and Park, 1994  There is now, in the social sciences, a developing consensus both that it is not enough to focus on local cultural dynamics or international exchange relations, and that the past and present

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relationship between policy, politics, or political economy in general, and the environment, needs to be explicitly addressed.  This consensus directly introduces concepts of relative power at many levels of environmental and ecological analysis.  From the perspective of political ecology, the environment in question may range from: – The very largely cultural (e.g., the epidemiology of disease in urban settings); – Through the intensely political (e.g., trade and governance of natural resources); and – To the fairly significantly natural (e.g., conservation of rainforest in remote areas of New Guinea or climate change projections and potential impacts on protected areas).

REFERENCES Bryant, R.L. and Bailey, S., (1997). Third world political ecology. Psychology Press. Forsyth, T., (2008). Political ecology and the epistemology of social justice. Geoforum, 39(2), pp.756- 764. Gibson, C.C., (1999). Politicians and poachers: the political economy of wildlife policy in Africa. Cambridge University Press. Greenberg, J.B. and Park, T.K. (1994). Political Ecology. Journal of Political Ecology 1:1-12. Naham, A. (2005). “Why Environmental Politics Looks Different in the South.” In Handbook of Environmental Politics. Eds: Dauvergne, D. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Peet, R. and Watts, M., (1996). Liberation Ecologies: Environment, Development, Sustainability, and Environment in an Age of Market Triumphalism. Liberation Ecologies: Environment, Development, Social Movements, New York: Routledge. Perry, R. J. (2003). Five Key Concepts in Anthropological Thinking. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Robbins, Paul. (2012). Political Ecology: A Critical Introduction. 2nd ed. Blackwell. Sutton, M.Q. and E.N. Anderson. 2004. Introduction to Cultural Ecology. Altamira. Walker, P.A., (2005). Political ecology: where is the ecology? Progress in Human Geography, 29(1), pp.73-82. Willow, A.J., (2014). The new politics of environmental degradation: un/expected landscapes of disempowerment and vulnerability. Journal of Political Ecology, 21(1), pp.237-257.

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LECTURE 10: FLORA/ FAUNA SPECIES- HABITAT RELATIONSHIPS AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS

10.1 FAUNA SPECIES-HABITAT RELATIONSHIP AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims  Provide a basic understanding of concepts related to plant/animal relationships as a foundation for understanding community ecology;  Clarify commonly misused or misunderstood terms and concepts; and  Highlight importance of considering animal habitat preferences, occupancy, and resource use in planning for monitoring and research. Learning Outcomes The participants will be able to: (i) Explain the basic concepts about the relationship between fauna and their habitats; (ii) Use keystone species to describe the status of ecosystem habitat and biodiversity; (iii) Assess the impact of changes in the ecosystem habitats on fauna. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment 1. Introduction: Understanding fauna/habitat Lecture, Q&A relationships in the context of biodiversity conservation 2. Freshwater ecosystem habitat diversity Lecture, Q&A 3. Keystone species and structures Lecture, Q&A 4. Endemic mammal species of the Albertine Rift Lecture, Q&A Valley 5. Browsers and grazers in an ecosystem context Lecture, Q&A 6. Resource partitioning in forest canopy mammals Lecture, Q&A 7. Animal adaptations to life in the tropical forest Lecture, Q&A canopy 8. Importance of animal habitat features Lecture, Q&A 9. Examples of oil exploration impacts on fauna and Working group discussion and exercise habitats 10. Field trip(s) Visit tropical moist forest, freshwater, and wetland ecosystems to compare the fauna/habitat relationships as they apply to these ecosystems.

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DETAILED NOTES UNDERSTANDING FAUNA/HABITAT RELATIONSHIPS IN THE CONTEXT OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION Source: Braga, 1999  Three basic principles for sustaining biodiversity: – Organisms have limited capacity to tolerate change in the physical or chemical features of their habitats; – Organisms already stressed by a range of alterations in their environment will be especially intolerant of additional changes, and – Different species or genetic types use different parts of the environment, or habitats, and simplification of the environment will usually reduce biodiversity.  In general, a greater diversity of habitats will support a greater diversity of species because of the large number of conditions available for organisms to coexist. FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM HABITAT DIVERSITY Source: Braga, 1999  Complexity in freshwater habitats is found in many different forms, but all of them can be classified within one of two basic categories: – Spatial Complexity--deep or shallow, fast or slow current, sunny or shaded, flat mud/sand or stony bottom, small gravel or large rocks, with or without aquatic vegetation, clear or sediment-rich water, small streams or large rivers. – Temporal Complexity--alternation of low flow and high water conditions, seasonal changes between warm and cold water, variation over time in the amount of suspended sediments and available nutrients, channel-constrained or expanded into the floodplain, migration of alluvial channels.  This variability results in a large number of freshwater habitats and provides organisms with a range of water velocities to select. Inputs from terrestrial ecosystems provide food (leaves, fruits) and habitat (sediments, twigs and logs) for aquatic organisms. As shown in figure 10.1 below, habitat diversity (depth, current and substrate types) is clearly important for fish communities. Similarly, habitat structure influences the diversity of lizard species in the southwestern USA, where species richness is more closely related to plant structural diversity and variability (various plant attributes such as size, growth form, variety of aboveground parts) than to plant species diversity.

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FIGURE 10.1: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIES AND HABITAT DIVERSITY

A) Relationship between fish species diversity and habitat diversity; B) Relationship between lizard diversity and plant species structural diversity. Source: Magurran, 1988.

FIGURE 10.2: LOCATIONS OF FISH DIVERSITY STUDY IN

Source: Bwaku Wandera and Balirwa, 2010.

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A study by Budaku, Wandera and Balinwa (2010) identified habitats and ecological niches in Lake Albert that were considered important for fish reproduction, food and shelter for all age categories of fish populations, as well as linkages to local rivers for dispersal and migration. The researchers found that Lake Albert contained 40 fish species of 12 families. They identified six habitats, including shallow river-associated waters; open sandy shorelines; lagoons; large bays; rocky escarpments; and open-water.

FIGURE 10.3: FRESHWATER PHYSICOCHEMICAL STUDY SITES ALONG ISHASHA RIVER AND LAKE EDWARD

Source: Mbalassa et al., 2014. A 2014 study by Mbalasa et al. focused on the natural physical and chemical balance in Lake Edward to which fauna and flora are adapted and that can be disturbed by development. They found that fish populations are highly dependent upon the variations of physicochemical characteristics of aquatic habitats which support their biological functions. In summary: Source: Mbalasa et al., 2014  Ishasha River runs through four protected areas (Mgahinga, Bwindi, Queen Elizabeth, and Virunga National Parks) before entering Lake Edward;  Water samples were collected and analyzed for surface water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and water transparency (standard measurements for water profile/monitoring);

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 Results suggest that, although physicochemical parameters in these habitats were suitable for most aquatic species, they were subject to high longitudinal variations;  Conclusion: “The variations detected could reach adverse conditions if any measure is not taken to regulate agricultural activities on the river banks and deforestation on headwater areas of the river into the lake.”  The river and lake are already at risk prior to the initiation of oil and gas activities. (Note: These existing conditions make the lake environment more vulnerable to oil and gas impacts because the imbalance is already present). Overlooked Importance of Freshwater Crabs Source: Dobson et al., 2002  There are around 100 currently recognized species of African freshwater crabs. More than 33 percent in East Africa;  Crabs represent a significant proportion of invertebrate fauna in terms of overall biomass;  The importance of detritus in the diet of most species suggests that crabs are key shredders in African rivers;  The detritus shredding guild may be taken up in a large part by crabs in African river systems;  General abundance and high biomass: crabs are very important to dynamics of nutrient recycling in rivers;  Crabs provide a valued food source for many predators and occasionally form the basis of small- scale fisheries;  Uganda: 12 species, two genera of freshwater crabs (Source: IUCN, 2014); and  Major threats: Habitat loss/degradation and water pollution because of agriculture, deforestation, and industrial and infrastructure development. of Mollusks, an Overlooked Resource, in East Africa Source: IUCN, 2014  Most small aquatic and terrestrial organisms are greatly under-assessed. Twenty-five species of mollusk in East Africa (16 percent of the total assessed) are globally threatened.  Main threats identified: Increased sedimentation and habitat loss due to deforestation of river catchments, drainage of wetlands, pollution, alien species, construction of dams, and agricultural encroachment.  Of the five critically endangered species, three are in the family Bithyniidae and two are in Uganda.  Gabiella candida is only known from a small stretch of shoreline at Butiaba in Lake Albert where it is subject to increasing levels of water pollution, and sedimentation.  G. parva is only known from Lake Bunyoni, where the water quality of the lake is declining due to the associated pollution and sedimentation from increasing agriculture.

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KEYSTONE SPECIES AND STRUCTURES Sources: Primack, 1998; Tews et al. 2004 Keystone species: any species that may be used to assess the degree of utilization, or the environmental balance of a habitat or area. They affect the organization of communities to a far greater degree than predicted based on their numbers and biomass. Keystone species such as wolves, fig trees, bats, and disease-causing organisms have large impacts on community organization and survival. Rare species may have minimal impact on biomass and other species. Dominant species constitute a large proportion of the biomass and affect many other species. Common species are abundant in biomass but have a relatively low impact on community organization. Introduction to the Concept of Keystone Vegetation Structures Not all species in an ecosystem are equally affected by spatial structures, depending on whether they cause heterogeneity or fragmentation. For example, while forest gaps increase habitat heterogeneity for butterflies and birds, they may fragment the habitats of ground beetles. A keystone structure is a distinct spatial structure providing resources, shelter or “goods and services” crucial for other species. A “keystone structure” thus should not be confounded with the concept of keystone species. For example, dead wood in mixed beech-spruce forests may be a keystone structure, as the removal of this structure (through, for example, forest management) would significantly reduce insect diversity. The graphic on the right shows that tree savannas are a typical keystone structure ecosystem. A wide array of species groups (e.g., arthropods, birds or mammals) depend on large, solitary trees as a food resource, shelter or nesting site. Consequently, overall species diversity is strongly linked to the quality of this structure. The quality, e.g., the proportion of large, solitary trees is detectable on a medium spatial scale. ENDEMIC MAMMAL SPECIES OF THE ALBERTINE RIFT VALLEY FIGURE 10.4: CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION DISCUSSION

Source: Plumptre et al. 2007. Plumptre (2007) shows 43-49 Albertine Rift Endemic species. They are particularly vulnerable to any type of disturbance to populations and habitats. BROWSERS AND GRAZERS IN AN ECOSYSTEM CONTEXT Source: McNaughton and Georgiadis, 1986  Animals are major regulators of habitats in African ecosystems.

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 Grasslands and woodlands subjected to chronic, intense herbivory may be regulated on a continuing, persistent basis by the herbivores.  The highest levels of sustained herbivory over substantial areas of natural ecosystems occur in Africa, where 33 percent to 66 percent, ranging up to 95 percent, of annual aboveground production may be consumed.  Local and regional ungulate movements are largely determined by variations in vegetation nutritional quality.  Relationships between animal distribution and landscape heterogeneity are caused in part by edaphic influences on vegetation nutritional quality.  Fire, an important environmental factor, interacts strongly with herbivory to modify the balance between woody and herbaceous vegetation.  Burned areas are often preferentially utilized by animals.  Animal behavior influences patterns of resource flow since territorial males can monopolize high-quality resources in grassland ecosystems.  Threats: tree removal, habitat degradation, alteration of water sources. Preference for Grass or Browse: An Important Feature of Resource Partitioning and Seasonal Habitat Selection of African Herbivores Source: McNaughton and Georgiadis, 1986  Feeding preferences fall along a continuum divided into four broad classes: grazers; mixed feeders preferring grass; mixed feeders preferring browse; and browsers.  Nutritional quality of plant parts (leaf, stem, sheath, and fruit) differs markedly and varies seasonally.  In savanna ecosystems, an increase in woody plant species correlates with increasing annual rainfall and is associated with a shift toward a greater relative abundance of larger sized species (e.g., elephant, buffalo, or giraffe).  Results from studies in the Serengeti in indicate trophic distinctions among grazing species: – More stem than leaf material in zebra diet than wildebeest; – Fruits more prevalent in Thomson’s gazelle diet; and – Seasonal movement patterns and habitat selection by topi antelope are determined by relative abundance and quality of green leaf in the sward (grassy surface of land).

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RESOURCE PARTITIONING IN SAVANNA ECOSYSTEM MAMMALS FIGURE 10.5: RESOURCE PARTITIONING IN SAVANNA ECOSYSTEM HERBIVORES

Source: de Iongh et al, 2009. Research by de Iongh et al. 2009 on diets of herbivores in Cameroon found that ungulate species had much dietary overlap (figure 10.6), but species consume different plant parts at different heights and life stages (figure 10.7). FIGURE 10.6: DIETARY COMPOSITION OF SAVANNA HERBIVORES DURING DRY SEASON

Source: de Iongh et al. 2009.  Larger species depend heavily on grasses with differing proportions of flower buds and leaves. They are able to access and utilize old grass stems as forage.  Small species: duikers and oribi eat large proportions of flower buds from shrubs and less of leaves and grasses.  eat near equal proportions of flower buds, grasses and old grass stems.  : mainly grazer but accesses old grass stems and Caesalpinaceous leaves in nearly equal proportions.

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FIGURE 10.7: DIETARY COMPOSITION OF HERBIVORES DURING THE WET SEASON

Source: de Iongh et al. 2009.  Kob consume fewer old stems to focus on fresh grass with smaller proportions of flower buds and leaves.  Hartebeest, with morphologically adapted skull, consumes similar proportion of old grass stems and flower buds, but fewer leaves.  Hippos forage mainly on fresh grasses with fewer leaves and old grass stems. Herbivores influence the succession in the different kind of savannas, from grassland to scrub through grazing, browsing, and trampling. This succession is also influenced by fire. Grazing herbivores feed on grasses at different heights, depending on the seasons. Species are also morphologically adapted to feeding ecology. Grazing of coarse grasses by zebra, topi, and wildebeest stimulate the growth of new high-quality grasses and herbs, which in turn promotes grazing by gazelles. Large herbivores may play a role in maintaining natural grazing systems because their physiology allows them to deal with foliage unpalatable or out of reach for smaller herbivores. Smaller species need less food and are more selective than larger species. In the dry season, larger species move into an ungrazed area first and take the bulk of the forage. Smaller species benefit because much of the coarse top grass is removed, leaving the more nutritious food at the base. Grazers often favor grasses, which protect themselves through their regenerating meristems that later leads to hindering of the regenerating of trees, thus exposing their meristems to browsers and grazers and also fire. A meristem is the tissue in most plants containing undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells), found in zones of the plant where growth can take place. Fires are abiotic disturbances that are common in the dry seasons, fire also changes the vegetation balance against trees and gives grass a possibility of regenerating. Endozoochory: the dispersal of plant seeds or spores within the body of an animal, as passing through the animal’s digestive system Woody vegetation regeneration: dispersed by the agency of animals, particularly by passage through the gut. The dominating factor for structure in the savanna seems to be fire, herbivory, water supply, and nutrient availability; The complex of fire and browsing by giraffe and elephants affect tree survival and result in a mosaic of tree stands — some patches with mature trees and declining numbers; others with immature trees and increasing numbers. Giraffe concentrate on the immature patches and inhibit escapement of trees into the mature class; elephant concentrate on mature trees and, by pushing them over, lower their number. Fire prevents regeneration of seedlings and inhibits small tree regrowth. This system is interactive.

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FIGURE 10.8: RESOURCE PORTIONING IN FOREST CANOPY MAMMALS

Similar to ungulate communities, food resources partitioning occurs in forest-dwelling monkeys; numbers represent percentage of overlap. Source: Chapman and Chapman, 196.

ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS TO LIFE IN THE TROPICAL FOREST CANOPY FIGURE 10.9: TROPICAL FOREST CANOPY ADAPTATION: GLIDERS AND FLIERS WALLACE’S FLYING FROG (SOUTEAST ASIA)

Source: Wallace Fund, 2017. Wallace’s flying frog (Rhacophorus nigropalmatus), and other arboreal frogs, is adapted to conditions in the forest canopy. This particular species is adapted for gliding among trees. As the flying frog jumps, it extends its toes so that the webbing between them serves as a gliding membrane. The frog also has flaps of skin along the outer edge of each forearm, at the heel and at the inner angle of the elbow. These flaps increase the frog’s surface area by about 30 percent, but add little weight. To

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steer its flight, the frog extends or retracts one or more limbs, or alters the shape of the aerofoil of the foot. Wallace’s frog can glide for distances of up to 12 meters. FIGURE 10.10: TROPICAL FOREST CANOPY FAUNA: GLIDERS AND FLIERS. FLYING DRAGON LIZARD AND FRUIT BATS A) B)

A) Flying dragon lizard (Draco volans) Source: Australian Geographic, 2014, B) Fruit bat (Pteropus gigantus) Source: Bat Worlds, 2013 Flying Dragon Lizard (Southeast Asia): this species, and other arboreal reptiles and amphibians, are adapted to conditions in the tropical forest canopy. This particular species is adapted for gliding among trees. Fruit bats are powerful fliers with large wings. An adult Pteropus gigantus, one of the world’s largest bats, weighs about 1 kilogram and may have a wingspan of 1.75 meters. They can cover distances of more than 250 kilometers. Their diet consists of fruits from tree canopies, the seeds of which are dispersed, so the bats contribute to forest regeneration. Bats: Albertine Graben faunal taxon present in terrestrial (savanna; forest) and aquatic ecosystems  About 90 bat species in Uganda; four are endemic species.  North: Drier region has more Microchiropteran bats.  Megachiropteran bats species diversity tends to increase in more forested western and southern regions.  Riparian and gallery forests important corridor habitats.  Provision of ecosystem services by bats: – Seed dispersal and vegetation regeneration; – Insect population control (crop pests; diseases); – Guano used as crop fertilizer; also natural habitats; and – Pollination of crops and wild plant species. IMPORTANCE OF ANIMAL HABITAT FEATURES Important animal habitats that can be overlooked during ESIAs provide food and shelter for multiple species of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and insects, as well as habitat for fungi, plants, and micro-organisms necessary for ecosystem function, plant regeneration, and soil formation. In the Albertine Graben, habitat features such as mud wallows, water holes, dust bathing sites, tree cavities, standing tree snags, and fallen logs provide important areas for multiple species.

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EXAMPLES OF OIL EXPLORATION IMPACTS ON FAUNA AND HABITATS  Effects of the alteration and removal of vegetation on habitats and associated ecosystems services.  Importation of non-native invasive species of animals and plants.  Disruption of animal foraging and mating patterns, social behaviors, and risk of injuries and fatalities because of increased circulation of construction vehicles and heavy equipment.  Disturbance or destruction of major animal trails as an impediment to habitual circulation within home ranges and migration routes.  Disturbance or destruction of belowground animal shelters and the animals therein (burrows, dens, and warrens).  Disturbance and contamination of soil and detritus fauna (soil microbes, termites, ants, and beetles) and their habitats.  Noise pollution interfering with animal communication and auditory capacity.  Disturbance of animal behavior patterns because of noise, vibrations, and intense lights, including disturbance of insect populations.

FIGURE 10.11: MORTALITY OF INSECTS ATTRACTED TO INTENSE LIGHTING: MASS MORTALITY OF EMERGENT BURROWING MAYFLIES

Source: Eisenbeis et al., 2006. Disturbance to insects is often overlooked. Mayflies are aquatic insects, spending most of their lives under water as nymphs, molting over and over. When they undergo their final molt stage, they develop wings and leave the water to find a mate if they can avoid being eaten by fish. Once they mate, the females lose their egg clutches upon whatever first surface she contacts. Their swarming to lamps on bridges or by riversides gives them the nickname “the summer snow” as the ground near lights becomes centimeters thick with their bodies. One report estimated 1.5 million individuals dead in one night on an illuminated bridge’s road surface. As each female releases her eggs on the

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first surface she contacts, this night represents an enormous loss of reproductive potential for the species. Impacts to Key Animal Habitat Features: Disturbance of or Damage to Dust-Bathing Sites, Wetlands, Seasonal Waterholes, and Mud Wallows  Dust bathing is a maintenance behavior performed by a wide range of mammalian and avian species. For some animals, dust baths are necessary to clean the feathers, skin, or fur, similar to bathing in water or wallowing in mud.  In some mammals, dust bathing may be a way of transmitting chemical signals (or pheromones) to the ground which marks an individual’s territory.  Wallowing (a behavior similar to dust bathing) may serve functions such as thermoregulation, providing a sunscreen, ecto-parasite control, and scent-marking.  Waterholes on savannas are key resources during dry seasons.  Savanna wetlands provide food, water, and habitat for aquatic and terrestrial fauna, especially during dry seasons.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE  Attendees will divide into small working groups.  Each group will select plant or animal species or communities in terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems in the Albertine Graben and identify: ‒ Especially fragile or keystone species, habitats, or structures; ‒ Potential impacts of oil and infrastructure development on the species or habitats; and ‒ Related aspects to be monitored.

REFERENCES Australian Geographic. (2014). “Flying dragon lizard a true gliding reptile.” Web. http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/creatura-blog/2014/05/dragon-lizard-draco- volans Ayensu, E.S. 1980. The Life and Mysteries of the Jungle. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. Bat Worlds. (2013). “Indian Flying Fox.” Web. http://www.batworlds.com/indian-flying-fox-pteropus- giganteus/ Braga, M.I.J. (1999). Integrating Freshwater Ecosystem Function and Services with Water Development Projects. Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, D.C. Bwaku Wandera., S. and J. S. Balirwa. (2010). Fish species diversity and relative abundance in Lake Albert—Uganda. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 13(3):284–293 Chapman, C.A. and L.J. Chapman. (1996). Mixed-species primate groups in the Kibale Forest: Ecological Constraints on Association. International Journal of Primatology, Volume 17: 31-50 de Iongh, H. H., C. B. de Jong, J. van Goethem, E. Klop, A. M. H. Brunsting and P.E. Loth. (2009). Resource partitioning among African savanna herbivores: the importance of diet composition, food quality, and body mass. Manuscript accessed at https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle

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Dobson, M., Magana, A., Mathooko, J.M. and Ndegwa, F.K., (2002). Detritivores in Kenyan highland streams: more evidence for the paucity of shredders in the tropics?. Freshwater biology, 47(5), pp.909-919. Eisenbeis, G., Rich, C. and Longcore, T. (2006). Artificial night lighting and insects: attraction of insects to streetlamps in a rural setting in Germany. Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting, 2, pp.191-198. Magurran, A.E. (1988). Ecological Diversity and Its Measurement. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press Mbalassa, M., Bagalwa, J.J.M., Nshombo, M. and Kateyo, M., (2014). Assessment of physicochemical parameters in relation with fish ecology in Ishasha River and Lake Edward, Albertine Rift Valley, East Africa. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 3, pp.230- 244. McNaughton, S.J. and Georgiadis, N.J., (1986). Ecology of African grazing and browsing mammals. Annual review of ecology and systematics, 17(1), pp.39-66. Plumptre, A.J., Davenport, T.R., Behangana, M., Kityo, R., Eilu, G., Ssegawa, P., Ewango, C., Meirte, D., Kahindo, C., Herremans, M. and Peterhans, J.K., (2007). The biodiversity of the Albertine Rift. Biological conservation, 134(2), pp.178-194. Primack, R.B. (1998). Essentials of Conservation Biology. Second Edition. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. Tews, J., Brose, U., Grimm, V., Tielbörger, K., Wichmann, M.C., Schwager, M. and Jeltsch, F., (2004). Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. Journal of biogeography, 31(1), pp.79-92. Wallace Fund. (2017). “Wallace’s Flying Frog.” The Alfred Wallace Russell Foundation. Web. http://wallacefund.info/file/225

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10.2 FLORA SPECIES-HABITAT RELATIONSHIP AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) To introduce trainees to the basic relationships between plants and their environment, so that they can tell when these relationships are affected by oil and gas activities. Learning Outcomes The participants will be able to: (i) Explain the relationships between the key components of the plants’ environment; (ii) Articulate the extent to which plants can be affected by oil and gas activities at genetic, species and ecosystem levels; and (iii) Recognize areas in the field where oil and gas activities are adversely affecting the species habitat relationships. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment 1. Plant environments and habitats Lecture mixed with Q&A to build on trainees’ experiences and knowledge 2. Threats to vegetation from oil and gas Group discussion sector 3. Field practicals During field visits, guide the trainees in observing and discussing the different plant and species relationships and where manifest trainees can identify threats/impacts of oil and gas activities on these relationships.

DETAILED NOTES PLANT ENVIRONMENTS AND HABITATS Habitats are places where an organism or a group of organisms live. Habitats are described by their geographic, physical, chemical and biotic characteristics. The environment is the biotic and abiotic conditions that surround and influence the biota and its habitat. This includes influences from outside the habitat. Task: List Some Examples of External Influences to the Habitat Note: This checklist of external influences will be not be shown to the students, as it is a task. 1. Ozone depletion. 2. Pollution from oil spills. 3. Accumulation of greenhouse gases (which is also pollution). 4. Global air circulation that affects rainfall. Habitat Types At the global level habitats are classified into biomes. Biomes are large terrestrial ecosystems characterized by a distinct climate and geography. They have a particular mix of plants and animals.

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Examples of biomes include tundra, taiga (boreal forest), desert, tropical rainforest, and grassland. A detailed description of biomes is given by Udvardy (1975). The overall habitat of a community of organisms is the macro-habitat e.g., a tropical rain forest. The macrohabitat is divided into smaller units, or microhabitats, each of which is the portion of the habitat directly encountered by a population of a given species e.g., a rotting log for millipedes. The Albertine Graben where oil and gas exploration is taking place has the following key habitat types: forests, wetlands, and grasslands e.g., Murchison Falls National Park. Within a biome or regional vegetation type, several different community types occur such as: a. Grassland – a community dominated by grasses. b. Marsh – with herbaceous vegetation in standing water. c. Swamp – with woody vegetation in standing water. d. Broad leaved evergreen forest – trees of warm and humid regions that maintain foliage all year round. e. Woodland – open growth of small trees, often evergreen, with well-developed growth of grasses. f. Savanna – grassland with scattered trees or groves of trees. Savanna grasslands include tropical and sub-tropical systems characterized by strong seasonality related to water stress, where vegetation consists of a continuous herbaceous cover of mainly grasses and a discontinuous cover of shrubs and trees. The woody species seldom form a continuous cover like that of grasses. Typical trees in savanna grasslands may include the baobab (Adansonia species), Combretum spp., Acacia spp., Albizia spp. Typical grasses include Hyparrhenia rufa, Panicum maximum, Themeda triandra, Heteropogon spp., Andropogon spp, Loudentia spp., Cymbopogon spp., Settaria spp., Eragrostis spp, and Pennisetum spp. g. Tropical rain forest – Tropical rain forests are wet and humid and characterized by constantly high (20-30° C) temperature. This classification excludes tropical montane areas where the minimum temperatures are lower. Precipitation is heavy, well distributed throughout the year, and averaging 2,000 millimeters. Most months have rainfall of at least 100 millimeters. The soils are lateritic with lots of aluminum and iron. The nutrients are found in the top soil and not in the deeper horizons. The bulk of the nutrients are locked up in the plant biomass. Nutrients soon become limiting once the forest is cleared. Tropical rain forests are complex ecosystems dominated by trees. The trees are tall cylindrical with no branching until the top. Forests are stratified. There are strata in the community both vertical and horizontal.  A layer approximately more than 50 meters consisting of emergent trees that are scattered and have spreading and shallow crowns.  A layer approximately 25 to 50 meters. It is the canopy layer, which is more continuous than the emergent layer.  A layer approximately 15 to 25 meters, the densest layer or stratum. Trees in this layer have conical crowns which are less spreading because of high density.  A layer of lower mid-story and upper mid-story. It consists of seedlings, saplings, and a few poles. These are shade tolerant. They wait for improvement of conditions (light and temperature) to take over (after a natural tree fall).  The young woody climbers also occur here. This layer is sparsely covered with vegetation. There is a thin cover of litter on the ground because of the high decomposition rate.

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 The forest microclimate varies tremendously vertically; temperature, wind velocity, and light intensity increases from bottom to top, while humidity decreases from bottom to top.  Ground vegetation is only extensive where the light penetrates to the forest floor (sun flecks).  Epiphytes and climbers are diverse and abundant. Dimensions of Habitats Habitats have four dimensions, the temporal, spatial, physical-chemical, and biotic dimensions. The temporal dimension includes changes in the daily and seasonal characteristics and components of the environment. The spatial dimension includes geographical components such as: Location, area, topography and spatial patterns like zonation and stratification. Habitats show specific spatial patterns referred to as zonation (horizontal patterns) and stratification (vertical patterns). Zonations results from a gradient in slope, moisture, soil type, soil chemistry, or light, resulting in more or less distinct belts or zones of biotic communities (examples p36, sect. 7, para. 3 and 4). Stratification is seen in vegetation, soil horizons and water columns. The physical-chemical dimension includes the atmosphere. The atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding our planet. The atmosphere of Earth is mostly nitrogen, but also contains oxygen used by most organisms for respiration and carbon dioxide used by plants and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis. Plant distribution and health are controlled by properties of the atmosphere such as climate, hurricanes, lightning, and pollution. Plants also play a large role in controlling the atmosphere. In fact, the atmosphere at any one location is not only the result of global atmospheric weather patterns; it is also the end result of the type and amount of vegetation. Climate, season and weather affect the distribution and activity of both animals and plants. The four factors that compose the atmospheric component of the habitat are air moisture, temperature, wind, and solar radiation. Extremes of these variables affect the distribution and abundance of organisms. The chemical composition of air is uniform over the earth, but currently concentrations of greenhouse gases such as CO2 or methane are increasing in the atmosphere, affecting both plants and climate. Variation in microclimate because of such factors like elevation, slope, or shade can result in temperatures, humidity, and light intensities different from those of surrounding areas. Ecological studies investigation influence of habitat changes on vegetation should determine the vertical profiles of temperatures, light intensity, relative humidity, and wind velocity. Lithosphere (substrate). The portion of the lithosphere that is important for plants is the top few meters of soil and aquatic sediments. Soil is a heterogeneous substance that varies with season and interacts with climate and vegetation. Hydrosphere (aquatic component). This component is addressed in the aquatic modules. The biosphere consists of the portions of the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere that contain life. THREATS TO VEGETATION FROM OIL AND GAS SECTOR “Oil spills and sludge accumulation accompanying oil and gas production can lead to damage to the soil and vegetation cover; soil washout (erosion); desertification (sand-dune formation); and, as a consequence, a decrease in the available land; and simplification, as well as a decrease in the population, of ecosystems. For example, during the time of development of the Tyumen oil region, the area of deer pastures decreased by 6 million ha, 25 thousand ha of land was water flooded, and 48 thousand ha was contaminated by chemicals and overflowed with drilling muds” (Gossen and

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Velichkina, 2006). Additionally, the major sources of degradation of forests, land and water in the Niger Delta include oil spills, gas leaks, blowouts, canalization and the discharge of wastes and effluent from oil and gas operations directly into surface water bodies and the land surface. A World Bank survey estimated that about 2.3 million cubic meters of crude oil is spilled in about 300 separate incidents in the Niger Delta each year (Emoyan et al., 2008). “Oil spills during production and transportation (using tankers, pipelines, and tank trucks) can have significant short-term and long-term impacts on ecosystems, due to oil’s physical effects and chemical toxicity, leading to decreased primary production, plant die-back, and marsh erosion. The mechanisms of these impacts are through (1) disruption of plant–water relationships, (2) direct impacts to plant metabolism, (3) toxicity to living cells, and (4) reduced oxygen exchange between the atmosphere and the soil. If leaves are coated with spilled oils, leaf stomata are blocked, oxygen diffusion to the roots decreases, and root oxygen stress increases leading to reduction in plant growth. Further, an oil covered soil surface decreases oxygen movement resulting in more anaerobic soil conditions and increasing oxygen stress on plant roots. Aerobic microorganisms in the oxidized sediment are more cable of degrading hydrocarbons than anaerobic microorganisms in reduced sediment of the same pH” (Energy Professional Symposium, 2015). “In the short term, spilled oil can form a coating on plant foliage and the soil surface, which increases temperature stress and reduces photosynthesis. These impacts are controlled by the amount of oil spilled, types of dispersed oil, and sensitivity of plants. Toxicity varies among different oil types, for example, diesel and no. 2 oil are more toxic to marsh plants than crude oil. Higher organic soils of fresh marshes are more sensitive to oil spills than salt marsh through more rapid penetration and sorption of oil onto the soil. The response of plants to oil spills varies with species, e.g. Sagittaria lancifolia is more tolerant than Spartina alterniflora, which is more tolerant than Spartina patens” (Energy Professional Symposium, 2015). “There are long-term consequences of oil spills due to the persistence of oil or petroleum fractions in marshes. Hester and Mendelssohn monitored plant photosynthetic response for 5 years after an oil spill, and found no significant residual effect of oiled sediment on plant photosynthesis in high marshes in the final year, but there were recovery failures in low marshes, primarily due to increased flooding stress. They suggested that successful restoration of die-back areas in oil- impacted marshes may require sediment addition to reduce the intensity of flooding stress before vegetation transplantation” (Energy Professional Symposium, 2015). The severity of biological effects of chronic spills is controlled by the volume and chemical nature of the pollutants, the physical nature of the receiving environment, and its biological nature and composition. “On the long-term effect of plants exposed to constant hydrological oil spills, Latimer et al. found a correlation between the Pb level in tree rings within 2 km of an oil refinery and the history of refinery opening and dredging, implying a translocation of Pb along the xylem rays in cypress trees. Further, Pb uptake by cypress trees is controlled by hydrological factors, in addition to availability of Pb from oil-related pollutants” (Ko and Day, 2004). Prevention of damage to the environment can be facilitated by a broader use of reliable waste management technologies in oil producing and oil refining industries not only for petroleum sludge but also for spent drilling fluids (SDFs).

REFERENCES Emoyan, O.O., Akpoborie, I.A., Akporhonor, E.E.. (2008). The oil and gas industry and the Niger Delta: Implications for the environment. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 12(3). Energy Professional Symposium. (2015). “Impacts on Plant Physiology”. Everything about solar energy. Web. http://energyprofessionalsymposium.com/?p=25812

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Gossen, L.P. and Velichkina, L.M., (2006). Environmental problems of the oil-and-gas industry (Review). Petroleum Chemistry, 46(2), pp.67-72. Ko, J.Y. and Day, J.W., (2004). A review of ecological impacts of oil and gas development on coastal ecosystems in the Mississippi Delta. Ocean & Coastal Management, 47(11), pp.597-623. Miklos D.F. Udvardy. (1975). A classification of the Biogeographical Provinces of the World. UNESCO, Man and the Biosphere Program, Project No. 8. IUCN Occasional paper 18, Morges Switzerland

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10.3 AQUATIC SPECIES-HABITAT RELATIONSHIP AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims The aim of the lecture is to: i) Provide an introduction to aquatic ecosystems (lakes, rivers, and wetlands) with a focus on the Albertine Graben; ii) Provide an understanding of biodiversity; ecosystem structure, function, threats and management, highlighting the potential effects of oil and gas development on aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems; and iii) Highlight key approaches in the management and conservation of aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity. Learning Outcomes By the end of this lecture, trainees should be able to: i) Articulate the structure and functioning of aquatic ecosystems; ii) Explain basic aquatic biodiversity and ecological concepts, functions, threats, and conservation; and iii) Identify potential impacts of oil and gas development on aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems. Outline of Lecture Contents

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment 1. Introduction to basic aquatic biodiversity Mini lecture with Q&A and buzz group concepts discussions to build on trainees’ knowledge 2. Major aquatic ecosystems in the Mini-lecture with Q&A to build on trainees’ Albertine Graben knowledge 3. Aquatic ecosystem: structure and Introductory min-lecture followed by a real-life functions case study (e.g., a National Park Management Plan and its implementation in practice) using guiding questions for group work 4. The aquatic ecosystem - energy flow and Guided group discussions followed by a plenary nutrient cycles session with the trainer filling in gaps 5. Threats to aquatic biodiversity and Lecture, Q&A, discussions ecosystems and their conservation 6. Aquatic flora/fauna-species-habitat Lecture, Q&A, discussions relationships and vulnerability to oil and gas development 7. Climate change, aquatic biodiversity and Lecture, Q&A, discussions ecosystems, environmental health and synergies with oil and gas development 8. Impacts of oil and gas development on Lecture, Q&A, discussions aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems 9. Field practical work Identification of water ecosystems, threats and undertaking water tests

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DETAILED NOTES INTRODUCTION TO BASIC AQUATIC BIODIVERSITY CONCEPTS Definition The word “biodiversity” refers to the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire plane. Biodiversity is also the sum of all the different species of animals, plants, fungi, and microbial organisms living on earth and the variety of habitats in which they live. Aquatic biodiversity includes (1) genetic diversity of the same species, (2) species diversity within the same genera, and (3) ecosystem diversity – in a whole habitat/population. a) Genetic diversity is the variation in the genetic composition of individuals in a population, community or species. Genetic diversity evolves as a result of many different processes: e.g., chromosomal/sequence mutation, and physical or behavioral isolation of populations. It allows individuals to adapt to different conditions thus, high genetic diversity increases ability of populations and species to survive major changes in their environment (e.g., climate change or oil and gas development) b) Species diversity is the variety of species (group of interbreeding organisms) in a particular habitat or ecosystem. Species diversity consists of two components: species richness, and species evenness; Species richness is a simple count of species; species evenness quantifies how equal the abundances of the species c) Ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity of a location at the level of ecosystems. Describes the variation in all living and non-living things in a particular geographic or ecological region. Overview of Aquatic Biodiversity and its Conservation in Uganda (with a focus on the Albertine Graben) Source: Tewari and Bisht, 2016 “Aquatic biodiversity can be defined as the variety of life and the ecosystems that make up the freshwater bodies in Uganda and their interactions encompassing lakes, rivers, streams, groundwater, and wetlands. Aquatic biodiversity also includes all unique species, their habitats and interaction between them. It consists of phytoplankton, zooplankton, aquatic plants, insects, fish, birds, mammals, and others.” “Aquatic conservation strategies support sustainable development by protecting biological resources in ways that will preserve habitats and ecosystems. In order for biodiversity conservation to be effective, management measures must be broad based.” “Aquatic areas that have been damaged or suffered habitat loss or degradation or alterations can be restored. Even species populations that have suffered a decline can be targeted for restoration or restocking.” Setting up gazetted areas where certain activities such as “fishing is banned or other restrictions are placed in an effort to protect aquatic resources and habitats, ultimately conserving biodiversity. These areas can also be used for educational purposes, recreation, and tourism as well as potentially increasing fisheries yields by enhancing the declining fish populations.” “Watershed/catchment management can be an important approach towards aquatic diversity conservation. Rivers and streams, regardless of their condition, often go unprotected since they often pass through more than one political jurisdiction, making it difficult to enforce conservation and management of resources. However, in recent years, the protection of lakes and small portions of watersheds/catchment areas organized by local watershed groups has helped this situation” e.g. Technical Cooperation Committee for the Promotion of the Development and Environmental Protection of the Nile Basin.

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“Plantation of trees in the catchment area of water body prevent soil erosion and subsequently reduce the problem of siltation in water body resulting in better survival of aquatic organisms. This has been done around small crater lakes of western Uganda and minor lakes of the Kyoga basin. Avoiding the establishment of industries, chemical plants and thermal power plants near the water resources as their discharge affect the ecology of water body resulted in loss of biodiversity. Regulatory measures must be taken on wastewater discharge in the water body to conserve biological diversity. In most cases the effluents have to be treated before release into the aquatic environment.” “Increasing public awareness is one of the most important ways to conserve aquatic biodiversity. This can be accomplished through educational programs, incentive programs, and volunteer monitoring programs.” Various organizations, including the National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI), Makerere University, McGill, among others that research biodiversity and associated conservation strategies help to identify areas of future research, analyze current trends in aquatic biodiversity. MAJOR AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS IN THE ALBERTINE GRABEN An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body of water, and there are two main types of aquatic ecosystems: marine and freshwater ecosystems. The basic types of freshwater ecosystems are: a) Lentic: slow moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes; b) Lotic: faster moving water, for example streams and rivers; and c) Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time. The Albertine Graben situated in the northern part of the left arm of the valley has a tertiary basin of about 500 kilometers long, averaging 45 kilometers, and more than 19 percent of the Albertine Graben is covered by freshwater ecosystems and water bodies, including lakes (Albert, Edward, and George), rivers and streams (Albert Nile, Victoria Nile and Semliki, Waki, Wambabya, Hohwa, Sebugoro, Kabyosi, Warwire, Nyamasoga, Waiga, Sonso and Waisoke) and wetlands (Murchison Falls-Albert Delta, which is a Ramsar site). While the biodiversity of the Albertine Graben is still poorly known, it is clear that this small area includes a high fraction of the species found on the African continent and a large number of species are endemic. (found only in the Albertine Graben) and many of which are threatened. This situation is a result of the high diversity of habitats that are found here, which also has high numbers of species of fish. Fisheries provide an important source of livelihoods of the people in the Albertine Graben. The region contributes 18.7 percent of the total national fish catch, which is quite significant and, of this total, 15 percent is contributed by Lake Albert alone. These water bodies are fresh water and home to an extraordinary number of species; approximately 20 cichlid fish (Cichlidae) species live in the lakes. In addition to the cichlids, populations of Clariidae, Mochokidae, Mastacembelidae, Centropomidae, Cyprinidae, Clupeidae, and other fish families are found in these lakes, rivers and wetland systems. The most important sources of fish in the region are Lake Albert, Lake Edward, , and rivers, especially the Albert Nile, Waki, Wambabya, Semliki and Kazinga Channel. Lake Albert is the richest of the lakes in the region, in terms of the fish biodiversity, having about 53 fish species, about 10 of which are endemic, for example, Alestes baremose (angara), Hydrocynus forsnkkahlii (ngasia), and Lates macropthalmus. Of the endemic species of Lake Albert, Lates macropthalmus is threatened. In general, most of the commercial fish species are under threat of heavy fishing pressure, which could lead to overexploitation. Studies conducted in the Albert area have shown that the Angara lagoon in the delta and lower floodplain zone of the Hohwa River Valley supports many species of fish, indicating possible use of the river by upriver migrant or anadromous fish (fish that spawn upriver).

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The Albertine Graben is rich in natural resources (minerals, petroleum, and fauna and flora) and has the largest number of protected areas in Uganda, including Ramsar sites and a large number of endemic species. The Albertine Rift Valley is one of Africa’s most species rich and endemic-rich regions, despite being one of its most poorly documented. The Albertine Graben is one of the most biodiversity regions of the African continent, with more than half of Africa’s birds, 40 percent of Africa’s mammals, and about 20 percent of its amphibians and plants, it contains more vertebrate species than anywhere else on the continent. But most importantly, it has more than 50 fish species in Lake Albert alone. It also conserves more threatened and endemic species than any other region of Africa, and as a result is a Biodiversity Hotspot, a Global 200 Ecoregion, and an Endemic Bird Area. Lake Albert (also Lake Nyaza and formerly Lake Mubutu Sese Seko) is a major lake in central Africa on the border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo just north of the equator. It is part of the Nile River, receiving the outflow of the Lake Victoria via the Victoria Nile and Lake Edward via the . The outflow of the lake is known as the Albert Nile. The shallow inshore habitats of these lakes support the biology and ecology of virtually all fish species during their larval and juvenile life, and therefore the fish landing sites owe their existence to the productive multi-species which, in turn, form the backbone of the socio-economic livelihoods of virtually all the lakeside communities and beyond. Thus, invertebrate fauna especially the macro- invertebrates as well as the young of most fish species spend their early life in this shallow inshore zone. Therefore, critical fish habitats (especially shallow inshore areas and river mouths) will likely be impaired by oil development activities. The key impacts may include severe siltation, bioaccumulation of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in fish tissues, change in water quality resulting from sewage and other oil related development activities. Information available on distribution of aquatic macro-invertebrates shows preferential distribution of aquatic invertebrates in the shallow inshore waters less than seven meters deep as compared with deeper off-shore waters. This finding has significant implications on the sensitivity of aquatic life to oil spills and possibly other pollutants. Recent field surveys recorded 27 fish species, which accounts for about 60 percent of the fish species expected to occur in the zone, an indication that the zone is still prime habitat. Small-scale fishing also occurs at the community level in the numerous streams and wetlands in the area. Unfortunately, very little scientific information has been documented on the ecology and dynamics of the fisheries of these key habitats. The currently worrying status of fisheries resources in the region would be greatly exacerbated by oil spills or pollution resulting from oil development activities. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS Ecosystem structure consist of both abiotic and biotic components; some of the important abiotic environmental factors of aquatic ecosystems include sunlight, substrate type, water depth, nutrient levels, temperature, salinity, water/vapor, wind, and atmospheric gases and flow. It is often difficult to determine the relative importance of these factors without large experiments. The amount of dissolved oxygen in a water body is frequently the key substance in determining the extent and kinds of organic life in the water body. Fish need dissolved oxygen to survive, although their tolerance to low oxygen varies among species. In extreme cases of low oxygen, some fish even resort to air gulping e.g., in the African catfish and Lungfish. Equally, oxygen is fatal to many kinds of anaerobic bacteria. Nutrient levels are important in controlling the abundance of many species of algae. The relative abundance of nitrogen and phosphorus can in effect determine which species of algae come to dominate. Algae are a very important source of food for aquatic life, but at the same time, if they become over-abundant they can cause declines in fish when they decay, producing a hypoxic region of water known as a dead zone.

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The salinity of the water body is also a determining factor in the kinds of species found in the water body. Organisms in marine ecosystems tolerate salinity, while many freshwater organisms are intolerant of salt. The degree of salinity in an estuary or delta is an important control upon the type of wetland (fresh, intermediate, or brackish), and the associated animal species. The biotic characteristics are mainly determined by the organisms that occur; however, aquatic environments have relatively low oxygen levels, forcing adaptation by the organisms found there. These biotic components include primary producers, herbivores (plant eaters), carnivores (meat eaters), omnivores (mixed plant/animal diet), and decomposers. Other biotic characteristics are more indirect and difficult to measure, such as the relative importance of competition, mutualism, or predation in the ecosystem. Autotrophic organisms (primary producers) are producers that generate organic compounds from inorganic material. Algae use solar energy to generate biomass from carbon dioxide and are possibly the most important autotrophic organisms in aquatic environments. It is important to note that the shallower the water, the greater the biomass contribution from rooted and floating vascular plants. These two sources combine to produce the extraordinary production of estuaries and wetlands, as this autotrophic biomass is converted into fish, birds, amphibians, and other aquatic species. Heterotrophic organisms (herbivores [plant eaters], carnivores [meat eaters], omnivores [mixed plant/animal diet], decomposers) consume autotrophic organisms and use the organic compounds in their bodies as energy sources and as raw materials to create their own biomass. The organisms that eat the autotrophs are called herbivores or primary consumers (an example is a tilapia that feeds on algae. Organisms that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers), which are either on mixed plant diets e.g., the African catfish, which are Omnivores, or meat eater e.g., the Nile perch, which are carnivores. When any organism dies, it is eventually eaten by detritivores (some species of haplocromines) and broken down by decomposers (mostly bacteria and fungi), and the exchange of energy continues. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM – ENERGY FLOW AND NUTRIENT CYCLES Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources. “Living organisms require over 30 elements for their normal development and among the most important ones are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus” (Schmid-Araya, 2010). However, there is a limited amount of each of them therefore the continuous availability will depend on cycles that permit the repetitive usage of these elements. “Nutrients are chemical elements that all plants and animals require for growth. On the earth, there is a constant and natural cycle how these elements are incorporated when an organism grows, and degraded if an organism dies. The nutrients used in the largest amounts are the non-mineral elements, i.e. carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). These elements are mainly taken up as carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air, and water (H2O) by the roots” (Conradin, 2010). Nutrients are continually recirculated within and among ecosystems, and by and large there are no new inputs or losses from the planet. In terms of materials, then, the earth is a closed system. Both energy and materials are essential to ecosystem structure, function, and composition. Biogeochemical cycles make it possible by transforming nutrients through the atmosphere, lithosphere and the biosphere (Schmid-Araya, 2010). It is important to note that all biogeochemical cycles are characterized by the movement of nutrients to and from the environment and organisms, the presence of organism, the geological storage (Schmid-Araya, 2010). Energy flow in aquatic ecosystems, according to Lindeman’s concept of trophic dynamics (Lindeman, 1942), is a consequence of metabolic activity of all organisms producing heat in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics. Energy and nutrients pass from primary producers (autotrophs) to primary consumers (herbivores) to secondary consumers (omnivores and carnivores) to tertiary consumers (carnivores that feed on

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other carnivores). Detritivores, or decomposers, are consumers that derive their energy from detritus. Decomposition connects all trophic levels According to F. A. Bazzaz, the rule of ecology overrules in that everything is connected to everything else, everything must go somewhere, and there is no such thing as a free lunch. FIGURE 10.12: A SYSTEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF ENERGY FLOW IN AN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM, ARROWS REPRESENT ENERGY FLOW FROM PREY TO PREDATOR

Source: Study Lib, 2017. These biogeochemical cycles are divided mainly into gaseous and sedimentary types. “In the gaseous cycle, the main storage is the atmosphere and typical examples are the oxygen, carbon and nitrogen cycles. While in the sedimentary cycles, the nutrients are stored in the sedimentary rocks or the earth crust and typical examples are phosphorus and sulfur cycles. These cycles are slow and have a limiting influence upon living organisms. The trapped elements are not accessible to the organisms until a disturbance and thus expose the nutrients back to the atmosphere or dissolve them into the water column. This implies that these nutrients can constitute a limiting factor” (Schmid-Araya, 2010). The Carbon Cycle The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. It comprises a sequence of events that are key to making the Earth capable of sustaining life. Carbon-based organic molecules are essential to all organisms. Photosynthetic organisms convert CO2 using and sunlight and water to organic molecules that are used by heterotrophs. The carbon becomes part of the plant. Plants that die and are buried may turn into soils, sediments, fossil fuels and sedimentary rocks. When humans burn fossil fuels, most of the carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. CO2 is taken up and released through photosynthesis and respiration. Other activities including volcanoes and the burning of fossil fuels also contribute CO2 to the atmosphere.

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FIGURE 10.13: THE MOVEMENT OF CARBON BETWEEN LAND, ATMOSPHERE, AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS.

Source: Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008a The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle is a gaseous type. The atmosphere is composed mostly of nitrogen (N2). Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed with other substances that produce organic compounds that are used by plans and animals (reactive nitrogen bonded to carbon, oxygen or hydrogen in NOx, NHx, and organic nitrogen) for uptake by plants, via nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen is an important and vital component of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. However, majority of organisms cannot use or synthesize the atmospheric nitrogen. It must be first changed into nitrogen compounds which are used by plants to build up proteins while animals consume nitrogen by feeding on plant tissues. In aquatic systems nitrogen supply is important in determining primary productivity and microbial recycling of organic matter. When plants and animals die, their bodies are degrade by bacteria (reducers) and thus produce ammonia (NH4) another nitrogen compound. Other bacteria transform the ammonia into nitrates (NO3) and nitrites (NO2), and other bacteria degrade the nitrites releasing gaseous nitrogen (denitrification), which returns to the atmosphere and the cycle is complete. Nitrogen in lakes is supplied by other aquatic systems in the drainage basin e.g. rivers/streams and the atmosphere and can also be produced in situ via nitrogen fixation by blue green algae (cyanobacteria). Nitrogen can be lost from the lakes via outflows however, if this doesn’t occur, it is denitrified by anaerobic bacteria and fungi and not stored in sediments. Denitrification increases with long water residence and decreases with water depth. It is important to note that the nitrogen cycle will directly affect other nutrient cycles i.e. phosphorus and sulfur.

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FIGURE 10.14: GENERAL LAND AND AQUATIC TRANSFORMATION OF NITROGEN

Source: Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008b. The Phosphorus Cycle “The phosphorus cycle is a typical sedimentary type. The main reservoirs of phosphorus are sedimentary rocks of marine origin, the oceans, and organisms. The cycle has no gaseous phase and moves very slowly. Phosphorus is a vital constituent of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, phospholipids, and ATP therefore necessary for all living cells. Phosphate (PO4-3) is the most important inorganic form of phosphorus. Phosphorus is the most important ecological element and its deficiency tends to limit productivity of any region. Phosphate binds with soil particles, and movement is often localized. Phosphorus enters the lake via runoff and also directly from atmospheric precipitation. Phytoplankton and macrophytes incorporate it into their cells forming more complex cells; animals obtain phosphorus by feeding on these primary producers. It important to note that 90% of the phosphorus in lakes occurs as organic phosphates and cellular constituents in biota, and adsorbed to inorganic and dead particulate organic material” (Schmid-Araya, 2010).

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FIGURE 10.15: GENERAL LAND AND AQUATIC TRANSFORMATION OF PHOSPHORUS

Source: Shmoop Editorial Team, 2017c. The Hydrological (Water) Cycle The earth’s water is always in movement, and the natural water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the movement of water on earth. This includes subsurface water, surface water, and water in the atmosphere. Water is always changing states between liquid, vapor (gaseous), and ice, with these processes happening very fast for millions of years. Out of the world’s total water supply of about 332.5 million cubic miles, over 96% is saline/marine. While 68% of the total freshwater is locked up in ice and glaciers also and over 30% is in the ground (Gleik, 1998). Fresh surface-water sources, such as rivers and lakes, only constitute about 22,300 cubic miles (93,100 cubic kilometers), which is about 1/150th of one percent of total water; yet, rivers and lakes are the sources for humankind. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables (Gleik, 1998).

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FIGURE 10.16: THE MOVEMENT OF WATER DURING THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Source: Science Learning Hub, 2013. Food Chains and Food Webs A food chain is the path by which energy passes from one living thing to another in an ecosystem. A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food. A food chain also shows how the organisms are related with each other by the food they eat. Each level of a food chain represents a different trophic level. . Some animals eat plants and some animals eat other animals. A food chain always starts with plant life and ends with an animal. Plants are called producers because they are able to use light energy from the Sun to produce food (sugar) from carbon dioxide and water. The process by which plants make food is called photosynthesis. Animals cannot make their own food so they must eat plants and/or other animals. They are called consumers. There are three groups of consumers. A food web is several food chains linked together (i.e., an interconnected network of food chains) within an ecosystem. THREATS TO AQUATIC BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS AND THEIR CONSERVATION “Rivers, lakes and wetlands within the Albertine graben are under intense pressure from over exploitation, multiple use, e.g., dam construction, pollution and habitat degradation. The services that aquatic ecosystems can provide to society have been greatly reduced, and the biota is likely to be affected, with several aquatic species including fish disappearing from entire ecoregions. “Human activities are causing species to disappear at an alarming rate. Aquatic species are at a higher risk of extinction than both mammals and birds” (Tewari and Bisht 2016). Losses of this magnitude would impact the entire ecosystem e.g. in Lake Victoria, depriving valuable ecosystem goods and services provided to mankind. Runoff from agricultural and human development, the invasion of exotic species such as water hyacinth, and the creation of dams and water diversion have been identified as the greatest challenges to freshwater environments in which the Albertine Graben is not exceptional (Tewari and Bisht, 2016). Overexploitation of aquatic organisms for various purposes is the greatest threat to freshwater environments, thus the need for sustainable exploitation has been identified by the directorate of fisheries resources in collaboration with SMART partner as key priority in preserving aquatic biodiversity. Overexploitation leads to loss of genetic diversity and the loss in the relative species abundance of both individual and /or groups of interacting species (Tewari and Bisht, 2016). It changes the genetic structure of fish populations due to loss of some alleles, thus genetic diversity gets reduced. The population size gets reduced because of disturbances in age structure and sex

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composition. Efficient gears remove quick growing larger individuals consequently, the proportion of slow growing ones increases and the average size of individuals in a population decreases. “Physical modification/alterations of habitat may lead to species extinction. This is mainly caused due to damming, deforestation, diversion of water for irrigation and conversion of marshy land and small water bodies for other purposes. Construction of dams on rivers impedes upstream migration of fishes and displaces populations from their normal spawning grounds and separates the population into smaller groups (island biogeography concept). Deforestation leads to catchment area degradation due to soil erosion which results into sedimentation and siltation. This not only affects the breeding ground of aquatic organisms but cause gill clogging of small fishes also” (Tewari and Bisht, 2016). Pollution from various sources, e.g.: a) Agrochemicals, metals, acids that cause mortality, if present in a high concentration and affect the reproductive functionality of fish. b) Suspended solids which might affect the respiratory processes and secretion of protective mucus making the fish susceptible to infection of various pathogens. c) Sewage and organic pollutants that cause deoxygenation due to eutrophication causing mortality in fishes and other sensitive aquatic organisms. These pollution factors affect the aquatic biodiversity directly or indirectly therefore excessive mortality of organisms due to any of these factors may lead to extinction of the species/populations and/or reduction of population size. Climate change is predicted to add additional threats (such as increase in water temperature, more unstable flow regimes) while interacting in complex ways with other stressors, such as eutrophication. Changing climate will also cause changes in land-use that will further intensify the pressures on freshwater systems. Consequentially, sensitive freshwater species will change their distribution; some will migrate, while others may parish. It is also expected that non-indigenous species to take over and extend their distributional ranges if conditions are favorable. Other threats to aquatic biodiversity include introduction of alien species (water hyacinth and the Nile perch) that destroy or reduce natural habitats. In addition, to then other stressors of water pollution, exploitation pressure and climate change invasive species also pose threats to aquatic biodiversity. AQUATIC FLORA/FAUNA-SPECIES-HABITAT RELATIONSHIPS AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT Critical and sensitive aquatic habitats in the Albertine Graben that will likely be impaired by oil development activities include:  Shallow inshore waters and river mouths;  Wetlands;  Open sandy shoreline;  Lagoons;  Large bays; and  Rocky escarpment. The confluence between Lake Albert and the delta, shallow inshore sheltered lagoons and bays, riverine wetlands, river mouths, and rocky areas are important breeding ground for the fishes of

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Lake Albert. The habitat are also nursery areas for young fish, as they are rich in food, experience minimal wave action, and offer refugia for young fish from predation by large fish. The surface water resources and associated lake-wetland delta are also critical habitats for a diverse aquatic fauna and flora including: hippopotamus, sitatunga, water birds, benthic macro-invertebrates plankton (zooplankton and phytoplankton), and several commercially important fish species of fish. Key impacts on the sensitive habitats include: severe siltation, bio-accumulation of CFCs in fish tissues, change in water quality resulting from sewage and other oil related development activities. The fish landing sites located along the shoreline of Lake Albert are the most fragile in terms of sensitivity to oil and gas development. An overlay with the oil prospect areas indicates that a number of the landing sites are located within the oil prospect areas and may have to relocate once the oil drilling activities commence. CLIMATE CHANGE, AQUATIC BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS, ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SYNERGIES WITH OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT The climate in the Albertine Graben is already changing, and records over the last century show that temperature has risen by 2°C in some sites. This rise is not solely because of global climate change but is also caused by forest and wetland clearance in the region according to the Wildlife Conservation Society. Stress from climate change is likely to affect aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems services in the following ways: a) Increase in temperatures may affect the hydrological cycle of water catchments through weakened water recharge or retention capacity. b) Changes in abundance of aquatic fauna are likely to lead to decreased availability of ecosystem resources that provide livelihoods for people. c) Increases in temperature will create ecological conditions that favor colonization by invasive species. d) Climate variability and change through drought and floods will cause changes in primary productivity processes, nutrient cycling that will affect fish physiology, size structure, life history, relative abundance, yield and livelihoods of fisher communities, IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT ON AQUATIC BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS Construction Phase Impacts a) Vegetation clearance: Site preparation, including clearing of vegetation, topsoil stripping, leveling by cut and fill, and excavation for drilling or drainage infrastructure may cause ‘soil erosion that could have a direct and negative impact on the aquatic habitats through increased amounts of suspended particles, thus causing sedimentation in the wetlands Removal of vegetation whose root systems bind the soil may render it more susceptible to erosion by water or wind, leading to increased surface run-off, carrying with it eroded soil particles, particularly during the rainy season. Increased amount of suspended matter may also lead to: a decrease in amount of dissolved oxygen in the water and alteration in water temperature and changes in the physical and chemical properties of water (particularly dissolved oxygen concentration). Changes in the physical and chemical properties of water (particularly dissolved oxygen concentration) may lead to physiological problems or death of aquatic organisms as a result of asphyxiation. However, this impact is expected to be of minor severity given the very low intensity of the construction activities even though the sensitivity of the wetlands is high.

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b) Contamination of surface water by fuel, oils and waste: In addition to runoff-related pollution, construction chemicals and wastes such as fuels (diesel), lubricating oils required for construction equipment, solvents, and associated wastes are some of the potential pollutants of surface water bodies if they leak or are spilled during handling or use. Inappropriate disposal of solid wastes or leaks of liquids such as lubricating oils or fuel could have a direct negative effect through pollution of ground and surface water that can also indirectly affect aquatic organisms. Any such event would be considered to be of major severity given the highly sensitive nature of the receiving environment (wetlands). Operational Phase Impacts a) Contamination of groundwater and surface water by fuel, oils, and waste: Diesel fuel, lubricating oils, paints, solvents, and mud and cement chemicals used at the drill pads, and wastes arising from these as well as general refuse and sewage, have the potential to contaminate groundwater and surface water, if they leak, are spilled or are handled improperly.  These discharges can have a direct negative impact on water quality and aquatic biota.  Major threat of the aquatic systems through run-off in during heavy rains. b) Contamination from wastewater: The main aqueous wastes from the drill site will be muds and cuttings and wash water. Storm water might also be generated, especially if the drilling operations coincide with the rainy season. Storm water is likely to have a negative direct effect on benthic invertebrates, as aqueous wastes and water-based mud and cuttings have been shown to affect benthic organisms through smothering. High pH and salt content of certain drilling fluids can also have an impact on freshwater resources. Given the high sensitivity of the wetlands and some of the benthic invertebrates and the low intensity of storm water, especially if the drilling coincides with the dry season, the severity of this impact is expected to be moderate. c) Surface water pollution: The discharge of aqueous wastes from the drill site; the disposal of wastes into water bodies; leakages or spillages of chemicals from the project sites; and loss of oil and gas containment in event of a blowout; are some of the aspects with potential to have a negative direct impact on surface water of the water bodies around the drilling area. The pollution of surface water could have negative indirect impacts on aquatic fauna and flora as well as wild animal health through increased pollutant levels in the aquatic food chain. In the case of oil spillages especially because of loss of oil containment during drilling operations, it is worth noting that the physical properties of petroleum are such that when it spills, it becomes very difficult to clean up and spreads quickly when it comes into contact with water. The severity of this impact is considered major given the medium intensity of the impact and high sensitivity of the water bodies, especially when the drilling takes place in the wet season.

REFERENCES Conradin, K. (2010). “The Nutrient Cycle.” Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management. Web. http://www.sswm.info/category/concept/nutrient-cycle Gleick, P.H., (1998). The world’s water 1998-1999: the biennial report on freshwater resources. Island Press. Schmid-Araya. (2010). Limnology, Biochemical Cycles, QMUL, UK, http://2010acceleratedbio.wikispaces.com/file/view/cyclesv2.pdf

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Science Learning Hub. (2013). “The Phosphorus Cycle.” Web. https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/961-the-phosphorus-cycle Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008)a. “Biology The Carbon Cycle - Shmoop Biology.” Shmoop. Shmoop University, Inc., Web. ://www.shmoop.com/ecology/carbon-cycle.html Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008)b. “Biology The Nitrogen Cycle - Shmoop Biology.” Shmoop. Shmoop University, Inc., Web. http://www.shmoop.com/ecology/nitrogen-cycle.html Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008)c. “Biology The Phosphorus Cycle - Shmoop Biology.” Shmoop. Shmoop University, Inc., Web. http://www.shmoop.com/ecology/phosphorus-cycle.html Study Lib. (2017). “Ch. 55 Ecosystems.” Guided Notes. https://studylib.net/doc/6640371/ch.-55-- ecosystems Tewari, G. and Bisht, A. (2016). Aquatic Biodiversity: Threats and Conservation. Department of Fishery Biology, College of Fisheries, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India. http://aquafind.com/articles/aquatic_biodiversity.php

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10.4 BIRD AND BAT SPECIES-HABITAT RELATIONSHIP AND VULNERABILITY TO OIL AND GAS

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims The aim of this lecture is to: i) Introduce the participants to the basic concepts on the study of birds and bats; ii) Introduce the participants to the general diversity and of birds and bats; iii) Highlight the importance of birds and bats; and iv) Demonstrate the potential impacts of oil and gas activities on birds and bats. Learning Objectives By the end of this lecture, trainees should be able to: i) Appreciate the diversity of birds and bats, including their relative occurrence, abundance, and distribution; ii) Identify some of the species of birds and bats in the Albertine Graben that are of conservation significance; iii) Explain the ecological and socio-economic importance of birds and bats; and iv) Appreciate the potential impacts of oil and gas activities on birds and bats. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment

1. Introduction to the basic concepts Mini lecture with Q&A and buzz group discussions to on the study of birds build on trainees’ knowledge

Use of visual aids (photographs, diagrams and audios for demonstrating species identification; group discussion 2. Introduction to basic concepts on Mini lecture with Q&A and buzz group discussions to the study of bats build on trainees’ knowledge

Use of visual aids (photographs, diagrams) and audios for demonstrating Species identification; group discussions 3. Potential impacts of oil and gas Mini lecture with Q&A, group discussions development activities on birds and bats 4. Field practical work To cover bird/bat species identification, occurrence, relative abundance, distribution and other aspects in the course. Visit selected Important Bird Areas of Uganda.

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DETAILED NOTES INTRODUCTION TO THE BASIC CONCEPTS ON THE STUDY OF BIRDS Definitions The study of birds is called Ornithology. BirdLife International recognizes a total of 10,426 species worldwide, 13% of which are threatened by extinction. “Birds are found across the world in all major habitat types. Although some birds occur in two or more habitats, many specialist species are confined to just one. Grasslands, savanna and inland wetlands are all important habitats for birds, each supporting about 20% of species, while shrub lands support 40% of birds. Around 46% are found in ‘artificial’ terrestrial habitats; those that have been modified by humans such as agricultural land, but by far the most significant habitat is forest, supporting 76% of all species (analysis of data held in BirdLife’s World Bird Database, 2012, BirdLife International, 2012). “Birds are found in all forest types, from sub Antarctic woodland to equatorial rainforest. The most important types are tropical/subtropical lowland and montane moist forest, which support 51% and 37% of species respectively, with tropical/subtropical dry forest supporting 19% (analysis of data held in BirdLife’s World Bird Database, 2012, BirdLife International, 2012) Tourism directed at bird watching is called avitourism. An Endemic Species is one that is only found in that region and nowhere else in the world. The Albertine Rift has more endemic species of vertebrate than any other region of mainland Africa. A total of 42 species of bird and 41 species of mammals are endemic to the Albertine Rift (http://programs.wcs.org/albertine/wildlife/biodiversity/endemic-species.aspx). Classification/Types of Birds Birds belong to Class Aves one living subclass Neornithes with two super orders and 27 living orders: Superorder 1: Paleognathae (Flightless birds-Ratities): 1. Struthionithiformes – Ostrich. 2. Rheiformes – Rheas. 3. Casuariiformes – Cassowaries, Emus. 4. Apterygiformes – Kiwis. 5. Tinamiformes – Tinamous. Superorder 2: Neognathae: 1. Podicipediformes – Grebes. 2. Sphenisciformes – Penguins. 3. Procellariiformes – Albatrosses. 4. Anseriformes – Waterfowl. 5. Ciconiiformes – Herons, Storks. 6. Falconiformes – Raptors, Hawks. 7. Galliformes – Chicken-like birds. 8. Gruiformes – Cranes. 9. Charadriiformes – Shorebirds, Gulls.

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10. Gaviiformes – Loons. 11. Columbiformes – Pigeons and Doves. 12. Psittaciformes – Parrots. 13. Coliiformes – Mousebirds. 14. Musophagiformes – Turacos. 15. Cuculiformes – Cuckoos. 16. Strigiformes – Owls. 17. Order Caprimulgiformes – Nightjars. 18. Apodiformes – Hummingbirds, Swifts. 19. Trogoniformes – Trogons. 20. Coraciiformes – Kingfishers, Hornbills. 21. Piciformes – Woodpeckers, Honeyguides. 22. Passeriformes – Songbirds (Perching birds). IUCN Levels of Threat Threatened species are those that are facing threats to their survival, and may be at risk of extinction. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies threatened species into different categories, depending on their relative risk of extinction. The term “endangered” is one of these categories. Officially, threatened species are those listed as critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN) and vulnerable (VU). The various levels of threat are defined below: 1. Extinct (EX): No reasonable doubt that the last individual has died 2. Extinct in the wild (EW): Known only to survive in captivity or as a naturalized populations well outside its previous range 3. Critically Endangered (CR): The species is in imminent risk of extinction in the wild 4. Endangered (EN): The species is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild 5. Vulnerable (VU): The species is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild 6. Near Threatened (NT): The species does not meet any of the criteria that would categorize it as risking extinction but it is likely to do so in the future 7. Least Concern (LC): There are no current identifiable risks to the species 8. Data Deficient (DD): There is inadequate information to make an assessment of the risks to this species Importance/Uses of Birds Source: Education Science Tips, 2017 1. Food: “Birds are the prime source of food for humans. They produce eggs and also meat. There are many types of birds used for meat purposes like turkey, hen, ducks, geese, quails etc. The meat of birds is consumed as daily food in many countries depending on the type of bird available. Their meat is called white meat and unlike red meat (beef or mutton) it is said to be healthier for heart. Since it has less fat content, it is little safer to eat for even those with risk of obesity and cardiac problems. Further the eggs are part of daily meals, cakes, ice creams even among vegetarian countries. Unlike vegetarians, there are eggetarians who refrain from eating

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meat but can eat eggs. Eggs are rich in protein and hence advised for consumption by patients suffering from debilitating diseases.” 2. Economy: “Birds are grown to make monetary gains. They are grown by men for business. The meat and eggs from birds are called poultry. These birds are reared in large numbers to meet the demand in markets. They are economically very viable for poultry farmers. Since they are contributing to food, the poultry business seems to be evergreen without loses unless affected by diseases. Tourism directed at bird watching (avitourism) has become increasingly popular. In many lower and middle-income countries, including South Africa, avitourism is being applied in an effort to simultaneously achieve community development and biodiversity conservation.” 3. In agriculture: “Birds are not directly employed by man in agriculture. But they naturally serve some benefits”  Pollination: “Birds help in cross pollination. They carry male gametes of one plant and drop them on to female gametes of another plant. Thus they help in sexual reproduction plants. Besides birds, even the insects and wind serve the purpose. But birds play a prominent role. Cross pollination helps in formation of healthy seeds.”  Fertility: “Birds excreta is rich in uric acid which can readily convert to ammonia which is a fertile manure to plants. The birds around the farm may contribute less to the manure. But the waste from poultry if added to the soil, it greatly enhances the fertility.”  Pest control: “Birds rely on insects and their larva to feed themselves and their babies. So during crop season, there is wide growth of insect population due to favorable conditions. Birds keep the growth under control and help the crop from pest attack.”  Rodent control: “Unlike insects, rodents are a big problem to crops. Rodents eat away the yield of the crop. Birds like eagles keep an eye on these rodents and carry away for consumption. Thus they keep the rodent growth under control which in-turn helps the farmers.” 4. Importance of birds in Nature: “Birds are part of the nature. They contribute to the ecosystem and environment. They are helpful in following ways to nature.”  Food chain: “Birds are part of food chain. They are carnivores here. They keep check on growth of population of rodents, insects and even snakes. Small birds eat up insects while large ones kill snakes and rodents.”  Scavengers: “We might have come across birds circled around a dead corpse of animals. Even in forest, once an animal is left out by lions and tigers, the rest is consumed by birds. Birds are natural scavengers. They help keep the nature clean of dead and decay matter. Even they do not leave out grains or fruits which are thrown out into open places.”  Seed dispersal: “Birds are the key in seed propagation. Hence we see plants growing spontaneously at different places on the soil. The birds eat the fruit or seeds of the plants. Some of them remain undigested and get excreted as such. When these seeds reach the soil, they can germinate in favorable conditions. Thus birds help in natural seed dispersal and plant propagation.”  Beauty to nature: “Birds are the some of the creatures which add beauty to environment. Hence we see many painting with birds and even photographs of birds to reflect beauty.” “Thus birds are greatly helpful to humans and nature. Due to pollution and wide spread radiation many birds are getting extinct. We need to protect them and minimize the hazards of technology on them.”

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The Importance of Bird of Conservation in Uganda There are 1,061 bird species in Uganda, of which seven are globally Endangered, 11 are globally Vulnerable, and 26 are globally Near-threatened (BirdLife International, 2015). Examples of the threatened species found in the Albertine Graben are presented in Table 10.1. There are 192 threatened within East African region; only one species is endemic to Uganda (Fox’s Weaver). There are 24 Albertine Rift Endemics, 137 Palaearctic migrants: Breed in North Central Europe/Asia and winter over in Africa, 56 Afro-tropical migrants (Afrotropical-movement of birds between breeding/non-breeding sites within African south of the Sahara). Uganda hosts 189 true forest species (species that cannot survive outside the primary forest) and 160 species that depend on water (water bird specialist species) (Carswell et al., 1995). TABLE 10.1: EXAMPLES OF GLOBALLY THREATENED SPECIES FOUND IN THE ALBERTINE GRABEN

Species Threat Category Photograph Papyrus Gonolek mufumbiri NT

Lappet-faced Vulture Torgos tracheliotos VU

Shoebill Balaeniceps rex VU

Nahan’s Partridge Ptilopachus nahani EN

INTRODUCTION TO THE BASIC CONCEPTS ON THE STUDY OF BATS Definitions “Bats belong to order Chiroptera, the second most diverse among mammalian orders, which exhibits great physiological and ecological diversity. They form one of the largest nonhuman aggregations and the most abundant groups of mammals when measured in numbers of individuals. They evolved before 52 million years ago and diversified into more than 1,232 extant species. They are small, with adult masses ranging from 2 g to 1 kg; although most living bats weigh less than 50 g as adults. They have evolved into an incredibly rich diversity of roosting and feeding habits. Many species of bats roost during the day time in foliage, caves, rock crevices, hollows of trees, beneath exfoliating bark, and different man-made structures. During night, they become active and forage on diverse food items like insects, nectar, fruits, seeds, frogs, fish, small mammals, and even blood” (Kasso and Balakrishnan, 2013). Bats are the world’s only flying mammals. Most bats navigate their way through forests and open spaces, and locate prey and avoid predators, using echolocation: a biological sense based on the same principal as radar. Bats send out signals that bounce back and are detected and analyzed, giving bats a detailed picture of objects struck by the signals and their distance from the bat.

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Classification/Types of Bats Order Chiroptera (bats) has 178 genera, 1,232 species (the second largest mammalian order). There are two suborders of bats:  Suborder Megachiroptera contains one family (Pteropodidae).  Suborder Microchiroptera contains 18 families. Importance/Uses of Bats Source: Kasso and Balakrishnan, 2013 The ecological and economic importance of Bats (Order Chiroptera) is well described in detail by Kasso and Balakrishnan (2013) i) Ecological Importance of Bats:  As Predators: “Bats have diverse patterns of feeding in which some select among available prey while others are generalist predators, feeding on a wide diversity of taxonomic groups. They also opportunistically consume appropriately sized prey depending on availability within a preferred habitat. Their prey size can vary from 1 mm (midges and mosquitoes) to as large as 50 mm long (beetles and large moths) based on the species of bat.”  As Prey for Vertebrates: “Although there are relatively few observations of animals feeding on bats, a number of vertebrate predators like fish, amphibians, birds, reptiles, and mammals prey on bats throughout the world. The main bat predators are owls, hawks, falcons, snakes.”  As Hosts for Parasite: “Numerous haematophagous ectoparasites live such as bat fleas (Ischnopsyllidae), bat flies (Nycteribiidae), bat mites (Spinturnicidae), and bugs (Cimicidae) on the skin surface and in the fur of bats. These obligate ectoparasites are specialized to their hosts.”  As Seed Dispersal: “Seed dispersal is a major way in which animals contribute for ecosystem succession by depositing seeds from one area to another. As 50–90% of tropical trees and shrubs produce fleshy fruits adapted for consumption by vertebrates, the role played by frugivorous bats in dispersing these seeds is tremendous. Unlike most seed dispersal by vertebrates that dispersed close to parent plants with only 100– 1,000 m away, the seeds dispersed by frugivorous bats were relatively far away (1-2 km). The dispersed seeds of palms and figs by bats are also common in many tropical forests. Because they are also eaten by many birds and mammals, figs often act as keystone species in tropical forests.”  As Pollination: “Bat pollination occurs in more than 528 species of 67 families and 28 orders of angiosperms worldwide. Unlike predation, which is an antagonistic population interaction, pollination, and seed dispersal are mutualistic population interactions in which plants provide a nutritional reward (nectar, pollen, and fruit pulp) for a beneficial service.” ii) “Economic Importance of Bats:  Biological pest control.  Pollination.  Seed dispersal.  Guano mining.

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 Bush meat and medicine.  Aesthetic and bat watching tourism.  Education and research.  Bats as pests.  Disease transition and contamination.” Bats of Conservation Importance in Uganda Uganda has a total of 89 species, of which 10 are Data Deficient, 05 are globally Vulnerable, 10 are globally Near-Threatened, and 64 are Least Concern species. Some of the bat species are forest specialist species, but data on bats generally are not available because the taxon is least studied. POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS ACTIVITIES ON BIRDS AND BATS Containment ponds: Waterfowl often die in open pits that are used during the drilling process. Waterfowl are killed both by poisoning and oiling. These pits are supposed to be removed within a set time frame, which is generally within a year from completion of drilling the well. Oil causes contamination to birds’ food supply, eggs, and habitat. External contamination by oil destroys plumage, mats feathers, and causes eye irritation. Oily feathers hinder birds from flying and deprive them of their ability to retain warmth. Birds ingest oil when they clean their feathers, drink, consume contaminated food, and breathe in the fumes. When a bird swallows oil, it rarely results in death immediately. Oil poisoning leads to a slow death from hunger and illness. As a consequence, predators die. Birds’ eggs are susceptible to the effects of oil. A small quantity of oil may prove sufficient to cause death during incubation. Powerline strikes: Remote oil and gas well operations require some source of electricity. Generally, power lines leading to well pads are not buried and can cause mortality through powerline strikes, especially in high disturbance areas, if running through or along a wetland.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) poisoning: Gas leaks at well sites could produce toxic H2S leaks that are fatal to both humans and wildlife. Given that the gas is heavier than air, higher concentrations could be found near ground level, thus having greater impacts to wildlife. Vehicle collisions with wildlife (including bats): Oil and gas development has resulted in substantial increases in road use and, invariably, vehicle collisions with waterfowl will increase commensurately. Grassland nesting birds are directly affected by destroying the grasslands by way of road development where the nests and chicks, which are on the ground or on shrubs, will be destroyed. Causes of Fragmentation Road development, noise pollution, air quality degradation, water-way pollution, land conversion, and habitat loss caused by oil and gas exploration can fragment habitat and have landscape level impacts on wildlife.

REFERENCES Bennun, L., Dranzoa, C., and Pomeroy, D. E., (1996). The forest birds of Kenya and Uganda. J. East Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc., 85: 23-48. BirdLife International. (2012). “Birds occur in all major habitat types, with forest being particularly important.” BirdLife Data Zone. Web. http://datazone.birdlife.org/sowb/casestudy/birds- occur-in-all-major-habitat-types-with-forest-being-particularly-important BirdLife International (2015) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 28/03/2015.

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Carswell, M., Pomeroy, D., Reynolds, J. and Tushabe, H. (2005). The Bird Atlas of Uganda. British Ornithologist’s Club and British Ornithologists’ Union. Dhami, P.s. and Dhami, J.K. (2002). Zoology. Sharma, Proprietor and Co. New Delhi. Dyke, S., D. Fryda, D. Kleyer, J. Williams, B. Hosek, W. Jensen, S. Johnson, A. Robinson, F. Ryckman, B. Stillings, M. Szymanski, S. Tucker and B. Wiedmann. (2011). Potential impacts of oil and gas development on select North Dakota natural resources; a report to the director. North Dakota Game and Fish Department. Education Science Tips. 2017. “Importance of birds to humans and nature.” Web. http://www.rajaha.com/importance-of-birds-humans/

Hickman C.P. Roberts, L.S. & Larson, A. (2001). Integrated Principles of Zoology, 11th Ed. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. New York. Kasso, M. and Balakrishnan, M. (2013). Ecological and Economic Importance of Bats (Order Chiroptera). Department of Zoological Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ritchison, G. BIO 554/754 Ornithology. Eastern Kentucky University. Web. http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/ornitholsyl.htm Stuart, S.N., Adams, R.J., & Jenkins, M.D. (1990) Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands. Occ. Pap. IUCN/SSC. No. 6. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland. WCS. (2017). “Endemic Species of the Albertine Rift.” WCS Conservation Landscapes. Web. https://albertinerift.wcs.org/wildlife/biodiversity/endemic-species.aspx

Young J.Z. (1981). The Life of Vertebrates, 3rd Ed. Clarendon Press. Oxford.

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LECTURE 11: OVERVIEW OF BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION IN UGANDA

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) To guide trainees in identifying and describing different types of protected areas in Uganda; and (ii) To help trainees discuss the designs of protected areas in relation to biodiversity conservation. Learning Outcomes The trainee will be able to: (i) Outline the major ecosystems/eco-regions and their distribution in Uganda; (ii) Describe the protected area systems in Uganda; (iii) Give an account of species composition and distribution of key taxa; and (iv) Discuss the merits and demerits of biodiversity and protected area management in Uganda. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment

1. Introduction to Q&A to build on trainees’ knowledge biodiversity 2. Protected area Introductory min-lecture followed by a real-life case study (e.g., management systems a National Park Management Plan and its implementation in practice) using guiding questions for group work

3. Conservation effort in Introductory min-lecture followed by a real-life case study; Uganda an extract from a State of Environment Report at national and/or sub-national level can be used as a real life case study. 4. Species status Introductory min-lecture followed by a real-life case study using guiding questions for group work 5. Threats to biodiversity Buzz groups as a precursor for class discussion in plenary 6. Consequences of threats Buzz groups as a precursor for class discussion in plenary to biodiversity 7. Field work During a visit to a PA, discuss issues of PA management with field staff. It is necessary to guide students to develop guiding questions for discussion. Alternatively, a PA Manager could be invited to give a talk about PA management followed by discussion with the class.

DETAILED NOTES INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY  According to the CBD, “biological diversity” means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (United Nations, 1992).

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 Uganda is rich in biodiversity relative to its size. This biodiversity is attributed to its unique bio- geographical location, harboring seven of Africa’s 18 phytochoria — more than any other African country.  Its diversity of species is one of the highest on in Africa.  Uganda has more than 18,783 species of fauna and flora recorded (National Environment Management Authority [NEMA], 2004) and includes more than half of Africa’s bird species.  Uganda is second to the Democratic Republic of Congo in terms of number of mammal species.  These species are distributed in various ecosystem types such as forests, woodlands, wetlands, aquatic, and modified systems.  The unique global status of Uganda in terms of biodiversity necessitates that the resource is properly managed to prevent unprecedented losses.  About 200 species of plants and animals are red-listed for Uganda, meaning that they are species are of global importance for conservation deserving special attention. Moreover, Uganda has approximately 30 endemic plants, including those with limited distribution, such as some aloes found only on rocky outcrops on rocks in Tororo and Mubende. One endemic species of bird, the Fox’s Weaver, is found only around and in eastern Uganda outside the protected areas (PAs). Some of the species are endemic to the Albertine rift region, which has received considerable attention partly because of the mountain gorillas. About 600 cichlid fish species are regionally endemic to Lake Victoria and other water bodies in the East and Central African region. Uganda has about 70 species of endemic butterflies (Davenport, 2002).  Biodiversity loss has impacts on several aspects of human well-being, such as food security, vulnerability to natural disasters, energy security, and access to clean water and raw materials. Many animal and plant populations in Uganda have declined in numbers, geographical spread, or both. Human activity is the primary cause of these declines. Overall, the human activities that directly drive biodiversity loss are manifested as: habitat loss and fragmentation; invasive alien species; overexploitation of species; and pollution.  To protect biodiversity and ecosystem services, direct and indirect drivers of loss must be addressed.  Possible actions include eliminating harmful subsidies, promoting sustainable intensification of agriculture, adapting to climate change, limiting the increase in nutrient levels in soil and water, assessing the full economic value of ecosystem services, increasing the transparency of decision making processes and effective biodiversity monitoring. PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS According to IUCN, protected areas (also abbreviated as PAs) can be characterized by 10 categories: 1. National Parks: These are areas designated to protect outstanding animal and plant life for scientific, educational, and recreational use. They are relatively large natural areas not materially altered by human activity, where extraction of resources is not allowed. They are areas of land declared to be public property for the use and enjoyment of the people. 2. Strict Nature Reserves: These are reserves to protect nature and maintain natural processes in an undisturbed state for their scientific commercial and educational values. 3. Natural Monument: These are areas designated to protect and preserve natural features of national significance because they are of specific interest and exhibit unique characteristics. They are relatively small areas focused on protection of unique features. They may also be referred to as structures, landmarks, and sites of historical interest, often maintained by governments.

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4. Nature Reserves: These reserves ensure the natural conditions necessary to protect natural significant groups of species, biotic, or physical features of the environment that require human manipulation for continuity. Controlled harvesting can be permitted. 5. Landscape Areas: These are designed to maintain natural landscapes of national significance, which are characterized by harmonious interaction of land and man, while providing opportunities for public enjoyment, recreational and tourism facilities, within the normal lifestyle and mixed culturally. 6. Resource Reserves: These are areas designated to protect national reserves of the area for future use and contain developmental activities that would affect the resource pending the establishment of the project. 7. Anthropological Reserves: These are areas designated to allow a harmonious way of life of a society with the environment and to continue un-disturbed by modern technology. It is appropriate where resources extracted by indigenous is conducted in a traditional manner. 8. Multiple Use Management Areas: These are provisional areas used for sustainable extraction of water, timber, wildlife and tourism, with the conservation of natural primary oriented to the supply of economic activity. 9. Biosphere Reserves: These are areas designated to conserve for the present and the future of the diversity and integrity of biotic community of plants and animals with the natural ecosystems and to safeguard the genetic diversity of species on which their continuing survival depends. Natural ecosystems are internationally designed and managed for research and training. 10. World Heritage Sites: These are areas designated to protect the natural features for which the area is considered of outstanding international significance. CONSERVATION EFFORTS IN UGANDA About 21 percent of Uganda’s land surface is protected out of a total surface area of 241,551 square kilometers (both land and water):  25,981.57 square kilometers (10 percent) is gazetted as wildlife conservation areas.  24 percent is gazetted as forest reserves.  13 percent is wetlands.  Total area directly or indirectly protected = 47 percent.  Area outside protection = 53 percent. Protected area system in Uganda:  Uganda has 10 National Parks.  12 Wildlife Reserves.  10 Wildlife Sanctuaries.  5 Community Wildlife Areas.  506 Central Forest Reserves.  191 Local Forest Reserves.

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FIGURE 11.1: LOCATION OF NATIONAL PARKS OF UGANDA

Source: African Travel Review, 2017.  Most wildlife is outside PAs.  Wetlands, including lakes, are poorly represented.  Almost no corridors exist linking PAs.

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FIGURE 11.2: LOCATION OF FOREST RESERVES OF UGANDA

Source: NEMA, 2006.

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FIGURE 11.3A: WILDLIFE PROTECTED AREAS AND WETLANDS

Source: WDPA, 2016. FIGURE 11.3B: KEY TO PROTECTED AREAS MAP

Map # Site Name IUCN Total Area

Designation (hectares) 6 III 14,800 42 Amudat Community Wildlife Management Area VI 205,300 44 Bokora Corridor Wildlife Reserve III 181,600 10 Bugungu Wildlife Reserve III 47,300 Buhuka Controlled Hunting Area - 1,750 26 Bwindi Impenetrable National Park II 32,700 Central Karamoja (Napak) Controlled Hunting Area - 22,451 East Madi Wildlife Reserve III 82,900 East Teso Controlled Hunting Area - 50,400 27 Entebbe Wildlife Sanctuary VI 5,120 43 Iriri Community Wildlife Management Area VI 104,600 35 Jinja Wildlife Sanctuary VI 1,000 12 III 8,700 11 Kaiso Tonya Community Wildlife Management Area VI 10,700 2 Karenga Community Wildlife Management Area VI 95,600 8 Karuma Wildlife Reserve III 67,500 Karuma Falls Controlled Hunting Area - 24,100 20 III 21,000 Katonga Controlled Hunting Area - 229,869

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Map # Site Name IUCN Total Area

Designation (hectares) 9 Kazinga Wildlife Sanctuary VI 1,749 18 II 76,600 1 Kidepo Valley National Park II 143,000 24 Kigezi Wildlife Reserve III 26,500 22 Kyambura Wildlife Reserve III 15,400 27 II 37,000 Lipan Controlled Hunting Area - 89,856 5 Lomunga Wildlife Reserve VI 18,400 36 Malawa Wildlife Sanctuary VI 700 45 Matheniko Wildlife Reserve III 175,700 Mgahinga Gorilla National Park II 3,800 38 Mount Elgon National Park II 111,000 4 Mount Kei Wildlife Sanctuary VI 41,620 7 Murchison Falls National Park II 387,700 North Karamoja Controlled Hunting Area - 1,079,330 North Teso Controlled Hunting Area - 124,000 14 Ntoroko-Kanara Wildlife Sanctuary VI 254 16 Nyaburogo Wildlife Sanctuary VI 508 3 Otze Forest Wildlife Sanctuary VI 38,.90 41 Pian Upe Wildlife Reserve III 230,400 20 Queen Elizabeth National Park II 205,600 13 Rwengara Community Wildlife Management Area VI 7,600 19 National Park II 99,500 Sebei Controlled Hunting Area - 253,490 Semliki Controlled Hunting Area - 50,400 17 II 22,000 South Karamoja Controlled Hunting Area - 789,970 15 Toro-Semuliki or Toro- III 54,200 West Madi Controlled Hunting Area - 83,123 Source: WDPA, 2016. There are 11 wetlands in Uganda recognized as important under the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention): FIGURE 11.3C: RECOGNIZED WETLANDS IN PROTECTED AREAS MAP

Map # Site Name Total Area (hectares) 40 Lake Bisina Wetland System 54,229 21 Lake George 15,000 28 Lake Mburo-Nakivali Wetland System 26,834 31 Wetland System 22,000 37 Lake Nakuwa Wetland System 91,150 39 Lake Opeta Wetland System 68,912 34 Wetland System 98 32 Wetland System 2,424 40 Murchison Falls-Albert Delta Wetland System 17,293 29 Nabajjuzi Wetland System 1,753 30 Sango Bay-Musambwa Island-Kagera Wetland System (SAMUKA) 55,110 Source: WDPA, 2016. Other internationally recognized areas of significance in Uganda are:

 Bwindi Impenetrable National Park – World Heritage Site (32,092 hectares);

 Mount Elgon Biosphere Reserve – UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve;

 Queen Elizabeth National Park – UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve (739,500 hectares); and

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 Rwenzori Mountains National Park – World Heritage Site (99,600 hectares). SPECIES STATUS  More than 50 percent of Uganda’s wildlife resources are outside designated protected areas, mostly on privately owned land, and of most urgent concern for protection.  Uganda is host to 53.9 percent of the world’s remaining population of mountain gorillas;  11 percent (1063 species) of the world’s recorded species of birds (50 percent of Africa’s bird species richness);  7.8 percent (345 species) of the global mammal diversity (39 percent of Africa’s mammal richness);  19 percent (86 species) of Africa’s amphibian species richness;  14 percent (142 species) of Africa’s reptile species richness;  6.8 percent of the world butterfly species (1,249 species); and  600 species of fish.  The number of species of various taxa of flora and fauna are summarized in Table 12.1. TABLE 11.1. NUMBERS OF GENERA AND SPECIES IN MAJOR TAXONOMIC GROUPS OF UGANDA’S BIOTA

Group Genera Species Percentage of world species represented in Uganda Acarines 23 133 N/A Algae 49 115 0.5 Amphibians 19 67 1.6 Annelids 6 9 0.1 Bacteria 137 N/A N/A Birds 347 1007 11.1 Crustacea 18 37 N/A Dicotyledons 1258 4056 2.4 Ferns 102 386 3.9 Fish 64 350 2.0 Fungi 184 420 1.4 Gymnosperms* 10 40 7.6 Insects 3170 8999 1.2 Lichens 51 296 1.6 Mammals 153 345 7.8 Molluscs 23 81 0.2 Monocotyledons* 323 1238 2.5 Mosses 39 500 2.9 Nematodes 69 126 1.0 Protozoa 27 141 0.4 Reptiles 75 256 4.1 Viruses 58 88 4.4 Source: Makerere University Institute for Environment and Natural Resources (MUIENR), 1999; *Include exotics; approximate number of species of bacteria is not known. N/A =Not available THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Source: Winterbottom and Eilu, 2006  “The principle threats to biodiversity in Uganda continue, including habitat loss, modification and alteration, along with unsustainable harvesting, pollution and introduction of alien species.”

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 “The decline of fish species in Lake Victoria is considered the largest documented loss of biodiversity ever inflicted by man on an ecosystem (Witte et al., 1999).”  “The rate of biodiversity loss in Uganda is high and was calculated in 2004 to be between 10-11% per decade. While these figures are high, they are below the 1.0% yearly loss that has been recorded for the planet Earth as a whole.”  “The historical loss of species has been great in Uganda, and the negative trends are continuing.”  “Many major mammal species, such as rhinos, cheetahs, and oryx were extirpated during Uganda’s decades of internal turmoil between 1970 and 1990.”  “Birds and fish species continue to decline in numbers and distribution throughout the country.”  “Most of the remaining large animals are confined to protected areas, where their numbers are small but stable or decreasing still.”  “However, in a few cases (e.g. the mountain gorillas, elephants and kob), the trends show some increase partly because of the increased attention (Pomeroy and Tushabe 2004).”  “The threats to biodiversity have both direct and indirect causes.”  “The principal direct threats to the conservation of global biodiversity are considered to be the most important causes of the loss of biological resources in Uganda.  “Four of the five direct threats are:” 1. Habitat loss/degradation/fragmentation; 2. Unsustainable harvesting and over-exploitation of living and non-living resources; 3. Invasion by introduced species; and 4. Pollution/contamination.”  “However, these proximate causes to biodiversity loss in Uganda are not the root of the problem.” Threat Assessment  The following are the key threats to biodiversity ‒ Over-exploitation of resources; ‒ Habitat loss/fragmentation; ‒ Population pressure and habitat conversion/degradation; ‒ Armed conflicts, civil unrest and refugees; ‒ Soil erosion; ‒ Invasive Alien Species (IAS); ‒ Pollution; and ‒ Over-Exploitation of Resources, e.g., Poaching of Wildlife. Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “Over-exploitation of resources, which also includes over-hunting and harvesting, depletes Uganda’s stock of animal and plant resources, which lowers populations, affecting the genetic diversity and increasing the risk of local extirpation and subsequent extinction.”

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 “Over-exploitation can occur from commercial operations, such as logging, or from local practices, such as medicinal plant harvesting.”  “The over-exploitation of non-timber products, such as native bamboo, can lead to the loss of biodiversity.”  “For example, the high demand for bamboo poles from Echuya Forest Reserve and from Bwindi and Mgahinga National Parks has led to habitat destruction.”  Over exploitation of herpetofauna can be through excessive of trade in wildlife species such as chameleons in un-sustainable numbers. Habitat Loss/Fragmentation – e.g. through demand for agricultural land Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “The reduction in the quality, quantity and connectivity of natural habitat is the greatest direct cause of biodiversity and tropical forest loss in Uganda, as well as in the world.”  “Habitat damage, especially the conversion of forested land to agriculture land, has a long history in Uganda, largely driven by a combination of factors, including population growth, inequitable land and income distribution, and development policies.” Population Pressure and Habitat Conversion/Degradation Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “A principal cause of habitat conversion is human population pressure.”  “Despite the high incidence of disease, including HIV/AIDS, Uganda’s population is growing fast and is over 80% rural. Human population growth rates for Uganda approach 3%, while the average world population growth rate is 1.3%.”  “Human density estimates are equally astonishing, with Uganda’s national average of 102 people/km2 compared to the world’s average of 42 people/km2.”  “Annually, more land must be brought under cultivation to feed the increased number of people.”  “In places such as Kabale and Kisoro, which are located within the region of the Albertine Rift, the increased demand for agricultural land has led to land fragmentation, which is a generalized pattern, observed across all of Uganda.”  “The six Albertine Rift districts between Kasese and Kisoro along the DRC border have an average of 189 individuals / sq km, and if the protected areas and lakes are removed from the analysis, the human density on the remaining land for human occupancy skyrockets to 313 individuals / sq km.”  “In some areas of the Albertine Rift human density approaches 600 individuals / sq. km. During the last 15 years, the Ugandan Albertine Rift lost over 800 sq. km of forest habitat due to the high pressure from neighboring communities.”  “Other factors contributing to habitat destruction are: ‒ Bushfires; ‒ Poor agricultural practices; ‒ Mining/drilling; ‒ Construction;

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‒ Inappropriate sectoral policies and legislation; and ‒ Armed conflicts and civil unrest.”  “The domination of savanna woodland by fire-resistant Acacia species is one example. In Lake Mburo National Park, the proliferation of Acacia hockii is considered a threat to the population of herbivorous animals.” Armed Conflicts, Civil Unrest and Refugees (Insecurity) Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “Armed conflicts have contributed to deforestation and the abandonment of the management of protected areas.”  “The insecurity in northern and south-western Uganda made it difficult for managers to be effective custodians of the protected areas in the region.”  “In the early 1980s, many peri-urban plantation forests were cleared for security reasons.”  “This in turn led to greater pressures on the surrounding natural forests for fuel wood, poles and timber. For example, in northern Uganda, the LRA conflict has had unequal impact on woody biomass.”  “In general, areas where the conflict has been more intense are more intact.”  “In areas where the conflict has been moderate to nil, the vegetation has been depleted.”  “And forest areas adjacent to the Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camps have experienced significant losses.” Soil Erosion Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “One of the indicators of land degradation is soil erosion.”  “In 1991, Slade and Weitz (1991) estimated that soil erosion alone accounted for over 80% of the annual cost of environmental degradation representing as much as $300 million per year.”  “By 2003, Yaron et al. (2003) estimated the annual cost of soil nutrient loss due primarily to erosion at about $625 million per year.”  “Notwithstanding the accuracy of the data used in the two studies, the evidence is clear: the problem of soil erosion is increasing with every passing year and little is being done at the policy level to significantly address the situation.”  “A national soils policy is needed urgently.”  “Poor agricultural practices, such as over-stocking of rangelands and cultivation on steep slopes, contribute to erosion and siltation of water bodies, thereby altering ecosystems and species composition.”  “Inappropriate policies, such as the agriculture policy of modernization, implicitly encourage monocultural and agrochemical-intensive farming systems that contribute to loss of genetic diversity through over-specialization and pollution of sub-soil ecosystems.”  “The introduction of high-yielding maize varieties and promotion of clonal coffee are current examples.”

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Invasive Alien Species (IAS) Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “The introduction of exotic species into natural systems can affect biodiversity and tropical forests in many ways.”  “Exotic species can out-compete native species and replace them in the system, thus reducing the species diversity, lowering genetic diversity, and increasing the homogeneity of the landscape.”  “A preliminary list of IAS for Uganda (National Agricultural Research Organization NARO 2002) includes species such as Lantana camara, Broussonetia papyrifera, Mimosa pigra and Senna spp. whose threat on native species has increased considerably. ‒ For example, Senna spectabilis has invaded over 1000 ha of the Budongo Forest Reserve and vast areas of the Matiri Forest Reserve () while Broussonetia papyrifera has covered vast areas of the Mabira Forest Reserve. Control strategies for these species are not known.”  “Lakes and rivers might be the ecosystems most affected by the introduction of exotic species and the consequent ecological changes in species and community composition. ‒ For example, the introduction of the Nile perch and water hyacinth has been extremely damaging for biodiversity in Lake Victoria.” Pollution Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “Pollution from the use of pesticides associated with cotton production and malaria prevention (residual indoor spraying), herbicides used on tea and tobacco and in association with urban areas (solid waste, air pollution, etc.) pose a potential threat if not regulated by guidelines.”  “The use of polythene bags and plastics pose a big threat to the soils particularly in the urban areas.”  “While the level of industrialization in Uganda is still very low, the industries that are in operation are significant sources of pollution. ‒ Many operate with obsolete equipment; others use environmentally-inappropriate technologies. ‒ Nutrient-rich industrial effluents into Uganda’s open waters, particularly Lakes Victoria and George, have contributed to eutrophication.” Other Threats Encroachment and Changes in Land Use (Degazettement and Land Grabs) Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “There is a growing trend of change of land use of protected areas to agriculture or industrial expansion.”  “To some extent, protected areas are perceived by politicians and investors as a land bank for future appropriation for investment. ‒ This trend is worrying and has already claimed Bugala Islands for palm oil plantation, Namanve CFR for an industrial park, part of Pian Upe Wildlife Reserve for large scale

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agriculture and is likely to affect the South Busoga forests which are some of the few remaining forests at the shores of Lake Victoria.” Illegal Exploitation and Cross Border Trade of Natural Products Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “Illegal exploitation of resources has been most pronounced on the Uganda-DRC border affecting mostly the timber resources.”  “There is a possibility of such trade also affecting the northern Uganda region targeting products such as Gum Arabic and wildlife.” Oil and Gas in the Albertine Rift Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “Prospecting for oil in the Albertine Rift is a major threat to biodiversity in the Albertine Rift.”  Uganda has an estimated 6.5 billion barrels of known oil reserves, approximately 1.4 to 1.7 billion of which are recoverable (MEMD, 2017).  “Most known reserves lie in the Albertine Graben, one of the world’s most biodiverse regions.”  “The Graben is estimated to contain some 30 percent of Africa’s mammal species, 51 percent of its bird species, 19 percent of its amphibian species and 14 percent of its plant and reptile species (Plumptre et al., 2003).”  These are distributed in wide variety of ecosystems, including montane forests, tropical forests (including riverine and swamp forests), savanna woodlands and grassland mosaics, papyrus and grassland swamps.  Protected areas in the oil-bearing region include national parks, wildlife reserves, forest reserves, and community wildlife reserves.  Several companies are now licensed to drill in other parts of the Albertine Graben (the country’s oil exploration frontier).  There is also prospecting for geothermal energy by the Ministry of Water, Minerals and Energy.  “Exploration activities such as road construction, drilling and movement of heavy machinery are likely to interfere with the behavior of wildlife.”  “Habitat loss (to construction of roads and other infrastructure), pollution, population increase and increased pressure of extraction of resources (as more people are attracted to work in oil related activities) are occurring, inevitably.” Climate Change Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “The impacts of climate change are not very obvious to the ordinary Ugandan.”  “However, recently there has been severe drought and evidence of change in glacial extent (area) on the Rwenzoris Mountains for the period 1906 to 2003.”  “Evidences of climate change show that if current trends in global warming persist, ice cover remaining on three of the six main mountains of the Rwenzoris (Mounts Baker, Speke and Stanley) will disappear altogether by 2023). ‒ Initially there were glaciers on six main mountains in the center of the Rwenzoris range.

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‒ Projected increases in future temperatures will allow future changes in vegetation and other biodiversity to be predicted. ‒ For example, as the climate warms, the various Afroalpine vegetation zones can be expected to move to progressively higher altitudes and consequently to decline in area. The disappearance of ice cover will mean reduced water flow in the streams downstream which feed into lakes George and Edward, and Semliki River discharging water into Lake Albert and ultimately into the Nile.” ‒ “The biodiversity and tourism potential of the Rwenzori Mountains National Park will also be affected. Issues of climate change, therefore, need to be given prominence as much as possible.” CONSEQUENCES OF THREATS ON BIODIVERSITY Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “The consequences of these threats on biodiversity in Uganda can be measured at the ecoregional, ecosystem and species levels.”  “Ecoregions with high biodiversity values tend to be elevated to Biodiversity Hotspots.”  “Ecosystems that tend to have high biodiversity values after species surveys tend to be elevated to some form of Protected Area Management system – such as a National Park or a Central Forest reserve.”  “Species once assessed using IUCN Red listing criteria are given an IUCN status.”  “Species once assessed for trade and are found to be severely threatened by trade are assigned CITES species.”  “Some other forms of protection that arise from Habitat and Species Assessment include: important biodiversity areas, important bird areas or important plant areas, Ramasar sites, etc.” “Biodiversity Hotspots” Source: Winterbottom and Eliu, 2006  “The impact of human activity on global biodiversity has prompted conservation and development organizations to use “biodiversity hotspots” as a tool to identify geographical areas that merit immediate attention for priority conservation activities.”  “This concept began in 1988 when the original 10 hotspots were composed of only tropical forests.”  “Later in 1991, another 8 hotspots were identified that included other vegetation types. In 2001, that list grew to 25 hotspots.”  “In February, 2005, another eight hotspots were identified and the Albertine Rift was “gazetted” in this new wave of endangered spaces.” The Albertine Rift is part of the Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Hotspot.  As of August 2017, there are 36 biodiversity hot spots designated worldwide by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF, 2017). “In order to be placed on this conservation black list, an ecoregion needs to have high levels of species endemism and to have lost at least 70% of the natural vegetation cover. Unfortunately, the Albertine Rift meets these criteria.”

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REFERENCES African Travel Review. 2017. “Uganda-Main National Parks.” Web. http://www.webfundis.org/uganda/ugnatinalparks.htm Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) 2017. “The Biodiversity Hotspots.” Web. http://www.cepf.net/resources/hotspots/Pages/default.aspx. Accessed: August 28, 2017. Davenport, T. R. B. (2002). Endemic Butterflies of the Albertine Rift- an annotated checklist. Wildlife Conservation Society, Mbeya. Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development (MEMD) 2017. The Oil and Gas Sector in Uganda: Frequently Asked Questions. http://petroleum.go.ug/uploads/resources/FrequentlyAskedQuestin.pdf National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), (2002). Removing barriers to Invasive Plant Management in Africa. Country report on Invasive Alien Species in Uganda. Summary findings from National Stakeholders Workshop, Entebbe. National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), (2006). The National Land Use Policy. Government of Uganda, Kampala, Uganda. Plumptre, A. J., Behangana, M. and Davenport, T. R. B., Kahindo, C., Ndomba, E. R., Ssegawa, P., Eilu, G., Nkuutu, D. and Owiunji, I. 2003. The Biodiversity of the Albertine Rift. Albertine Rift Technical Reports Series Number 3. Wildlife Conservation Society. Website: http://www.wcs.org Pomeroy D & Tushabe H. 2004. The State of Uganda’s Biodiversity 2004. Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources/National Biodiversity Data Bank. With assistance from DANIDA-ENRECA. Slade, G. and Weitz, K. 1991. Uganda Environmental Issues and Options. A Masters Dissertation. Duke University, North Carolina. United Nations. (1992). Convention on Biological Diversity. Article 2. USAID. (2011). USAID/Uganda Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment. http://www.encapafrica.org/documents/biofor/Uganda%20ETOA%20Final%20Report%5b1%5 d.pdf Winterbottom, B., Eilu, G. (2006). Uganda Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Assessment. Report for USAID. International Resources Group. http://encapafrica.org/documents/biofor/Uganda%20Biodiversity%20Report%20-%207- 2006.pdf World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). 2013. “Protected areas of Uganda.” The Encyclopedia of Earth. Web. http://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Uganda Witte, F., Gooudswaad, P. C., Katunzi, E. F. B., Mkumbo, O. C., and Wanink, J. H. (1999). Lake Victoria’s ecological changes and their relationships with riparian societies. In: Ancient lakes (eds): Kawanabe, H., Coulter, G. W. and Roosevelt, A. C. pp 189-202. Kenobi Productions, Ghent. Yaron G., Y. Moyini et al., 2003. The contribution of environment to economic growth and structural transformation. Report for the ENR working group for the PEAP revision process. MWLE/DFID, Kampala.

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LECTURE 12: COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) To help trainees relate wildlife conservation with community development; and (ii) To guide trainees in discussing local community organization, needs, resource use and benefits sharing. Learning Outcomes The trainee will be able to: (i) Outline the traditional conservation approaches; (ii) Describe the underlying principles of integrating the community in the conservation of resources for sustainable development; (iii) Explain: protected area outreach community conservation, collaborative management, community-based conservation (CBC), current institutional arrangements enabling community conservation; and (iv) Discuss the merits and demerits of sharing the benefits benefit sharing vis-à-vis impacts on wildlife by communities and impacts on communities by wildlife. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment 1. Introduction Introduce the topic with a brief lecture; buzz groups followed by class discussion in plenary 2. Underlying principles of integrating the Brief lecture, Q&A, buzz groups followed by class community into the conservation of discussion in plenary resources for sustainable development. 3. Approaches to community based Brief lecture, Q&A, buzz groups followed by class conservation discussion in plenary 4. Community based conservation in Case study on CBC to be discussed in groups Uganda  Case study: Lake Mburo National Park CBC  Collaborative Forest Management under National Forestry Authority (NFA). 5. Key elements for effective CBC and Discussions, Q&A natural resource management (NRM) 6. Field Work: Community conservation in Visit the Albertine Graben to discuss the issues oil and gas exploration and development above with field staff of PA institutions and local areas and its impacts community representatives. Participants should be helped to plan the interviews and focus group discussion in advance.

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DETAILED NOTES INTRODUCTION “Wildlife management in Uganda was once the responsibility of the government alone. However, as concern grew about how wildlife management would be achieved without support from district authorities, communities and the private sector, there was the need to involve other stakeholders. The Uganda Wildlife Act (UWA) recognizes the local community as a key stakeholder in ensuring the protection of wildlife both inside and outside Uganda’s protected areas. Traditional conservation approaches largely excluded the communities from protected area management. In contrast, community conservation, which has been employed since the 1990s, aims to harmonize the relationship between park managers and neighboring communities, allowing these communities access to protected area resources. It also encourages dialogue and local community participation in planning for and management of these resources” (UWA, 2012). Evolution of Community Conservation Over time, community conservation has evolved due to the cultural and political shifts influenced by colonialism and independence.  During the pre-colonial era, the role of elders, system of taboos, cultural norms and traditional lifestyles was predominant.  In the post-colonial era, heavy government involvement in land management excluded local communities through coercive means/ policing.  In the post-independence era, a rebirth of community involvement began, and as a result, community conservation and community forest management. Pre-Colonial Era—Traditional/cultural methods During the pre-colonial eta, traditional and cultural methods of natural resource management were dominant, including:  Protection of biodiversity using norms and traditions held by reputable elders or chiefs.  No killing of pregnant animals or young due to belief that this would cause miscarriage or infant death.  No killing of medicinal plants due to the belief that this would cause you harm.  No killing of harmless animals (chameleons, African wag-tail, amphibians, or breaking of animal eggs), due to the belief that this would cause malformations in children.  No killing of sacred species or their habitats for certain tribes;  Belief in the sacred groves concept that the forests/ woodlands were harboring “gods.” Colonial Era—Protected Area Concept The colonial era brought great changes to the traditional natural resource management systems of Uganda. These colonial era management styles continued for the first couple of decades after independence, until new concepts of biodiversity management and conservation evolved, arising from assessment of successful and unsuccessful management systems. These changes included:  The creation of protected areas, which were lands set aside for the protection of biodiversity. Access by local people within these areas was strictly prohibited or heavily regulated. Some low impact usage allowed for local people for personal use (non-commercial).  Management of protected species on privately owned land.

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 Little information and knowledge sharing between the government managers and locals;  High costs of protection of PAs, especially as demand and prices rose with high human population and commercialization of biodiversity products;  Biodiversity use (commercial) limited to licenses issued by PA managers mainly to well off users. Post Colonial Era—Community Conservation/Community Forest Management Concept In the post-colonial era the concept of community conservation and community forest management emerged. These changes included:  Implementation of multiple use zoning that set aside areas for dual management between communities and PA managers, spelling out rights and responsibilities of both the PA managers and the concerned communities;  Sharing of benefits from resource use (even beyond the community use area);  Recruitment of local people as tourist guides, forest workers etc.;  Sharing of responsibilities (protection of the resources, provision of labor);  Use of elders / enlistment for their support in management of sacred groves outside PAs; and  Sensitization of local people to develop low impact/non extractive usage of natural resources (such as bee-keeping). Post Colonial Era—The Biosphere Reserve Concept Source: UNESCO, 2017 During the post-colonial era the Biosphere Reserve concept was adopted. Biosphere Reserves are internationally recognized by UNESCO for their biological and cultural diversity.  “Biosphere Reserves are areas comprising terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems. Each reserve promotes solutions reconciling the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use.”  “Biosphere Reserves are ‘Science for Sustainability support sites’ – special places for testing interdisciplinary approaches to understanding and managing changes and interactions between social and ecological systems, including conflict prevention and management of biodiversity.”  “Biosphere Reserves are nominated by national governments and remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located. Their status is internationally recognized (UNESCO).” In Uganda, both Queen Elizabeth National Park and Mount Elgon National Park are designated Biosphere Reserves, where nature preservation, conservation, tourism and fishing villages are coexisting. Biosphere Reserves have three interrelated zones that aim to fulfill three complementary and mutually reinforcing functions:  “The core area(s) comprises a strictly protected ecosystem that contributes to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variation.”  “The buffer zone surrounds or adjoins the core areas, and is used for activities compatible with sound ecological practices that can reinforce scientific research, monitoring, training and education.”  “The transition area is the part of the reserve where the greatest activity is allowed, fostering economic and human development that is socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable.”

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UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES OF INTEGRATING THE COMMUNITY IN THE CONSERVATION OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT  “Sustainable Development (SD) is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland Commission, 1987). Community-based conservation feeds into this principle.  The underlying principles of integrating the community in the conservation of resources for sustainable development are premised on the following points. Equity Source: Springer, 2014  “Historical model of conservation was established at a time of colonization and expropriation of native lands – protected areas reflected those ideologies.”  “The displacement of peoples and taking of their lands and resources has led to the irreparable loss of cultures and livelihoods.”  “Human rights and livelihoods impacts of exclusionary approaches to conservation are increasingly unacceptable in ethical or economic terms.” Extent Source: Springer, 2014  “Large areas important for biodiversity are customary lands of Indigenous People (IP)/ communities (de facto managers).”  “Statutory recognition is also increasing – globally, over 513 million ha of forest are owned or administered by communities, more land and resources in other ecosystems.” Economics Source: Springer, 2014  “Limited inflow of investments from domestic, foreign and private sources into conservation; new conservation areas costly in human and economic terms.”  “Communities bring significant resources to own conservation and sustainable use initiatives.” Effectiveness Source: Springer, 2014  “Increasing awareness that Indigenous Peoples and local communities have historically conserved many areas.”  “Also growing scientific evidence of good conservation and sustainable use outcomes under community management.” Environment Source: Springer, 2014  “Coverage under state PA approaches will be limited – about 50-70% of existing species will be conserved.”  “Impacts of climate change – limits of traditional, spatially fixed PAs; shift to landscape approaches, across mosaics of land use.”

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Wildlife Management in Uganda  Wildlife management in Uganda was once the responsibility of the government alone.  However, as concern grew about how wildlife management would be achieved without support from district authorities, communities, and the private sector, there was the need to involve other stakeholders.  UWA, NFA, and other PA managing institutions in Uganda recognize the local community as a key stakeholder in ensuring the protection of wildlife, both inside and outside Uganda’s protected areas.  Traditional conservation approaches largely excluded the communities from protected area management.  In contrast, community conservation, which has been employed since the 1990s, aims to: 1. Harmonize the relationship between PA managers and neighboring communities. 2. Allowing these communities access to protected area resources. 3. It also encourages dialogue and local community participation in planning for and management of these resources. APPROACHES TO CONSERVATION Source: Springer, 2014  “Rights-based Approaches Conservation – conservation approaches that are grounded in and contribute to the realization of human rights standards.”  “Community-based Conservation – conservation and sustainable use initiatives led by Indigenous Peoples and local communities grounded in their local tenure, governance and knowledge systems.” Also rights-based. Community-Based Conservation—Extent Source: Springer, 2014  “Community-based conservation seeks to achieve both sustainable uses of natural resources and adequate conservation practices through devolving control over those resources to local communities. Here, local resource users own land and resources either by de facto or de jure arrangements. Community based conservation includes the following:’ ‒ ““Self-initiated” activities, including through traditional management institutions and practices. ‒ “Externally-supported” initiatives, supporting local or new conservation activities.”  “While it is difficult to estimate the global scale of community conservation, some estimates have been put forward.” Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs) Source: Springer, 2014  “ICCAs are a new governance type recognized by IUCN and tracked by WDPA (World Database of Protected Areas).”  “The global coverage of ICCAs has been estimated as being comparable to that of state protected areas, i.e. about 13% of the terrestrial surface of the planet.”

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National and regional initiatives—Examples Source: Springer, 2014  Amazon: over 20% legally-designated indigenous lands.  Nepal: 25% of forests managed by communities.  Namibia: Almost 20% of land area managed as communal conservancies.  South Pacific: 420 registered Locally-Managed Marine Area (LMMA) sites covering approx. 13,000km2. Evidence on the Effectiveness of Community Conservation Source: Nelson and Chomitz, 2011 In: Springer, 2014 Global comparison of PA effectiveness:  “Controlled for distance from pressures, other factors.”  “Mixed-use protected areas—where some degree of productive use is allowed—are generally more effective than strict protected areas in reducing deforestation (using fire as a proxy).”  “In Latin America, indigenous lands have extremely large impacts on reducing deforestation – almost twice as effective as any other form of protection.” Source: Blomley & Iddi, 2009 In: Springer, 2014 Two model examples are discussed here: 1. Community-based Forest Management (CBFM) – on community-controlled village lands. 2. Joint forest management (JFM) – community participation in management of state forest reserves.  “CBFM appears to be most effective in improving forest condition and reducing overall levels of disturbance.”  “Incentives seem to be sufficient for communities to invest in forest restoration and long term management, even where forest starts out in degraded condition.”  “JFM outcomes are mixed.”  “CBFM has spread much more rapidly – greater incentives for communities seem to directly increase participation in community based forest management.” COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION IN UGANDA  The activities of community-based conservation are led by community-based organizations (CBOs), which often operate with support by the central government and/or international NGOs interested in promoting conservation practices, especially in areas where local governments remain inactive.  Most CBC programs are linked to PA management systems. The ultimate goal of CBC programs is to achieve behavioral changes that are pro-conservation.  In the CBC approach it is assumed that if local people are aware and benefit from the PAs, then their behavior will change to support PA management programs.  Collaborative management became an important issue in Uganda with the conversion of forest reserves into national parks.

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 In 1991, three new national parks were created in this way, and a further three created in 1994.  Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and Mgahinga Gorilla National Park are home to Mountain Gorillas.  Rwenzori Mountains National Park and Mount Elgon National Park are important water catchments and have potential for trekking.  Kibale and Semiliki National Parks have chimpanzee populations.  Despite strong resistance by the Forest Department, which was on the point of classifying them as Forest Parks, their importance as conservation areas and potentially for tourism, combined with very strong pressure from USAID, led to their designation as national parks.  As part of the statutory process of consulting with communities prior to national park declaration, Uganda National Parks (UNP) was forced to accept that it would continue to allow access to resources by local communities.  As a consequence, UNP responded by developing an informal policy that up to 20 percent of national parks could be subject to extractive resource use.  This amounted to a radical departure from national policy, and put Uganda at the most extreme edge of national park management in Africa, where strict, exclusionary management is still generally the order of the day.  Whilst the new wildlife statute states that extraction of resources from national parks is illegal, a clause was added allowing UWA to permit “otherwise illegal activities” if they were demonstrated to be beneficial to conservation (Government of Uganda 1996).  This “back door” thus allows for collaborative management of resources in protected areas, but does not make it either explicit, or required, and gives UWA every opportunity to leave its informal policy on resource access un-implemented.  Community-based conservation programs in Uganda can be classified into three main components.  The first is aimed at: ‒ Directly benefiting local communities around PAs and is directly linked with wildlife conservation. ‒ It entails sharing of monetary revenues generated from tourism in a PA regulated access to natural resources (mostly plant materials) from the PAs, and ‒ Providing employment opportunities to neighboring local residents.  The second component also aims at: ‒ Benefiting local communities by contributing toward social infrastructure development. ‒ It is indirectly linked to conservation, and entails provision of public goods to communities neighboring PAs, such as schools, dispensaries, and health clinics.  The third component aims at: ‒ Generating and promoting environmental awareness as well as creating capacity at local level for responsible behavior toward PAs. ‒ It entails education and extension programs, institutionalization of environmental stewardship in community government set up and decentralization of natural resources management to grassroots levels.

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Case study: Lake Mburo National Park CBC Community strategies to cope with environmental changes:  Strategies included: ‒ Management by removing the unpalatable grass and leaving shades; ‒ Planting eucalyptus for fire wood and construction; ‒ Diversifying their economic activities from predominantly cattle keeping to crop growing and business; ‒ De-stocking, especially during the drought periods; ‒ Rearing crossbreeds to intensify livestock production, especially milk; and ‒ Educating people about protecting the environment. At every local council, there is a committee responsible for environmental education. Future of wildlife outside protected areas:  Wildlife outside PAs has declined because of uncontrolled hunting and a lack of appreciation for the value of wildlife. In some areas, there are no other alternatives for meat, so wild animals have to be hunted, and wild animals compete with domestic animals for pastures.  Habitat destruction is another important cause of reduced wildlife populations outside PAs. The animals still remaining outside PAs can have a future if people are educated about their values and receive benefits for keeping wildlife on their land. Future of wildlife within protected areas: The future of wildlife inside PAs will depend on:  Educating communities around PAs on a continuous basis and restricting access to PAs;  Motivation of PA personnel in terms of salary, training, and resources;  Political stability in the country;  Communities receiving tangible benefits from PAs, such as projects, schools, and revenue sharing;  Establishment of liaison offices where communities can report illegal activities such as hunting.  Turning some PAs into communal wildlife reserves so that people can co-own and manage the land;  Reviving the honorary warden policies among community members and sustaining good relationships between communities and PA management.  Strict law enforcement;  Allowing communities to utilize some of the resources within PAs so that they can address some of their immediate needs;  Land use planning around PAs, to include planting crops that are not eaten by wildlife will lessen human-wildlife conflict and contribute to the survival of PAs. Where appropriate, establish wildlife-proof fencing so that animals do not stray into communities.

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KEY ELEMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE CBC AND NRM  Sound Management: Including links with support organizations and across communities to share and spread effective practices.  Sustainable Livelihoods: Providing incentives as well as income to invest in sustainable, long- term resource management. Strengthening and Scaling Up Community Conservation  Recognize secure tenure rights for indigenous peoples and local communities: National policies and legislation.  Build capacity of local institutions: Including through national support institutions and cross- community linkages.  Protect community lands against threats to their environment: Mining, oil/gas, large- scale agribusiness industry.  Simplify policies and regulations: To promote/enable local decision-making. Sharing the benefits of community conservation and impacts on wildlife:  Benefit-sharing is one local-level attempt to redress the inequities of wildlife conservation that directly affect rural resource users. It is not, however, a straightforward exercise.  The process of negotiating what type of benefits to share, with whom, over what duration, and for what purpose, is long.  The temptation will always be present to adopt an expedient approach in which immediate wildlife conservation needs or political pressures from the primary criteria for working with communities. Who Benefits? – An example from Uganda:  Mgahinga National Park in Uganda illustrates some of the complexities of benefit-sharing. New rates were set for gorilla treks in April 1998 at $250 per visitor per gorilla viewing trek.  In theory, this fee included $20 for local communities and a further $20 to tackle the problem of gorilla crop raiding (a problem at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park).  With six trekkers per day, this fee generated possible revenue of $1,500 per day at Mgahinga (perhaps $200,000 to $500,000 per year).  In a region of reasonably recent agricultural settlement and significant population shifts associated with warfare, whose de facto or de jure property rights to the park’s land and its resources should be recognized?  Among whom should the revenues from gorilla trekking be shared?  There are many possibilities—the landless or the land owners; the immediate neighbors of the park or the whole district; and so on—and each threatens to raise a political hailstorm of questions about fairness, justice, and need.  Turning gorillas into a resource capable of yielding U.S. dollar revenue in quite large quantities is not a magic solution to conservation or local development problems; it creates its own dynamic of competition for the resulting revenues (Adams and Infield, 1998). Benefit Sharing in East Africa:  Benefit-sharing in East Africa can broadly be classified into several functional types.

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 These types of arrangements can have a recognizably positive impact on local perceptions of wildlife, and often provide an effective tool for improving relations between park authorities and community members.  If they are to address some of the issues related to the imbalance of the local economic costs and benefits of conservation areas, benefits should make a demonstrable contribution to local livelihoods and welfare, and to ensure long-term sustainability, benefits should not be seen as handouts. Instead, there should be a tangible link between benefits received and conservation effort.  Knowledge, attitudes, and practices studies and surveys indicate that already many rural people feel that they receive, either directly or indirectly, benefits from conservation.  These benefits include improved infrastructure, developmental inputs such as schools and clinics, transport and communications as well as purely financial revenue.  The possibility for success is increased if the activity addresses community needs, and represents an approach around which a community has formed a consensus; benefits community members in an open, easily understood and straightforward manner; is one in which the maximum number of members of a community or group benefit and see themselves as benefiting; and stands the greatest chance for long-term sustainability.  An agreed framework needs to be established to satisfy all the varying stakeholders, have policy support, and be practically oriented.  Policy guidelines have been instituted for the sharing of benefits in East Africa, namely the Wildlife Development Fund – Revenue Sharing (WDF-RS) in the Kenya Wildlife Service and Support for Community Initiated Projects in the Tanzania National Parks Authority (TANAPA) (SCIP), and Revenue Sharing in Uganda.

CASE STUDIES QUEEN ELIZBETH NATIONAL PARK COMMUNITY CONSERVATION PROGRAM 2011–2021 Source: UWA, 2011 Community conservation programs address issues that affect the relationship between PA management and neighboring communities. The major issues under this program include human- wildlife conflict, the various benefits that the communities derive from the PA, and revenue-sharing mechanisms. Program Objective Improved community-park relations for sustainable management of the PA resources and community livelihoods by 2021. Outputs a) Human-wildlife conflicts reduced. b) Wildlife mortalities and conflicts arising from their interactions with livestock and humans minimized. c) Improved livelihoods of neighboring communities to minimize pressure on PA resources. d) PA resources effectively managed and pressure minimized. e) Neighboring communities benefit from existing PA resources.

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f) Appreciation of conservation programs by community members improved. g) Revenue-sharing programs streamlined to match with local government planning and adhere to revenue-sharing guidelines. h) Communities supported to promote and develop community-based tourism. Human-wildlife conflict will be reduced through management of problem animals (mainly bush pigs, olive baboons, vervet monkeys, elephants, buffaloes, lions, hyenas, crocodiles, and hippos) using well- planned interventions like: intensification of conservation education for the local communities to appreciate conservation and on how to handle problem animals; use of bee hives along boundary trenches; use of electric fencing where feasible; extension and maintenance of trenches; live fencing using Mauritius thorn (Caesalpinia decapetala); scare shooting and guarding; planting of red pepper (Capsicum anuum/ chilies) along the boundary; planting of non-palatable crops (to wildlife) such as coffee, tea, tobacco; use of gate rollers where public roads cross the park boundary adjacent to crop lands; sharing roles and responsibilities with local governments and local communities. To reduce wildlife-livestock conflicts, physical barriers will be constructed around fishing villages, community sensitization about appropriate stocking of livestock commensurate with available pastures and how to manage wildlife that strays out of the park into the communities. UWA will work with other partners to promote and support developments that improve community livelihoods. Alternative sources of income such as woodlots; fish-farming; bee-keeping and poultry keeping will be explored. Use of energy saving technologies to reduce pressure on park resources; construction of valley dams/ tanks and boreholes; extension of piped water rainwater harvesting technologies in areas with water scarcity, in collaboration with local governments and other partners. Pressure on PA resources will be reduced through strengthening collaboration with existing partners and initiation of new strategic partnerships; conducting awareness into the fishing villages on the importance of sanctuaries and the need to control influx of people into the fishing villages; teaching communities how to guard against predators; development of regulations on how to manage wildlife sanctuaries, spelling out allowed and prohibited activities and measures to minimize expansion of fishing villages; UWA will enter into memoranda of understanding with NFA and the Fisheries Department to manage dual-management areas under its estate. Community benefits from the park resources such as firewood, papyrus, ambatch (soft woody plant used as a float in fishing and salt mining), Bee keeping, herbal medicine, thatch grass. Fish will be allowed subject to a memorandum of understanding with the beneficiary community spelling out the terms and conditions as well as responsibilities of both parties. UWA management will work with other relevant authorities such as Fisheries Department with regard to resources beyond its powers, like fish. Tourism and other non-extractive activities will be given priority. Queen Elizabeth Protected Area management will carry out resource assessments and, subsequently, monitoring of resource off-take to ensure sustainability of resource harvesting. Alternatives like woodlots for firewood, bee-keeping, tree growing, medicinal gardens, and fish-farming will be encouraged to reduce pressure on the wild resources. Community-park relations – appreciation of the park by neighboring communities will be improved through intensification of conservation education and awareness through outreach programs, drama groups, and encouragement of local communities to visit the park to appreciate its role; encouragement of district leaders to hold meetings in the park; and encouragement of dialogue with local communities to reduce conflicts. UWA will also work hand in hand with Ministry of Health through district health services to promote family planning, especially within the fishing villages; and lobby for funds to help people who denounce poaching to start new income-generating activities. UWA will work with relevant authorities to simplify and explain park/conservation laws and by-laws to the communities in a form that is easy to understand by lay people without undermining the

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intent of the laws and encouraging students and wildlife clubs to organize annual debates and essay writing competitions with winners being awarded prizes. Revenue-sharing programs will be streamlined through involvement of community members in project identification, proposal writing project management as well as marketing and monitoring during project implementation. Timely submittal of proposals will be encouraged to avoid delay of funds release; the number of projects will be managed to balance with available resources to realize impacts; and the projects will be given adequate publicity to reflect UWA involvement/ support. Indicative figures will be provided to local government officials to ensure that revenue-sharing projects are integrated into district plans. CASE STUDY 2: MULTIPLE USE ZONATION OF PROTECTED AREAS Source: UWA Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. General Management Plan for 2014-2024. Multiple Use Zoning in a Protected Area: The Case of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park The zoning strategy seeks to achieve a harmonious balance among:  Protection of representative areas of biodiversity and ecological processes;  Infrastructure development necessary to manage the park;  Tourism activities, which generate income and raise the profile of the park;  Sustainable extraction of natural resources by the local people; and  Cultural values promotion. Four zones have been identified and designated: Tourism; Wilderness; Administrative and Resource Use zones. The zones are represented in the map below. FIGURE 12.1: PROTECTED AREA ZONES

Source: Kapere, 2015. The green areas represent the Wilderness zone; the yellow colored patches represent the Tourism zone while the Purple patches represent the Resource use zone.

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Tourism zone:  Permitted Activities: Visitor use on a day and night basis; overnight camping and accommodation for visitors; visitor information and interpretation services; and fire management activities.  Permitted Facilities/Infrastructure: Campsites; improved trails/ bridges; latrines; facilities supporting research, monitoring and other park operations; signs for visitor orientation, security and interpretation facilities; lodges and hotels.  Prohibited Activities: Killing wild animals; timber harvesting; setting fires unless authorized and in gazetted places; collecting flora and fauna from the park as well facilities supporting resource harvesting. Wilderness Zone:  Protection of the bio-physical values is the primary objective.  Permitted Activities: Research and monitoring activities; overnight use by approved researchers and park staff; day and night use by visitors on designated routes and camps; fire management activities; and patrols by park officials.  Permitted Facilities: Improved trails and bridges in support of research, monitoring, park operations, and visitor use; signs intended for visitor orientation, safety, and resource protection; structures supporting park operations and approved research and access to cultural sites under agreed terms and conditions.  Prohibited Activities: Resource harvesting except under an agreed memorandum of understanding; cultivation; overnight use other than approved researchers and park staff. Resource Use Zone:  In this zone, the management priority is to conserve the park values through an integrated approach encompassing protection, conservation education, restoration and community conservation approaches.  Permitted Activities: Resource harvesting where appropriate as per collaborative management agreements; research, monitoring, and other park operations, accompanied visitor use; visitor information and interpretation services; fire management activities; small scale garbage disposal sites for garbage generated through permitted activities in the zone.  Prohibited Activities: Unaccompanied visitor use; resource harvesting without approval under a collaborative management agreement; agricultural encroachment and settlement; timber harvesting; grazing and charcoal burning. Multiple Use Zonation Prescriptions for Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve (CFR) Source: NFA, 2014 For management purposes and to achieve the objectives of management, Kalinzu CFR was divided into four Working Circles:  Production Working Circle (PWC);  Biodiversity Conservation Working Circle (BCWC);  Collaborative Forest Management Working Circle (CFMWC); and  Ecotourism and Research Development Working Circle (ERWC).

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Production Working Circle: This area is devoted to provision of forest products (both timber and non-timber) on a sustainable basis. Management under the PWC in Kalinzu will mainly enhance sustainable yield regulation, Licensing of harvesting operations, forest improvement through post-harvest operations and improvement of tree plantations development by small private tree farmers. Sustainable yield regulation is a vital component of forest management. Determination of Annual Allowable Cut (AAC) is vital for control of harvesting in natural forests for sustainable forest management. Measurements of forest growth rates and yield increment guide harvesting intensities and harvesting cycles in natural forests management. Licensing of harvesting operations is essential in regulation of harvesting and curbing illegal harvesting. Integrated Stock Survey and Management Inventory (ISSMI) will be carried out in production compartments before planned harvesting is licensed. ISSMI reports include mapping of Harvest, Reserve and Seed Trees. Selection system of harvest trees will fix minimum distance between harvest trees to at least 20 meters to reduce felling damage. Post-harvest planning is essential in repairing damage to the forest because of logging operations and optimal utilization of lops and tops. Post-harvest assessment is done in every harvested ISSMI block to monitor compliance with ISSMI harvest system. During post-harvest assessment, volume of off cuts, lops and tops in felling gaps will be determined. To reduce waste and improve forest hygiene, volume of off cuts, lops, and tops will be licensed to local communities at reserve price rates for firewood and charcoal production. Private tree farmers have been planting Eucalyptus and pine species to replace grass lands in Kalinzu CFR. Tree farming licenses have not been issued to most of these private tree farmers. Small-scale tree farmers of areas less than 25 hectares will be grouped and helped to develop operational plans for all plantations in Kalinzu CFR. The operational plan schedule includes species planted, area planted, tending operations, protection plan and fire management, harvesting plan and roads social issues, cash flow, and cost-benefit analysis. Biodiversity Conservation Working Circle: This part of the forest is devoted to conservation of the rich biodiversity of the forest as well as fragile ecosystems within the forest reserve area. Kalinzu Forest Reserve is regarded as a High Conservation Value forest mainly because: a) Unique biodiversity of flora and fauna, which includes chimpanzees, African elephants, and Prunus Africana, which are internationally recognized as Rare, Threatened and Endemic (RTE) species as well as Zanthoxyllum (Fagara) and Warburgia ugandensis, which are locally threatened. b) Ecosystem connectivity where Kalinzu CFR forms a contiguous zone with Maramagambo, Queen Elizabeth and Kasyoha-Kitomi conservation areas serves as a biodiversity corridor for wildlife from the park as well as grazing area on the naturally occurring grassland patches in the forest. c) Support for livelihoods of the adjacent communities that mainly face acute shortage of land, firewood and employment that Kalinzu directly or indirectly supports. RTE species will be safeguarded during implementation of the management plan. Compartments of common occurrences of RTE species, hydrological and fragile ecosystems will be mapped. Collaborative Forest Management Working Circle: The Collaborative Forest Management Working Circle is concerned with partnerships between National Forestry Authority and communities surrounding the forest reserve aiming at delivering benefits to forest-adjacent communities. The process is at the same time participatory and thrives on informed consent principles. CFM agreements signed under a respected CFM process allow

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community access to forest resources as well as the responsibility of supporting the management and protection of the forest. Whereas CFM is more focused on in-forest resource use and, considering the ever-increasing population, on the already scarce resources to sustain livelihoods; there is need for supporting forest-friendly investments, including forest-friendly investment projects and income generating activities, such as community ecotourism, beekeeping, tree-nursery, and fundraising for community support through projects, grants and social corporate responsibility from adjacent tea estates, and land allocations exploring potential for carbon trading opportunities. Ecotourism and Research Development Working Circle: There is an urgent need for the Kalinzu Management Unit (KMU) and NFA as a whole to diversify sources of income without decimating the forest resources and associated ecological services. Ecotourism development as an opportunity of enhancing income sources for the KMU, organization as well as the surrounding communities. Ecotourism and community tourism potential for KMU will be assessed. Kalinzu ecotourism center lacks tourist accommodations. Feasibility for additional eco- tourism infrastructure and eco-lodge/cool-lodge concessions and expansion of ecotourism products will be undertaken as a matter of urgency. Chimpanzee tracking is the highest tourist activity in Kalinzu. Chimpanzee health, feeding, and monitoring will continuously be carried out and biannually analyzed in order to comply with Chimpanzee Health Monitoring Protocol (CHMP). Marketing of Kalinzu eco-tourism products will be done through linkages with tour companies and private sector. Evidence-based decision making will be a model for this management plan. Based on the objectives of the management plan, there are some research gaps identified. Although some have been highlighted at their working circle, for emphasis, the proposed research themes will include: (i) Increasing the productive value of Kalinzu forest to provide forest products to the ever- increasing population; (ii) Evaluation of options for expanding and developing the ecotourism potential of Kalinzu for increased incomes and community benefits; (iii) Assessment of forest regeneration, yield improvement and off-forest alternative resources; (iv) Ecological monitoring research for RTE including ex situ conservation/domestication of RTE strategies; (v) Environmental conservation education; (vi) Evaluation of conservation benefits from tourism and CFM arrangements.

REFERENCES Adams, B., & Infield, M. (1998). Community conservation at Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Uganda. Blomley, T., & Iddi, S. (2009). “Participatory Forest Management in Tanzania.” In: Participatory Forest Management in Tanzania 1993-2009. United Republic of Tanzania. Brundtland Commission. (1987). Our common future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. UN Documents Gatheringa Body of Global Agreements. General Management Plan for Queen Elizabeth National Park, Kyambura Wildlife Reserve and Kigezi Wildlife Reserve 2011-2021. Kapere, R. (2015). “Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) GMP 2014-2023.” Uganda Wildlife Authority. Presentation. Web. https://www.slideshare.net/pclg/binp-gmp-planning-overview National Forest Authority (NFA). (2014). Forest management plan for Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve 2014-2024. Ministry of Water and Environment. Republic of Uganda.

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Nelson, A., & Chomitz, K. M. (2011). Effectiveness of strict vs. multiple use protected areas in reducing tropical forest fires: a global analysis using matching methods. PloS one, 6(8), e22722. Springer, Jenny. (2014). “Why Rethinking Conservation and Why Now: The Context.” Presentation. MegaFlorestais. Web. http://www.rightsandresources.org/wp-content/uploads/1.-Jenny- Springer_Global-scale-effectiveness-of-community-conservation.pdf Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA). (2011). General management plan for Queen Elizabeth National Park, Kyambura Wildlife Reserve, and Kigezi Wildlife Reserve 2011-2021. Republic of Uganda. UNESCO. (2017). “Biosphere Reserves-Learning Sites for Sustainable Development.” Web. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere- reserves/ Virtanen, P., & Nummelin, M. (2000). Forests, Chiefs and Peasants in Africa: Local Management of Natural Resources in Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Joensuu: University of Joensuu.

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LECTURE 13: IN SITU AND EX SITU CONSERVATION

13.1 IN SITU AND EX SITU CONSERVATION (PART 1)

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) To provide a basic understanding of in situ and ex situ conservation approaches in conserving endangered species because of oil and gas activities. Learning Outcomes By the end of the training, trainees will be able to: (i) Explain in situ conservation approaches in conserving endangered species because of oil and gas activities; and (ii) Explain ex situ conservation approaches in conserving endangered species because of oil and gas activities. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment

1. Definition of in situ and ex Q&A to generate definitions and then match with standard situ conservation methods definitions 2. In Situ conservation methods Outline the methods and guide trainees to use their experience to bring out in situ procedures. 3. Ex Situ conservation methods Outline the methods and guide trainees to use their experience to bring out ex situ procedures. 4. The role of protected areas Use a real-life case study to identify the key components. in maintaining biodiversity 5. Field practice and laboratory Visit a nearby conservation center and ecosystem to observe practice the application of the concepts in practice. Preferably a gene bank and the ecosystem having most of the elements discussed above.

DETAILED NOTES DEFINITION OF IN SITU AND EX SITU CONSERVATION METHODS  Conservation is defined as “the protection, care, management and maintenance of ecosystems, habitats, wildlife species and populations, within or outside of their natural environments, in order to safeguard the natural conditions for their long-term permanence” (IUCN, n.d.).  Usually has two key components: preservation and sustainable use; where utilization occurs, fair and equitable sharing of benefits balances the equation, especially for communal resources.  Neither of the two is sufficient alone; we need a balance of the above components to succeed.  Sustainable use tip: Do not remove more than has been put/replaced in a given period of time. (The concept of Mean Annual Increment in forestry is a good guiding principle.) In situ conservation, the conservation of species in their natural habitats, is considered the most appropriate way of conserving biodiversity.

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Ex situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats. It involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. IN SITU CONSERVATION METHODS  In Situ conservation: In Situ conservation is the conservation of a species in its natural habitat/ environment. The most ideal method as the natural environment has the most suitable conditions for a species’ long term survival and multiplication such as national parks, forest reserves, other natural ecosystem (protected by law or not). Conserving the areas where populations of species exist naturally is an underlying condition for the conservation of biodiversity. That is why protected areas form a central element of any national strategy to conserve biodiversity. FIGURE 13.1: THE CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Source Photo by Alamy for The Telegraph, 2011. FIGURE 13.2: MEGAFAUNA OF NAIROBI NATIONAL PARK

Left: Giraffes; Right: Buffaloes both in Nairobi National Park, Kenya. Photos by David Hafashimana, 2012.

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Uganda has established a network of PAs of different categories, including 10 National Parks, 12 Wildlife Reserves, 10 wildlife sanctuaries, 5 community wildlife areas, 506 central forest reserves and 191 local forest reserves, scattered in different parts of the country. The National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Community Wildlife Areas are collectively referred to as Wildlife Protected Areas and are managed by the Uganda Wildlife Authority. Their management is prescribed in the Uganda Wildlife Act. Each of the Wildlife Protected Area categories is accorded a different level of protection as prescribed in the Uganda Wildlife Act (2000). Different categories of human activities are allowed in specific zones of some of these areas and the level of human activity that is allowed varies from protected area to protected area, depending on the peculiar circumstances prevailing in the area, the history of the protected area, and the needs of the people around the area. Forest Reserves, on the other hand, are categorized as either Central Forest Reserves or Local Forest Reserves. The former are managed by the central government through the National Forestry Authority, while the latter are managed by district local governments by District Forestry Officers recruited and deployed by the district local governments. The district local governments are also responsible for managing forests on private and public land, though the resources are actually owned by the land owners. The district Forest Officers are therefore responsible for advising on technical aspects of management of forests on public and private lands such as sustainable management techniques, including preparation of management plans, advice on the various tree species and their usage, propagation techniques, and maturity periods. The management and conservation of Forest Reserves and forests on private or public land in Uganda are managed under the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act (2003). The total area of land covered by Central Forest Reserves in Uganda is 12,657.47 km² or 6.3 percent of the total land area of Uganda. They include natural forest like moist semi-deciduous forests and forest plantations mainly of pine and eucalyptus species. Legal activities done under the NFA are harvesting timber and non-timber forest products such as medicines, fruits, dyes and tannins, wild mushrooms, re-planting and tourism. Local Forest Reserves tend to be small and fragmented and hence can hardly sustain high populations of plants and animals; and most of them have been heavily encroached upon because of the high population. Some of the Central Forest Reserves may also be small, but some are quite large, covering hundreds of square kilometers. They are managed for both conservation and provision of forest goods and services to the people of Uganda. Both Central and Local Forest Reserves can either be natural/indigenous or artificial/plantation forests; with the former being composed of indigenous forest more or less growing naturally, while the latter are made up of planted trees often regularly spaced and intensively managed to produce timber, usually from exotic fast-growing tree species. Interest is picking up for forest plantations of indigenous species. Plantations are usually either monospecific (one tree species) or several tree species, but with each species in its own separate stand. Consequently, natural forests are much richer in biodiversity both plant and animal, as well as microbial diversity as compared with artificial / plantation forests. Plantation forests, however, are nevertheless important for biodiversity conservation in that being fast growing and having a much higher concentration of timber in a relatively small area, are good at reducing the pressure on the natural forests by providing timber and other products in a more sustainable manner and over a shorter rotation cycle. They are also more attractive for private investors because of their short rotation period over so that the private business entities can recoup their profits and returns and plough some of them back while using the balances for other needs. Zonation of Protected Areas as a Management Concept Even under protected area management employing in situ conservation, the conservation is not absolute. Some uses are allowed in the protected areas, depending on the management plan of the

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given protected area to balance conservation needs with the needs of the citizens, visitors (such as tourists), and the general national development needs of the country. Protected areas are usually divided into spatial areas according to their resource/ conservation/ sensitivity values (such as the presence of fragile ecosystems). Zoning helps prescribe what may or may not take place in a given zone to achieve management objectives at a given time duration and to achieve desired future objectives. Some activities such as research and monitoring can take place in any zone, while some other activities such as extractive harvesting can take place only in specially designated zones for such purposes. Wildlife Protected Areas and Forestry Protected Areas can have more or less similar zones, but their relative sizes tend to vary depending on the main focus of the Protected Area, with National Parks for example allocating more area to nature preservation/wilderness and low impact use such as tourism, which are the main areas of focus, and much less area for extractive resource harvesting by communities. Reserves tend to have bigger areas devoted to forest resource harvesting (both timber and non-timber) on a sustainable basis, and relatively less area for nature preservation, though ecotourism is also picking up in some natural forests with remarkable tourist attractions. CASE STUDY: MULTIPLE USE ZONATION OF PROTECTED AREAS Multiple Use Zoning in a Protected Area: The Case of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park Source: UWA, 2011 The zoning strategy seeks to achieve a harmonious balance among:  Protection of representative areas of biodiversity and ecological processes;  Infrastructure development necessary to manage the park;  Tourism activities, which generate income and raise the profile of the park;  Sustainable extraction of natural resources by the local people; and  Cultural values promotion. Four zones have been identified and designated: Tourism; Wilderness; Administrative and Resource Use zones. The zones are represented in the map below. FIGURE 13.3: PROTECTED AREA ZONES

The deep green areas represent the Wilderness zone; the yellow colored patches represent the Tourism zone while the Purple patches represent the Resource use zone. Source: Kapere, 2015

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Tourism zone:  Permitted Activities: Visitor use on a day and night basis; overnight camping and accommodation for visitors; visitor information and interpretation services; and fire management activities.  Permitted Facilities/Infrastructure: Campsites; improved trails/ bridges; latrines; facilities supporting research, monitoring and other park operations; signs for visitor orientation, security and interpretation facilities; lodges and hotels.  Prohibited Activities: Killing wild animals; timber harvesting; setting fires unless authorized and in gazetted places; collecting flora and fauna from the park as well facilities supporting resource harvesting. Wilderness Zone:  Protection of the bio-physical values is the primary objective.  Permitted Activities: Research and monitoring activities; overnight use by approved researchers and park staff; day and night use by visitors on designated routes and camps; fire management activities; and patrols by park officials.  Permitted Facilities: Improved trails and bridges in support of research, monitoring, park operations, and visitor use; signs intended for visitor orientation, safety, and resource protection; structures supporting park operations and approved research and access to cultural sites under agreed terms and conditions.  Prohibited Activities: Resource harvesting except under an agreed memorandum of understanding; cultivation; overnight use other than approved researchers and park staff. Resource Use Zone:  In this zone, the management priority is to conserve the park values through an integrated approach encompassing protection, conservation education, restoration and community conservation approaches.  Permitted Activities: Resource harvesting where appropriate as per collaborative management agreements; research, monitoring, and other park operations, accompanied visitor use; visitor information and interpretation services; fire management activities; small scale garbage disposal sites for garbage generated through permitted activities in the zone.  Prohibited Activities: Unaccompanied visitor use; resource harvesting without approval under a collaborative management agreement; agricultural encroachment and settlement; timber harvesting; grazing and charcoal burning. Multiple Use Zonation Prescriptions for Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve (CFR) Source: NFA, 2014 For management purposes and to achieve the objectives of management, Kalinzu CFR was divided into four Working Circles:  Production Working Circle (PWC)  Biodiversity Conservation Working Circle (BCWC)  Collaborative Forest Management Working Circle (CFMWC)  Ecotourism and Research Development Working Circle (ERWC)

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Production Working Circle: This area is devoted to provision of forest products (both timber and non-timber) on a sustainable basis. Management under the PWC in Kalinzu will mainly enhance sustainable yield regulation, Licensing of harvesting operations, forest improvement through post-harvest operations and improvement of tree plantations development by small private tree farmers. Sustainable yield regulation is a vital component of forest management. Determination of Annual Allowable Cut (AAC) is vital for control of harvesting in natural forests for sustainable forest management. Measurements of forest growth rates and yield increment guide harvesting intensities and harvesting cycles in natural forests management. Licensing of harvesting operations is essential in regulation of harvesting and curbing illegal harvesting. Integrated Stock Survey and Management Inventory (ISSMI) will be carried out in production compartments before planned harvesting is licensed. ISSMI reports include mapping of Harvest, Reserve and Seed Trees. Selection system of harvest trees will fix minimum distance between harvest trees to at least 20 meters to reduce felling damage. Post-harvest planning is essential in repairing damage to the forest because of logging operations and optimal utilization of lops and tops. Post-harvest assessment is done in every harvested ISSMI block to monitor compliance with ISSMI harvest system. During post-harvest assessment, volume of off cuts, lops and tops in felling gaps will be determined. To reduce waste and improve forest hygiene, volume of off cuts, lops, and tops will be licensed to local communities at reserve price rates for firewood and charcoal production. Private tree farmers have been planting Eucalyptus and pine species to replace grass lands in Kalinzu CFR. Tree farming licenses have not been issued to most of these private tree farmers. Small-scale tree farmers of areas less than 25 hectares will be grouped and helped to develop operational plans for all plantations in Kalinzu CFR. The Operational plan schedule includes species planted, area planted, tending operations, protection plan and fire management, harvesting plan and roads social issues, cash flow, and cost-benefit analysis. Biodiversity Conservation Working Circle: This part of the forest is devoted to conservation of the rich biodiversity of the forest as well as fragile ecosystems within the forest reserve area. Kalinzu Forest Reserve is regarded as a High Conservation Value forest mainly because: d) Unique biodiversity of flora and fauna, which includes chimpanzees, African elephants, and Prunus africana, which are internationally recognized as Rare, Threatened and Endemic (RTE) species as well as Zanthoxyllum (Fagara) and Warburgia ugandensis, which are locally threatened. e) Ecosystem connectivity where Kalinzu CFR forms a contiguous zone with Maramagambo, Queen Elizabeth and Kasyoha-Kitomi conservation areas serves as a biodiversity corridor for wildlife from the park as well as a grazing area on the naturally occurring grassland patches in the forest. f) Support for livelihoods of the adjacent communities that mainly face acute shortage of land, firewood and employment that Kalinzu directly or indirectly supports. RTE species will be safeguarded during implementation of the management plan. Compartments of common occurrences of RTE species, hydrological and fragile ecosystems will be mapped. Collaborative Forest Management Working Circle: The Collaborative Forest Management Working Circle is concerned with partnerships between National Forestry Authority and communities surrounding the forest reserve aiming at delivering benefits to forest adjacent communities. The process is at the same time participatory and thrives on informed consent principles. CFM agreements signed under a respected CFM process allow

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community access to forest resources as well as the responsibility of supporting the management and protection of the forest. Whereas CFM is more focused on in-forest resource use and, considering the ever-increasing population, on the already scarce resources to sustain livelihoods, there is need for supporting forest-friendly investments, including forest-friendly investment projects and income generating activities, such as community ecotourism, beekeeping, tree-nursery, and fundraising for community support through projects, grants and social corporate responsibility from adjacent tea estates, and land allocations exploring potential for carbon trading opportunities. Ecotourism and Research Development Working Circle: There is an urgent need for the Kalinzu Management Unit (KMU) and NFA as a whole to diversify sources of income without decimating the forest resources and associated ecological services. Ecotourism development as an opportunity of enhancing income sources for the FMU, organization as well as the surrounding communities. Ecotourism and community tourism potential for KMU will be assessed. Kalinzu ecotourism center lacks tourist accommodations. Feasibility for additional eco- tourism infrastructure and eco-lodge/cool-lodge concessions and expansion of ecotourism products will be undertaken as a matter of urgency. Chimpanzee tracking is the highest tourist activity in Kalinzu. Chimpanzee health, feeding, and monitoring will continuously be carried out and biannually analyzed in order to comply with Chimpanzee Health Monitoring Protocol (CHMP). Marketing of Kalinzu eco-tourism products will be done through linkages with tour companies and private sector. Evidence-based decision making will be a model for this management plan. Based on the objectives of the management plan, there are some research gaps identified. Although some have been highlighted at their working circle, for emphasis, the proposed research themes will include: (i) Increasing the productive value of Kalinzu CFR to provide forest products to the ever- increasing population; (ii) Evaluation of options for expanding and developing ecotourism potential of Kalinzu for increased incomes and community benefits; (iii) Assessment of forest regeneration, yield improvement and off-forest alternative resources; (iv) Ecological monitoring research for RTE including ex situ conservation/domestication of RTE strategies; (v) Environmental conservation education; (vi) Evaluation of conservation benefits from tourism and CFM arrangements. Class Assignment: Describe the different categories of Wildlife Protected areas and Forestry Protected Areas in Uganda, highlighting the differences between them, the similarities they share, opportunities and challenges each category offers for or against Biodiversity Conservation. EX SITU CONSERVATION METHODS  Ex Situ Conservation: conservation of species (or their components) outside their natural habitats, especially under man-made environments, such as zoos, botanical gardens, arboreta, plantation forests, crop farms for crops and associated plants, livestock and wildlife farms/ ranches. The collections that are conserved in their living forms like any of the above are referred to as “living collections,” as opposed to those preserved in their dead form such as in herbaria and museums (as preserved dead specimens). Representative specimens or rescued specimens are held for some time in limited space, which may not be suitable for long-term survival and multiplication, but can serve a temporary purpose to help the species recover or prevent its total extinction as better mechanisms are charted out for its long term survival; or ex

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situ collections can comprise representative samples of the species in the wild for educational and scientific purposes. Some of the ex situ conservation methods include:  Gene banks, e.g., seed banks, sperm and ova banks, field banks;  In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture collections;  Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants, with possible reintroduction into the wild; and  Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria, and botanic gardens for research and public awareness. Ex situ conservation measures can be complementary to in situ methods as they provide an “insurance policy” against extinction. These measures also have a valuable role to play in recovery programs for endangered species. The Kew Seed Bank in England has 1.5 percent of the world’s flora — about 4,000 species — on deposit. In agriculture, ex situ conservation measures maintain domesticated plants that cannot survive in nature unaided. Ex situ conservation provides excellent research opportunities on the components of biological diversity. Some of these institutions also play a central role in public education and awareness raising by bringing members of the public into contact with plants and animals they may not normally come in contact with. It is estimated that worldwide, more than 600 million people visit zoos every year. Ex situ conservation measures should support in situ conservation measures (in situ conservation should be the primary objective). FIGURE 13.4: EX-SITU CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE

Left: White Rhinoceros; Right: Vervet Monkey; both taken at the Uganda Wildlife Education Centre, Entebbe. Photos by David Hafashimana, November 2010. Factors Affecting Choices for Conservation Areas  Human population pressure and presence;  Habitat and species diversity of conservation interest;  Levels of endemic, rare, threatened and/ or endangered species;  Suitability for farming and human settlement;  Fragility of ecosystems (e.g. mountains and steep slopes); and

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 Important areas for water catchment for important water bodies. International Agreements/Treaties of Relevance to Biodiversity Conservation Uganda has ratified a number of international agreements and treaties that are directly relevant to conservation of biodiversity. Some of these treaties include the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance; the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). Uganda is party to some other treaties that can also effect on biodiversity directly or indirectly by affecting habitats are: the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD) and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol on reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Another treaty that is mainly of relevance to ex situ conservation is the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), whose main objective is the conservation and sustainable use of ITPGRFA and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of the ITPGRFA. It encourages continued sharing of ITPGRFA through a multilateral system which is also the mechanism for benefit-sharing. This treaty is in recognition of the critical importance of ITPGRFA for global food security and the role continued conservation and exchange of such resources have on their long-term survival (through continued exchange and use for breeding and on-farm conservation). The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) has three main objectives:  The conservation of biological diversity;  The sustainable use of biological diversity; and  The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from utilization of components of biological diversity. The CBD calls on its parties for establishment of National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans; establishment of a system of protected areas; as well as putting in place measures for the control of invasive alien species that threaten species and ecosystems. The meetings of the Conference of Parties to the Convention held every two years bring together more than 194 state parties to exchange views and experiences as well as challenges that result in decisions that are supposed to be implemented by all its parties to promote its main objectives, which have a direct positive impact on biodiversity conservation. Developing-country parties that are rich in biodiversity but poor in financial resources are also assisted with funds mainly contributed by developed country parties to help conserve biodiversity in the developing countries like Uganda. The CITES, on the other hand, calls for cooperative enforcement of measures among its parties geared at protecting species listed in any of its appendices, that may be endangered or threatened by International Trade through a series of permits and certificates that are internationally respected, to ensure that trade in such threatened or endangered species is strictly regulated and illegal trade in the same species is seriously curtailed. The Convention on Migratory Species of wild animals brings together countries that have agreed to cooperate in the conservation of animals that migrate beyond national territories and between areas of national jurisdiction and the seas. This convention was in recognition that animal migration is a global phenomenon in response to their biological requirements and that is likely to continue as long as those animals live as it is part of their lifestyles. The convention aims to improve the survival of all threatened migratory animals through national action and international agreements between range states of particular groups of species. The objective of such agreements is to restore the migratory species to a favorable conservation status or to maintain it at the “current” status (state in which it is at the time of the agreement).

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The Ramsar Convention emphasizes the need to conserve wetlands and requires member states to include candidate wetlands on the list of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar sites). So far, Uganda has the following Ramsar sites: TABLE 13.1: RAMSAR SITES IN UGANDA

Ramsar Site Name Area in km2 Lake Bisina Wetland System 54,229 Lake George 15,000 Lake Mburo-Nakivali Wetland System 26,834 Lake Nabugabo Wetland System 22,000 Lake Nakuwa Wetland System 91,150 Lake Opeta Wetland System 68,912 Lutembe Bay Wetland System 98 Mabamba Bay Wetland System 2,424 Murchison Falls-Albert Delta Wetland System 17,293 Nabajjuzi Wetland System 1,753 Sango Bay-Musambwa Island-Kagera Wetland System (SAMUKA) 55,110

Class Assignment  Discuss the roles played by the UNCCD, UNFCCC and the ITPGRFA in conservation of biodiversity. Management of Herbarium Plant Species The term “herbarium” in its original sense was used to refer to a book or collection of medicinal plants. Around 1700 AD, Tournefort used the term to refer to a collection of dried plants, a usage that was later taken up by Linnaeus, who gave it much more popularity. The dry plant materials (specimens) are dried under pressure (tightly tied up in paper or other absorbent material), a process that was pioneered by Luca Ghini (1490-1556), who was the first person to dry plant specimens under pressure and mount them on paper to serve as a lasting record (Arber 1938). The practice later spread throughout Europe, and by the time of Linnaeus (1707-1778) the herbarium technique was widely known. The practice later spread from Europe into other parts of the world, starting with European former colonies. The purpose of herbarium collections is to facilitate identification, nomenclature, and classification of plant specimens, which can also serve as a reference material for educational, research, and conservation purposes. An herbarium, therefore, is a collection of preserved plants built up over a period of time. For ease of reference, storage, curation, and exchange of specimens between herbaria, a standard size of 42 x 26 centimeters (British/European system; 42 x 29 centimeters is used in the USA) has been adopted for all herbarium specimens, plant presses, and herbarium specimen cupboards and cabinets.

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FIGURE 13.5: PRESERVATION OF BOTANICAL SPECIMENS IN A PLANT PRESS

Source: Univesity of British Columbia, n.d. Once the plant specimens are dry, they are mounted on standard herbarium sheets, labeled and placed in specimen covers or file folders, and placed inside herbarium cabinets, where they are curated, with cabinet doors shut whenever possible, to keep out insect pests. The specimens should be protected from herbarium pests, the most notorious of which are herbarium beetles and ladybirds, which eat the specimens and the mounting paper. Protection against these pests in the past used to entail dipping the specimens into a solution of mercuric chloride before mounting, which would give them long-term protection. However, this method of poisoning the specimens is of late discouraged, as the chemicals containing mercury are poisonous also to herbarium workers and other visitors to the herbarium. Instead, the herbaria are fumigated regularly to kill any insects that may have entered; while specimens are first deep frozen in a frost-free deep freezer, for at least three days at temperatures of at least -18 degrees Celsius. As a further measure against insect pests, the windows of herbaria are screened with fine wire mesh, kept completely sealed, with air circulation being ensured using air-conditioners. Once in the specimen cabinet, the plant specimens are grouped in their taxa (taxonomic groupings) with specimens belonging to the same genus close to each other, followed by those of genera in the same taxonomic family, then families in the same order. This system is meant to enable close comparison of closely related species for identification purposes. The cabinets are labeled from outside to show which families or genera are contained in which cabinet for ease of reference by users. Small parts of the plant specimens such as small flowers that tend to fall off the specimen after drying are usually stored in a small paper pocket that is fixed onto every mounting sheet on the right hand side of the sheet just above the specimen label, which is usually fixed onto the right bottom side of the mounting sheet. Plant parts with unusual shapes such as pine cones or large, round seeds that cannot be pressed are dried, labeled, and kept in special drawers in cupboards in what collectively are known as “carpological” collections; while delicate plant parts —especially those whose shape gets distorted during pressing such as flowers — are sometimes preserved in ethanol in what are collectively called “spirit” collections. However, even when preserved in a spirit collection, the color of the flowers is lost; hence the need to take color photos of the flower and print and mount them next to vegetative arts of the specimens, since flower color is sometimes an important characteristic in identification. For more details refer to: Diane Bridson and Leonard Forman - Eds (1989, 1991, 1992). The Herbarium Handbook. Revised Edition (1992). Royal Botanic gardens, Kew. ISBN 0 947643 45 1.

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Management of Museum Animal Species The purpose of preserving animal specimens in a museum is more or less similar to that for preserving plant specimens outlined above. However, the methods of preparation of the specimens differ, depending on the kind of animal being preserved. Insects are usually dried and mounted using pins onto soft board mounted onside small boxes with glass covers so that the collection can be seen without necessarily opening the entire box unless necessary. Reptiles and amphibians are usually preserved inside glass bottles in dilute solutions of Formalin or Ethanol Alcohol. This liquid preserves them more or less in their normal shape, size, and body texture so that they can be used for future taxonomic and other scientific work. Birds and mammals are skinned and the flesh (that could easily rot) removed to leave a dry skeleton. The skin (and feathers or fur as the case may be) is then replaced over the skeleton with the flesh being replaced by cotton wool dipped in either foralin or ethanol solution to give them the exact size and shape they had before death. In this state, their skin, feather, or fur color is preserved, making identification possible without much difficulty since color is sometimes one of the important characteristics used in identification. The specimens preserved in this manner are also kept either in cupboards with glass windows or sometimes mounted on tabletops, especially for large mammals and birds, which would need very large cupboards. Management of Captive Animal Species Management of captive animals includes:  Development of objectives, planning, and selection of sites and animals for zoos, sanctuaries, farms and ranches;  Design of captive shelters, rationale for captive breeding, farming and ranching; policy issues: national, regional and international;  Care, handling, veterinary and behavioral considerations; immobilization and capture of wild animals; health and care of animals in transit for the export trade; national and international legal concerns; security and emergency protocols; health management and zoo medicine;  Wildlife rescue and orphanage management; public relations; education and extension requirements;  Some of these animals are rescued from illegal hunters, poachers, or traffickers, after they have been transferred from their natural habitat, or young animals whose parents have been killed while protecting their young. Such young animals cannot survive on their own in the wild, since foster parenthood is not common among wild animals. Such rescued animals are first rehabilitated in an ex situ conservation facility such as a zoo and later either re-introduced in the wild, which could be their original home habitat, or a totally new habitat if it is not feasible to re- introduce them in their original home habitat. The original home habitat may be unknown, or too hostile for new because of behavioral patterns among the species or because the origins are diverse and not precisely known, such as animals that are rescued after they have crossed international boundaries and the traffickers are not willing to cooperate regarding the actual origin of the animals. THE ROLE OF PROTECTED AREAS IN MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY A protected area is a geographically defined area that is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives. It may be set aside for the protection of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources and is managed through legal or other effective means.

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This category includes national parks and nature reserves, sustainable use reserves, wilderness areas, and heritage sites. Protected areas have been widely used as a conservation tool to maintain a representative sample of unaltered species and eco-systems for the future, and to limit the potential for environmental degradation through human mismanagement of resources. At present, approximately 8,500 PAs exist throughout the world in 169 countries. These PAs cover about 750 million hectares of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, which amounts to 5.2 percent of the Earth’s land surface. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has a key role in promoting the establishment of protected areas throughout the world. Since 1948, IUCN has developed standards and guidelines for PA management. Protected areas have been established following the categories defined by the IUCN. (It should be noted that strict protection categories (categories I to III) have mostly been applied in the developing countries, whereas categories V and VI are the most commonly used in the developed world). Category I – Strict Protection: Sometimes called strict nature reserve/wilderness areas. Protected areas managed mainly for science or wilderness protection. Generally smaller areas where the preservation of important natural values with minimum human disturbance is emphasized. Category II – Ecosystem Conservation and Tourism: Sometimes called national parks. Generally larger areas with a range of outstanding features and ecosystems that people may visit for education, recreation, and inspiration as long as they do not threaten the area’s values. Category III – Conservation of Natural Features: Sometimes called natural monuments. Similar to national parks, but usually smaller areas protecting a single spectacular natural feature or historic site. Category IV – Conservation through Active Management: Sometimes called habitat and wildlife (species) management areas. Areas managed to protect and utilize wildlife species. Category V – Landscape/Seascape Conservation and Recreation: Sometimes called protected landscapes/seascapes. Category VI – Sustainable Use of Natural Ecosystems: Sometimes called managed resource protected areas. Protected areas managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. In the past, it was assumed that the best way to preserve biodiversity was to conserve it through protected areas by reducing human activities or completely excluding humans. Population growth and poverty were seen as main causes of environmental degradation; people were regarded as a problem from which the environment needed protecting. Accordingly, protected areas and parks were fenced off from local people, traditional practices were prohibited, and people were held under penalties of fines or imprisonments for utilizing park resources. However, there are very controversial scientific and social problems with this approach, which was characterized by serious conflicts between local communities and the state. This problem therefore led to a transformation in thinking and the recognition that:  Local people understand their environment and have extensive knowledge of the resources within their local environment.  The exclusion of local people from protected areas may actually lead to impoverishment of their biological diversity, with both ecological and social costs.  Traditional practices enable people to live with nature in a mutually beneficial way. For example, instead of banning hunting altogether, a series of regulations could be put in place to regulate hunting, such as prohibitions on killing juveniles or pregnant females.

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 Many communities still do not see wildlife and the environment as their own property because they are not involved in decision-making and have little responsibility in conservation projects.  Revenues earned from PAs have not always been passed on to communities. PA management has taken on a more holistic approach to assessing biodiversity and environmental protection. It has to be effective in linking conservation with human needs. PA management must take into account the local people’s realities — that is, policy formulation must be based on a more realistic understanding of the social and political dimensions of natural resources management.

REFERENCES Altieri, M. A., & Merrick, L. (1987). In situ conservation of crop genetic resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems. Economic Botany, 41(1), 86-96. Bridson, D. and Forman, L. (Eds.) (1989, 1991, 1992). The Herbarium Handbook. Revised Edition (1992). Royal Botanic gardens, Kew. Brush, S. B. (2000). Genes in the field: on-farm conservation of crop diversity. IDRC. Guerrant, E. O., Havens, K., & Maunder, M. (2004). Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild (Vol. 3). Island Press. IUCN. n.d, “IUCN Definitions.” Web. https://www.iucn.org/downloads/en_iucn__glossary_definitions.pdf Kapere, R. (2015). “Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) GMP 2014-2023.” Uganda Wildlife Authority. Presentation. Web. https://www.slideshare.net/pclg/binp-gmp-planning-overview National Forest Authority (NFA). (2014). Forest management plan for Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve 2014-2024. Ministry of Water and Environment. Republic of Uganda. Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA). (2011). General management plan for Queen Elizabeth National Park, Kyambura Wildlife Reserve, and Kigezi Wildlife Reserve 2011-2021. Republic of Uganda. University of British Columbia. “UBC Herbarium.” Web. http://www.biodiversity.ubc.ca/museum/herbarium/

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13.2 IN SITU AND EX SITU CONSERVATION (PART 2)

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) To enable the participants to recognize conservation strategies employed in conservation of flora and fauna; (ii) Gain practical knowledge and understanding of methods used in situ and ex situ conservation; and (iii) Enable students learn about the history of conservation. Learning Outcomes The trainee will be able to: i) Describe the concepts of in situ and ex situ conservation; ii) Give an account of the history of conservation; and iii) Recognize the challenges and opportunities of in situ and ex situ conservation. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment 1. Introduction: Definitions Q&A, mini lecture 2. Historical background of in situ and ex situ Q&A, mini lecture conservation 3. Importance of in situ and ex situ conservation Q&A, mini lecture 4. In situ conservation strategies Q&A, mini lecture 5. Ex situ conservation strategies Q&A to draw on trainees’ knowledge and experiences 6. Opportunities: the benefits of in situ conservation Mini-lecture, Q&A 7. Opportunities: the benefits of ex situ conservation Mini-lecture, Q&A 8. Challenges: problems with in situ conservation Mini-lecture, Q&A 9. Challenges: problems with ex situ conservation Mini-lecture, Q&A 10. Conservation related bodies – national and Mini-lecture, Q&A international 11. Field work All of the above should be included in a list of discussion points for students to discuss with field staff of relevant institutions during field trips, which are combined with other learning points.

DETAILED NOTES INTRODUCTION In Situ Conservation This term refers to the conservation of species in their natural habitats e.g., National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, Forest Reserves, Nature Reserves, Community Wildlife reserves, etc.

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Ex Situ Conservation This term involves conserving species in isolation of their natural habitat. It involves taking an animal or plant out of its habitat and placing it in human care. This term covers old methods such as zoos and botanical gardens, as well as new methods such as seed banks and gene banks. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF IN SITU AND EX SITU CONSERVATION The Convention on Biological Diversity Source: Reeler and Hopkins, 2017  In 1992, a meeting of world leaders took place at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio-de Janeiro, Brazil.  This conference gave rise to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which was signed by more than 150 countries. In this convention, Article 9 was designated for ex situ conservation. The intent of this convention was supposed to complement the in situ strategies already discussed in the convention.  Article 9 of the Convention of Biological Diversity aims to: ‒ Adopt measures to promote ex situ conservation of components of biological diversity, preferably in the country of origin of such components. ‒ Establish and maintain facilities to promote ex situ conservation and research on plants, animals and micro-organisms, preferably in the country of origin of genetic resources. ‒ Adopt measures for the recovery and rehabilitation of threatened species and for their re- introduction into the natural habitats under appropriate conditions. ‒ Regulate and manage collection of biological resources from natural habitats for ex situ conservation purposes so as not to threaten ecosystems and in situ populations of species, except where special temporary ex situ measures are required. ‒ Cooperate in providing financial and other support for ex situ conservation facilities in developing countries. Three Examples of Ex Situ Conservation Include: Source: Reeler and Hopkins, 2017  Zoos, parks and botanical gardens;  Seed banks; and  Gene banks. The History of Zoos Animals have been used by humans for aesthetic purposes by the nobles, kings and emperors. For example, Alexander the Great kept tigers and parrots in his court and the Romans used wild animals for their amphitheater performances. The London Zoo in Regents Park was opened on 27th of April 1828. Gerald Durrell started life as an animal collector for many zoos. He established Jersey Zoo in 1959 and introduced conservation. He believed that zoos had a responsibility to save animals from extinction. He pioneered inter-zoo exchanges to swap information and animals. “There are only two ways to find out about how an animal lives, and what its habits are: one is to study it in the wilds and the other is to keep it in captivity. As the greater proportion of zoologists cannot go to outlandish

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parts of the world to study their specimens in the field, the specimens must be brought to them” Gerald Durrell (1953). The Aims of Zoos Source: Reeler and Hopkins, 2017  The main aim of a zoo is to house whole animals for breeding and re-introduction.  A secondary aim is to educate the public.  The world zoos conservation strategy estimates that there are 1,100 zoos in the world and they receive over 600 million visitors annually. The World Zoo Conservation Strategy: the Role of the Zoos and Aquaria of the World in Global Conservation Source: Reeler and Hopkins, 2017 Roles of zoo collections:  The ultimate goal is that, in the future, zoo collections will be co-coordinated globally; but for now zoo collections are based on independent conservation objectives.  Ex situ zoo populations should be managed so as to support the survival of species in the wild.  Genetic degeneration and domestication can be minimized by co-operatively managing zoo populations.  Zoos follow guidelines to try to maintain as much genetic variability as possible so that ex situ populations can serve as genetic reservoirs for species survival in the wild. There are a few ways of maintaining genetic diversity. Many zoos keep study books or use population management software and animal record databases e.g. Animal Record Keeping System (ARKS) or International Species Information System (ISIS).  A population of 250 to 500 individuals is required to maintain genetic variability for at least 100 years.  Ex situ conservation will not work for all species so subjects must be carefully chosen. Zoos must be able to maintain and breed the species and species must raise public awareness.  On top of keeping endangered species alive and genetically diverse, zoos also have an important role to play in research relevant to in situ conservation.  Zoo knowledge on the biology of small populations will become increasingly relevant to conservation of wild species when natural habitats are reduced and species ranges are fragmented. IMPORTANCE OF IN SITU AND EX SITU CONSERVATION Reasons for Promoting In Situ Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources a. Key elements of crop genetic resources cannot be captured and stored off-site.  Because ecological relationships such as gene flow between different populations and species, adaptation and selection to predation and disease, and human management of diverse crop resources are components of a common crop evolutionary system that generate crop genetic resources.  Maintenance of large area of crop diversity cannot be contained in ex situ facilities e.g., allopolyploidy and hybridization, wild relative introgression.

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2. Agroecosystems continue to generate new genetic resources: e.g., wheat diversity. Source: CEA, 2016  “The hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum) is derived from two relatively recent polyploidization events between three clearly identified diploid species.”  “The first event, which involves Triticum monococcum and (putatively) Aegilops speltoides, occurred about 0.5 million years ago and led to the appearance of hard wheat (Triticum dicoccoides).”  “The second polyploidization event took place about 9,000 years ago, between hard wheat (tetraploid) and a third diploid (Triticum tauschii).”  “Besides these natural polyploids, new varieties of wheat (Triticum) with different levels of polyploidy can be “synthesized” by crossing different diploid Triticum species.” 3. A backup to gene bank collection is necessary.  In situ conservation of crop resources has been criticized because of its potential vulnerability to technological innovation and diffusion, economic and political change, and environmental factors.  Nevertheless, complementarity between in situ and ex situ conservation goes beyond a simple backup role for the former. Ex situ collections and their associated crop improvement programs. 4. Agroecosystems in centers of crop diversity/evolution provide natural laboratories for agricultural research.  First, the understanding of crop evolutionary processes, such as gene flow between wild and cultivated plants, is best carried out in centers of crop origins, diversity, and evolution.  Second, agricultural science has become increasingly aware of the importance of broad ecological processes in the design of technology for sustainable production. 5. Convention on Biological Diversity mandates in situ conservation.  This convention, originally negotiated in 1992 and ratified by more than 160 countries, specifically includes crop genetic resources and indigenous knowledge as items that require in situ conservation.  Article 8 addresses in situ conservation and, within the article, 8(j) identifies “knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity” (Convention on Biological Diversity 1992:8). In Situ conservation The Importance of In Situ Conservation One benefit of in situ conservation is that it maintains recovering populations in the environment where they have developed their distinctive properties. Another benefit is that this strategy helps ensure the ongoing processes of evolution and adaptation within their environments. Concept of Genetic Diversity and Conservation There are three primary sources of genetic variation:  Mutations are changes in the DNA. A single mutation can have a large effect, but in many cases, evolutionary change is based on the accumulation of many mutations.

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 Gene flow is any movement of genes from one population to another and is an important source of genetic variation.  Sex can introduce new gene combinations into a population. This genetic shuffling is another important source of genetic variation.  The other two sources not commonly discussed are genetic drift and selection. IN SITU CONSERVATION STRATEGIES Nature Reserves and National Parks  First, the area that is suitable for the creation of a reserve has to be identified and delimited; this step requires surveys to collect data on key species and property may have to be expropriated;  A legal framework may need to be set up to control human activities in the area and in its immediate surroundings; policing the area may also be necessary;  The two key in situ conservation systems in Uganda are Forest Reserves and National Parks, along with wetlands and Ramsar Sites, which have some degree of protection but lack policing. EX SITU CONSERVATION STRATEGIES Botanical Gardens  There are an estimated 1,600 botanical gardens throughout the world, which receive 150 million visitors a year.  The Botanic Gardens Conservation Institute was set up in 1987, and its role is to collect and make available information on plant conservation.  These botanical gardens are important as it is estimated that 60,000 plant species could be lost in the next 50 years.  Botanical gardens tend to look after plants in one of the five categories below: ‒ Rare and endangered; ‒ Economically important; ‒ Species that are needed for the restoration of an ecosystem; ‒ Keystone species; and ‒ Taxonomically isolated species.  Selecting these species is difficult and a number of factors must be taken into consideration: ‒ Extinction risk; ‒ Suitability of plant for ex situ conservation; ‒ Value of plant; ‒ Ease of collection; ‒ Funds available; and ‒ Chances of success.  In some ways, plant reintroductions are easier than animal reintroductions in terms of monitoring, as plants do not move.

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 In other ways, it is harder because if the wrong site is selected then the plant cannot move itself.  When reintroducing a plant species it must be decided whether seeds, seedlings or adults are going to be replaced; each has its pros and cons.  Plantations are another type of ex situ plant conservation system.  They provide a safe place for plants that do not take well to seed banks.  Problems include: ‒ The risk of disease like any mono-culture; ‒ Large space requirements; ‒ Less genetic diversity than normal seed banks; and ‒ Vulnerable to environmental disaster.  Botanical gardens have both success and failure stories.

Seed Banks  Seed banks allow storage of genetic diversity of whole plant populations.  Preserving the seeds for use later is a long process, it involves: ‒ Cleaning; ‒ X-ray analysis; ‒ Drying, packaging, and storage; and ‒ Germination monitoring. Seed Banks – The Millennium Seed Bank Project:  The Millennium Seed Bank Project is a Global Conservation Program linked to Kew gardens.  The aims of the project are to: ‒ Conserve 10 percent (24,000 species) of the worlds seed-bearing flora by 2010; ‒ Conserve all the seed-bearing flora in the UK by 2000; ‒ Research into seed conservation; ‒ Allow seeds to be used in research elsewhere; ‒ Make seeds available for reintroduction; ‒ Assist in plant conservation globally; and ‒ Public education. Gene Banks  Gene banks are like seed banks.  Eggs, sperm, and embryos are cryogenically frozen to protect the genetic variation of a species.  The zoological society of San Diego has developed a frozen zoo.

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Gene Banks – The Frozen Zoo  Housed by the Zoological Society of San Diego and one of the world’s largest collections.  Designed to provide materials to aid species recovery and population viability; the Frozen Zoo also banks cells from species that are close to extinction.  Holds frozen skin cells, DNA, RNA, semen, embryos, oocytes, ova, blood, and frozen tissue.  Holds the genetic material from 500 Przewalskis horses, 150 western lowland gorillas, 80 black rhinos, 22 Queensland Koalas, and 19 Bornean bearded pigs.  These are all available for scientific study. OPPORTUNITIES: THE BENEFITS OF IN SITU CONSERVATION  The species will have all the resources that it is adapted to.  The species will continue to evolve in its environment.  The species will have more space.  Larger breeding populations can be kept in one place.  It is cheaper to keep an organism in its natural habitat. OPPORTUNITIES: THE BENEFITS OF EX SITU CONSERVATION  With only three percent of land in nature reserves worldwide, ex situ conservation is often the only answer.  “No large wild terrestrial animal will persist long into the future unless cared for in some way by man. There will be insufficient habitat for most large species and protected habitats will be in pieces too small or too unstable to sustain viable populations of the plants and animals they seek to protect. For these and other reasons conservation biologists will be forced to depend more and more on ex situ care and biotechnology to help protect diversity at both species and genetic levels” William Conway, New York Zoological Society taken from Lewin, 1986.  Botanical gardens can help in ethno-biology, strengthening collections that have traditional and cultural implications.  Reintroductions have occurred for at least 120 animal species; 15 of these are definitely established in the wild and are now self-sufficient populations. CHALLENGES: PROBLEMS WITH IN SITU CONSERVATION  It is difficult to control illegal exploitation (e.g., poaching).  The environment may need restoring and alien species are difficult to control. CHALLENGES: PROBLEMS WITH EX SITU CONSERVATION  Captive and wild populations diverge genetically.  Interbreeding.  Hybridization.  In the case of gene banks, living populations are necessary to pass on non-genetic learned behaviors.

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 Ex situ conservation tends only to save particular species whereas in situ conservation saves whole ecosystems.  Impossible to conserve very large or difficult to breed species like whales.

CONSERVATION RELATED BODIES – NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL  UWA;  NFA;  Nature Uganda;  Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF);  CITES;  IUCN;

REFERENCES Altieri, M. A., & Merrick, L. (1987). In situ conservation of crop genetic resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems. Economic Botany, 41(1), 86-96. Atomic Energy and Alternative Energies Commissariat (CEA). (2016). “Triticum spp, wheat growing. Sequencing of chromosome 3B.” Plant Genomics. Web. http://ig.cea.fr/drf/ig/Pages/Genoscope/Les-projets-de- Genoscope/Genomique_des_plantes_ble_cafe_colza_vigne_banane.aspx?Type=Chapitre&nu mero=2 Brush, S. B. (2000). Genes in the field: on-farm conservation of crop diversity. IDRC. Guerrant, E. O., Havens, K., & Maunder, M. (2004). Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild (Vol. 3). Island Press. Lewin, R. (1986). In ecology, change brings stability. Science, 234, 1071-1074.Durrell, G. (1953). The overloaded ark. Viking Press. Reeler, J and Hopkins S.(2017). “Ex Situ Conservation.” Lecture for Principles of Conservation Biology. StudyLib. Web. http://studylib.net/doc/10126073/chapter-12---ex-situ-conservation United Nations. (1992). Convention on Biological Diversity. Article 8. In situ conservation United Nations. (1992). Convention on Biological Diversity. Article 9. Ex situ conservation. Vavilov, N.I. (1926). Centres of origin of cultivated plants. Bulletin of Applied Botany, of Genetics, and Plantbreeding16(2): 248

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13.3 BIODIVERSITY GENE BANKING AND INVENTORY

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) To provide a basic understanding of the concept of biodiversity gene banking; and (ii) To explain how biodiversity gene inventory can be organized. Learning Outcomes By the end of the training, trainees will be able to: (i) Explain the concept of biodiversity gene banking; and (ii) Explain how biodiversity gene inventory can be organized. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment

1. Definition of biodiversity Q&A to generate definitions and then match with standard gene banking and inventory definitions. 2. Gene banks Outline the concepts and ask trainees to use their knowledge and experience to demonstrate how the concepts are realized in practice. 3. Regenerating seeds for the Use a real-life case study to identify gene banking procedures. gene bank 4. Gene directory gel data Use a real-life case study to demonstrate gel data storage and storage and analysis analysis software application. software 5. Cryoscopy preservation Outline the concepts and use a simplified procedure to allow trainees discover how to preserve tissues and genes using cryopreservation techniques. 6. Genetic diversity in species Use a real-life case study to identify the key species in an ecosystem. 7. Genetic engineering: DNA Use a real life case study to carry out DNA profiling. profiling, 8. Field/ laboratory practice Visit a nearby gene bank to observe the application of the concepts in practice.

DETAILED NOTES DEFINITION OF BIODIVERSITY GENE BANKING AND INVENTORY Biodiversity gene banking: gene banks are a type of biorepository that preserve genetic material for biodiversity conservation. For plants, preservation could be by freezing cuttings from the plant or stocking the seeds (e.g., in a seedbank). For animals, preservation involves freezing sperm and eggs in zoological freezers until further need. Biodiversity gene inventory: a complete list of genes of species in an ecosystem including those for extinct species. GENE BANKS A seedbank preserves dried seeds by storing them at a very low temperature. Spores and pteridophytes are conserved in seed banks, but other seedless plants, such as tuber crops, cannot be preserved this way. The largest seed bank in world is the Millennium Seed Bank housed at the

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Wellcome Trust Millennium Building, located in the grounds of Wakehurst Place in West Sussex, near London. Tissue Bank In this technique, buds, protocorm and meristematic cells are conserved through particular light and temperature arrangements in a nutrient medium. This technique is used to preserve seedless plants and plants that reproduce asexually. Cryobank In this technique, a seed or embryo is preserved at very low temperatures. It is usually preserved in liquid nitrogen at -196 °C. This technique is helpful for the conservation of species facing extinction. Pollen Bank In this technique, pollen grains are stored and plants can be grown with one set of chromosomes. Field Gene Bank This technique is a method of growing plants for the conservation of genes by constructing the ecosystem artificially. Through this method, one can compare the differences among plants of different species and study them in detail. It requires land, adequate soil, and appropriate weather. Germplasm of important crops is conserved through this method. In total, 42,000 varieties of rice are conserved in the Central Rice Research Institute in Orissa. REGENERATING SEEDS FOR THE GENE BANK Plant genetic material in a gene bank is preserved at -280° Celsius in liquid nitrogen as mature seed (dry). In plants, it is possible to unfreeze the material and propagate it, but, in animals, a living female is required for artificial insemination. While it is often difficult to use frozen animal sperm and eggs, there are many examples of it being done successfully. In an effort to conserve agricultural biodiversity, gene banks are used to store and conserve the plant genetic resources of major crop plants and their crop wild relatives. There are many gene banks all over the world, with the Svalbard Global Seed Vault being the most famous. CRYOSCOPY PRESERVATION Embryos of endangered species can be appropriately stored in gene banks using cryopreservation techniques. Cryopreservation of embryos is the process of preserving an embryo at sub-zero temperatures, generally at an embryogenesis stage corresponding to pre-implantation — that is, from fertilization to the blastocyst stage. Method Embryo cryopreservation is generally performed as a component of in vitro fertilization (which generally also includes ovarian hyperstimulation, egg retrieval, and embryo transfer). The ovarian hyperstimulation is preferably done by using a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist (GnRH-A) rather than human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) for final oocyte maturation, since it decreases the risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome with no evidence of a difference in live birth rate (in contrast to fresh cycles, where usage of GnRH agonist has a lower live birth rate). The main techniques used for embryo cryopreservation are vitrification versus slow programmable freezing (SPF). Studies indicate that vitrification is superior or equal to SPF in terms of survival and implantation rates. Vitrification appears to result in decreased risk of DNA damage than slow freezing.

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Direct Frozen Embryo Transfer: Embryos can be frozen by SPF method in ethylene glycol freeze media and transfer directly to recipients immediately after water thawing without laboratory thawing process. The world’s first crossbred bovine embryo transfer calf under tropical conditions was produced by such technique on June 23, 1996, by Dr. Binoy S Vettical of Kerala Livestock Development Board, Mattupatti. GENETIC DIVERSITY IN SPECIES Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary. FIGURE 13.6: THE TOTAL NUMBER OF GENETIC CHARACTERISTICS

Source: Ciccarelli, 2006. The above graphic is a highly resolved Tree of Life, based on completely sequenced genomes. The image was generated using iTOL: Interactive Tree Of Life, an online phylogenetic tree viewer and Tree Of Life resource. Eukaryotes are colored red, archaea green, and bacteria blue. GENETIC ENGINEERING: DNA PROFILING DNA profiling (also called DNA fingerprinting, DNA testing, or DNA typing) is a forensic technique used to identify individuals by characteristics of their DNA. In the schematic below, the rectangular blocks represent each of the repeated DNA sequences at a particular variable number tandem repeat location. FIGURE 13.7: THE GEL ELECTROPHORETIC RESULTS

Source: WN, 2015.

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A variable number tandem repeat (or VNTR) is a location in a genome where a short nucleotide sequence is organized as a tandem repeat. These can be found on many chromosomes and often show variations in length between individuals. The repeats are in tandem — they are clustered together and oriented in the same direction. Individual repeats can be removed from (or added to) the VNTR via recombination or replication errors, leading to alleles with different numbers of repeats. Flanking the repeats are segments of non-repetitive sequence (shown here as thin lines), allowing the VNTR blocks to be extracted with restriction enzymes and analyzed by RFLP, or amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique and their size determined by gel electrophoresis. A DNA profile is a small set of DNA variations that is very likely to be different in all unrelated individuals, thereby being as unique to individuals as are fingerprints (hence the alternate name for the technique). DNA profiling should not be confused with full genome sequencing. First developed and used in 1985, DNA profiling is used in, for example, parentage testing and criminal investigation, to identify a person or species or to place a person at a crime or locale scene, techniques which are now employed globally in forensic science and other areas to facilitate detective work and help clarify paternity and immigration disputes. Matching Analyzing VNTR data, two basic genetic principles can be used:  Identity Matching — both VNTR alleles from a specific location must match. If two samples are from the same individual, they must show the same allele pattern.  Inheritance Matching — the VNTR alleles must follow the rules of inheritance. In matching an individual with his parents or children, a person must have an allele that matches one from each parent. If the relationship is more distant, such as a grandparent or sibling, then matches must be consistent with the degree of relatedness. This was the first successful gene mapping work and provides important evidence for the chromosome theory of inheritance. The map shows the relative positions of allelic characteristics on the second Drosophila chromosome. The distance between the genes (map units) is equal to the percentage of chromosomal crossover events that occurs between different alleles.

REFERENCES Ciccarelli, FD (2006). “Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life.” Science 311(5765): 1283-7. 2. Di Castri, F., & Younès, T. (Eds.). (1996). Biodiversity, science and development: towards a new partnership. Cab International. Heywood, V. H., & Watson, R. T. (1995). Global biodiversity assessment (Vol. 1140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lahaye, R., Van der Bank, M., Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Pupulin, F., Gigot, G., & Savolainen, V. (2008). DNA barcoding the floras of biodiversity hotspots. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(8), 2923-2928. World News (WN). (2015). “VNTR-Variable Number of Tandem Repeats.” Web. https://wn.com/variable_number_tandem_repeats

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LECTURE 14: SCENARIO MODELING OF CONSERVATION PLANNING

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) To enable trainees to understand the key terms used in scenario modeling for conservation planning; and (ii) To enable trainees to apply the interacting stages of scenario modeling to make ecological predictions in specific conditions. Learning Outcomes The trainee will be able to: (i) Identify and describe underlying concepts and principles of scenario modeling for conservation planning; (ii) Give an account of the different approaches to scenario planning for development; (iii) Giving examples, outline constraints involved in planning selected developments; (iv) Spell out measures for how to manage/mitigate the constraints; and (v) Identify some biodiversity issues/conditions in oil and gas environments and use scenario modeling to predict the future. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment 1. Introduction: definitions Q&A to build on trainees’ knowledge and experiences 2. Background to scenarios and modeling 3. Roles of scenarios and models 4. Application of scenarios and models 5. Examples of the use of scenarios and models in agenda setting, policy design and policy implementation 6. The probable and possible Q&A to build on trainees’ knowledge and experiences and fill in gaps

Demonstration followed by trainee practice. 7. Scenario planning Work on a real-life case study. 8. Barriers to the use of scenarios and models in Group discussion of examples in a case policymaking study approach 9. Scenarios and models – guidance for science and Mini lecture with Q&A and buzz group policy discussions 10. Capacity-building requirements for development Mini lecture with Q&A and buzz group and use of scenarios and models discussions

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DETAILED NOTES Source: IPBES, 2016 INTRODUCTION - DEFINITIONS  Scenarios are defined as plausible representations of possible futures for one or more components of a system, or as alternative policy or management options intended to alter the future state of these components. In a narrower sense, “scenario” usually refers to plausible futures for indirect or direct drivers or to policy interventions targeting these drivers.  Models are defined as qualitative or quantitative representations of key components of a system and of relationships between these components.  Scenarios and models provide an effective means of addressing relationships between the principal components of the conceptual framework and complement scientific, indigenous and local knowledge in assessments and decision support. BACKGROUND TO SCENARIO MODELING  The methodological assessment of scenarios and models of biodiversity and ecosystem services was initiated to provide expert advice on the use of such methodologies in all work under the Platform to ensure the policy relevance of its deliverables, as stated in the scoping report approved by the Plenary of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services at its second session (IPBES/2/17, annex VI).  It is one of the first assessment activities of IPBES because it provides guidance for the use of scenarios and models in the regional, global and thematic assessments, as well as by the other task forces and expert groups of IPBES. FIGURE 14.1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE ROLES THAT SCENARIOS AND MODELS PLAY IN INFORMING POLICY AND DECISION MAKING

Source: IPBES, 2016. ROLES OF SCENARIOS AND MODELS  Different types of scenarios can play important roles in relation to the major phases of the policy cycle:

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1. Agenda setting; 2. Policy design; 3. Policy implementation; and 4. Policy review.  Exploratory scenarios that examine a range of plausible futures, based on potential trajectories of drivers – either indirect (e.g., socio-political, economic and technological factors) or direct (e.g., habitat conversion and climate change) – can contribute significantly to high-level problem identification and agenda setting. Exploratory scenarios provide an important means of dealing with high levels of unpredictability, and therefore uncertainty, inherently associated with the future trajectory of many drivers.  Intervention scenarios that evaluate alternative policy or management options – through either “target-seeking” or “policy-screening” analysis – can contribute significantly to policy design and implementation.  To date, exploratory scenarios have been used most widely in assessments on the global, regional and national scales while intervention scenarios have been applied to decision-making mostly on the national and local scales.  Models can provide a useful means of translating alternative scenarios of drivers or policy interventions into projected consequences for nature and nature’s benefits to people.  The models address three main relationships: 1. Models projecting effects of changes in indirect drivers, including policy interventions, on direct drivers; 2. Models projecting impacts of changes in direct drivers on nature (biodiversity and ecosystems); and 3. Models projecting consequences of changes in biodiversity and ecosystems for the benefits that people derive from nature (including ecosystem services).  The contributions of these models will often be most effective if they are applied in combination.  The above relationships can be modeled using three broad approaches: a. Correlative models, in which available empirical data are used to estimate values for parameters that do not necessarily have predefined ecological meaning, and for which processes are implicit rather than explicit; b. Process-based models, in which relationships are described in terms of explicitly stated processes or mechanisms based on established scientific understanding, and whose model parameters therefore have clear ecological interpretation defined beforehand; c. Expert-based models, in which the experience of experts and stakeholders, including local and indigenous knowledge holders, is used to describe relationships.  Several barriers have impeded widespread and productive use of scenarios and models of biodiversity and ecosystem services in policymaking and decision-making.  Those barriers include: 1. A general lack of understanding among policymaking and decision-making practitioners about the benefits of and limits to using scenarios and models for assessment and decision support;

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2. A shortage of human and technical resources, as well as data, for developing and using scenarios and models in some regions; 3. Insufficient involvement of, and interactions between, scientists, stakeholders, and policymakers in developing scenarios and models to assist policy design and implementation; 4. Lack of guidance in model choice and deficiencies in the transparency of development and documentation of scenarios and models; and 5. Inadequate characterization of uncertainties derived from data constraints, problems in system understanding and representation or low system predictability. APPLICATION OF SCENARIOS AND MODELS  Effective application and uptake of scenarios and models in policymaking and decision-making requires close involvement of policymakers, practitioners, and other relevant stakeholders, including, where appropriate, holders of indigenous and local knowledge, throughout the entire process of scenario development and analysis.  Different policy and decision contexts often require the application of different types of scenarios, models and decision-support tools, so considerable care needs to be exercised in formulating an appropriate approach in any given context.  The spatial and temporal scales at which scenarios and models need to be applied also vary markedly between different policy and decision contexts.  No single set of scenarios and models can address all pertinent spatial and temporal scales, and many applications will require linking of multiple scenarios and models dealing with drivers or proposed policy interventions operating at different scales.

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FIGURE 14.2: EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF SCENARIOS AND MODELS IN AGENDA SETTING, POLICY DESIGN AND POLICY IMPLEMENTATION RELATING TO THE ACHIEVEMENT OF BIODIVERSITY TARGETS ACROSS A RANGE OF SPATIAL SCALES

Source: IPBES, 2016.

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The above diagram indicates the typical relationships between spatial scale (top arrows), type of science-policy interface (upper set of arrows at bottom), phase of the policy cycle (middle set of arrows at bottom) and type of scenarios used (lower set of arrows at bottom).  Scenarios and models can benefit from mobilization of indigenous and local knowledge because these can fill important information gaps at multiple scales and contribute to the successful application of scenarios and models to policy design and implementation.  There are numerous examples of successful mobilization of indigenous and local knowledge for scenario analysis and modeling, including scenarios and models based primarily on that knowledge source.  However, substantial efforts are needed to broaden the involvement of such knowledge. Improving mobilization of indigenous and local knowledge will require efforts on several fronts, including development of appropriate indicators, mechanisms for accompanying knowledge holders, collection of such knowledge and interpretation into forms that can be used in scenarios and models, and translation into accessible languages  There is a wide range of models available to assess impacts of scenarios of drivers and policy interventions on biodiversity and ecosystem services, but important gaps remain. Those gaps include: 1. Models explicitly linking biodiversity to nature’s benefits to people (including ecosystem services) and good quality of life; 2. Models addressing ecological processes on temporal and spatial scales relevant to the needs of assessment and decision-support activities, including IPBES assessments; and 3. Models anticipating, and thereby providing early warning of, ecological and socio-ecological breakpoints and regime shifts  Scenarios and models of indirect drivers, direct drivers, nature, nature’s benefits to people and good quality of life need to be better linked to improve understanding and explanations of important relationships and feedbacks between components of coupled social-ecological systems.  Links between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and ecosystem services are only weakly accounted for in most assessments or in policy design and implementation.  The same applies for links between ecosystem services and quality of life and integration across sectors.  As such, it is currently challenging to evaluate the full set of relationships and feedbacks set out in the conceptual framework of IPBES.  Scenario Modeling is an important tool in conservation planning. It can be used in selecting the best development option, e.g., in locating an oil pipeline route, planning a biodiversity offset, locating a camp site, locating a road, locating a waste disposal plant, and planning a canopy walk way in a forest reserve.  Scenario/criterion planning: ‒ Largely depends on identifying constraints, threats, and challenges development options will be subjected to; ‒ Assesses each constraint along the route; ‒ Ranks each constraint for option selection (e.g., PAs into national parks, wildlife reserves, and communal reserves);

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‒ For each options, spells out how to manage the constraints; ‒ Draws a constraints map for the different options; and ‒ Selects the best option based on the above analysis (identify the best option or identify potential alternatives).  Example of features/constraints to map, e.g., when selecting the route for an oil pipeline: ‒ Biophysical environment/biodiversity (lakes, rivers, wetlands, and flora and faunal species diversity and distribution, including the threatened ones); ‒ Roads; ‒ Topography; ‒ Geology; ‒ Seismic activities in along the different route options; and ‒ Socio-economics (infrastructure and population density).  Each one of these constraints is then assessed, ranked, mapped, all options mapped together and best option selected.  The process of ESIA and all other processes before and after ESIA are key examples of scenario modeling. THE PROBABLE AND THE POSSIBLE The Probable: Predictions, Forecasts, and Projections A reasonable definition of an ecological prediction is:  The probability distribution of specified ecological variables at a specified time in the future;  Conditional on current conditions;  Specified assumptions about drivers;  Measured probability distributions of model parameters; and  The measured probability that the model itself is correct.  A prediction is understood to be the best possible estimate of future conditions. ‒ The less sensitive the prediction is to drivers, the better  Whereas scientists understand that predictions are conditional probabilistic statements, non- scientists often understand them as things that will happen no matter what they do.  In contrast to a prediction, a forecast is: the best estimate from a particular method, model, or individual.  The public and decision-makers generally understand that a forecast may or may not turn out to be true projections, which may be heavily dependent on assumptions about drivers and may have unknown, imprecise, or unspecified probabilities.  Projections lead to “if this, then that” statements.  Predictions and forecasts are closely tied to the notion of optimal decision making.

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 Optimal decisions maximize the expected net benefits (or minimize expected net losses), whereas the expectation is integrated over the full probability distribution of the predicted benefits minus losses over a specified time horizon.  Ecological predictions have three fundamental, interacting problems: uncertainty, contingency, and reflexivity  Ecological predictions are contingent on drivers that are difficult to predict, such as human behavior.  Uncertainty can be confusing and demoralizing. It can lead to inaction or “paralysis by analysis.” rather than decisiveness and action. However, uncertainty can be viewed as an opportunity (Ney and Thompson, 2000). It can lead to the acknowledgement of the need for humility because all participants are ignorant of what the future will bring. Uncertainty can encourage tolerance because the plans and beliefs of others may turn out to be more effective and correct than your own. And uncertainty can inspire action because the future is not already determined but is being created by the plans and actions of people.  Scenario planning is somewhat similar to adaptive management, an approach to management that takes uncertainty into account. Both examine alternative models of how the world might work and seek to develop policies that are robust to this uncertainty. What distinguishes them is that management experiments are built into the models. When experimental manipulation is possible, traditional scientific approaches are effective at answering questions (Medawar, 1984).  Scenario planning is most useful when there is a high level of uncertainty about the system of interest and system manipulations are difficult or impossible. The Possible: Scenarios  A scenario describes a possible situation, but the term has been used in a variety of ways: ‒ One common use of scenario refers to the expected continuation of the current situation— for example, in the statement that “under the current scenario, we anticipate that the species will become extinct in the next 10 years.” ‒ Another common use of scenario derives from systems models – the results of integrated computer simulation models depend on assumptions about the extrinsic drivers, parameters, and structure of the model.  Variations in the assumptions used to create such models are often described as scenarios (Meadows et al., 1992).  For example, the differences between the climatic scenarios of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are determined by differences in assumptions about demography and social, economic, technical, and environmental development. ‒ Scenarios in this sense have been used in conservation for investigating the outcomes of different ecological management regimes e.g., to consider questions such as how malaria might spread in a warmer world; ‒ Or to select conservation sites based on projected changes in human settlement.  Although these approaches describe future situations as scenarios, scenario planning invests much more effort in constructing integrated and provocative alternative futures.  A scenario can be defined as a structured account of a possible future.  Scenarios describe futures that could be rather than futures that will be.

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 In other words, scenarios are alternative, dynamic stories that capture key ingredients of our uncertainty about the future of a study system. Scenarios are constructed to provide insight into drivers of change, reveal the implications of current trajectories, and illuminate options for action. Unlike forecasts, scenarios stress irreducible uncertainties that are not controllable by the people making the decisions. Although trends, expert predictions, visions of the future, and models are all parts of scenario-building exercises, they should not be mistaken for scenarios themselves.  Scenarios may encompass realistic projections of current trends, qualitative predictions, and quantitative models, but much of their value lies in incorporating both qualitative and quantitative understandings of the system and in stimulating people to evaluate and reassess their beliefs about the system.  Useful scenarios incorporate imaginative speculation and a wide range of possibilities; those based only on what we currently know about the system have limited power because they do not help scenario users plan for the unpredictable. SCENARIO PLANNING  There are many different approaches to scenario planning.  The following approach to scenario planning is similar to many other approaches but is also influenced by experience with adaptive environmental assessment and management (Holling, 1978). The Six-Stages Approach Source: Peterson et al., 2003 This scenario planning approach consists of six interacting stages that a small group of research scientists, managers, policymakers, and other stakeholders explore through a series of workshops: 1. Identification of a Focal Issue – conceptual design: Identification of a central issue or problem. 2. Assessment: This problem is then used as a focusing device for assessment of the system. 3. Identification of Alternatives: Assessment is combined with the key problem to identify key alternatives. 4. Building Scenarios – identify constraints: Alternatives are then developed into actual scenarios. 5. Testing Scenarios: Scenarios are tested in a variety of ways before they are used. 6. Policy Screening: The policy approach is then screened. Although this overview presents scenario planning as a linear process, it is often more interactive: system assessment leads to redefinition of the central question, and testing can reveal blind spots that require more assessment. Examples of biodiversity in oil and gas environments, e.g., along the Victoria Nile in Murchison Falls National Park and using scenario planning, predict the future in the face of various threats from oil and gas exploration and development: amphibian populations, crocodile populations, hippo populations. BARRIERS TO THE USE OF SCENARIOS AND MODELS IN POLICYMAKING 1. A general lack of understanding among policymaking and decision making practitioners about the benefits of and limits to using scenarios and models for assessment and decision support;

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2. A shortage of human and technical resources to develop and use scenarios and models in some regions; 3. Insufficient engagement by scientists in developing scenarios and models to assist policy design and implementation; 4. Deficiencies in the transparency of development and documentation of scenarios and models; 5. Inadequate characterization of uncertainties associated with resulting projections and methods for dealing with those uncertainties in decision-making. SCENARIOS AND MODELS - GUIDANCE FOR SCIENCE AND POLICY  Scientists and policy practitioners may want to ensure that the types of scenarios, models and decision-support tools employed are matched carefully to the needs of each particular policy or decision context. Particular attention should be paid to: ‒ The choice of drivers or policy options that determine the appropriate types of scenarios (e.g., exploratory, target-seeking or policy screening); ‒ The impacts on nature and nature’s benefits that are of interest and that determine the types of models of impacts that should be mobilized; ‒ The diverse values that need to be addressed and that determine the appropriate methods for assessing these values; and ‒ The type of policy or decision-making process that is being supported and that determines the suitability of different assessment or decision-support tools.  The scientific community, policymakers, and stakeholders may want to consider improving, and more widely applying, participatory scenario methods to enhance the relevancy and acceptance of scenarios for biodiversity and ecosystem services.  This goal would include broadening the predominantly local-scale focus of participatory approaches to regional and global scales.  Such an effort would facilitate the dialogue between scientific experts and stakeholders throughout the development and application of scenarios and models.  Broadening participatory methods to regional and global scales poses significant challenges that will require greatly increased coordination of efforts between all actors involved in developing and applying scenarios and models at different scales  The scientific community may want to give priority to addressing gaps in methods for modeling impacts of drivers and policy interventions on biodiversity and ecosystem services.  Work could focus on methods for linking inputs and outputs between major components of the scenarios and modeling chain, and on linking scenarios and models across spatial and temporal scales.  High priority should also be given to encouraging and catalyzing the development of models, and underpinning knowledge, that more explicitly link ecosystem services – and other benefits that people derive from nature – to biodiversity, as well as to ecosystem properties and processes.  One means of achieving this priority would be to advance development of integrated system- level approaches to linking scenarios and models of indirect drivers, direct drivers, nature, and nature’s benefits to people and good quality of life, to better account for important relationships and feedback between those components.

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 That could include encouraging and catalyzing the extension of integrated assessment models, already being employed widely in other domains (e.g., climate, energy, and agriculture), to better incorporate modeling of drivers and impacts of direct relevance to biodiversity and ecosystem services.  The scientific community may want to consider developing practical and effective approaches to evaluating and communicating levels of uncertainty associated with scenarios and models, as well as tools for applying those approaches to assessments and decision-making.  This task would include setting standards for best practice, using model-data and model-model inter-comparisons to provide robust and transparent evaluations of uncertainty and encouraging new research into methods of measuring and communicating uncertainty and its impacts on decision-making.  Data holders and institutions may want to consider improving the accessibility of well- documented data sources and working in close collaboration with research and observation communities (including citizen science) and communities working on indicators to fill gaps in data collection and provision.  In many cases, scenario planning will coincide with efforts to improve collection of and access to data for quantifying status and trends. However, models and scenarios need additional types of data for development and testing that should be taken into account when developing or refining monitoring systems and data-sharing platforms.  Human and technical capacity for scenario development and modeling may need to be enhanced, including through the promotion of open, transparent access to scenario and modeling tools, as well as the data required for their development and testing.  Scenario planning can be facilitated through a variety of mechanisms, including ‒ Supporting training courses for scientists and decision makers; ‒ Encouraging rigorous documentation of scenarios and models; ‒ Encouraging the development of networks that provide opportunities for scientists from all regions to share knowledge including through user forums, workshops, internships, and collaborative projects; and ‒ Using the catalogue of policy support tools developed by IPBES to promote open access to models and scenarios, where possible in multiple languages. TABLE 14.1: CAPACITY-BUILDING REQUIREMENTS FOR DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF SCENARIOS AND MODELS OF BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Activity Capacity-Building Requirements Stakeholder engagement  Processes and human capacity to facilitate engagement with multiple stakeholders, including holders of traditional and local knowledge Problem definition  Capacity to translate policy or management needs into appropriate scenarios and models Scenario analysis  Capacity to participate in development and use of scenarios to explore possible futures, and policy or management interventions Modeling  Capacity to participate in development and use of models to translate scenarios into expected consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem services Decision making for policy  Capacity to integrate outputs from scenario analysis and modeling into and management decision making

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Activity Capacity-Building Requirements Accessing data,  Data accessibility information and  Infrastructure and database management knowledge  Tools for data synthesis and extrapolation  Standardization of formats and software compatibility  Human resources and skill base to contribute to, access, manage and update databases  Tools and processes to incorporate local data and knowledge Source: IPBES, 2016

REFERENCES Holling, C. S. (1978). Adaptive environmental assessment and management. John Wiley & Sons. IPBES (2016): Summary for policymakers of the methodological assessment of scenarios and models of biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. S. Ferrier, K. N. Ninan, P. Leadley, R. Alkemade, L.A. Acosta, H. R. Akçakaya, L. Brotons, W. Cheung, V. Christensen, K. A. Harhash, J. Kabubo- Mariara, C. Lundquist, M. Obersteiner, H. Pereira, G. Peterson, R. Pichs-Madruga, N. H. Ravindranath, C. Rondinini, B. Wintle (eds.). Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science- Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Bonn, Germany. 32 pages Meadows, D. H., Meadows, D. L., & Randers, J. (1992). Beyond the limits: confronting global collapse envisioning a sustainable future. Medawar, P. 1984. The limits of science. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. Ney, S., & Thompson, M. (2000). Cultural discourses in the global climate change debate. In Society, behaviour, and climate change mitigation (pp. 65-92). Springer Netherlands. Peterson, G. D., Cumming, G. S., & Carpenter, S. R. (2003). Scenario planning: a tool for conservation in an uncertain world. Conservation biology, 17(2), 358-366.

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LECTURE 15: HUMAN AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION CONFLICTS

SYLLABUS Teaching Aims (i) Explain human-biodiversity conflicts and how they arise; and (ii) Give measures to reduce/mitigate the conflicts in the oil and gas exploration and development environments. Learning Outcomes The trainee will be able to: (i) Identify issues arising from the interactions between people and biodiversity/wildlife; (ii) Assess the impact of community perception, resource and benefit sharing from wildlife conservation; and (iii) Explore ways and means for balancing local people’s rights, attitudes participation, and concerns with broader conservation issues. Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and Subtopic Suggested Approach, Methods and Equipment 1. Introduction Mini-lecture with brainstorming and buzz group discussions 2. Institutional arrangements in human-wildlife conflict Mini-lecture with brainstorming and buzz group discussions 3. Information on the problem of human-wildlife Mini-lecture with brainstorming and conflict buzz group discussions 4. Lessons on reducing human-wildlife conflict Mini-lecture with brainstorming and group discussions 5. Country-specific and local-level problem animal Group discussions, case studies. control options 6. Taking action and evaluating effectiveness Mini-lecture with brainstorming and buzz group discussions 7. Field work Observe and discuss issues with staff of relevant institutions and local community representatives. Guide trainees to prepare a list of discussion points in advance.

DETAILED NOTES Introduction  Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) refers to “any interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative impacts on human social, economic or cultural life, on the conservation of wildlife populations, or on the environment” (WWF, 2005). The conflict can take many forms ranging from loss of life or injury to humans, and animals both wild and domesticated, to competition for scarce resources to loss and degradation of habitat.

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 Wildlife, particularly carnivores, ungulates, primates, rodents, raptors, granivores and piscivorous birds, come into conflict with people when they damage property or threaten human safety or recreation by feeding (killing, browsing, grazing), digging and burrowing.  A further reason for conflict is that wildlife are carriers of diseases that can be harmful to people and their domestic animals.  In response to perceived wildlife damage or threat, people may retaliate in a manner that may be ineffective or biologically unsustainable.  People at the receiving end of wildlife damage tend to oppose conservation agendas, protected areas and conservation practitioners.  Management of wildlife populations involved in conflict raises numerous issues relating to conservation, perceptions of nature, animal welfare, and the politics and economics of natural resources. Background to Human-Wildlife Conflicts HWCs have occurred throughout man’s prehistory and recorded history. Among the early forms of HWC is the predation of the ancestors of prehistoric man by a number of predators of the Miocene such as saber-toothed cats, leopards, spotted hyenas among others. The advent of farming and animal husbandry of the Neolithic Revolution increased the scope of conflict between humans and animals. The crops and the produce formed an abundant and easily obtained food source for wild animals. Wild herbivores competed with domesticated ones for pasture. In addition, they were a source for diseases which affected livestock. The livestock attracted predators which found them an easy source to prey on. The inevitable human reaction was to eliminate such threats to agriculture and domesticated animals. In addition, land was converted to agricultural and other uses and forests cleared, all of which impacted wild animals adversely. A number of animal species were eliminated locally or from parts of their natural range. The deliberate or accidental introduction of animals in isolated island animal communities has caused extinction of a large number of species. Defining the Problem Animal Source: WWF, 2005  “Potentially, all wildlife species will compete with humans for access to habitat, food and water.”  “For example, elephants will feed on maize crops because they are grazers/browsers, and lions will kill and eat livestock because they are predators.”  “However, some individual animals may develop habits which select or target crops and livestock.”  “An elephant bull may repeatedly return to a cultivated field or a lion may regularly visit a boma, despite the protective measures in place.”  “Such individual animals can be classified as “problem animals” since they have become specialised in habitually targeting the property of people.” Who Suffers because of Human-Wildlife Conflict? Source: WWF, 2005 “Both people and wildlife can suffer from human-wildlife conflict. Farmers suffer economically from the loss of crops and livestock. In other more serious cases, people are killed. However, the overall impact of human-wildlife conflict tends to be low when the losses are spread over a whole community. The people who suffer most tend to be those living on the edges of settlements and

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those living close to community or state-managed wildlife areas. On the other hand, for animals, some wildlife populations may decline or become locally extinct as a result of extensive human- wildlife conflict.” Who suffers indirectly from human-wildlife conflict? “Members of local communities that live with high levels of human-wildlife conflict often suffer from a sense of insecurity. This might be due to the anxiety of potential losses that they can suffer or from the worry of physical threat to their lives and property.” Costs – Direct and Indirect Source: WWF, 2005 Direct Costs of Human-Wildlife Conflict “Direct costs to humans are the financial, social and cultural losses suffered as a result of human- wildlife conflict. Examples include:”  “Raiding and destruction of food crops;”  “Loss of income from sales of produce from cash crops;”  “Damage to water sources and installations;”  “Damage to stored produce;”  “Human injury or death; and”  “Damage to property (buildings, etc.).” “The costs to wildlife include the loss of habitat, persecution and possible population decline.” Indirect Costs of Human-Wildlife Conflict “The indirect costs of human-wildlife conflict are generally associated with the physical threat of living with large mammals. This has the effect of restricting people’s freedom of movement, for fear of running into such animals, or restrict their access to resources such as water, firewood and grass for thatching. There are also indirect costs of guarding property against wildlife. Preventing damage to crops results in the reduction of sleep and often a higher exposure to malaria. This can cause a loss in productivity and opportunities to pursue other economic activities.” “The indirect costs to wildlife itself generally occur because people do not adopt a systematic approach to the conflict. They possess negative attitudes towards wildlife which can lead to the indiscriminate killing of animals or to increased and unsustainable hunting. Growth of communities means a loss of habitat for wildlife, restriction of their movements and blocking of access to traditional watering points.” Wildlife Species Responsible for Human-Wildlife Conflict Source: WWF, 2005 “Surprisingly, small animals, that pose no obvious threat to humans, can be responsible for devastating damage to crops. These animals include insects, such as locusts and caterpillars, birds, such as seed-eaters and fruit-eaters, and rodents, rats, springhares and porcupine, for example. Small animals, like primates (baboons, vervet monkeys), some antelope species, bushpigs and even the smaller carnivores (genets, servals, mongooses), can also cause major losses to crops and livestock.” “However, it is the larger herbivores (elephant, buffalo and hippopotamus), large carnivores (lion, leopard, cheetah, spotted hyaena, wild dog), and the crocodile that are traditionally defined as problem animals and are responsible for most of the human-wildlife conflict. This is because farmers

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often feel that the large animals are the property of the government, as was the case under previous colonial legislation, and, therefore, that they are not allowed to deal with the problem themselves. For insects and small animals, however, farmers use local solutions where possible.” Addressing Human-Wildlife Conflict in CBNRM Programs Source: WWF, 2005 “CBNRM assumes that local communities will be willing to conserve, manage and live with wildlife only when the benefits they derive from the wildlife outweigh the costs. It is important to remember that individuals generally have to bear the direct costs of human-wildlife conflict, whilst the community, as a whole, receives the benefits. The needs and expectations of the entire community, including the individuals that bear the brunt of the costs, must be taken into account when developing solutions to human-wildlife conflict. This is vital to the success and sustainability of CBNRM programmes.” “It is important to remember that there will always be some degree of human-wildlife conflict. Insects, birds and small mammals are found in even the most densely settled areas in Southern Africa. Where the challenge lies is in balancing the costs and the benefits when it comes to dealing with large mammals so that people will live, manage and directly benefit from this form of land use.” INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS IN HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT Source: WWF, 2005 “Human-wildlife conflict is highly variable and there is no single management option or solution that can successfully deal with the problem. In all cases a combination of options is needed. To be sustainable, such options should match the financial and technical capabilities of local communities and the individuals responsible for its implementation.” “The options available will partly be determined by the institutional arrangements or policies found at national, regional and local level.” Importance of Having a Policy on Human-Wildlife Conflict Source: WWF, 2005 “Wildlife can be a valuable natural resource for rural communities. To yield the maximum benefits it needs to be managed, part of which includes reducing human-wildlife conflict. Clear policies on dealing with human-wildlife conflict help set the options that can be implemented by farmers and communities.” In order to be effective, policies need to include:  “A clear definition of the roles of the community and the authorities responsible for wildlife;”  “Guidelines on human-wildlife conflict and the means to measure the extent and nature of such conflict; and”  “A distinct definition of a “problem animal.” “Transparent and workable policies on managing human-wildlife conflict lead the way to sound legislation and contribute to the success of CBNRM programmes.” Determination of Policy at National and Local Levels “Historically, the government department responsible for wildlife and the environment, developed and implemented policies. With the CBNRM approach, local communities became involved in developing and implementing policies on human-wildlife conflict and managing “problem animals” with the help of the appropriate government departments.”

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“Defining “problem animals” and the appropriate “problem animal management actions” should be determined at local community level, by the community-based organization in partnership with the relevant government representatives. Discussions should also include any private sector hunting or tourism operators within the area. Questions relating to the costs of any actions agreed upon should be raised. It is important that the affected farmers have a sense of ownership and that they have some power to address the problems.” Guidelines to be Followed in the Event of Human-Wildlife Conflict Source: WWF, 2005 “In the event of an incident with a wild animal, there must be a policy that people can refer to for direction on the most appropriate action to take. If there are no guidelines then communities are in danger of taking action independently, which could result in greater losses in the long term. Any system for the reporting of incidences and the development of appropriate action, should, ideally, have been agreed upon by all stakeholders.” The diagram below is an example of a framework that can be used as a guideline to develop a decision-making process for managing human-wildlife conflict. FIGURE 15.1: FRAMEWORK FOR DECISION MAKING PROCESS TO MANAGE HUMAN- WILDLIFE CONFLICT

Source: WWF, 2005. Relationship Between Central Wildlife Authorities in the Region and Local Communities The table below shows the roles and responsibilities of the different stakeholders in the field of HWC, in the region.

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TABLE 15.1: ROLES AND RESONSIBILITIES OF STAKEHOLDERS INVOLVED IN HUMAN- WILDLIFE CONFLICT

Wildlife Authority Private Sector NGOs Communities (of any country) Have the legal mandate Safari operators Can influence policy Feed information on for overall management may interact with through provision of “problem animals” to local of wildlife. Develop communities on an information and authorities (Rural District policies, policy changes advisory level or as research for use in Councils in Zimbabwe, and legislation. Final reaction agents to policy development. Communal Conservancies in decisions on human- reduce HWC. May interact with Namibia have authority to wildlife conflict communities on an take action on conflict reduction issues rest advisory level and skills reduction). May make use of with the wildlife development bylaws to deal with smaller authorities. “problem animals.” Source: Adapted from WWF, 2005. “Reliable information on human-wildlife conflict and “problem animals” is vital for the development of sound policies and relies on accurate reporting of temporal and spatial data by all parties concerned” (WWF, 2005). Potential Areas of Disagreement Between Stakeholders Source: WWF, 2005 “Government wildlife departments or authorities and community representatives might find it difficult to agree on policies and actions to deal with human-wildlife conflict. Setting up an effective system for problem animal management needs understanding from all sides. Differences may arise because of a lack of:” 1. Information: “Wildlife authorities are used to managing wildlife in protected areas, they do not always appreciate the problems that farmers face in communal lands. This is why it is so important that farmers and communities collect information that shows the scale of the problem.” 2. Capacity: “Communities are relatively new wildlife managers. Frequently wildlife authorities do not believe that communities of farmers have the skills to assist with problem animal management. Communities and the organisations that assist them can overcome this by designing appropriate and relevant training courses. It is important that these courses build on the skills of the farmers and are not seen to be irrelevant.” 3. Investment in problem animal management: “Communities are often very eager to get the financial benefits from wildlife, but are reluctant to invest their own money in the activities and infrastructure that will reduce the problem. Communities can build goodwill with the authorities and reduce their own problems by investing in activities that will help reduce human- wildlife conflict. e.g. Communities in Guruve, Gokwe in Zimbabwe have invested in PAM by employing community Problem Animal Reporters and Game Guards.” INFORMATION ON THE PROBLEM OF HUMANWILDLIFE CONFLICT Source: WWF, 2005 “The availability of working policies and the development of good relationships between the key stakeholders in any human-wildlife conflict situations are very important. Both the design and implementation of such policies are dependent on the availability of current and accurate information on the problem. Furthermore, good quality information will greatly assist in making correct decisions on the best action to take in reducing human-wildlife conflict.”

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Why Information is Important Source: WWF, 2005 “In the absence of good information, the scale and nature of human-wildlife conflict becomes a matter of personal opinion. Conflict between people and wildlife is an emotional issue and, as a result, reports and opinions can be biased, creating a false impression of the size of the problem. The systematic and objective gathering of information allows stakeholders to put the problems and threats caused by human-wildlife conflict into context and perspective with other problems faced by local communities. It also ensures that resources are correctly directed, that is, at solving the real issues rather than the perceived problems. In order to make informed and cost-effective management decisions, information on problem animals needs to be:” 1. Current – “Good policies can only be developed when the information is up-to-date. There is little point in basing policy on information that is several seasons or years old. However, it is also important to collect information from a number of years in order to take into account changes that may have occurred.” 2. Accurate – “When information is collected it must be correct. Where information is collected over several years then the method for gathering information should remain the same so that an accurate assessment of the trends over time can be made.” 3. Long-term – “Even when a policy has been developed and measures implemented to reduce the conflict, it is important that the information continues to be collected. This will show the stakeholders how effective their intervention has been. Too often people stop collecting data on human-wildlife conflict before the effectiveness of the measures introduced can be assessed.” Sources of Information on the Human-Wildlife Conflict Problem Source: WWF, 2005 All the stakeholders in a HWC situation need to provide information. Each has an important role to play: Farmers: “Also known as the “complainant”, farmers provide information on any human-wildlife conflict incidences, the nature and frequency of occurrence and the estimated cost of any damage. This information may be channelled through trained enumerators or problem animal reporters.” Community-Based Organisations (CBOs): “CBOs collect, analyse and store information on problem animal incidents. Too often CBOs start collecting the information, but it is seldom analysed and often lost. Data collected by CBOs should be passed on to the relevant local authority or national wildlife authority.” Private Sector: “Depending on the nature of their contract, they may undertake action to reduce human-wildlife conflict.” Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): “They collect and analyse information as well as conduct research and report findings on human-wildlife conflict. Any information collected should be passed on to the relevant local authority or the national wildlife department.” Wildlife Departments: “Are responsible for the development of national wildlife policies and legislation. Based on the information supplied to them by stakeholders, wildlife authorities should be in a position to compile national statistics on human-wildlife conflict, which show trends of human- wildlife conflict, the important areas of conflict, the major species involved and the success of different measures that have been used to try to reduce the conflict.”

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Information Needs Source: WWF, 2005 “It is always tempting to collect too much information. Information systems for human-wildlife conflict must try and gather the key information that will be useful for resolving the problem. It is important that the data is collected consistently and can be analysed over a period of time. The following basic facts need to be gathered about incidents of human-wildlife conflict:” 1. Who suffered the damage; 2. What was damaged; 3. Where the incident occurred; 4. When the incident occurred; 5. The wildlife species and, where possible, the age, sex and group size of the animals responsible; 6. What was the extent of the damage. “Points 1 to 5 are factual and can, therefore, be collected with relative ease. Point 6, however, relies on value judgement and can be subject to bias. Accurate and consistent information on human- wildlife conflict can really only be collected by using trained reporters or enumerators. This will ensure that the information is collected using the same approach for each incident. The disadvantages of using reporters are the costs and possible delays that can be involved.” Setting up a System to Gather Information on Human-Wildlife Conflict Source: WWF, 2005 “There are some important decisions to make when setting up a system to collect, analyse and report on human-wildlife conflict. The most important areas to consider are:” Purpose: “It is crucial that the purpose of the system is very clear as this will affect its design. Most systems should be planned to allow CBOs and local farmers to reduce human-wildlife conflict. Other systems may, however, be developed to investigate the conflict with a long-term objective of designing appropriate technology and policy interventions in the future.” Ownership: “It is vital to establish who controls the system. If the system is to be locally owned, then it cannot be imposed. The facilitators of the system, those responsible for initiating the information gathering and getting information into the system, must work with the affected farmers and community-based organisations to ensure that their interests are fully represented.” Analysis of Information: “Collection of information alone will achieve very little. It is essential that any system allows for the storage and analysis of information as well as the reporting back of any findings. The methodology of analysis must take into account the skills and technology available at a local level. It is very important that any analysis shows the trends in human-wildlife conflict within a defined area.” Enumerators: “The long-term, systematic collection of information on human-wildlife conflict needs a team of trained enumerators (also known as “problem animal reporters”). A system that is based on voluntary reporting by farmers will not come up with the necessary information. Using enumerators means that the following questions need to be considered:” Training: “In the short-term the enumerators need to be trained in the information collection methodology, such as animal damage assessments, map reading, navigation… This immediately raises the question of who to select. Experience has shown that facilitators should work with the CBO concerned to establish the skills that are needed and then jointly select the enumerators. Ideally, the training should be supported by close monitoring and follow-up. While this may seem expensive it is the only way of ensuring that the enumerators have the right skills and understand what is required

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of them. The facilitators of the system must be aware that there will be a high turnover of enumerators and that they must put in place a strategy for ongoing enumerator training, with the community.” Employment: “The long-term success of an information system will depend on who employs the enumerators. Ideally, the enumerators should be employees of the CBO. However, the recording of human-wildlife conflict incidences is generally seasonal. The CBO must then decide how long to employ the enumerators for. Alternatively, the enumerators may be employed in other roles when the level of conflict is lower.” Coverage and Transport: “The area to be covered singly and collectively by enumerators must be realistic. This will depend on the mobility of the enumerators, the intensity of the conflict and the settlement patterns. Facilitators should aim to set up a decentralised recording system. This has the advantage that it will be equally accessible to all farmers. (E.g. have a resident enumerator for each ward/village).” Other Important Decisions Regarding Information Gathering Systems Source: WWF, 2005 Discussions should be held with the local community in order to agree answers on the following important issues:  Who will pay the enumerators;  Who will pay for transport and equipment;  Agree on the definition of a “problem animal” and have consensus on the present policy on managing human-wildlife conflict;  Which areas will be covered by the enumerators (part or all); and • Trainers and enumerators;  Whether enumerators should be employed throughout the year or only seasonally. Major Steps in Setting Up an Information Gathering System Source: WWF, 2005 It is necessary to implement mechanisms that will “filter” incoming data and ensure that the information is: 1. Accurate; 2. Complete; and 3. Reasonably free of bias. The following steps can be taken: Source: WWF, 2005 1. All parties agree on information collecting methodology; 2. Appoint supervisor to administer the reporting scheme; 3. Recruit enumerators - agree conditions of employment, assign to different areas to achieve as full as possible coverage of the “conflict zone”; 4. Train enumerators; 5. Supervisor to monitor and evaluate work of the enumerators;

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6. Supervisor to submit regular summaries of “problem animal” information to CBO and /or wildlife authority; 7. Wildlife authority to analyse data and make informed decisions on managing human-wildlife conflict; and 8. Wildlife authority to give feedback to affected community/communities.

Issues to consider in PA definition and local level policy on HWC for enumerators  What is a serious PA incident?  Which animals will be considered as serious and modifiable incidents?  Which crops or livestock should be given priority when requesting reaction?  Which channel/ reporting command will be used?

LESSONS ON REDUCING HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT Source: WWF, 2005 “Over the last twenty years many important lessons have been learned about managing human- wildlife conflict. Importantly, there is no single solution and a variety of options need to be developed and tested at a local level. There are most common methods used to reduce human- wildlife conflict with advantages and disadvantages of each.” Methods for reducing human-wildlife conflict Source: WWF, 2005 Land use planning and land use change: 1. “Land use planning and land use change: Land use planning and land use change are larger scale methods aimed at creating space for people and wildlife to live together. Land use change refers specifically to the management options that change farmers’ attitudes to wildlife. The most successful way to do this is by giving farmers a high degree of control over the wildlife as well as allowing them to derive the potentially significant benefits that can be earned from wildlife management. Land use planning and changes in land use are key elements of community-based natural resource management programmes.” 2. “How land use planning can be used to help reduce human-wildlife conflict: Land use planning is a long-term method for helping to reduce human-wildlife conflict. It is fundamental for the good management of wildlife, but land use planning and any changes in land use that are agreed can take several years to negotiate and implement. Part of the changes might also require the development of some of the other approaches outlined in this chapter for reducing human- wildlife conflict. Land use planning might achieve some or all of the following:”  “Limiting the encroachment of human settlements in wildlife areas;”  “Relocation of agricultural activities out of wildlife areas;”  “Consolidation of human settlement patterns that are near wildlife areas;”  “Creation of secure key areas of habitat, such as routes or corridors that will permit wildlife to move freely; e.g. Gokwe North, Zimbabwe.”  “Securing separate water points for wildlife. The distribution of wildlife populations can be manipulated by changing the location of water points and providing salt licks at strategic sites;”  “Repositioning the boundaries of protected areas;”

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 “Reduction in the size of crop fields;”  “Changes in location of crop fields, e.g. dwellings and fields in proximity;”  “Changing cropping regimes, e.g. growing crops not palatable to elephants; diversify into other types of crops; using intercropping layouts for crops; changing timing of harvests.” 3. “How land use change can be used to reduce human-wildlife conflict? Changing farmers views of wildlife is a challenging process. The argument is that if farmers derive direct and substantial benefits from wildlife they will be more willing to tolerate the costs of living with wildlife. Farmers’ demands for problem animals to be killed and for compensation was driven by the government control of wildlife. CBNRM programmes seek to return the responsibility and the rewards to communal land farmers, turning wildlife from a liability into an asset. The level of financial benefits provided by CBNRM programmes are crucial in influencing farmers’ decisions. Small amounts of revenue, over which they have little control, are unlikely to change their attitude to wildlife. On the other hand, programmes that help generate large financial incentives for farmers stand a much greater chance of success.” 4. “Lessons learned from land use change: There are a large number of lessons that have been learned from a wide variety of programmes from across Southern Africa. These cannot be fully reviewed in this manual. Some of the key lessons learned have been:”  “Financial: The benefits of living with wildlife must significantly exceed the costs of living with wildlife. The problem is that the costs of living with wildlife are often not evenly distributed in a community of farmers.”  “Community-based organisations: In the communal land context, wildlife and the benefits from it need to be managed at a community level. This requires representative, skilled and well-financed community-based organisations. Historically, people in the communal lands of Southern Africa have had the least educational opportunities. As a result, the skills needed are often not available.”  “Policy and legislation: For nearly a century wildlife management has been the responsibility of government. Experience has shown that governments and government officials are rarely prepared to give communal land farmers high levels of control over wildlife and the benefits that are earned. This makes it very difficult for farmers to view wildlife as an asset.” Other Methods 1. Dealing with animals directly:  “Dispersal (scaring) – Chasing “problem” animals away from the area of conflict through the use of firearms or small explosive devices such as thunder flashes. Most often used against large herbivores.”  “Lethal (destroying) – The killing of individual “problem animals”.”  “Relocation – The trapping and moving of individual animals to new areas.” 2. Barriers:  “Strand wire fences – Made of steel wire and droppers strung between metal poles, occasionally with a lower section of netting to keep out smaller animals.  “Post fences – Solid barriers normally built with locally available timber.”  “Electric fences – Similar in design to strained fences, consisting of two different sets of wires which are electrically charged. When an animal attempts to cross the fence it receives

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a powerful electric shock. The design of the fences must be such as to withstand the challenges posed by large mammals.”  “Other – Other options, such as trenches, rock piles and stonewalls can be used to protect water installations and other resources from large animals.”  “Compensation schemes – Monetary payment for damage to crops, livestock and personal loss from human-wildlife conflict”  “Insurance schemes – Payment of insurance premiums by individuals or a community for insurance against damage to crops, loss of livestock or personal injury or death.” 3. Predator control: “Although, most human-wildlife conflict situations are caused by large herbivores, predators can present a genuine threat to livestock. The cost of loss of livestock can be considerable for the individual farmer. There are a variety of measures that can be taken to protect livestock from wildlife. These include:”  “Herder dogs – Dogs are used to accompany livestock on their daily grazing forays. The dogs must be introduced to the livestock as puppies and must grow up with the livestock”  “Bomas – Use of a protective enclosure for the night as a barrier between livestock and any predators. Dogs may be used to guard the boma. The boma can also be used to keep newly born and young livestock in during the day.”  “Land use change and land use planning” (discussed above) Resources Available to Combat Human-Wildlife Conflict and Constraints Common constraints to HWC programs include: TABLE 15.2: RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO COMBAT HUMAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT AND POTENTIAL CONSTRAINTS

Resource Constraints Policy Unclear; inadequate or non-existent Money Inadequate; unavailable; delayed payment Staff Insufficient number or insufficiently trained Transport Insufficient; unreliable Terrain Size; remoteness; inaccessibility Field equipment Insufficient; poor quality Communications Difficult; slow Attitudes of people Antagonistic; uncooperative Information Insufficient; inaccurate and exaggerated Research facilities Non-existent Source: WWF, 2005.

Strategies to Help Overcome Resource Constraints Source: WWF, 2005 “Constraints need to be recognised and dealt with in an integrated approach, often at a national level. Two strategies are important, these are:” “Adaptive management: Facilitators need to make test interventions with farmers with the approach that they will all learn from the outcome and be ready to implement changes as the situation and the results determine.” “Pilot sites: It may not be possible to address the problems of all farmers in a region or across the entire country. Facilitators must start with small, manageable pilot sites. Success can then be

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replicated and the pilot site used as a model of “best practice”. Equally, failures should be documented and avoided in other areas.”

FIGURE 15.2: THE ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT PROCESS

Determine HWC status (information gathering)

Modify objective if necessary Set objectives (change (policy/option to option/policy as reduce conflict) necessary)

Is there reduction Implement HWC on HWC? management (What is the (policy/options) impact?)

Monitor to see if objective is achieved (information gathering)

Source: Adapted from WWF, 2005. COUNTRY-SPECIFIC AND LOCAL-LEVEL PROBLEM ANIMAL CONTROL OPTIONS Examples of different approaches to human-wildlife conflict in the region Source: WWF, 2005 “Successful human-wildlife conflict management strategies are generally very specific in addressing the particular circumstances and characteristic of the area and the nature of the problem. The main approaches can be grouped as follows:” 1. “Vigilance method: Aimed at alerting farmers to the presence of approaching wildlife. Examples include the use of watchtowers. Constructed at half-kilometre intervals these can be used to spot approaching wildlife and raise the alarm to their presence. There needs to be co- operation between farmers to manage the watchtowers and set up duty rosters, used widely in Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Zambia.” 2. “Preventative methods – Passive: Aimed at impeding the passage of potential problem animals using simple physical barriers and deterrent:”  “Buffer zones: The clearing of a section of woodland along the boundary of a field (about five metres). This allows the farmer to spot approaching animals and it may act as a deterrent to approaching wildlife. Only slashers and axes are required to make the clearing.”  “String fences: These can be constructed along the edge of a buffer zone using local materials of 3-metre long poles placed at 30 metre intervals with bailing twine (or locally

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made sisal rope) strung between them and squares of mutton cloth attached to the twine at 5 metre intervals. This is used in conjunction with grease and hot pepper oil, which, when applied to the twine acts as a waterproofing media and causes irritation to any animal (elephants) making contact with the fence. Cowbells can be tied to the fence to serve as an alarm to alert farmers to the presence of animals. In use in Zimbabwe and Mozambique and being tested in Zambia.”  “Carnivore proof fencing: Fences that would deter or keep out large carnivores and allow livestock to graze freely, can be erected. This is a technique used extensively in Namibia and some parts of Botswana, to assist farmers in controlling predation on their livestock by lions, spotted hyaena, wild dog and cheetah. Some farmers in northern Namibia have erected smaller fenced camps (2-10 hectares) near their settlements, where they keep some animals, like cows with small calves. This has been a very successful option that has reduced predation on calves during the vulnerable stage of their growth.” 3. “Preventative methods – Active: Examples of active preventative methods used successfully in the region include:”  “Herders, dogs and donkeys: The use of dogs and donkeys to accompany livestock has recently been used in both Namibia and Botswana. This has enjoyed a reasonable degree of success in reducing incidences of human-wildlife conflict where cheetah and spotted hyena are concerned. A wide range of dog breeds can be used for this, but under a specific “guard dog” programme in Namibia, Anatolian sheep dogs were used. Dogs are known to actively protect livestock against predators, whereas donkeys act more as a deterrent.”  “Livestock herd management: Farmers can actively manage their livestock herds to protect them against predation by controlling the breeding times. By managing the movement of the bull, the farmer can plan and synchronise when cows give birth. This will aid protecting the cows and their calves against carnivores during the most vulnerable days/months for predation and mean that protection of animals can be seasonally managed.” 4. “Active methods: These are aimed at actively controlling human-wildlife conflict problems by killing, removing or scaring-off problem animals using various forms of disturbance.”  “Killing problem animals: Human-wildlife conflict can occasionally be so severe that the only remaining option is to find and kill the “problem animal”. In some countries, however, it is illegal to kill these animals and wildlife authorities generally take action. These animals are dangerous and many farmers, in Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia and Zambia, for example, who decided to take matters into the their own hands, have been mauled and even killed by lions, leopards and crocodile. In Namibia’s Kunene and Caprivi regions problem animals have recently been offered to trophy hunters. A substantial sum of the trophy fee is then paid to the community. Through the leadership structure (in this case the Conservancy Committee) the funds are then be distributed to those that have suffered the losses. In one area of the Kunene, lions killed approximately 8 cattle, 12 donkey and 16 goats over a three-year period, amounting to an estimated loss of N$10,150. During this period two male lions were shot by trophy hunters and the community earned N$25,000 from the fees paid by the hunter. The same system is used in Zimbabwe and Zambia.”  “Moving or relocating problem animals: In Namibia 16 leopards and 22 lions were relocated, marked with radio collars and then followed, in a study to test the success of relocations. All the leopards, and many of the lions, returned to the area where they were captured. The time it took them to return was directly dependent on how far they were moved. Consequently, relocation is not considered to be an effective strategy that can be used for addressing human-wildlife conflict except in the most unusual circumstances. This option is, nonetheless, relevant when species are endangered and thus worthy of expensive methods to save them. In the Namibian experiment, when large carnivores were not

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habitual livestock killers, they did not continue killing livestock even after they had returned to the area.”  “Fires: These can be kept burning throughout the night in areas where raiding animals are regular visitors. If firewood is difficult to obtain any material which smoulders can be used.”  “Pepper dung: This is made from elephant dung mixed with ground chilli and compacted into brick mould and dried in the sun. These bricks can then be burnt along the edge of the field creating a noxious smoke, which acts as a deterrent to animals specifically elephants. The smoke lasts for up to 3-4 hours.”  “Noisemakers: These are used by farmers to chase elephants away from fields. Such devices include commercially bought firecrackers, locally made bangers or explosives made from gunpowder or fertiliser. Alternatively, a large bang can be created by placing a sealed metal container, filled with water, on a fire.”  “Pepper spray: This method is used in areas where animals become habituated to other simpler methods and, though effective, it is costly. Plans are underway to have the pepper spray locally produced.”  “Positioning of crops and food security: Farmers should be encouraged to grow crops which are not palatable to wildlife or known crop raiding animals, such as chillies, on the edge of the field and palatable food crops, such as the grains (maize, sorghum, etc,) in the middle of the field close to the watchtower or homestead. This deters the passage of the animal and gives the farmer sufficient notice of the approaching animal. The growing of chillies has been tried in Zimbabwe and has provided the farmers with a crop that is not palatable to wild animals, is a viable cash crop and can be used in the defence of their fields. This is a method which can be sustainable, as there are several benefits to the individual farmer, and it does not require much input. Organisations assisting communities with this method need to investigate possible marketing options. In terms of food security, shorter season maize varieties (open pollinated variety) can be developed and grown. These can be harvested earlier than other food crops and be less vulnerable to crop damage which tends to occur late in the growing season.”  “Sustainable utilisation of “problem” species: Recent developments in CBNRM have seen the introduction of systems where local communities benefit from wildlife, and, in particular, from species responsible for human-wildlifeconflict, through various forms of sustainable utilisation. In the Nyae Nyae Conservancy in Namibia, the sustainable use of leopards, through eco-tourism, was evaluated as an option to balance the cost of living with them. It was calculated that the San community’s losses due to leopards, are, on average, N$1.93 per adult per year. This is not an insignificant amount for a low cash-flow society. However, a programme was developed whereby the San community linked up with eco- tourism ventures to offer specialised “leopard tours”. Using their traditional skill of tracking, they led tourist on a four-day expedition following the tracks of leopards, reconstructing the movements and behaviour of these secretive animals and setting up hides at the sites of fresh leopard kills. This gave tourists the opportunity to view leopard at close quarters. These expeditions were tremendously successful, generating as much as N$653.97 per adult, per year an amount which far exceeded the losses incurred from leopard predation on livestock. In Zimbabwe crocodile eggs were collected from the wild by communities, through the RDCs and sold to private crocodile farms. By providing a financial incentive to communities, this increases tolerance of crocodiles in the wild.”  “Other methods: Experiments have been carried out in Kenya on the use of bees in problem animal control. Beehives are placed on the edge of the fields and the bees are conditioned to react to approaching animals. This can be used not only for the big herbivores but even for smaller problem animals.”

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 “Traditional methods: Some experimentation was done in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe to deal with baboons, using a method developed by a traditional healer. This involved taking soil where baboons had urinated and then making up a solution (water mix) and spraying it along the edge of the field. On sniffing the ground the baboons retreated. This method has not yet been scientifically proven.” Ugandan Examples – Class Discussion TAKING ACTION AND EVALUATING ITS EFFECTIVENESS How to Measure the effectiveness of managing human-wildlife conflict Source: WWF, 2005 “The success of any management action needs to be monitored and evaluated. There has to be a way of measuring progress towards the objectives, even if circumstances and the participants in the plan change over time. With a problem like human-wildlife conflict, once we have an idea of what the problem actually is we look for ways to intervene and manage the situation. The success of management actions to reduce human-wildlife conflict can be measured by simply comparing a “before and after” scenario. The following is a suggestion of a way to measure “before and after” progress in mitigating human-wildlife conflict:” “In some areas there may not be available data on the “before” situation. The sooner detailed information, such as that indicated in the table below, is collected, the better. Regular monitoring will produce results where the success of managing human-wildlife conflict can be measured. An excellent example of such a monitoring system is the “Event Book” approach. This is presently being introduced in Botswana and Zambia, but has already been successfully used and gained wide acceptance in Namibia and Mozambique. The system was developed by WWF, Namibia Nature Foundation, and the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Essentially, the community decides what they want to monitor. The technicians from the above mentioned organisation develop the monitoring structure accordingly and the entire process, including analysis, happens locally. The approach concentrates on measuring effort and is based on the use of icons and visual displays, that allow illiterate people to participate.” “The examples of recording human-wildlife conflict using the “Event Book” can involve incident recording e.g. of a predator killing a domestic animal or crop raiding by elephants. For each incident of human-wildlife conflict that occurs, a graph o total number of incidences is plotted perm month for a year. This simple approach soon displays valuable information, such as the seasonal pattern of lion and leopard problems and crop raiding seasons by elephants.” CASE STUDY: HUMAN WILDLIFE/BIODIVERSITY CONFLICTS: THE CASE OF MURCHISON FALLS NATIONAL PARK Issues and Rationale Source: Uganda Wildlife Authority: General management Plan for Murchison Falls Protected Area for 2013–2023.  HWCs arise because wildlife needs overlap with those of human communities, thereby creating problems both for people and wildlife.  As northern Uganda was in a state of war for almost 20 years and human beings were relocated to internally displaced peoples’ camps, wildlife expanded their home ranges as the former human settlements returned to more suitable habitat for wildlife.  After the war ended and people returned and tried to reclaim their lands, wildlife continued roaming through their expanded “home range and dispersal areas.”  Wildlife, especially elephants and buffaloes, continued to raid croplands, the problem intensifying mainly at night and during the rainy seasons, when travel to control them is greatly curtailed.

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 Attempts to address these problems after they are reported are often delayed by poor transportation networks in communities around the park.  Major threats include crop damage, human injuries, and even human death when humans are confronted by wild animals.  Key problem animals in Murchison Falls National Park are elephants, buffaloes, hippos, and crocodiles.  The main crops affected include cassava, rice, potatoes, jackfruits, bananas, and sugar cane.  The scale of human injuries is on the increase, the main victims being farmers attacked in their gardens, women being attacked in the bush as they collect firewood, and fishermen being attacked by hippos or crocodiles as they fish along River Nile or Lake Albert.  Sometimes even livestock are attacked and killed by crocodiles along these water bodies.  The current Wildlife Act does not provide for compensation of victims of wildlife attacks, but people expect compensation for lives lost, human or livestock injuries, and other property lost to wildlife, especially when the wildlife finds them in their homes or farms.  The issue of compensation of wildlife victims is being addressed through the on-going revision of the Wildlife Act to include provisions for compensation. Control methods:  People have devised traditional methods of scaring away wildlife such as making noise, beating drums, and beating pots, but these methods are rapidly becoming ineffective, as the wild animals become used to them since they inflict no harm to the animals.  Park rangers, when called, also use the method of scare shooting but some animals — particularly elephants are also becoming accustomed to this method.  Trenches are being constructed along the park boundary in key problem areas to stop elephants from crossing into private land.  Use of Capsicum frutescens (chili) to protect gardens either by mixing crushed chilis with grease or used oil and smeared the mixture on ropes that are tied around the garden, or by mixing the crushed chili with cow dung and molding the mixture into “bricks” that are burned around the garden, producing irritating smoke that repels mammals, including elephants.  Using bees to scare away elephants: the sting of a bee is irritating to the elephant, so communities around the park have lined up bee hives along the park boundary as a means of driving away elephants, while at the same time providing alternative sources of income to the communities through the sale of honey.  For crocodiles, water bodies used by humans and domestic animals are fenced off to enable safe access by humans and their livestock.  District local governments in affected areas have recruited and trained vermin guards to help in vermin control.  Plans are under way to allow licensed game hunters to kill some of the problem animals such as buffaloes and hippos, thereby reducing HWC while at the same time generating revenue for the park.  Communities are being encouraged to create a buffer of un-palatable crops around the park to discourage crop raiding by animals.

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REFERENCES Uganda Wildlife Authority. 2013. General management Plan for Murchison Falls Protected Area for 2013–2023. Republic of Uganda. WWF. (2005). Human wildlife conflict manual. Harare, Zimbabwe, WWF Southern African Regional Programme Office (SARPO).

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