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Geomorphology for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com

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1. Interior of The Earth ...... 3 Auroras...... 17 Geomagnetic storms ...... 18 1.1 The study of the earth’s interior is essential ... 3 1.2 Direct Sources of information about the 2.7 Van Allen radiation belt ...... 18 interior ...... 4 2.8 Magnetic field of other solar system objects 18 1.3 Indirect Sources of information about the interior ...... 4 3. Geomorphic Movements ...... 19 1.4 Seismic waves ...... 5 3.1 Endogenic Geomorphic Movements ...... 19 How are earthquake waves produced? ...... 6 The force behind Endogenic Movements . 19 1.5 Types of Seismic waves or earthquake waves 6 Classification of Endogenic movements ... 20 Body waves ...... 6 Diastrophism ...... 20 Surface waves (L-Waves) ...... 7 Sudden Movements ...... 21 How do seismic waves help in 3.2 Exogenic Geomorphic Movements...... 22 understanding the earth’s interior? ...... 8 The force behind Exogenic Movements ... 22 1.6 The internal structure of the Earth ...... 9 Denudation ...... 22 The Crust ...... 10 Weathering...... 23 Lithosphere ...... 11 The Mantle ...... 11 4. Tectonics ...... 26 Asthenosphere ...... 11 4.1 Important concepts that tried to explain the The Outer Core...... 11 tectonic processes ...... 26 The Inner Core ...... 12 4.2 Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, Seismic Discontinuities ...... 12 1922) ...... 28 Forces behind the drifting of continents, 2. Earth’s Magnetic Field...... 12 according to Wegener ...... 28 2.1 Dynamo theory: Generation of Earth’s Evidence in support of Continental Drift .. 28 Magnetic Field and Sustaining it ...... 12 Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory .... 30 2.2 Magnetic poles ...... 13 4.3 Seafloor Spreading ...... 30 2.3 Geomagnetic reversal ...... 13 Convection Current Theory...... 30 Normal and Reversed field ...... 13 Paleomagnetism ...... 31 The current location of the Magnetic Poles The concept of Sea Floor Spreading ...... 32 ...... 14 Evidence for Seafloor Spreading ...... 32 2.4 Compass ...... 14 4.4 Plate Tectonics ...... 32 Magnetic declination ...... 14 Major tectonic plates ...... 33 Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip ...... 15 Minor tectonic plates...... 35 2.5 Geomagnetic poles ...... 16 Interaction of Plates ...... 35 2.6 Magnetosphere ...... 17 Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics ..... 36

The significance of Plate Tectonics ...... 37 7. Classification of Mountains ...... 55 Movement of The Indian Plate ...... 37 7.2 Fold Mountains ...... 56 Movement ...... 38 ‘Fold’ in geology ...... 57 4.5 Comparison: Continental Drift – See Floor Classification of fold mountains ...... 57 Spreading – Plate Tectonics ...... 38 Characteristics of Fold Mountains ...... 58

5. Convergent Boundary ...... 39 7.3 Block Mountains ...... 59 ‘Fault’ in Geology ...... 59 5.1 Ocean-Ocean Convergence or The Island-Arc 7.4 Volcanic mountains ...... 61 Convergence ...... 39 7.5 Significant mountains and mountain ranges 61 Formation of the Philippine Island Arc Longest Mountain Ranges...... 61 System ...... 40 The Andes ...... 62 Formation of the Indonesian Archipelago 41 The Rockies...... 62 Formation of the Caribbean Islands...... 42 The Great Dividing Range ...... 64 Formation of Isthmus of Panama ...... 43 Transantarctic Mountains ...... 64 Formation of the Japanese Island Arc ...... 43 The Ural Mountains ...... 64 Explain the formation of thousands of Atlas Mountains...... 64 islands in Indonesian and Philippines The Himalayas ...... 65 archipelagos (20 marks – Mains 2014) ...... 44 The Alps ...... 65 In spite of extensive volcanism, there is no Highest mountain peaks ...... 65 island formation along the divergent boundary (mid-ocean ridge) ...... 45 Geography is the study of 5.2 Continent-Ocean Convergence or The Cordilleran Convergence ...... 45 1. the physical features of the earth and its at- Formation of Continental Arcs ...... 45 mosphere, Formation of Fold Mountains (Orogeny) .. 46 2. human activity which affects and is affected Formation of the Andes ...... 46 by the physical features of the earth and its 5.3 Formation of the Rockies ...... 47 atmosphere. (Definition from Oxford Dictionary) 5.4 Continent-Continent Convergence or The • Human activity which affects and is affected by Himalayan Convergence ...... 47 the physical features include the distribution of Formation of the Himalayans and the populations, distribution of resources and eco- Tibetan Plateau ...... 47 nomic activities, and changes in the environ- Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas Mountains ...... 49 ment. Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent- Geography, the natural science, is divided into two Continent Convergence ...... 49 main branches: Why are the world’s fold mountain systems located along the margins of continents? 1. Physical geography: deals with the study Bring out the association between the of processes and patterns in the natural en- global distribution of Fold Mountains and vironment like the atmosphere, hydro- the earthquakes and volcanoes...... 49 sphere, biosphere, and geosphere. 5.5 Continent-Arc Convergence or New Guinea 2. Human geography: deals with the envi- Convergence ...... 50 ronment shaped by human activity.

6. Divergent boundary ...... 50 Physical Geography can be divided into several 6.1 Evolution – Formation of Rift Valleys, Rift sub-fields, as follows: Lakes, Seas and Oceans ...... 50 6.2 Rift valley lakes ...... 52 • Geomorphology (‘geo’ meaning earth, ‘mor- 6.3 Great Rift Valley ...... 53 phe’ meaning form and ‘logos’ meaning dis- East African Rift Valley ...... 53 course) is the field concerned with understand-

ing the surface of the Earth and the processes • for mineral exploration by which it is shaped. • Climatology is the study of the climate (weath- Earth’s surface er conditions averaged over a long period). • Meteorology focuses on weather processes • Many different geological processes shape the and short-term forecasting (in contrast with Earth's surface. climatology). • The forces that cause these processes come • Oceanography is the branch of physical geog- from both above and beneath the Earth's sur- raphy that studies the Earth's oceans and seas. face. • Hydrology is concerned with the amounts and • Processes that are caused by forces from within quality of water moving and accumulating on the Earth are endogenous processes (Endo the land surface and in the soils and rocks near meaning "in"). the surface and is typified by the hydrological • By contrast, exogenous processes (Exo mean- cycle. ing "out") come from forces on or above the • Biogeography deals with geographic patterns Earth's surface. of species distribution and the processes that • The major geological features of the earth’s sur- determine these patterns. face like mountains, plateaus, lakes are mostly a • Environmental geography analyses the spatial result of endogenous processes like folding, aspects of interactions between humans and faulting that are driven by forces from inside the natural environment. The branch bridges the earth. the divide between human and physical geog- Geophysical phenomenon like volcanism, raphy. earthquakes • Geomatics is the field of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering geographic infor- • The forces that cause catastrophic events like mation. earthquakes, volcanic eruptions come from deep below the earth’s surface. There are many other sub-branches in physical ge- • For example, earthquakes occur due to the ography. movement of the tectonic plates and the energy required for this movement is supplied by the 1. Interior of The Earth conventional currents in the mantle. • Similarly, volcanism occurs through the vents • Understanding the structure of the earth’s inte- and fissures created by the tectonic movements. rior (crust, mantle, core) and various forces Earth’s magnetic field (heat, seismic waves) emanating from it is essential to understand the evolution of the • Earth’s magnetic field is a result of convection earth’s surface, its current shape and its future. currents in the outer core of the earth. • Life on earth would not have been possible if 1.1 The study of the earth’s inte- not for the earth’s magnetic field which protects rior is essential the earth’s atmosphere from the harmful solar wind. • to understand the earth’s surface • to understand the geophysical phenomenon The internal structure of various solar system like volcanism, earthquakes, etc. objects • to understand the earth’s magnetic field • to understand the internal structure of various • The entire solar system was formed from a sin- solar system objects gle nebular cloud, and the process of the for- • to understand the evolution and present com- mation of every solar system object is believed position of the atmosphere to be similar to that of the earth.

Evolution and present composition of the at- • Volcanic eruption forms another source of ob- mosphere taining direct information.

• For life to flourish on the surface of the earth, 1.3 Indirect Sources of infor- the atmosphere needs to have essential com- mation about the interior ponents like oxygen for respiration, CO2 and other greenhouse gases to maintain the tem- • Gravitation and the diameter of the earth help perature on the surface, ozone to protect life in estimating pressure deep inside. from ultraviolet radiation and the right atmos- • Volcanic eruptions and existence of hot springs, pheric pressure. geysers etc. point to an interior which is very • All these components of the earth’s atmosphere hot. owe their existence to the volcanic eruptions that unlock them from the earth’s interior.

Mineral exploration

• Understanding volcanic activity and the nature of rocks is essential for mineral exploration. • Most of the minerals like diamonds (form at a depth of 150-800 km in the mantle) that occur on the earth’s surface are formed deep below the earth’s surface. They are brought to the surface by volcanic activity. 1.2 Direct Sources of information about the interior

• Deep earth mining and drilling reveal the nature of rocks deep down the surface. • But as mining and drilling are not practically possible beyond a certain depth, they don’t reveal much information about the earth’s interi- or.

• Mponeng gold mine (deepest mine in the world) and TauTona gold mine (second deep- Seismic waves est mine in the world) in South Africa are deepest mines reaching to a depth of only 3.9 km. • They are the most important source available to • And the deepest drilling is only about 12 km understand the layered structure of the earth. deep hole bored by the Soviet Union in the • The velocity of seismic waves changes as they 1970s over the Kola Peninsula. travel through materials with different elasticity and density. • The more elastic and denser the material is, the higher is the velocity. • They also undergo refection or refraction when they come across materials with different densities. • Earth’s internal structure can be understood by The Kola Peninsula in north-west Russia. (TUBS, from analysing the patterns of reflection, refraction Wikimedia Commons)

and change in velocity of the seismic waves • The new measurements suggest radioactive when they travel through it. decay provides more than half of Earth's total heat. Meteorites Nuclear fusion doesn’t occur inside the earth. For • Meteorites and Earth are born from the same nuclear fusion to occur there must be far more pres- nebular cloud. Thus, they are likely to have a sure and temperature inside the earth. The earth is similar internal structure. not massive enough to cause such conditions. • When meteoroids they fall to earth, their outer layer is burnt during their fall due to extreme Primordial heat friction and the inner core is exposed. • The rest is the heat left over from Earth's for- • The heavy material composition of their cores mation known as the primordial heat. confirms the similar composition of the inner • Primordial heat is the kinetic energy transferred core of the earth. to Earth by external impacts of comets and meteorites and the subsequent effects (friction caused by sinking of heavy elements like Fe, rising light elements like Si) and latent heat of crystallisation released as the core solidified.

Tidal friction Gravitation • The ocean tides are not the only effect of tidal forces (gravitational influence of the moon and • The gravitation force differs according to the the sun on earth; tides are explained in ocean- mass of material. The uneven distribution of ography). The solid body of the Earth also bulg- mass of material within the earth influences this es slightly in this way. value. Such a difference is called gravity anom- • The daily flexing of the Earth (both solid body aly. and the oceans) cause loss of energy of the • Gravity anomalies give us information about the Earth's rotation, due to friction. distribution of mass in the crust of the earth. • This energy goes into heat, leading to miniscule Magnetic field increase in the Earth's internal temperature. • The loss of rotational energy means that the • The geodynamo effect helps scientists under- Earth is slowing down in its rotation rate, stand what's happening inside the Earth's core. currently by about 0.002 seconds per century. Shifts in the magnetic field also provide clues to the inaccessible iron core. 1.4 Seismic waves

Sources of earth’s heat • Seismic: relating to earthquakes or other vibra- tions of the earth and its crust. Radioactive decay • Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers and are a result of • The high temperature below the crust is earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma attributed to the disintegration of the radio- movement, large landslides and large human- active substances. made explosions. • The nuclear decay happens primarily in the • The refraction or reflection of seismic waves is crust and the mantle. used for research into the structure of the • Scientists believe that uranium could become Earth's interior. sufficiently concentrated at the base of Earth’s • The terms seismic waves and earthquake waves mantle to ignite self-sustained nuclear fission, are often used interchangeably. as in a human-made reactor.

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1. Volcanism ...... 2 1.12 Rocks ...... 21 Igneous Rocks or Primary rocks ...... 21 1.1 Causes of Volcanism ...... 2 Sedimentary Rocks or detrital rocks ...... 23 1.2 Lava types ...... 2 Metamorphic Rocks ...... 24 Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or Stratovolcanic lava...... 2 2. Earthquakes ...... 26 Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava ...... 3 2.2 Causes of Earthquakes ...... 26 1.3 Volcanic Landforms ...... 3 2.3 Earthquakes based on the depth of focus Extrusive Volcanic Landforms ...... 3 28 Intrusive Volcanic Landforms ...... 6 Shallow-focus earthquake ...... 28 1.4 Volcanism Types ...... 7 Deep-focus earthquake ...... 28 Exhalative (vapour or fumes) ...... 7 2.4 Distribution of Earthquakes ...... 29 Effusive (Lava outpouring) ...... 8 2.5 Richter magnitude scale ...... 29 Explosive (Violent ejection of solid 2.6 Effects of Earthquakes...... 32 material) ...... 8 Subaqueous Volcanism ...... 8 3. Tsunami ...... 33 1.5 Eruptive Volcanism Types ...... 10 3.1 Mechanism of tsunami waves ...... 33 Hawaiian Eruption ...... 10 Icelandic Eruptions ...... 10 3.2 Properties of Tsunami Waves ...... 34 Strombolian Eruption ...... 10 3.3 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami ...... 35 Vulcanian Eruption ...... 11 Plate tectonics ...... 35 Plinian Eruption ...... 11 Tsunami waves ...... 35 Pelean Eruption ...... 13 Shifts in Geography ...... 35 1.6 Hotspot Volcanism ...... 13 3.4 Warning Systems ...... 36 Mantle Plumes ...... 13 4. Soil erosion and Landforms ...... 36 1.7 Geysers and Hot Springs ...... 18 1.8 Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes . 18 4.1 Water Erosion ...... 36 1.9 Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes Raindrop erosion or splash erosion ...... 37 Sheet erosion ...... 37 across the World ...... 19 Rill and gully erosion ...... 37 Pacific Ring of Fire ...... 19 Streambank erosion ...... 37 Other regions ...... 19 Landslide ...... 38 Mediterranean volcanism ...... 20 Coastal erosion ...... 38 Volcanos in India...... 20 Glacial erosion ...... 38 1.10 Destructive Effects of Volcanoes ...... 20 4.2 Wind Erosion ...... 38 1.11 Positive Effects of Volcanoes ...... 21 4.3 Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion . 38 1

Fluvial Erosional Landforms ...... 38 ments erupt from a magma chamber below the Drainage systems (drainage patterns) ..... 43 surface. Fluvial Depositional Landforms ...... 47 • Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of 4.4 Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion .... 49 molten rock, pyroclastics and volcanic gases to Sinkhole/Swallow Hole ...... 50 the surface through a vent. Polje/Blind Valley...... 50 Cavern ...... 50 1.1 Causes of Volcanism Arch/Natural Bridge ...... 51 Sinking Creeks/Bogas...... 51 • There is a huge temperature difference be- Stalactite and Stalagmite ...... 51 tween the inner layers and the outer layers of Dry Valley/Hanging Valley/Bourne ...... 51 the earth due to the differential amount of ra- The Karst Cycle of Erosion ...... 51 dioactivity. 4.5 Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion 52 • This temperature difference gives rise to con- Marine Erosional Landforms ...... 52 vectional currents in the mantle. Marine Depositional Landforms ...... 53 • The convection currents in the mantle create Coastlines ...... 54 convergent and divergent boundaries (weak 4.6 Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion . 56 zones). Glacial Erosional Landforms ...... 56 • At the divergent boundary, molten, semi- Glacial Depositional Landforms ...... 57 molten and sometimes gaseous material ap- Glacial Cycle of Erosion ...... 57 pears on earth at the first available opportunity. 4.7 Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ..... 58 • The earthquakes here may expose fault zones Erosional Arid Landforms ...... 58 through which magma may escape (fissure Arid Depositional Landforms ...... 60 type volcano). • At the convergent boundary, the subduction of 5. Lakes ...... 61 denser plate creates magma at high pressure 5.1 Classification of Lakes ...... 61 which will escape to the surface in the form of 5.2 Lakes and Man...... 63 violent eruptions. 5.3 Important Lakes on Earth ...... 64 1.2 Lava types 6. Plateau ...... 66 6.1 Economic significance of plateaus ...... 66 • Magma is composed of molten rock and is 6.2 Plateau Formation ...... 67 stored in the Earth's crust. Lava is magma that Thermal expansion ...... 67 reaches the surface through a volcano vent. Crustal shortening ...... 67 Volcanic flood basalts ...... 67 Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or Others ...... 68 Stratovolcanic lava 6.3 Plateau Types ...... 68 Dissected plateau ...... 68 • These lavas are highly viscous with a high Volcanic plateau ...... 68 melting point. Others ...... 68 • They are light-coloured, of low density, and 6.4 Major plateaus of the World ...... 68 have a high percentage of silica. Others ...... 70 • They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying. • The resultant volcanic cone is therefore strati- 1. Volcanism fied (hence the name stratovolcano) and steep-sided. • A volcano is a vent or a fissure in the crust from • The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent ob- which lava (molten rock), ash, gases, rock frag- structs the flow of the out-pouring lava, result-

ing in loud explosions, throwing out many vol- • The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a canic bombs or pyroclasts. wide diameter and forms a flattened shield or dome. • Shield type lava flow is common along the con- structive boundaries (divergent boundary).

Volcano (Medium69.Cette William Crochot, via Wikimedia Commons) 1.3 Volcanic Landforms

• Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that they • Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive form a lava plug at the crater like that of Mt. and intrusive landforms based on whether Pelée in Martinique (an island in the Lesser An- magma cools within the crust or above the tilles, Caribbean Islands). crust. • Andesitic lava flow occurs mostly along the de- • Rocks formed by cooling of magma within the structive boundaries (convergent boundaries). crust are called Plutonic rocks. • Rocks formed by cooling of lava above the surface are called Igneous rocks. • In general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is used to refer all rocks of volcanic origin.

Lava Plug at the crater

Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava

• These are the hottest lavas, about 1,000 °C and are highly fluid. • They are dark coloured basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica. • They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and are not very explosive. Extrusive and Intrusive volcanic landforms • Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily with a speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour. Extrusive Volcanic Landforms • They affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great distances before they solidify.

• Extrusive landforms are formed from material • Along with andesitic lava, large quantities of thrown out to the surface during volcanic activi- pyroclastic material and ashes find their way to ty. the surface. • The materials thrown out include lava flows, py- • Andesitic lava along with pyroclastic material roclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash, dust and accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur leading to the formation of layers, and this compounds and minor amounts of chlorine, makes the mounts appear as a composite vol- hydrogen and argon. cano or a stratovolcano (divided into layers).

Conical Vent and Fissure Vent

Fissure vent

• A fissure vent (volcanic fissure) is a narrow, linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without any explosive activity. • The vent is often a few meters wide and may be many kilometres long. • The highest and most common volcanoes have • Fissure vents are common in basaltic volcan- composite cones. ism (shield type volcanoes). • Mount Stromboli (the Lighthouse of the Mediterranean), Mount Vesuvius, Mount Fuji Conical vent are examples.

• A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent Shield Type Volcanic Landforms through which magma flows out violently. • Conical vents are common in andesitic volcan- • The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most familiar ism (composite or stratovolcano). examples. • These volcanoes are mostly made up of basaltic lava (very fluid). • These volcanoes are not steep. • They become explosive if somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, they are less explosive. • Example: Hawaiian volcanoes Mauna Loa (ac- Mid-Ocean Ridges tive shield volcano) and Mauna Kea (dormant shield volcano). • The system of mid-ocean ridges stretches for more than 70,000 km across all the ocean basins. • The central portion of the mid-ocean ridges experiences frequent eruptions. • The lava is basaltic (less silica and hence less viscous) and causes the spreading of the seafloor.

Composite Type Volcanic Landforms Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms (Lava Plat- eaus) • They are conical or central type volcanic landforms. • Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes through cracks and fissures in the earth's surface and

flows after intervals for a long time, spreading • The volcanic material above the chamber col- over a vast area, finally producing a layered, lapses into the empty magma chamber, and the undulating (wave-like), flat surface. collapsed surface appears like a large cauldron- • Example: Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, Snake like hollow (tub shaped) called the caldera. Basin, Icelandic Shield, Canadian Shield. • When water from rain or melted snow gets ac- cumulated in the caldera, it becomes a caldera lake (in general, the caldera lakes are also called crater lakes). • Due to their unstable environments, some crater lakes exist only intermittently. Caldera lakes, in contrast, can be quite large and long- lasting. • For example, Lake Toba (Indonesia) formed after its supervolcanic eruption around 75,000 years ago. It is the largest crater lake in the world.

Crater

• A crater is an inverted cone-shaped vent through which the magma flows out. When the volcano is not active the crater appears as a bowl-shaped depression. • Mount Mazama (Cascade Volcanic Arc, USA) collapsed into a caldera, which was filled with water to form Crater Lake (the literal name of the lake formed by the collapse of Mount Mazama is ‘Crater Lake’!).

The crater of Mount Fuji, Japan

• When water from rain or melted snow gets ac- cumulated in the crater, it becomes a crater lake.

Caldera Caldera lake of Mount Mazama • In some volcanoes, the magma chamber below A crater lake, in general, could be of volcanic the surface may be emptied after volcanic erup- origin (volcanic crater lake, volcanic caldera tions. lake) or due to a meteorite impact (meteor

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1. Latitudes and Longitudes ...... 2 4.1 Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy ...... 23 Radiation ...... 23 1.1 Latitude or Parallel ...... 3 Conduction ...... 24 Important parallels of latitudes ...... 3 Convection ...... 24 Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth ...... 3 4.2 Factors Affecting Temperature 1.2 Longitude or Meridian...... 3 Distribution ...... 24 Longitude and Time ...... 4 The Angle of Incidence or the Inclination of Standard Time and Time Zones ...... 4 the Sun’s Rays ...... 24 Indian Standard Time ...... 4 Duration of Sunshine...... 24 The International Date Line ...... 4 Transparency of Atmosphere ...... 24 1.3 Comparison: Latitude vs Longitude...... 7 Albedo ...... 25 Land-Sea Differential ...... 25 2. Motions of the earth ...... 7 Prevailing Winds ...... 25 Aspects of Slope ...... 25 2.1 Rotation of Earth ...... 7 Ocean Currents ...... 25 Shape of the earth ...... 8 Altitude ...... 25 2.2 Revolution ...... 9 Earth’s Distance form Sun ...... 26 Solstice ...... 9 4.3 The Mean Annual Temperature Equinox ...... 10 Distribution ...... 26 Perihelion and Aphelion ...... 11 General characteristics of isotherms ...... 26 Eclipse ...... 12 General Temperature Distribution...... 26 Seasonal Temperature Distribution ...... 27 3. Atmosphere ...... 16 4.4 Latitudinal Heat Balance ...... 28 3.1 Evolution of Earth’s atmosphere ...... 16 4.5 Heat Budget ...... 29 3.2 Composition of Atmosphere ...... 17 4.6 Vertical Distribution of Temperature ..... 30 Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere ...... 17 Latent Heat of Condensation ...... 30 Important constituents of the atmosphere Lapse Rate ...... 31 ...... 18 Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR) ...... 31 3.3 Structure of Atmosphere ...... 19 Temperature Inversion ...... 34 Troposphere ...... 19 Stratosphere ...... 20 5. Pressure Systems and Wind Systems ...... 36 Mesosphere ...... 21 5.1 Atmospheric pressure ...... 36 Thermosphere ...... 21 Exosphere ...... 22 5.2 Atmospheric pressure cells ...... 36 5.3 Isobars ...... 37 3.4 Importance of Earth’s Atmosphere ...... 22 Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure centres 37

4. Temperature Distribution on Earth ...... 23 5.4 Vertical Variation of Pressure ...... 37

5.5 Factors affecting Wind Movement ...... 37 Cyclonic Rain ...... 58 Pressure Gradient Force ...... 37 Monsoonal Rainfall ...... 59 Buoyant force ...... 38 World Distribution of Rainfall ...... 59 Frictional Force ...... 38 Coriolis force ...... 38 7. Thunderstorm ...... 60 Centripetal Acceleration ...... 39 Stage 1: Cumulus stage ...... 60 5.6 Horizontal Distribution of Pressure ...... 40 Stage 2: Mature stage ...... 60 Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’ Stage 3: Dissipating stage ...... 61 ...... 40 7.2 Types of Thunderstorms ...... 61 Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Thermal thunderstorm ...... 61 Latitudes ...... 41 Orographic thunderstorm ...... 61 Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt ...... 42 Frontal thunderstorm ...... 61 Polar High-Pressure Belt ...... 42 Single-cell thunderstorm (Isolated Factors Controlling Pressure Systems ...... 42 thunderstorm) ...... 61 Pressure belts in July ...... 43 A multi-cell thunderstorm ...... 61 Pressure belts in January ...... 43 A supercell thunderstorm ...... 61 5.7 Pressure systems and General Circulation 7.3 Tornado ...... 62 43 Formation ...... 62 Hadley Cell ...... 43 Waterspout ...... 62 Ferrel Cell ...... 44 Distribution of tornadoes ...... 62 Polar Cell ...... 44 7.4 Lightning and thunder ...... 63 5.8 Classification of Winds ...... 44 Thunder ...... 63 Primary winds or Prevailing Winds or Lightning from cloud to Earth ...... 63 Planetary Winds ...... 44 Lightning deaths ...... 64 Secondary or Periodic Winds...... 45 Land Breeze and Sea Breeze ...... 45 7.5 Hailstorm ...... 64 Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze ...... 46 Favourable conditions for hail formation . 64 Tertiary or Local Winds ...... 46 Formation of hail ...... 64 7.6 Hazards posed by thunderstorms and 6. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle) ...... 47 associated phenomenon ...... 65 6.1 Water Vapour in Atmosphere ...... 48 Humidity ...... 48 6.2 Evaporation ...... 49 1. Latitudes and Longitudes Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation ...... 49

6.3 Condensation ...... 50 • Latitudes and Longitudes (coordinate system) Processes of Cooling for Producing are imaginary lines used to determine the loca- Condensation ...... 50 tion of a place on earth. 6.4 Forms of Condensation ...... 51 • Example: The location of New Delhi is 28° N Lat- Dew ...... 51 itude, 77° E Longitude. White Frost ...... 51 Fog ...... 51 Mist ...... 52 Smog ...... 52 Clouds ...... 55 6.5 Precipitation ...... 57 6.6 Types of Rainfall ...... 57 Convectional Rainfall ...... 57 Orographic Rainfall ...... 58 Frontal Rainfall ...... 58 2

Latitude (ϕ) and longitude (λ) are defined on a Important parallels of latitudes perspective spherical modal (Wikipedia) • Besides the equator (0°), the north pole (90° 1.1 Latitude or Parallel N) and the south pole (90° S), there are four important parallels of latitudes: • Latitude is the angular distance of a place north 1. The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the or south of the equator measured in degrees northern hemisphere. from the centre of the earth. 2. The Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the • As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, southern hemisphere. the linear distance of a degree of latitude at 3. The Arctic circle (66½° N) in the northern the pole is a little longer than that at the hemisphere. equator. 4. The Antarctic circle is (66½° S) in the • For example, at the equator linear distance of a southern hemisphere. degree of latitude is 110.57 km (68.7 miles), at 45° it is 111.13 km (69 miles), and at the poles, Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth it is 111.7 km (69.4 miles). The average is taken as 111 km (69 miles).

Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth ate temperatures. These are, therefore, called temperate zones. • The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least • Areas lying beyond the Arctic circle and the once a year on all latitudes in between the Antarctic circle are very cold. Here the sun does Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. not rise much above the horizon. Therefore, its This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat rays are always slanting. These are, therefore, and is called the torrid zone. called frigid zones. • The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the 1.2 Longitude or Meridian Tropic of Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles. • Longitude is an angular distance of a place east • As such, the areas bounded by the Tropic of or west of the Prime (First) Meridian meas- Cancer and the Arctic circle, and the Tropic of ured in degrees from the centre of the earth. Capricorn and the Antarctic circle, have moder-

• On the globe, longitude is shown as a series of • In countries that have a very large longitudinal semi-circles that run from pole to pole passing extent (large east-west span), such as Canada, through the equator. Such lines are also called USA, Russia, it would be inconvenient to have a meridians. single time zone. So, such countries have multi- • It was decided in 1884 to choose the meridian ple time zones. which passes through the Royal Astronomical • For example, Russia has nine time zones, and Observatory at Greenwich, near London, as Canada and USA have six time zones each. the zero meridian or prime meridian. • All other meridians radiate eastwards and Indian Standard Time westwards of the prime meridian up to 180°. • Unlike the parallels of latitude, the meridians of • Indian Standard Time (IST) is taken as the time longitude are of equal length. at 82.5° E longitude (passing close to the east • The meridians of longitude have one very im- of Prayagraj or Allahabad). Which means, IST portant function; they determine local time in is 5 hours 30 mins ahead of GMT (IST = relation to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), GMT+5:30). which is sometimes referred to as World Time.

Longitude and Time

• Since the earth makes one complete rotation of 360° in one day or 24 hours, it passes through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes. • The earth rotates from west to east, so every 15° we go eastwards, local time is advanced by 1 hour. • Conversely, if we go westwards by 15°, local time is retarded by 1 hour. Longitudinal extent of India • Thus, the places east of Greenwich gain time, whereas places west of Greenwich lose time. Chaibagaan Time • A traveller going eastwards gains time from Greenwich until he reaches the meridian 180° E • One hundred fifty years ago, British colonialists when he will be 12 hours ahead of GMT introduced “Chaibagaan time” or “Bagaan time”, (GMT+12). a schedule observed by tea planters, which was • Similarly, in going westwards, he loses 12 hours one hour ahead of IST. when he reaches 180° W. There is thus a total • This was done to improve productivity by difference of 24 hours or a whole day between optimising the usage of daytime. the two sides of the 180° meridian. • After Independence, Assam, along with the rest of India, has been following IST. 180° E and 180° W correspond to the same longi- • The administration of the Indian state of Assam tude. The difference is the direction of travel. put forward a proposal to change its time zone back to Chaibagaan time to conserve energy Standard Time and Time Zones and improve productivity. • Indian government refused to accept such a • Standard Time is the time corresponding to a proposal. certain longitude or longitudes as chosen by a country. The International Date Line • Most countries adopt their standard time from the central meridian of their countries. E.g. IST • The International Date Line (IDL) an imaginary corresponds to the time at 82.5° E longitude. line that passes through the Pacific Ocean.

Time Zones and International Date Line

The Island Groups of Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia

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1. Tropical Cyclones ...... 3 1.1 Conditions necessary for the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone ...... 3 Good Source of Latent Heat ...... 4 Coriolis Force ...... 4 Low-level Disturbances ...... 5 Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses ...... 5 Wind Shear ...... 5 Upper Air Disturbance ...... 6 1.2 Convective Cyclogenesis (Development of Tropical Cyclones) ...... 6 Mechanism – Early stage ...... 7 Mechanism – Mature stage ...... 8 1.3 Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones ...... 9 Regional names for Tropical Cyclones ...... 9 1.4 Path of Tropical Cyclones ...... 10 Which sector of the cyclone experiences strongest winds? ...... 10 1.5 Why only a fewer cyclones form over the Arabian Sea as compared to the Bay of Bengal? ...... 10 1.6 Tropical Cyclone Scale ...... 11 Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department ...... 12 1.7 Damage associated with Tropical Cyclones ...... 12 Floods ...... 13 Wind ...... 13 Storm surge ...... 13 States Vulnerable to Cyclones ...... 14 1.8 Positive effects of Tropical Cyclones ...... 14 1.9 Naming of Cyclones ...... 14 Northern Indian Ocean Region ...... 15 1.10 Warning of Tropical Cyclones ...... 15 4-stage IMD warning system for tropical cyclones ...... 15

2. Jet streams ...... 16 2.1 Explanation of Jet Streams ...... 16 Geostrophic Wind ...... 16 Upper tropospheric westerlies ...... 17

High velocity ...... 17 Meandering ...... 18 2.2 Permanent jet streams ...... 18 Subtropical jet stream (STJ) ...... 18 Polar front jet (PFJ) ...... 18 2.3 Temporary jet streams ...... 19 The Somali Jet ...... 19 The Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet ...... 19 2.4 Influence of Jet Streams on Weather...... 19 Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate Regions ...... 19 2.5 Jet Streams and Aviation ...... 20

3. Temperate Cyclones ...... 21 3.1 Air Masses ...... 21 Source regions ...... 21 Conditions for the formation of Air Masses ...... 21 Air masses based on Source Regions ...... 21 Influence of Air Masses on World Weather ...... 22 3.2 Fronts ...... 23 Front Formation...... 23 Classification of Fronts ...... 23 3.3 Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones ...... 26 Polar Front Theory ...... 26 Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cyclones ...... 27 Distribution of Temperate Cyclones ...... 27 Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones ...... 27

4. Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones ― Comparison ...... 28 5. Polar Vortex ...... 30 5.1 Polar Vortex Cold Wave ...... 30 How it slips...... 30 5.2 Polar Vortex and Ozone Depletion at South Pole ...... 31 Ozone depletion ...... 31

6. El Nino ...... 33 6.1 Normal Conditions ...... 33 Walker circulation (Normal Years) ...... 33 6.2 During El Nino year ...... 33 El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) ...... 34 Effects of El Nino...... 34 El Nino impact on Indian Monsoons ...... 35 Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El Nino year is same in India) ...... 35 6.3 El Niño Modoki ...... 36 6.4 La Nina ...... 36 Effects of La Nina ...... 36

7. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate ...... 37 2

7.2 A – Tropical Humid Climates ...... 38 Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f – no dry season) ...... 39 Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A – Tropical, m – monsoon)...... 42 Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter) ...... 46 7.3 B – Dry Climate ...... 48 Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude)...... 48 Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude) ...... 49 Steppe or Temperate Grassland Climate (BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – high latitude) ...... 51 7.4 C – Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates ...... 55 Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm Temperate, s – Dry summer) ...... 55 Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate (Cfa) ...... 57 British Type Climate or Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate (Cf) ...... 60 7.5 D – Cold Snow-forest Climates ...... 64 Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: f – no dry season, c – cold summer) ...... 64 Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate (Dfc) ...... 67 7.6 E – Cold Climates ...... 70 Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate ...... 70 7.7 Questions ...... 71 Previous prelims questions ...... 71 Descriptive questions ...... 73

✓ a closed low-level atmospheric circula- 1. Tropical Cyclones tion (winds converging from all directions ― cyclonic circulation), • Tropical cyclones originate over oceans in trop- ✓ strong winds (squalls ― a sudden violent ical areas in late summers. gust of wind), and • They are rapidly rotating violent storms charac- ✓ a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms terised by that produce very heavy rain (torrential ✓ a closed low-pressure centre with steep rainfall). pressure gradients (category 1 cyclones • The low-pressure at the centre is responsible for have a barometric pressure of greater than the wind speeds. 980 millibars; category 5 cyclones can have • The closed air circulation (cyclonic circulation) is central barometric pressure of less than a result of rapid upward movement of hot 920 millibars), moist air which is subjected to Coriolis force. 1.1 Conditions necessary for the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone

• Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C. • Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex. • A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or Closed Isobars in a Tropical Cyclone low-level-cyclonic circulation. • Low wind shear. • Upper-level divergence.

Good Source of Latent Heat ➔ more air comes in to fill the gap ➔ new moisture is available for condensation ➔ latent heat of • Ocean waters having temperatures of 27° C and condensation is released. The cycle repeats as long depth of warm water extending for 60-70 m as there is enough supply of moisture. deep supply enough moisture, and hence latent heat of condensation, to generate and drive a tropical storm. • Thick layer of warm water ensures that the deep convection currents within the water do not churn and mix the cooler water below with the warmer water near the surface.

Why tropical cyclones form mostly on the western margins of the oceans?

• Because of warm ocean currents (easterly trade winds drag ocean waters towards west) that flow from east towards west forming a thick layer of warm water with temperatures greater than 27°C.

Why are tropical cyclones very rare on the eastern margins of the oceans? Coriolis Force • The cold currents lower the surface temperatures of the eastern parts of the tropical oceans • The Coriolis force is zero at the equator, but making them unfit for the breeding of cyclonic it increases with latitude. storms. • Coriolis force at 5° latitude is significant enough Exceptional case: During strong El Nino years, to create a storm (cyclonic vortex). strong hurricanes occur in the eastern Pacific. This is • About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity occurs due to the accumulation of warm waters in the east- between 10° and 20° latitude. ern Pacific due to weak Walker Cell. • The cyclonic circulation is anti-clockwise (counterclockwise) in the northern hemi- Why do tropical cyclones weaken on land- sphere and clockwise in the southern hemi- fall? sphere.

• On landfall, the storm is cut-off from adequate Why cyclones occur mostly in late summers? moisture supply and hence it is deprived of latent heat of condensation. Thus, the storm dis- 1. Due to high specific heat of water, and mixing, sipates (weakens or dies off) on landfall. the ocean waters in northern hemisphere attain maximum temperatures in August (in Rising of humid air parcel ➔ ambient pressure on contract continents attain maximum tempera- the air parcel decreases with altitude ➔ adiabatic tures in June-July). lapse rate (fall in temperature of air parcel) ➔ 2. Whirling motion (cyclonic vortex) is enhanced condensation of moisture in air parcel due to low when the doldrums (region within ITCZ) over temperature ➔ latent heat of condensation is oceans are farthest from the equator (Coriolis released in the process ➔ air parcel is heated further force increases with distance from the equa- due to the release of latent heat of condensation and tor). becomes less denser ➔ air parcel is further uplifted

Why do 'tropical cyclones' winds rotate • Easterly wave disturbances act as seedling cir- counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemi- culations (birthplace) for a large number of sphere? tropical cyclones. However, not all disturbances develop into cyclones. • As the earth's rotation sets up an apparent force (called the Coriolis force) that pulls the Temperature Contrast Between Air winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere Masses (and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere). • So, when a low-pressure starts to form over • The convergence of air masses of different north of the equator, the surface winds will flow temperatures results in instability causing low- inward trying to fill in the low and will be de- level disturbances which are a prerequisite for flected to the right, and a counter-clockwise the origin and growth of violent tropical storms. rotation will be initiated. • Trade winds from both the hemispheres meet • The opposite (a deflection to the left and a along the inter-tropical front (ITCZ). Tempera- clockwise rotation) will occur south of the equa- ture contrasts between these air masses must tor. exist when the ITCZ is farthest from the equator so that the low-level disturbances can intensify Coriolis force is too tiny to effect rotation in water into a depression (intensifying low-pressure that is going down the drains of sinks and toilets. cell). The rotation in those will be determined by the ge- ometry of the container and the original motion of Wind Shear the water. • Wind Shear is the difference between wind Low-level Disturbances speeds at different altitudes. • Tropical cyclones develop when the wind is uni- • Low-level disturbance is a low-pressure trough form. (an extended region of low-pressure) that moves from east to west in the form of easterly Why is convective cyclogenesis (tropical wave disturbances in the Inter-Tropical Con- cyclogenesis) confined to tropics? vergence Zone (ITCZ). • Because of weak vertical wind shear, cyclone A disturbance is a persistent group of thunderstorms formation processes are limited to latitude with heavy rains and strong wind gusts. equatorward of the subtropical jet stream. Easterly wave disturbances: it is a convective • In the temperate regions, wind shear is high trough (thermal origin) ― a persistent group of due to westerlies, and this inhibits convective thunderstorms travelling together in east to west di- cyclogenesis. rection (westward traveling disturbances) under the influence of trade winds. Why there are very few Tropical Cyclones during southwest monsoon season?

Large vertical wind shear

• The southwest monsoon is characterized by the presence of strong westerly winds (south-west monsoon winds) in the lower troposphere (below 3 km) and strong easterly winds in the upper troposphere (above 9 km). This results in large vertical wind shear. Strong vertical wind shear inhibits cyclone development. Easterly wave disturbances

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1. Ocean Relief ...... 3 Secondary Forces Responsible for Ocean Currents ...... 18 1.1 Major Ocean Relief Features ...... 3 Types of Ocean Currents ...... 18 Continental Shelf ...... 3 Pacific Ocean Currents ...... 19 Continental Slope ...... 4 Phytoplankton and Fishing ...... 20 Continental Rise...... 4 Atlantic Ocean Currents ...... 21 Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain ...... 5 Indian Ocean Currents ...... 23 1.2 Minor Ocean Relief Features...... 5 Effects of Ocean Currents ...... 25 Oceanic Deeps or Trenches ...... 5 Desert Formation and Ocean Currents .... 25 Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges .. 5 3.2 Tides ...... 26 Abyssal Hills ...... 5 Tidal Bulge: Why there are two tidal Submarine Canyons ...... 6 bulges? ...... 26 Atoll ...... 6 Types of Tides ...... 27 Bank, Shoal and Reef ...... 7 Importance of Tides ...... 30 Characteristics of Tides ...... 30 2. Major Oceans and Seas ...... 7 Tidal bore ...... 31 2.1 Oceans of the World by Size ...... 7 Impact of Tidal Bore ...... 31 2.2 The Pacific Ocean ...... 7 4. Temperature Distribution of Oceans ...... 32 2.3 The Atlantic Ocean ...... 8 2.4 The Indian Ocean ...... 9 4.1 Source of Heat in Oceans ...... 32 2.5 Marginal Seas ...... 11 4.2 Factors Affecting Temperature Human Impact on marginal seas ...... 11 Distribution of Oceans ...... 32 Biomass Production and Primary 4.3 Vertical Temperature Distribution of Productivity ...... 12 Oceans ...... 33 Water Circulation in Marginal Seas ...... 15 Thermocline ...... 33 2.6 Bays, gulfs, and Straits ...... 15 Three-Layer System ...... 34 Bays...... 15 4.4 Horizontal Temperature Distribution..... 34 Gulfs ...... 16 4.5 General behaviour ...... 35 Straits ...... 17 4.6 Range of Ocean Temperature ...... 35 Isthmus ...... 17 Sunspot ...... 35

3. Ocean Movements ...... 17 5. Ocean Salinity ...... 36 3.1 Ocean Currents ...... 17 5.2 Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity ...... 36 Primary Forces Responsible for Ocean Horizontal distribution of salinity ...... 36 Currents ...... 18

5.3 Vertical Distribution of Salinity ...... 37 7.1 Ocean Deposits...... 43 Terrigenous Deposits ...... 43 6. Coral Reefs ...... 37 Pelagic Deposits ...... 43 6.1 Coral Reef Relief Features ...... 38 7.2 Mineral Resources ...... 43 Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs) ...... 38 Mineral deposits found on continental Barrier Reefs ...... 38 shelves and slopes ...... 43 Atolls ...... 39 Mineral deposits found on deep sea floor ...... 45 6.2 Development of Major Coral Reef Types 39 6.3 Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth ...... 39 7.3 Energy Resources ...... 47 Distribution of Coral Reefs ...... 40 7.4 Fresh Water ...... 47 6.4 Corals and Zooxanthellae ...... 40 7.5 Biotic Resources ...... 47 Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals and 7.6 United Nations International Conferences Zooxanthellae ...... 40 on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) ...... 48 Territorial waters ...... 48 6.5 Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching 40 Contiguous Zone or Pursuit Zone ...... 48 Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching ...... 41 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) ...... 49 Spatial and temporal range of coral reef High Seas ...... 49 bleaching ...... 42 Land Disputes in South China Sea: Parcel Islands and Spratly Islands ...... 49 7. Resources from the Ocean ...... 42

World Water Day – March 22 • The water in the depressions merged to give rise to mighty oceans. Water on the Earth’s surface • During the Hadean Eon, the atmospheric pressure was 27 times greater than it is today and Reservoir Volume (Million % of the hence even at a surface temperature of close to Cubic km) Total 200° C water remained liquid in the oceans. Oceans 1,370 97.25 • Over time, both temperature and atmospheric Icecaps and Glaciers 29 2.05 Groundwater 9.5 0.68 pressure dropped, and water continues to stay Lakes 0.125 0.01 as liquid in the oceans. Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005 Atmosphere 0.013 0.001 Streams and Rivers 0.0017 0.0001 Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004 • Water on earth in liquid form came into existence in Hadean Eon (4,540 – 4,000 mya). • During the Hadean Eon, temperature on earth was extremely hot, and much of the Earth was molten. • Volcanic outgassing created the primordial atmosphere which consisted of various gases along with water vapour. • Over time, the Earth cooled, causing the formation of a solid crust. • The water vapour condensed to form rain and rainwater gradually filled the depressions on the newly solidified crust.

Ocean Relief Features

• Continental Shelves cover 7.5% of the total area 1. Ocean Relief of the oceans. • Shallow seas and gulfs are found along the • Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcan- continental shelves. ic, erosional and depositional processes and • The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, their interactions. called the shelf break. • Ocean relief controls the motion of seawater. • Examples of continental shelves: Continental • The oceanic movement in the form of currents, Shelf of South-East Asia (Sunda Plate), Grand in turn, causes many variations in both oceans Banks around Newfoundland, Submerged and atmosphere. region between Australia and New Guinea, etc. • The bottom relief of oceans also influences nav- igation and fishing. Formation

Ocean relief features are divided into major and • The shelf is formed mainly due to minor relief features: 1. submergence of a part of a continent 2. relative rise in sea level 1.1 Major Ocean Relief Features 3. Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers, glaciers Four major divisions in the ocean relief are: • There are various types of shelves based on different sediments of terrestrial origin — 1. the continental shelf, 1. glaciated shelf (e.g. Shelf Surrounding 2. the continental slope, Greenland), 3. the continental rise, 2. coral reef shelf (e.g. Queensland, Aus- 4. the Deep Sea Plain or the abyssal plain. tralia), 3. shelf of a large river (e.g. Shelf around Continental Shelf Nile Delta), 4. shelf with dendritic valleys (e.g. shelf at • Continental Shelf is the gently sloping (gradi- the Mouth of Hudson River) ent of 1° or less) seaward extension of a con- 5. shelf along young mountain ranges (e.g. tinental plate. Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).

• Continental shelves form the richest fishing grounds. E.g. Grand Banks around Newfound- land.

Various types of shelves

Width and depth of continental shelves

• Continental shelves have an average width of 70-80 km. • The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along a convergent boundary. E.g. coasts of Chile. Grand Banks, the richest fishing grounds on earth • The width of continental shelf of eastern coast of USA varies between 100-300 km. • Marine food comes almost entirely from conti- • Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean is the largest nental shelves. in the world and stretches up to 1,500 km from • They are sites for placer deposits and phos- the coast. phorites (explained in Ocean Resources). Continental Slope

• The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°. • The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins. • The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m. • The seaward edge of the continental slope loses gradient at this depth and gives rise to continental rise. • The continental slope boundary indicates the

Width of various continental shelves end of the continents. • Canyons and trenches are observed in this re- • Continental shelves may be as shallow as 30 m gion. in some areas while in some areas it is as deep as 600 m. Continental Rise

Importance of continental shelves • The continental slope gradually loses its steep- ness with depth. • 20% of the world production of petroleum and • When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5° gas comes from shelves. and 1°, it is referred to as the continental rise. • With increasing depth, the rise becomes virtual- ly flat and merges with the abyssal plain.

• The trenches run parallel to the bordering fold mountains or the island chains. • The trenches are very common in the Pacific Ocean and form an almost continuous ring along the western and eastern margins of the Pacific. • The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in Shelf, Slope and Rise (Wikipedia) the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench with, a depth of more than 11 kilometres. Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain • Trenches are associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes (like in Japan). • Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of the • Majority of the trenches are in the Pacific Ocean ocean basins. followed by the Atlantic Ocean and Indian • These are the flattest and smoothest regions of Ocean. the world because of terrigenous (marine sed- iment eroded from the land) and shallow wa- Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine ter sediments that buries the irregular topog- Ridges raphy. • It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor. • A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains • The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m. of mountains separated by a large depression • These plains are covered with fine-grained sed- (divergent boundary). iments like clay and silt. • The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the 1.2 Minor Ocean Relief Features ocean’s surface. • Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these • Ridges (along a divergent boundary), ridges form the largest mountain systems on • Abyssal Hills (submerged volcanic mountains): earth. Seamounts and Guyots, • Trenches (along a convergent boundary), • Canyons (erosional landform), • Island arcs (formed due to volcanism along a convergent boundary or hotspot volcanism), • Atolls and Coral reefs.

Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

• The trenches are relatively steep-sided, narrow basins (Depressions). Mid Ocean Ridge • These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans. • The ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gen- • They are of tectonic origin and are formed dur- tly sloping or in the form of steep-sided narrow ing ocean-ocean convergence and ocean- mountains. continent convergence. • They are some 3-5 km deeper than the sur- Abyssal Hills rounding ocean floor. • The trenches lie along the fringes of the deep-sea plain at the bases of continental slopes and along island arcs.

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1. India as a Geographical Unit ...... 3 3.9 Snow in the Himalayas – Snowline ...... 19 1.2 India's Frontiers ...... 4 3.10 Glaciers in the Himalayas ...... 19 1.3 Major Physical Divisions of India ...... 6 3.11 The significance of the Himalayas ...... 20 3.12 Major Passes in Himalayas and Indian Sub- 2. Rock System ...... 7 continent ...... 21 2.1 Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks) 7 4. Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain ...... 24 Archaean Gneisses and Schists (4 billion years old) ...... 7 4.1 The formation of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain Dharwar System (1 to 4 billion years old) ...... 9 25 Purana Rock System (600 to 1400 million years 4.2 Features of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain .... 26 old) ...... 9 Divisions of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain27 Regional Divisions of the Great Plains ...... 28 2.2 Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic) ...... 9 The significance of the Plain ...... 29 Carboniferous rocks (350 million years) ...... 10 2.3 Aryan Rock System ...... 10 5. Peninsular Plateau ...... 30 Gondwana System ...... 10 5.1 Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau ...... 30 Jurassic System ...... 10 Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau ...... 30 Deccan Trap ...... 10 Central Highland ...... 30 Tertiary System ...... 11 Bundelkhand Upland ...... 30 Malwa Plateau ...... 32 3. Himalayan Ranges ...... 11 Baghelkhand ...... 32 3.2 Shiwalik Range ...... 11 Chotanagpur Plateau ...... 32 Formation (Formation of Himalayas explained Meghalaya Plateau ...... 32 in C-C Convergence) ...... 12 Deccan Plateau ...... 34 3.3 The Lesser Himalayas or The Middle Himalayas or 5.2 Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau ...... 35 The Himachal ...... 12 Aravalli Range ...... 35 Important Ranges in the Lesser Himalayas ..... 12 Vindhyan Range ...... 35 Satpura Range ...... 35 3.4 The Greater Himalaya ...... 13 Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris) ...... 36 Passes in the Greater Himalayas ...... 14 Eastern Ghats ...... 36 3.5 The Trans Himalayas ...... 14 The significance of the Peninsular Plateau ..... 37 Ranges in The Trans Himalayas ...... 14 6. Coastline of India ...... 37 3.6 Purvanchal or Eastern Hills ...... 16 3.7 Himalayas – Regional Divisions ...... 15 6.1 East Coast of India ...... 38 Punjab Himalayas ...... 16 6.2 West Coast of India ...... 38 Western Himalayas...... 17 6.3 Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence ...... 38 Central Himalayas ...... 18 6.4 Western Coastal Plains of India ...... 39 Eastern Himalayas ...... 18 Kutch and Kathiawar region ...... 39 Gujarat Plain ...... 39 3.8 Important Valleys in the Himalayas ...... 18 Konkan Plain ...... 39 Karewas ...... 19 1

Karnataka Coastal Plain ...... 39 2. Indian Climate ...... 91 Kerala Plain ...... 39 2.1 Features of Indian Climate ...... 91 6.5 Eastern Coastal Plains of India...... 40 Rainfall ...... 91 Utkal Plain...... 40 Temperature ...... 91 Andhra Plain ...... 40 Tamil Nadu Plain ...... 40 2.2 Factors Influencing Indian Climate ...... 92 Latitudinal location ...... 92 6.6 The significance of the Coastal Plains ...... 40 Distance from the Sea ...... 92 Himalayas ...... 92 7. Indian Islands ...... 41 Physiography ...... 92 Monsoon Winds ...... 93 7.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands ...... 41 Upper Air Circulation ...... 93 7.2 Lakshadweep Islands ...... 42 Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances . 94 7.3 New Moore Island ...... 42 El-Nino, La Nina and ENSO ...... 94 8. Drainage Systems of India ...... 43 2.3 Indian Climate – Seasons ...... 94 Winter Season in India ...... 94 8.2 Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the sea Summer Season in India ...... 96 43 Rainy Season – South West Monsoon Season 99 8.3 Major River System or Drainage Systems in India 44 North East Monsoon Season – Retreating 8.4 Indus River System ...... 45 Monsoon Season ...... 102 Indus River ...... 45 Annual Rainfall (South West Monsoons + Jhelum River ...... 48 Retreating Monsoons)...... 105 Chenab River ...... 49 Ravi River ...... 49 2.4 Climatic Regions of India ...... 106 Beas River ...... 49 Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions of Sutlej River ...... 49 India ...... 106 Koppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of 8.5 Ganga River System ...... 49 India ...... 107 Ganga River ...... 51 Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga ...... 51 3. Natural Vegetation of India ...... 108 Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River ...... 53 3.1 Classification of Natural Vegetation of India ...... 108 8.6 Brahmaputra River System ...... 54 A. Moist Tropical Forests ...... 109 8.7 Peninsular River System or Peninsular Drainage .. 56 B. Dry Tropical Forests ...... 111 Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage ...... 56 C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests ...... 112 Comparison: Himalayan River System & D. Montane Temperate Forests ...... 113 Peninsular River System ...... 57 E. Alpine Forests ...... 114 East Flowing Peninsular Rivers ...... 58 West Flowing Rivers of Peninsular India ...... 67 4. Biogeography – Soils ...... 114 Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage ...... 74 4.1 Soil Types: Sandy, Clayey & Loamy ...... 114 1. Indian Monsoons ...... 74 4.2 Soil Profile (Soil Horizon) ...... 115 4.3 Factors that influence soil formation in Indian 1.2 Mechanism of Indian Monsoons – Based on Conditions ...... 116 Modern Theories ...... 76 Parent Material ...... 116 March to May ...... 76 Relief ...... 117 Indian Monsoons – Role of ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Climate ...... 117 Convergence Zone) ...... 82 Natural Vegetation ...... 118 Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Jet Stream Theory ...... 83 4.4 Major Soil Groups of India ...... 118 Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Role of Sub- Alluvial Soils ...... 118 Tropical Jet Stream (STJ) ...... 84 Black Soils ...... 119 Indian Monsoons – Role of Tropical Easterly Jet Red Soils ...... 120 (TEJ) (African Easterly Jet) ...... 88 Laterite – Lateritic Soils ...... 120 Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet ...... 89 Forest – Mountain Soils ...... 121 Indian Monsoons – Role of Somali Jet ...... 89 Arid – Desert Soils ...... 121 Indian Monsoons – Role of Indian Ocean Dipole Saline – Alkaline Soils ...... 122 ...... 90 Peaty – Marshy Soils ...... 123 2

1. India as a Geographical Unit

Location: Indira Col and NJ9842

• The southernmost point of the country is the Pygmalion Point, or Indira Point is located at 6° 45' N latitude. • North-south extent from Indira Col in Kashmir to Kanyakumari is 3,214 km. • East-west width from the Rann of Kutch to Aru-

Map of Jammu and Kashmir showing the occupied nachal Pradesh is 2,933 km. regions East-West Extent (~30°) 68° 7' East to 97° 25' East longitude

South-North Extent of mainland India (Including POK) 8° 4' North to 37° 6' North latitude (~29°)

South-North Extent of India (Including POK and the 6° 45' North to 37° 6' North latitude Andaman and Nicobar Islands) (~31°)

Top 10 Largest Countries in the World by Area Rank Country Capital City Continent Area (km2)

1 Russia Moscow Europe 1,70,98,242 2 Canada Ottawa North America 99,84,670

3 USA Washington DC North America 98,26,675

4 China Beijing Asia 95,96,961

5 Brazil Brasilia South America 85,14,877 6 Australia Canberra Oceania 77,41,220

7 India New Delhi Asia 32,87,263

8 Argentina Buenos Aires South America 27,80,400

9 Kazakhstan Astana Asia 27,24,900 10 Algeria Algiers Africa 23,81,741

• Although winter night temperatures are low, yet clear skies and intense insolation raise the day temperatures to a tropical level.

Cultural Geographical Reasons • Settlements, diseases, agricultural and primary economic activities are all tropical in nature.

It is primarily because of the Himalayas that India is a predominantly tropical country.

1.2 India's Frontiers

Locational Extent of India Data from the Ministry of Home Affairs (Depart- ment of Border Management) • With an area of 32,87,263 km2, India is the seventh largest country in the world. • India has 15106.7 Km of land border running • India accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the through 17 States. total surface area of the world. • Indian has a coastline of 7516.6 Km (6100 km • The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197 In- of the country dividing it into two latitudinal dian islands) touching 13 States and Union halves. Territories (UTs). • The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer is • Barring Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattis- near twice the area which lies to the south of it. garh, Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana, all other • South of 22° north latitude, the country tapers States in the country have one or more interna- off over 800 km into the Indian Ocean as a pen- tional borders or a coastline and can be insula. regarded as frontline States from the point of • East-West time difference is nearly 2 hrs. (A dif- view of border management. ference of 1° longitude will make a difference of • India's longest border is with Bangladesh 4 minutes in time. ~30 x 4 = ~120 minutes or while the shortest border is with Afghanistan. ~2 hours). • The length of India’s land borders with neigh- bouring countries is given in the table below. India, Tropical or Temperate Country? Neighbour Length of the border (in Km) • The temperate part (north of Tropic of Cancer) is twice the area of the tropical part. 1) Bangladesh 4,096.7 • But India has always been treated as a tropical 2) China 3,488 country for two different reasons – physical and 3) Pakistan 3,323 cultural. 4) Nepal 1,751 5) Myanmar 1,643 Physical Geographical (Climatic) Reasons 6) Bhutan 699 • The country is separated from the rest of Asia 7) Afghanistan 106 by the Himalayas. 15,106.7 • The tropical monsoons dominate its climate. • Himalayas blocks the cold temperate air mass- Border with China es. • This is the second longest border of India, next only to its border with Bangladesh.

• Five Indian states, namely Jammu and Kashmir, • Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim touch Arunachal Pradesh touch the Indian boundary the Nepalese border with India. with China. • The border is a porous one with an unrestricted • The Sino-Indian border is generally divided into movement of goods and people between Indi- three sectors namely: (i) the Western sector, (ii) an and Nepal. the Middle sector, and (iii) the Eastern sector. • Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border runs in the east-west direction almost along the foothill The Western Sector of the Shiwalik Range.

• Separates Jammu and Kashmir state of India The Indo-Pakistan Boundary from the Xinjiang province of China. • The western sector boundary is largely the out- • The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result of the come of the British policy towards the state of partition of the country in 1947 under the Rad- Jammu and Kashmir. cliffe award of which Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the • China claims the Aksai Chin, the Changmo chairman. valley, Pangong Tso and the Sponggar Tso • Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the major area of north-east Ladakh. disputed regions. • China also claims a part of Huza-Gilgit area in North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963 by Paki- stan).

The Middle Sector

• Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Ut- tarakhand touch this border.

The Eastern Sector

• The 1,140 km long boundary between India and China runs from the eastern limit of Bhutan to a point near Diphu pass (Talu-Pass) at the tri- junction of India, Tibet and Myanmar.

Diphu Pass is a mountain pass around the area of the disputed tri-point borders of India, China, and Myanmar. Creeks in the Kutch Region It is Talu pass on the Burmese side, and Diphu pass The India-Bangladesh Border on the Indian (Tibetan) side.

• This line is usually referred to as the Mc Mahon • India's 4,096 km long border with Bangladesh is Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon, then foreign the longest. secretary of British India, who negotiated the • This boundary has been determined under the boundary agreement between Great Britain and Radcliffe Award which divided the erstwhile Tibet at Shimla accord in 1913-14. province of Bengal into two parts.

The India-Nepal Boundary India-Myanmar Boundary

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1. Iron ...... 3 Bituminous Coal (black coal) ...... 13 Anthracite Coal (Semi-metallic lustre) ..... 13 1.2 Types of Iron Ore...... 3 Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal (Thermal Magnetite (Fe3O4) ...... 4 Coal) ...... 13 Haematite (Fe2O3) ...... 5 Limonite ...... 5 2.3 Distribution of Coal in India ...... 14 Gondwana Coal (formed 250 million years 1.3 Iron Ore Distribution Across the World ...... 5 ago)...... 14 Iron ore in Africa: Transvaal, Liberia ...... 5 Tertiary Coal (formed 60 – 15 million years Iron Ore in China: Manchuria, Sinkiang, Si- ago)...... 15 kiang, Shandog Peninsula ...... 5 State-wise coal reserves and coal Iron Ore in Europe: Ruhr, South Whales, production in India ...... 16 Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine ...... 6 The demand of coal, production, supply Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region, and import of coal in India ...... 16 Magnitogorsk ...... 6 Why does India import coal although it has Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes enough reserves? ...... 16 (Mesabi Region), Labrador ...... 7 Major Coalfields in India ...... 17 Iron Ore in South America: Carajas, Itabira, Measures taken by the government to Minas Geriais ...... 7 boost production ...... 17 Iron Ore in Australia: Pilbara Region, Koolyanobbing, Iron Duke, Iron Knob ...... 8 2.4 Distribution of Coal across the World ...... 18 Largest iron ore producers ...... 8 Global Coal Reserves ...... 19 Largest iron ore reserves ...... 9 Top coal producers and consumers in the world ...... 19 1.4 Iron Ore Distribution in India ...... 9 Hematite reserves ...... 9 3. Petroleum and Mineral Oil ...... 19 Magnetite reserves ...... 9 Iron Ore Production in India ...... 10 3.1 Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil ..... 19 Conditions for Formation of Petroleum and 2. Coal ...... 11 Mineral Oil ...... 19 2.1 Formation of Coal ...... 11 3.2 Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in Stages of coal formation ...... 12 India ...... 21 Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in India ...... 21 2.2 Classification of coal ...... 12 On-shore Oil Production in India ...... 22 Peat ...... 12 Off-Shore Oil Production in India ...... 22 Lignite (brown coal) ...... 13

State-wise crude oil and natural gas Gold Reserves and Production in India .... 41 production trends ...... 24 World’s Gold Reserves and Gold Production Share of major fuels in Power Generation ...... 41 in India ...... 24 8.2 Silver ...... 42 India’s Oil Imports ...... 24 Silver Reserves and Production – India & Oil Refiners in India ...... 24 World ...... 42 Crude Oil Pipelines ...... 25 3.3 World distribution of Petroleum and Mineral 9. Ores of Metals used in Alloys ...... 43 Oil 28 9.1 Manganese ...... 43 Supergiants ...... 28 Manganese ore distribution in India ...... 43 Countries with The Largest Proven Oil Manganese ore distribution across the Reserves...... 28 World ...... 44 World’s Top Producers, Consumers and Exporters of Oil ...... 30 9.2 Tungsten ...... 44 OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Distribution of Wolfram in India and across Exporting Countries ...... 30 the World ...... 44 9.3 Copper ...... 45 4. Natural gas ...... 30 Copper Ore Distribution and Production in 4.2 Distribution of Natural Gas across Indian and India ...... 45 the World ...... 31 Distribution of Copper Ore and Production Top natural gas producers, consumers, and Across the World ...... 45 countries with highest reserves ...... 31 9.4 Nickel ...... 46 4.3 Petroleum and Gas Value Chain...... 32 Distribution of Nickel in India and World . 46 9.5 Molybdenum ...... 47 5. Unconventional Gas Reservoirs ...... 32 9.6 Chromite ...... 47 5.1 Coalbed Methane ...... 33 Chromite Distribution across India and Coalbed Methane in India ...... 33 World ...... 47 5.2 Shale Gas ...... 34 9.7 Cobalt ...... 48 Extraction of Shale Gas ...... 34 Distribution of Cobalt Reserves across India Shale Gas Reserves across India and the and the World ...... 48 World ...... 35 Shale Gas Extraction Issues in India – If US 10. Strategic Minerals ...... 48 can then why can’t India?...... 35 10.1 Lithium ...... 49 5.3 Tight Gas ...... 36 KABIL Set up to Ensure Supply of Critical Minerals ...... 49 6. Bauxite ...... 37 11. Non Metallic: Graphite and Diamond ...... 49 6.1 Bauxite Distribution in India ...... 37 6.2 Bauxite Distribution across the World ...... 38 11.1 Graphite ...... 50 Distribution of Graphite across India and 7. Lead & Zinc ...... 39 World ...... 50 7.1 Lead ...... 39 11.2 Diamonds ...... 51 7.2 Zinc ...... 39 Distribution of Diamond Bearing rocks and 7.3 Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores – India and gravels in India ...... 51 World ...... 39 Diamonds Across the World ...... 51 7.4 Pyrites ...... 40 Differences Between Graphite and Diamond ...... 52 8. Gold and Silver ...... 41 8.1 Gold ...... 41 2

12. Non Metallic: Limestone, Dolomite and • It allows us to understand an area's economy Magnesite ...... 52 and its economic relationship with other areas 12.1 Limestone ...... 52 around the world. Distribution of Limestone in India ...... 53 • It helps us understand the reasons and methods of development of a region or lack of develop- 12.2 Dolomite...... 54 ment thereof. 12.3 Magnesite ...... 54 • It helps us find solutions to economic develop- 13. Other Non-Metallic Mineral Resources ...... 55 mental challenges. 13.1 Mica ...... 55 GS1 Syllabus: 13.2 Asbestos ...... 55 13.3 Kyanite ...... 55 1. Distribution of key natural resources Sillimanite ...... 55 across the world (including South Asia 13.4 Gypsum ...... 56 and the Indian sub-continent); {Economic Geography Part I} 14. Atomic Minerals ...... 56 2. factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector 14.1 Uranium ...... 56 industries in various parts of the world Uranium Reserves and Production across the World ...... 56 (including India). {Economic Geography Uranium in India ...... 57 Part II} 14.2 Thorium ...... 58 GS3 Syllabus: Thorium Distribution ...... 59 1. Major crops cropping patterns in various

parts of the country, different types of ir- Economic Geography rigation and irrigation systems storage. {Indian Agriculture} • Economic geography is the study of patterns of 2. Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Air- humans’ economic activities ranging from pro- ports, Railways etc. {Will be covered as a duction to consumption of various goods and separate topic} services across the world. • By ‘human economic activities’ we mean, pro- Natural Resources Classification duction, location, distribution, consumption, ex- Biotic Abiotic change of resources, spatial organization of Renewable (Non- Non-renewable (Con- economic activities, etc. conventional): bio- ventional): coal, oil, iron, • Different subject matters of economic geogra- mass, solar energy, wind etc. phy include the distribution of mineral re- energy, etc. sources, location of industries, economies of Metallic: Iron, copper, Non-metallic: graphite, agglomeration (economies of urbanization), tin, zinc, uranium (heavy diamond, mica, lime- transportation, international trade, the relation- metal), etc. stone, etc. ship between the environment and the econo- Renewable and Non-renewable energy resources my, etc. will be covered as a part of General Science and Importance of studying economic geography: Science and Technology.

1. Iron

1.2 Types of Iron Ore • Based on the amount of ore and iron content, iron ore is classified into various types. 3

• Magnetite (Fe3O4) and Haematite (Fe2O3) are Magnetite (Fe3O4) fine quality ores. • Limonite, siderite, etc. are inferior ores that have • Magnetite has excellent magnetic qualities, their own unique characteristics. hence the name.

• It is black in colour and has very high content • Limonite mines are open cast mines; hence of Iron – upto 72 per cent (best quality iron mining is easy and cheap. ore). • Distribution: Damuda series in Raniganj coal • Magnetite has higher iron content than hema- field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar tite (60-70 per cent); therefore, its quality is Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh. higher. • However, unlike haematite ore, magnetite ore is Siderite (FeCO3) not found in high grades. • That is, while hematite ore generally contains • It is iron carbonate ore of inferior quality with large concentrations of hematite, magnetite ore less than 40 per cent iron content. generally holds low concentrations of magnet- • It contains many impurities and hence mining, ite. in many places, is economically unviable. • Hence the ore needs to be beneficiated (treat • However, one good quality of the ore is that it to improve its properties) for magnetite recov- doesn’t contain sulphur or phosphorus. ery. • And also, it is self-fluxing due to the presence • End products (e.g. steel) made from magnetite of lime. ore are typically of higher quality than those made from hematite ore. That’s because mag- 1.3 Iron Ore Distribution Across netite has fewer impurities than hematite. the World • Magnetite with less iron content (25% to 30%) is known as Taconite. • A naturally magnetized content of magnetite is Iron ore in Africa: Transvaal, Liberia called lodestone. • Distribution of magnetite ore in India: Dharwad and Cuddapah systems – Karnataka (73%), Andhra Pradesh (14%), Tamil Nadu (5%), Ra- jasthan (5%), etc.

Haematite (Fe2O3)

• Reddish ore with naturally high iron content – 60 to 70 per cent. • Because of its high iron content, hematite ore can be used in steel production without bene- faction. • Hematite is the most abundantly available ore in India. • Distribution: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa.

Limonite Iron Ore in China: Manchuria, Sinkiang, Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula • Limonite is inferior iron ore that is yellowish in colour with 40 to 60 per cent iron content.

Iron Ore in Europe: Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine

Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region, Magnitogorsk

Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes (Mesabi Region), Labrador

Iron Ore in South America: Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais

• The main concentration of Sillimanite is found • It is mainly used in making ammonia sulphate in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh. fertilizer and in cement industry. • Orissa is the largest producer of sillimanite in • It makes upto 4-5 per cent of cement. India. Ganjam is an important sillimanite pro- • It is applied in agriculture for conserving mois- ducing district. ture in the soil and for aiding nitrogen absorp- • Kerala is the second largest producing state. tion. • Rajasthan is by far the largest producer of gyp- 13.4 Gypsum sum in India (99 per cent of the total production of India). • Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium. • The main deposits occur in Jodhpur, Nagaur • It is a white opaque or transparent mineral. and Bikaner. • It occurs in sedimentary formations such as • The remaining gypsum is produced by Tamil limestones, sandstones and shales. Nadu (Tiruchirapalli district), Jammu and Kash- mir.

14. Atomic Minerals

• Uranium, Plutonium and Thorium are the • Plutonium has occurred naturally, but except for main atomic minerals. trace quantities it is now not found in the • Other atomic minerals are beryllium, lithium Earth's crust. and zirconium. • Plutonium is formed in nuclear power reactors • Zirconium is found along the Kerala coast & in from uranium-238 by neutron capture. alluvial rocks of Ranchi & Hazaribagh districts of • The most common plutonium isotope formed in Jharkhand. a typical nuclear reactor is the fissile Pu-239. • India has sufficient reserves of beryllium to • Pu-239 is the principal fuel in a fast neutron meet her requirement of atomic power genera- reactor. tion. 14.1 Uranium

• Uranium is a silvery-grey metallic radioactive • Uranium isotopes in natural uranium are 238U chemical element. (99.27%) and 235U (0.72%). • It is only naturally formed in supernova explo- • All uranium isotopes are radioactive and fis- sions. sionable. • Uranium, thorium, and potassium are the • But only 235U is fissile (will support a neutron- main elements contributing to natural terrestrial mediated chain reaction). radioactivity. • Traces of Uranium are found everywhere. • Uranium has the chemical symbol U and atomic • Commercial extraction is possible only in loca- number 92. tions where the proportion of Uranium is adequate.

Uranium Reserves and Production across the World

World’s Uranium (U) Reserves (TT) World’s Uranium (U) Production (TT) in 2017 Country Reserves as of 2015 Country/Region Production 1. Australia 1780 23% 1. Kazakhstan 23.3 39.2% 2. Kazakhstan 941 12% 2. Canada 13.1 22.1%

3. Canada 703 9% 3. Australia 5.8 9.9% 4. Namiba 463 6% 4. Namibia 4.2 7.1% India 139 2% India 0.4 0.7% Total 7641 TT World 59 TT • Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine in South- Uranium in India ern Australia are important mines in Australia. • High-grade deposits are only found in the Ath- • Monazite sands comprises the largest source abasca Basin region of Canada. of uranium. • The Chu-Sarysu basin in central Kazakhstan • Monazite sands occur on east and west coasts alone accounts for most of the country's urani- and in some places in Bihar. um resources

• But the largest concentration of monazite sand • Singhbhum Copper belt is known for a number is on the Kerala coast. of copper deposits with associated nickel, mo- • Over 15,200 tonnes of uranium is estimated to lybdenum, bismuth, gold, silver etc. be contained in monazite. • The state of Andhra Pradesh is the largest pro- • Some uranium is found in the copper mines of ducer of uranium in India. Udaipur in Rajasthan. • Tummalapalle village located in the Kadapa • Uranium deposits occur in Jaduguda in (Cuddapah) district of Andhra Pradesh is Singhbhum Thrust Belt and Hazaribagh dis- considered as one of the largest uranium re- tricts of Jharkhand, Gaya district of Bihar, serves in India. Cuddapah basin of Andhra Pradesh, Araval- lis, & Mahadek basin of Meghalaya. 57

• India has no significant reserves of Uranium. All 14.2 Thorium needs are met through imports. • India imports thousands of tonnes of uranium • Thorium is a chemical element with symbol Th from Russia, Kazakhstan, France, and Uzbeki- and atomic number 90. stan. • Uranium and thorium are the only radioactive • India is trying hard to import uranium from elements that occur naturally in large quanti- Australia and Canada. ties. • However, there are some concerns regarding • Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its known nuclear proliferation and other related issues. isotopes are unstable, with the seven naturally

occurring ones (thorium-227, 228, 229, 230, • The other mineral carrying thorium is thoria- 231, 232, and 234). nite. • Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope of tho- • Thorium is predicted to be able to replace ura- rium and accounts for nearly all natural thorium, nium as nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors, but on- with the other five natural isotopes occurring ly a few thorium reactors have yet been com- only in traces. pleted. • The known reserves of thorium in India are es- Thorium Distribution timated to be between 457,000 and 508,000 tonnes. • Thorium is estimated to be about three to four • Kerala, Jharkhand, Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Raja- times more abundant than uranium in the sthan are the main producers. Earth's crust and is chiefly refined from mona- • United States, Australia, and India have par- zite sands. ticularly large reserves of thorium. • Monazite contains 2.5% thorium and is scattered along the Kerala Coast. World’s Thorium Reserves (2011) India’s Thorium Reserves (2016) Country Reserves in TT State Reserves 1. India 963 1. Andhra Pradesh 31% 2. United States 440 2. Tamil Nadu 21% 3. Australia 300 3. Odisha 20% 4. Canada 100 4. Kerala 16% 5. South Africa 35 5. West Bengal 10%

Related topics: • Nuclear Fission, Components of Nuclear Reactor, Types of Nuclear Reactors • India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme

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Economic Geography Part II (Industrial Locational Factors Part I) Factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector Print-Friendly PDF

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1. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sectors ...... 5

1.1. Primary Activities ...... 5 1.1.1 Hunting and Gathering...... 5 1.1.2 Pastoralism...... 5 1.1.3 Commercial Livestock Rearing ...... 6 1.1.4 Subsistence Agriculture ...... 7 1.1.5 Plantation Agriculture ...... 7 1.1.6 Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation ...... 8 1.1.7 Mixed Farming ...... 8 1.1.8 Dairy Farming ...... 9 1.1.9 Mediterranean Agriculture ...... 9 1.1.10 Market Gardening and Horticulture ...... 9 1.1.11 Co-operative Farming ...... 10 1.1.12 Collective Farming ...... 10 1.1.13 Mining ...... 10 1.2. Secondary Activities ...... 10 1.2.1 Modern Manufacturing Industry ...... 11 1.2.2 Classification of Manufacturing Industries ...... 11 1.2.3 Foot Loose Industries ...... 12 1.2.4 Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions ...... 13 1.2.5 Concept of High Technology Industry ...... 13 1.3. Tertiary Activities...... 13 1.3.1 Types of tertiary activities ...... 14 1.3.2 Transportation ...... 14 1.3.3 Tourism...... 15 1.4. Quaternary Activities ...... 16 1.4.1 The Quaternary Sector ...... 16 1.4.2 Quinary Activities ...... 16

1.4.3 Outsourcing ...... 16 1.5. Some of the factors influencing locations of various sectors (industries) ...... 17 1.5.1 Historical Factors ...... 17 1.5.2 Access to Raw Materials ...... 17 1.5.3 Access to energy sources ...... 17 1.5.4 Access to Market ...... 17 1.5.5 Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities ...... 18 1.5.6 Supply of cheap labour and skilled workforce ...... 18 1.5.7 Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries ...... 18 1.5.8 Industrial inertia ...... 18 1.5.9 Government Policy ...... 19 1.6. Questions ...... 19

2. Iron and Steel Industry ...... 20

2.1. Smelting of Iron Ore ...... 20 2.1.2 What exactly happens in a blast furnace? ...... 21 2.2. Factors that influence the location of Iron and Steel Industry ...... 22 2.2.1 Raw Material ...... 22 2.2.2 Transportation: Near coastal areas for cheaper raw material imports ...... 26 2.2.3 Transport Cost Minimization ...... 26 2.2.4 Access to markets: Mini Steel plants ...... 26 2.2.5 Economies of Linkages and Agglomerations: Duluth-Detroit-Cleveland-Pittsburgh ...... 27 2.2.6 Competition ...... 28 2.2.7 Technology ...... 28 2.2.8 Quality of ore, economies of scale, Cheap labour ...... 28 2.2.9 Industrial Inertia ...... 28 2.2.10 Rules and regulations ...... 29 2.2.11 Strategic reasons ...... 29 2.2.12 Government policies ...... 29 2.2.13 Distribution of Iron and Steel Industry ...... 29

3. Cotton Textile Industry ...... 30

3.1. Factors that affect the location of the cotton textile industry ...... 31 3.2. Cotton Textile Manufacturing Regions of the World ...... 32 3.2.1 Factors responsible for the Localization of the British Cotton Textile Industry ...... 32 3.2.2 Factors responsible for the Localization of the American Cotton Textile Industry ...... 35 3.2.3 Factors responsible for the Localization of the Japanese Cotton Textile Industry ...... 37 3.2.4 Factors responsible for the Localization of the German Cotton Textile Industry...... 38 3.2.5 Factors responsible for the Localization of Russian Cotton Textile Industry ...... 39 3.2.6 Factors responsible for the Localization of the Chinese Cotton Textile Industry ...... 40 3.3. Cotton Textile Industry in India ...... 41 3.3.2 Factors responsible for the Localization of the Cotton Textile Industry in India ...... 42 3.3.3 Issues Faced by the Cotton Textile Industry in India ...... 44 3.4. Top cotton producers, importers and exporters ...... 45

4. Woollen Textile Industry ...... 45

4.1. Factors that affect commercial wool production ...... 45 4.1.1 Major wool producing regions...... 46

4.2. Factors that affect the location of the woollen textile industry ...... 46 4.2.1 Despite the added cost of transportation, the wool exports from southern to northern hemisphere remain competitive. Explain. 47 4.2.2 U.K. – The Rise and Fall ...... 47 4.3. Indian Woollen Textile Industry ...... 48 4.3.1 Punjab ...... 49 4.3.2 Others ...... 49 4.3.3 Problems of Indian woollen textile industry ...... 49

5. Jute Textile Industry ...... 49

5.1. Factors responsible for the concentration of Jute Industry in the Hooghly Basin ...... 49 5.2. Issues faced by the jute industry ...... 50 5.3. Future positives for the jute industry ...... 51 5.4. Top jute producing, exporting and importing countries ...... 51

6. Silk Textile Industry ...... 51

6.1. Silk Industry in India ...... 52 6.1.1 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Karnataka ...... 52 6.1.2 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Varanasi ...... 53 6.1.3 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Kanchipuram ...... 54 6.1.4 Factors Responsible for the Localization of Silk Industry in Jammu and Kashmir ...... 54 6.1.5 Issues faced by Indian Silk Industry ...... 55 6.2. Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in China ...... 55 6.3. Silk Industry Outside India and China ...... 55 6.3.1 Japan ...... 56 6.3.2 The U.S...... 56 6.3.3 Europe...... 56

7. Sugar Industry ...... 57

7.1. Major Factors that influence the location of sugar industry ...... 58 7.2. Major Sugar Producers...... 58 7.2.1 The rise and fall of Cuban Sugar Industry ...... 59 7.3. Sugar Industry in Peninsular India vs Sugar Industry in North India ...... 60 7.3.2 Mains Question ...... 61 7.4. Challenges faced by the sugar industry in India ...... 61

8. Tea Industry ...... 62

8.2. Factors that determine the location of the tea industry ...... 62 8.3. Major tea producing areas in India ...... 63 8.3.1 Tea industry of the Darjeeling district ...... 63 8.3.2 Tea industry of the Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills of TN, Kerala, and Karnataka ...... 64 8.4. The rise and fall of the British Tea Industry ...... 64 8.5. Tea Industry in China ...... 65

9. Coffee Industry ...... 65

9.2. Factors that determine the location of coffee industry ...... 65 9.3. Coffee Industry in Brazil ...... 66

9.4. Coffee Industry in Nilgiris ...... 67

10. Rubber Industry ...... 67

10.1. Natural Rubber ...... 67 10.1.1 Evolution of the natural rubber industry ...... 68 10.2. Synthetic Rubber ...... 69 10.2.1 Evolution of the synthetic rubber industry ...... 69 10.3. Tyre Manufacturing ...... 69 10.4. Southeast Asian vs South American Natural Rubber Industry ...... 70

11. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry ...... 72

11.1. Lumbering Industry in the Temperate Regions vs Lumbering Industry in the Tropical Regions ...... 72 11.2. Factors affecting the location of the sawmills (lumbering) industry ...... 74 11.3. Factors affecting the location of paper pulp industry ...... 75 11.4. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in Canada ...... 76 11.5. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in Russia ...... 77 11.5.1 What are the challenges faced by Russia in exploiting its vast Siberian Taiga forests?...... 77 11.6. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in U.S.A...... 78 11.7. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in other regions ...... 78 11.8. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in India ...... 79 11.8.1 Paper Industry in India ...... 79 11.8.2 Problems of Indian Paper Industry ...... 80 11.9. International lumber, pulp and paper imports and exports ...... 81

12. Commercial Marine Fishing Industry ...... 81

12.1. Marine Capture Fisheries ...... 81 12.2. Factors that create the most fertile marine fishing grounds ...... 83 12.3. Factors that determine the location of the commercial fishing industry ...... 83 12.4. The major commercial marine fishing grounds of the world ...... 85 12.4.1 North-East Atlantic Region ...... 85 12.4.2 North-West Atlantic Region ...... 85 12.4.3 North-West Pacific Region ...... 86 12.4.4 China, India and South-East Asia ...... 87 12.4.5 Southern Hemisphere (Peru and Chile Coast) ...... 88 12.4.6 Commercial marine fishing is little developed in the southern hemisphere. Explain ...... 89 12.4.7 Commercial marine fishing is little developed in the tropics. Explain ...... 89

1. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sectors

• Economic activities are broadly grouped into tralia and the interior parts of Southeast primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary Asia. activities. • They use various parts of the plants, e.g., the 1.1. Primary Activities bark is used for quinine, tanin extract and tree • Primary activities are directly dependent on trunk yield rubber, gums and resins. the environment as these refer to utilisation of • The chewing gum after the flavour is gone is earth’s resources such as land, water, vegeta- called Chicle — it is made from the juice of za- tion, building materials, minerals, etc. pota tree. • It thus includes hunting, gathering, pastoral ac- • In modern times some gathering is market- tivities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, mining, oriented and has become commercial. quarrying, etc. • However, synthetic products often of better • Industries that are involved in primary economic quality and at lower prices have replaced many activities are called as primary industries. items supplied by the gatherers in tropical forests. 1.1.1 Hunting and Gathering • However, synthetic products often of better

• Gathering is practised in regions with harsh cli- quality and at lower prices have replaced many matic conditions. items supplied by the gatherers in tropical for- • It involves primitive societies that extract from ests. both plants and animals to satisfy their basic needs. • The yield per person is meagre and little, or no surplus is produced. • Gathering is practised in: ✓ high latitude zones which include northern Canada, northern Eurasia and southern Chile. ✓ Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Ba- sin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Aus- Image Source: NROER

1.1.2 Pastoralism

• At some stage in history, as hunting was unsus- Nomadic Herding (pastoral nomadism) tainable, humans began the domestication of animals. • Nomadic herding is a primitive subsistence ac- • People living in different climatic conditions se- tivity. lected and domesticated animals found in those regions.

• They move from place to place along with their to the plains from the high altitude pastures in livestock, depending on the availability of pas- winters. tures & water. • The number of pastoral nomads has been de- • A wide variety of animals is kept in different re- creasing due to the imposition of political gions. boundaries. • In tropical Africa, cattle are the most important 1.1.3 Commercial Livestock Rearing livestock, while in Sahara and Asiatic deserts, sheep, goats and camel are reared. • Commercial livestock rearing is more organised • In the mountainous areas of Tibet and Andes, and capital intensive. yak and llamas and in the Arctic and sub-Arctic • Commercial livestock ranching is associated regions, reindeer are the most important ani- with western cultures and is practised on per- mals. manent ranches. • Pastoral nomadism is associated with three im- • These ranches (a large farm where cattle are portant regions. bred) cover large areas and are divided into a • The core region extends from the Atlantic number of parcels, which are fenced to regulate shores of North Africa eastwards across the the grazing. Arabian Peninsula into Mongolia and Central • When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals China. are moved to another parcel. • The second region extends over the tundra re- • This is a specialised activity in which only one gion of Eurasia. type of animal is reared. • In the southern hemisphere there are small are- • Essential animals include sheep, cattle, goats as in South-west Africa and on the island of and horses. Madagascar. • Meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and packed scientifically and exported world markets. • Rearing of animals in ranching is organised on a scientific basis. • The main emphasis is on breeding, genetic im- provement, disease control and health care of the animals.

Image Source: NROER • The process of migration from plain areas to pastures on mountains during summers and again from mountain pastures to plain areas during winters is known as transhumance. • In mountain regions, such as Himalayas, Guj- jars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas migrate

from plains to the mountains in summers and Image Source: NROER

• New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay • Farmyard manure is used to maintain the fertili- and the United States of America are im- ty of the soil. portant countries where commercial livestock • In this type of agriculture, the yield per unit rearing is practised. area is high but per labour productivity is low. 1.1.4 Subsistence Agriculture Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by • In subsistence agriculture, almost all the pro- crops other than paddy duction is consumed locally with little or noth- ing left for trade. • Due to the difference in relief, climate, soil, etc. • Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive it is not practical to grow paddy in parts of Subsistence Agriculture are the two types. monsoon Asia. • Wheat, soyabean, barley & sorghum are grown Primitive Subsistence Agriculture in northern China, North Korea and North Ja-

• Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting pan. cultivation is widely practised by many tribes in • In India wheat is grown in plains and millets are the tropics. grown in dry parts of western and southern In- • The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, and the dia. ashes add to the fertility of the soil. • Most of the characteristics are similar to that of • Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash and wet paddy cultivation except that irrigation is burn agriculture. often used. • It is prevalent in the tropical region in different names, e.g. Jhuming in Northeastern states of India, Milpa in Central America and Mexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

• This type of agriculture is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia. • There are two types of intensive subsistence

agriculture. Image Source: NROER

Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by 1.1.5 Plantation Agriculture wet paddy cultivation • Plantation agriculture was introduced by the • Landholdings are very small due to the high Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics. density of population. • Plantations are mainly profit-oriented large • Farmers work with the help of family labour scale production systems. leading to intensive use of land. • E.g. tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, palm, • Use of machinery is limited, and most of the sugarcane, banana & pineapple. agricultural operations are done by manual la- • The characteristic features of this type of farm- bour. ing are

✓ large estates or plantations, • Wheat is the principal crop, though other crops ✓ large capital investment, like corn, barley, oats and rye are also grown. ✓ managerial and technical support, • The size of the farm is very large. Therefore en- ✓ scientific methods of cultivation, tire operations of cultivation are mechanised. ✓ single crop specialisation, • There is a low yield per acre but high yield ✓ cheap labour, and per person. ✓ a good system of transportation which • This type of agriculture is best developed in the links the estates to the factories and mar- Eurasian steppes, the North American Prai- kets. ries, Pampas of Argentina, Velds of South Af- • The French established cocoa and coffee plan- rica, the Australian Downs and the Canter- tations in west Africa. bury Plains of New Zealand. • The British set up large 1.1.7 Mixed Farming ✓ tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka, ✓ rubber plantations in Malaysia and • This form of agriculture is found in the highly ✓ sugarcane and banana plantations in West developed parts of the world, e.g. North- Indies. western Europe, Eastern North America, and • Spanish and Americans invested heavily in co- the temperate latitudes of Southern continents. conut and sugarcane plantations in the Philip- • Mixed farms are moderate in size & the crops pines. grown are wheat, barley, oats, maize, fodder • The Dutch once had a monopoly over sugar- & root crops. cane plantation in Indonesia. • Some coffee fazendas (large plantations) in Brazil are still managed by Europeans.

1.1.6 Extensive Commercial Grain Cultiva- tion

Image Source: NROER • Animal husbandry is an essential component of mixed farming. • Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the primary income along with crops. • Crop rotation and intercropping play an es- Image Source: NROER sential role in maintaining soil fertility. • Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the • Mixed farming is characterised by high capital interior parts of semi-arid lands of the midlati- expenditure on farm machinery and building, tudes. extensive use of chemical fertilisers and

green manures and also by the skill and exper- 1.1.9 Mediterranean Agriculture tise of the farmers. • Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised 1.1.8 Dairy Farming commercial agriculture. • It is practised in the countries on either side of • Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of the Mediterranean Sea, southern California, rearing of milch animals. central Chile, southwestern parts of South Africa • It is highly capital intensive. and south and southwestern parts of Australia. • Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feed- • This region is an important supplier of citrus ing and milking machines add to the cost of fruits. dairy farming. • Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality • Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, of the Mediterranean region. health care and veterinary services. • Best quality wines in the world are produced • It is highly labour intensive as it involves rig- from high-quality grapes in various countries of orous care in feeding and milking. this region. • There is no offseason during the year as in the • The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and case of crop raising. currants. This region also produces olives and • It is practised near urban centres which pro- figs. vide a neighbourhood market for fresh milk & • The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is dairy products. that more valuable crops such as fruits and • The development of transportation, refrigera- vegetables are grown in winters when there is a tion, pasteurisation and other preservation pro- great demand in European and North American cesses have increased the duration of storage of markets. various dairy products. • There are three main regions of commercial 1.1.10 Market Gardening and Horticulture dairy farming. • The largest is North Western Europe the sec- • Market gardening and horticulture specialise in ond is Canada, and the third belt includes the cultivation of high-value crops such as veg- South Eastern Australia, New Zealand and etables, fruits and flowers, solely for the urban Tasmania. markets. • Farms are small and are located where there are good transportation links with the urban centre. • It is both labour and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers, insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating in colder regions. • This type of agriculture is well developed in densely populated industrial districts of north- west Europe, northeastern United States of Image Source: NROER America and the Mediterranean regions.

• The farming where farmers specialise in vegeta- • They were allowed to retain very small plots to bles only is known as truck farming. grow crops in order to meet their daily re- • The distance of truck farms from the market is quirements. governed by the distance that a truck can cover 1.1.13 Mining overnight. • The modern development in the industrial re- • The actual development of mining began with gions of Western Europe & North America is the industrial revolution. factory farming. • Mining is of two types: surface mining (open- • Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle rearing, cast mining) and underground mining. is done in stalls and pens. • Surface mining is the easiest and the cheapest • They fed on manufactured feedstuff and care- way of mining minerals that occur close to the fully supervised against diseases. surface. • This requires heavy capital investment, veteri- • The output is both large and rapid. nary services and heating and lighting. • When the ore lies deep below the surface, the 1.1.11 Co-operative Farming underground mining (shaft method) has to be used. • A group of farmers form a co-operative society • In this method, underground galleries from ver- voluntarily for more efficient and profitable tical shafts radiate to reach the minerals. farming. • Minerals are extracted and transported to the • Individual farms remain intact, and farming is a surface through these passages. matter of cooperative initiative. • It requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage • Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure vehicles, ventilation system for safety and effi- all valuable inputs of farming, sell the products ciency. at the most favourable terms and assist in the • This method is risky — poisonous gases, fires, processing of quality products at cheaper rates. floods, and caving lead to fatal accidents. • The co-operative movement has been success- • The developed economies are retreating from ful in many western European countries like mining, processing and refining stages of pro- Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, It- duction due to high labour costs, while the de- aly etc. veloping countries with large labour force are becoming more important. 1.1.12 Collective Farming • Several countries of Africa and Asia have over • It is based on social ownership of the means of fifty per cent of the earnings from minerals production and collective labour. alone. • Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was 1.2. Secondary Activities introduced in erstwhile USSR to improve upon the inefficiency of the previous methods of ag- • Secondary activities transform raw materials riculture and to boost agricultural production into valuable products by the processes of pro- for self-sufficiency. cessing, manufacturing, and construction. • The farmers used to pool in all their resources • In each of these processes, the common charac- like land, livestock and labour. teristics are the application of power, mass

production of identical products and special- Technological Innovation ised labour in factory settings for the produc- • Technological innovations through research and tion of commodities. development strategy are an important aspect 1.2.1 Modern Manufacturing Industry of modern manufacturing for quality control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and combat- • Modern large scale manufacturing undertakes ing pollution. mass production of standardised parts by each worker or robot performing only one task re- Organisational Structure and Stratification peatedly. • Modern manufacturing is characterised by: Mechanisation 1. a complex machine technology 2. extreme specialisation and division of labour • Mechanisation refers to using gadgets which for producing more goods with less effort, accomplish tasks. and low costs • Automation (manufacturing without the aid of 3. vast capital human thinking) is the advanced stage of 4. large organisations mechanisation. 5. executive bureaucracy. 1.2.2 Classification of Manufacturing Industries

Industries based on Size • Accordingly, industries may be classified into household or cottage, small-scale and large- • The amount of capital invested, number of em- scale. ployees, and volume of production determine the size of industry. Household industries or cottage manufacturing

• It is the smallest manufacturing unit. may be grouped under two broad types, name- • The artisans use local raw materials and simple ly tools to produce everyday goods in their homes 1. traditional large-scale industrial regions with the help of their family members or part- which are thickly clustered in a few more time labour. developed countries. • Finished products may be for consumption in 2. high-technology large scale industrial re- the same household or, for sale in local markets. gions which have diffused to less developed • Some common everyday products produced in countries. this sector of manufacturing include foodstuffs, Industries based on Inputs/Raw Materials fabrics, mats, tools, furniture, leather, pottery, bricks from clays, etc. • On the basis of the raw materials used, the in- • Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver and dustries are classified as: (a) agro-based; (b) bronze. mineral based; (c) chemical-based; (d) forest- based: and (e) animal-based. Small Scale Manufacturing • Major agro-processing industries are food pro- • Small scale manufacturing is distinguished from cessing, sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages household industries by its production tech- (tea, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats and niques and place of manufacture (a workshop textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc. outside the home/cottage of the producer). • Agro-processing includes canning, producing • This type of manufacturing uses local raw mate- cream, fruit processing and confectionery. rial, simple power-driven machines and semi- • Timber for the furniture industry, wood, bam- skilled labour. boo and grass for the paper industry, lac for lac • It provides employment and raises local pur- industries come from forests. chasing power. • Leather for the leather industry and wool for • Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia woollen textiles are obtained from animals. and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensive Industries Based on Output/Product small scale manufacturing in order to provide employment to their population. • The industries whose products are used as raw material to make other goods are called basic Large Scale Manufacturing industries. • Large scale manufacturing involves a large mar- • E.g. Iron and steel, copper smelting and alu- ket, various raw materials, enormous energy, minium smelting industries. specialised workers, advanced technology, as- • The consumer goods industries produced sembly-line mass production and large capital. goods which are consumed by consumers di- • This kind of manufacturing developed in the rectly. last 200 years, in the United Kingdom, north- • E.g. industries producing bread, tea, soaps, pa- eastern U.S.A. and Europe. Now it has diffused per, etc. are consumer goods or non-basic in- to almost all over the world. dustries. • On the basis of the system of large scale manu- 1.2.3 Foot Loose Industries facturing, the world’s major industrial regions

• However, domestic production is simply not enough to satisfy the demand of Indian jute mills. • The constant increase in rice cropped area in the delta region further complicates the situation. • India imports significant quantities of jute fibre from Bangladesh to meet the shortfall. • Antiquated technology and machinery, shortage of power and industrial sickness affect production. • Newly established factories in Bangladesh are posing a tough competition. • Adoption of synthetic alternatives (polythene, nylon) has resulted in the decline of demand for jute. 5.3. Future positives for the jute industry

• Emerging environment consciousness can turn the fortunes of jute as it meets all the standards of safe packaging (natural, renewable, biodegradable). • Some advanced countries are already switching to jute. • The main buyers of Indian jute products are the USA, EU, Canada, Russia, etc. 5.4. Top jute producing, exporting and importing countries

• Top producers of jute: India and Bangladesh. • Top consumers of jute: India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. • Top exporters of jute: Bangladesh and India. • Top importers of jute: Pakistan and India.

6. Silk Textile Industry

• Silk is a fibre made up two different proteins – 4. Silk yarn: the silk filaments are woven to- sericin and fibroin. gether to form a thread. These threads are • A layer of sericin surrounds the fibroin core often plied together to form a yarn. (80% of silk fibre). • The pigments in the sericin layer impart colour to the silk. • Silk is used to make silk fabric, parachutes, teeth braces (Italy) and fishing nets around the world. • Sericulture is the process of breeding silkworms and extracting silk from them. • The production of mulberry silk involves the following processes. 1. Moriculture: the cultivation of mulberry leaves. 2. Silkworm rearing: promoting the growth of the silkworm by feeding mulberry leaves. 3. Silk reeling: the extraction of silk filaments from the silkworm cocoons.

• Mulberry plant that can be grown under var- • Wild Silks ― Tussar (creamy), Eri (coppery) and ied climatic conditions ranging from temper- Muga Silk (golden) ― are secreted by wild ate to tropical. silkworms. • The pant grows well in slightly acidic soils that • India is the only country producing all known receive an annual rainfall ranging from 60 to commercial varieties of silk. 250 cm. • Mulberry silk (80 per cent of the country's total • Today, China accounts for over 70% of the silk; Eri silk is second) is of superior quality and global silk production and 90% of the is produced in the states of Karnataka, Andhra world's silk exports. Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jam- • India is a distant second with 18% of the mu and Kasmir. world's silk production. • Wild silks are mostly produced in the forests of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Bi- 6.1. Silk Industry in India har, Odisha, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and • There are mainly four types of silk varieties pro- Nagaland. duced by different species of silkworms. • Muga silk (golden silk) is exclusively obtained • Mulberry silk (white) is secreted by the cater- from the Brahmaputra valley of Assam. pillar of Bombyx mori which feeds on mulberry • Assam has received a geographical indication leaves. (GI) for the production of Muga silk. State Production of silk in Silk producing regions Tonnes (2016-17) 1. Karnataka 9571 31.5 % Mulberry silk in Mysuru (Ramanagara), Kolar, Bengaluru Rural (Devanahalli) and Chikkaballapura districts in the Old Mysore region 2. Andhra Pradesh 5971 19.7 % Anantapur, Chittoor Districts (Rayalaseema region) 3. Assam 3810 12.6 % Muga silk in Brahmaputra Valley region 4. Jharkhand 2631 8.7 % Tussar (tasar) silk in Singhbhum District 5. West Bengal 2565 8.5 % Murshidabad and Birbhum district 6. Tamil Nadu 1914 6.3 % Coimbatore, Dharmapuri and Salem district Total 30348 • Important centres of silk industry are • Varanasi, Kanchipuram, Murshidabad (W.B.), ✓ Mysore in Karnataka; Dharmavaram (Anantapur District) in Andhra ✓ Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh; Pradesh and Bhagalpur in Bihar are famous for ✓ Dharmavaram, Pochampalli, Venkatagiri, silk sarees. Narainpet in Andhra Pradesh; • There is a massive demand for these sarees in ✓ Kashmir division; the local market. ✓ Bhagalpur in Bihar and • Silk and silk products are exported to USA, U.K., ✓ Murshidabad in West Bengal. Kuwait, Russia, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and UAE. 6.1.1 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Karnataka

• Silk textile industry in Karnataka is concentrated in the Old Mysore regions and Belagavi district. Historical aspects • Tipu Sultan was the first to import silk cocoons from China in the 18th century. • He sent craftsman to Bengal to learn sericulture. • More impetus was provided by the demand for Mysore silk for the manufacturing of parachutes during WW II. Raw material • Karnataka is the largest raw silk producing state in India. • It produces only mulberry silk and accounts for over 50 per cent of India's mulberry silk. • Sericulture is concentrated around Mysuru (Ramanagara), Kolar, Bengaluru Rural (De- vanahalli) and Chikkaballapura districts in the Old Mysore region. Labour • Cheap labour is readily available. Technology • The Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (CSRTI) is located in Mysore. • The institute has developed many high yielding varieties of mulberry and silkworms. • GOI has set a goal of making the nation self-sufficient in bivoltine silk, a high-grade variety made with silkworms that lay two batches of eggs per year. • In response, the Japan International Cooperation Agency has provided technical cooperation to the country since 1991. • Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu saw the widespread adoption of bivoltine production techniques since then. Water • Cauvery and Arkavathi rivers provide water for washing, bleaching and dyeing. Market • The crepe silk saris (made of pure silk interwoven with gold zari threads) have market throughout India. • Silk and silk fabric produced in Karnataka are exported to famous silk saree making centres like Varanasi, Kanchipuram, Bhagalpur, Jammu and Kashmir, etc. Government • Mysore Silk, crafted under the aegis of the Karnataka Silk Industries Corporation, now support has the additional distinction of a GI tag.

6.1.2 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Varanasi

• Banarasi silk sarees are famous for intricate weaving and craftsmanship with a tinge of Mughal and Indian cultures. • The sarees are worked on both handlooms (85% of the silk consumption) and power looms. Historical aspects • The Mughals heavily patronized the Banarasi silk industry. • Muslim craftsman are involved in weaving silk sarees in Banarasi since the Mughal era. Labour • Highly skilled Muslim craftsman (Muslim weaver community known by the name of An- sari) are involved in weaving silk sarees in Banarasi since the Mughal era. Raw material • Silk is obtained from Karnataka. (Silk Industry is not a weight losing industry) • Fine quality silk is also imported from China. • Zari thread (thread made of fine gold or silver) is obtained from Gujarat Water • Varanasi is located on the left bank of the Ganges (provides water for washing and dyeing of silk). Market • Banarasi saris are very popular all across India.

Government • In 2009, weaver associations in Uttar Pradesh secured Geographical Indication (GI) recognition rights for the 'Banaras Brocades and Sarees'. • This means, saree or brocade made in the six districts of Uttar Pradesh, that is Varana- si, Mirzapur, Chandauli, Bhadohi, Jaunpur and Azamgarh districts, can be legally sold under the name of Banaras saree and brocade.

6.1.3 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Kanchipuram

Historical • During the reign of Krishnadevaraya (Vijayanagara Dynasty) two weaving communities from aspects Andhra Pradesh, the Devangas and the Saligars moved to Kanchipuram and started their hereditary profession there. Labour • Highly skilled weavers with generations of experience are available throughout the region. • The sarees are handwoven. Raw material • Silk is obtained from Karnataka. Cotton yarn is available in the vicinity. • Zari thread (thread made of fine gold or silver) is obtained from Gujarat. Water • Kanchipuram is located close to the left bank of the Palar river. Market • Kanchipuram saris are worn as bridal & special occasion saris by most South Indian women. Government • Kanchipuram saris have been recognized as a Geographical indication by GOI. recognition

6.1.4 Factors Responsible for the Localization of Silk Industry in Jammu and Kashmir

Historical • Jammu and Kashmir was one of the centres of the ancient silk route. aspects

• The modern silk industry was started in Srinagar in the 1890s under the patronage of Brit- ish. Labour • The famous shawl industry of Kashmir which had provided means of livelihood to a sizeable section of the population had started to decline. • In order to compensate for this decline, the state took several measures for the development of the silk industry. Raw material • Jammu and Kashmir produces the best quality bivoltine mulberry silk because of condu- cive climatic conditions. Technology • Reeling machinery was imported from Europe early on. Market • Kashmiri Silk Saree has a good market in India.

6.1.5 Issues faced by Indian Silk Industry

• India imports a considerable amount of silk (bivoltine mulberry silk) from China as the domestic raw silk is nowhere near the quality of the Chinese silk. Chinese silk can be easily worked on power looms. • Domestic raw silk is not of uniform thickness due to poor quality of cocoon, and our producers use obsolete reeling machines to make yarn. • The synthetic fibres (nylon) and artificial silk being less expensive and easy to maintain, have been responsible for reducing the popularity of silk. • Investment is had to find as most of the silk industry operates in the unorganized sector at the household level. 6.2. Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in China

• China has dominated the global silk industry as the world's largest silk producer, exporter, and consumer. Historical aspects • Silk was discovered around 3500 BC in China. It was a closely guarded secret for centu- ries. Labour • Low-cost labour for producing silk are readily available. • Highly skilled labour force with generations of experience in weaving silk fabric is also available. Raw material • China is the world's largest silk producer. • Chinese silk is of high quality and is easy to be worked on power looms. • Silk is mainly produced in the south of the Yangtze River Delta (Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces). Climate • China's climate is highly favourable for cultivating multiple varieties of silk. • Unvoltine (hatch once a year), bivoltine (hatch twice a year) and polyvoltine (hatch more than twice a year) mulberry silk cocoons are successfully reared. Economic Link- • Cities such as Hangzhou and Nanjing are well known for their silk industries. ages • Their proximity to the Shanghai textile industries has been an advantage. Technology • The Chinese scientists have developed hybrid varieties using European and Japanese silkworms, which makes it possible to rear silkworms up to seven times a year. Innovation • In Pearl River valley, additional income is obtained by combining sericulture with fisheries (dead silkworm and their wastes are fed to fishes) for higher income. Water • Yangtze River provides water for washing, bleaching and dyeing. Market • India, Europe and the U.S. import a large quantity of Chinese silk and silk fabric. Government • The Chinese government encourages the formation of silk cooperatives (silk com- support munes) for greater efficiency. • It also provides various incentives for the modernization of the industry. • As the land cost and workforce cost is increasing on the east coast, business is shifting to the west. • Western parts are more focused on raw silk production due to its natural weather and soil conditions. 6.3. Silk Industry Outside India and China

• Sericulture outside India and China was not Gulf region (that had suitable climatic condi- successful. tions) was never higher than that of tobacco • Several textile industries in Europe import Chi- (Virginia), soybean (Virginia) and cotton (Geor- nese silk and cotton to cater to the nearby mar- gia). kets. 6.3.3 Europe 6.3.1 Japan • Sericulture was even introduced in Europe • During the medieval times, poor peasants in (France & Italy) in the early 19th century. Japan used silk production as a secondary • Several epidemics in silkworms across Europe in source of income. the 1840s wiped out most of the sericulture in- • After the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the port of dustry. Yokohama (South of Tokyo) was developed for • Due to high labour costs, the sericulture indus- trading silk. try never took off after the epidemics. • By the early 20th century, rapidly industrializing Cotton Textile Industry in Italy (Lombardy and Japan was producing as much as 60% of the Prato) and Silk Textile Industry in France (Lyon) world's raw silk. • The Japanese silk fabric was in demand in Brit- • In the world of high fashion, the "Made in Italy" ain and the U.S. and "Made in France" tags have a distinct brand • Post-WW II, the continued rise of synthetic fi- value. bres (nylon in the U.S.), high labour costs, com- • Some of the finest fashion designers and textile petition from shipping, automobile & semicon- companies are based in France and Italy. ductor industries contributed to the decline of • Hence, apparel and other fashion goods with Japan's silk industry. these tags command a higher price across the • For example, in Toyota in Aichi Prefecture world. near Nagoya (previously, Koromo town), the • The Italian and French fabric producers are less profitable silk industry was replaced by closer to high-value markets (Europe, U.S. and Toyota Motor Corporation's manufacturing rich royal families in the Middle East), and in the plants. fast-paced world of high fashion, this matters. • The demand for silk fabric in the domestic mar- • These factors along with the Chinese capital, ket also fell due to westernization of Japan. raw material and workforce have given rise to • By 1975, Japan was no longer a net exporter of modern silk. ✓ cotton textile industry in Lombardy and Prato (Italy) and 6.3.2 The U.S. ✓ silk textile industry in Lyon (France), even

• There was some limited silk production in Vir- though these regions have no raw material ginia and Georgia from 1600s to 1760s. base. • A blight on mulberry trees in the 1840s forced • To accommodate the Chinese workforce, direct American factories to switch to importing Chi- flights are run between China & Italy (Go Coro- nese raw silk. na Go!). • America's silk experiment finally failed as the comparative advantage of sericulture in the 56

7. Sugar Industry

You must first read GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns > Major Cash Crops of India > Sugarcane

• Producing sugar involves the following steps: 2. removing the impurities from the juice, 1. extracting the juice from the sugarcane (in 3. crystallizing the sucrose content in the juice tropical regions) or sugar beet (a tuber to obtain raw brown sugar. crop in the temperate areas ― used as an 4. refining raw sugar to obtain refined white alternative to expensive sugar imports from sugar. tropical countries), • The production of raw sugar is done in a sugar mill. • The refining (removal of impurities) of the raw sugar is done in a sugar refinery.

Sugar mill Sugar refinery Inputs • Raw sugarcane, water, power • Brown sugar, water, power Output • Brown sugar that contains impurities like • White refined sugar molasses. • Molasses: provides the raw material for manufacturing alcohol (ethanol). • Bagasse (cane residue): used for manufac-

turing paper and also as fuel in the mills. • Pressmud: used as soil amendment (com- post) to increase fertility. Most de- • Sugarcane (and also sugar beet) is bulky, • Brown sugar is neither perishable nor termining highly perishable and significantly weight weight losing. locational losing (sugar accounts for only ~10% of • Sugar refining can be done year-round. factor the bulky sugarcane). • Hence a sugar refinery can be set up near • Sugar mills can be operated only during or relatively at a distant location (near the cane harvesting period. ports for export ― Mumbai port, Kol- • Hence a sugar mill must be located close kata and Haldia ports, etc.) from a sugar to the cane growing areas. mill. • Markets are the most determining factor.

7.1. Major Factors that influence the location of sugar industry

Raw material • The quality of sugarcane plays the most important role in production costs. • Fifty per cent cost of production is accounted for by sugarcane alone. • Hence the sugarcane mills are confined to the sugarcane growing regions of the tropics (hot, humid, less windy areas). Transportation • Sugarcane is highly perishable and significantly weight losing raw material. • Once the sugarcane is harvested, the cane starts to dry up, and the sucrose content starts to decline rapidly. • It is prohibitively expensive to transport sugarcane over long-distances. • Hence the sugar mills are always located close to the cane growing areas (Hence the cane is always grown close to the mills ― usually within a 100 km radius). Water • Sugarcane is a water-intensive crop with a crop season of 12 to 18 months. • The germination to ripening phase is itself close to a year. • Hence the availability of water year-round is a critical factor for cane cultivation. Labour • Sugarcane is not harvested year-round & the crushing season varies from 4 to 8 months. • Hence the availability of seasonal labour is critical for both harvesting and processing. • In India, harvesting and milling is done by migrant workers. Capital • Sugarcane processing is a capital intensive industry. Financial services and policy support are critical for the industry to remain competitive. Policy • In India, lack of proper policy support and timely financial services have severely ham- pered the modernization of the industry. Power • Power is readily available in the form of bagasse. • Hence sugar mills can be set up far away from coal and other power sources. 7.2. Major Sugar Producers cal climates with the remaining 20% derived from sugar beet. • Approximately 80% of the world's sugar is pro- • In the 2018-2019 crop year, sugar production duced from sugarcane in tropical and subtropi- was 179 million metric tons (MT).

• India (33 MT) became the world's largest sugar • For 2019/2020, India expects sugar production producer in 2018/2019. to drop to 26%. • It overtook Brazil (29.5 MT) for the first time in • This is because of droughts in 2018 and floods 16 years. in 2019 in Maharashtra. • Brazil, Thailand, Australia, India are the leading • Sugar mills in India are concentrated in the sug- exporters of sugar. arcane growing regions. • Uttar Pradesh is the leading sugarcane produc- • Uttar Pradesh: The western belt includes Mee- ing State. rut, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Bijnor and Mo- • Sugar production in U.P. in 2018-19 is estimat- radabad, and the eastern belt includes Gorakh- ed to be around 13.5 MT. pur, Deoria, Basti and Gonda. • Sugar production in Maharashtra in 2018-19 is • Bihar: extension of the eastern UP belt, which estimated to be around 11.5 MT. includes Darbhanga, Saran, Champaran and • In Feb 2020, for better use of surplus sugar Muzaffarpur. stock, GOI approved an increase in the price of • Maharashtra: Ahmednagar, Kolhapur, Solapur, ethanol to be procured by public sector oil Satara, Pune and Nashik districts. marketing companies (OMCs) from sugar mills • Tamil Nadu: Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Karur and for blending with petrol. Tiruchchirappalli districts. • Karnataka: Belgaum, Mandya and Mysore districts. • Andhra Pradesh. East Godawari West Godavari, Krishna, Vishakhapatnam, and Chittoor districts.

7.2.1 The rise and fall of Cuban Sugar In- dustry

• Cuba is known as the sugar-bowl of the world. But it is nowhere in the list of top exporters.

The rise

• In the 18th century, Cuba became a prosperous sugar-producing colony of Spain. • Just like cotton in the American South, the Cu- ban sugar industry benefited greatly from slav- ery. • Cuba's independence from Spain in 1898 led to financial and technological investments in the Cuban sugar economy from the USA.

• The USA remained the biggest importer of Cu- • The decision will help in further increasing the ban sugar. ethanol blend levels in petrol from the current • Cuba remained unchallenged as the world's 6%. largest sugar producer until the 1960s.

The fall workers led to higher production cost per unit area. • Cuba's sugar production suffered greatly at the • USA's embargo against Cuba restricted sugar outset of the industrialization drive in 1962. imports and export of machinery. • The industrial restructuring (formation of collec- • The loss of the single largest market – the USA tives) created a severe labour shortage. – meant that Cuba had to rely heavily on USSR. • The fragmentation of landholding due to • After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Castro's policy of redistribution of the confis- the Cuban sugar industry collapsed. cated American owned plantations among 7.3. Sugar Industry in Peninsular India vs Sugar Industry in North India

North India (Sutlej-Ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar) South India (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh) • Low yield and productivity. • The tropical climate gives a higher yield per unit • High summer temperatures ranging from 30° to area as compared to north India. 35°C and Loo (dry, scorching wind in May and • No winds like 'loo' during summer. June with a desiccating effect) leads to low growth • Reasonably high temperature during winter. and fibrous crop. • Frost-free climate throughout the year. • In winter months (December and January) the crop • High maritime influence = moderate climate = de- is likely to be damaged by severe cold and frost. creased crop duration and higher sucrose con- • Hence it must be harvested before frost season. tent. • Perennial rivers and large scale irrigation facilities. • Non-perennial rivers. • Irrigational facilities have improved over time. • The crushing season ranges from 4 to 8 months. • Yearlong crushing (factories keep running throughout the year) • Has more mills than the south but they are of • Mills are comparatively large and modern. comparatively smaller size and use antiquated technology. • The co-operative sugar mills are under the pres- • The co-operative sugar mills are better managed sure of undue political & social interferences. in the south than in the north.

Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra

• Vast alluvial plains with soils rich in lime and pot- • The regur soils (black clayey soils) of the Deccan ash. Plateau are good at soil retention. • Abundant water for washing and processing. • The major sugar belt lies along the river valleys of • Seasonal labour is readily available. Western Maharashtra which is close to the Mum- bai port.

Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh

• Maritime influence (moderate climate) and fertile soils ― high yield per hectare, higher sucrose con-

tent, high recovery rate and long crushing season • As a result of better conditions prevailing in peninsular India, the sugar industry is gradually shifting from north India to peninsular India.

7.3.2 Mains Question

Mains Practise: South India offers more favour- • Most favourable weather conditions (free from able climatic conditions for the growth of sug- loo and frost). arcane, but the most important sugarcane belt is • Development of extensive irrigational facilities in north India. What is the reason for this para- in the past few decades. doxical situation? • Yearlong crushing season. (In the north, the • Before World War I, the northern plain area was crushing period is restricted to 4-8 months) mainly used for growing indigo. • High maritime influence = moderate climate = • With the introduction of cheap aniline dyes, in- does not reduce sugar content (extremely high digo lost its market by the time of WW I. temperature and low rainfall lead to fibrous • Consequently, indigo's place was taken by sug- crop). arcane cultivation in the north. 7.4. Challenges faced by the sugar Other factors industry in India • Sugarcane needs good irrigational facilities • The Indian sugarcane has low sucrose content throughout the year. and gives poor yields compared to the global • Such facilities were available in the north due to average. perennial river systems. • The production cost of sugar in India is one of • On the other hand, south has only non- the highest in the world. perennial rivers. • Also, irrigational facilities were previously non- Issues faced by mills existent in most parts of the south. • Since the harvesting can be done only in a par- • In the southern states, sugarcane faces tough ticular season, the crushing is confined to a lim- competition from cotton, tobacco, groundnut, ited period, and the sugar factories remain idle coconut, etc. for the rest of the period. • The peninsular sugarcane is not grown in com- • Most of the machinery used in Indian sugar pact blocks (close to mills), as in Uttar Pradesh mills, particularly those of UP and Bihar are old and Bihar. and obsolete. Mains 2013 Question: Do you agree that there is • Due to low profitability, the industry is unwilling a growing trend of opening new sugar mills in to modernize. the southern states of India? Discuss with justifi- • Low rate of recovery: the average rate of recov- cation (5 marks) (100 words) ery in India is less than 10 per cent compared to • Previously, north India used to produce about other major sugar-producing countries (14- 16 90 per cent of India's sugar. per cent). • It has now reduced to around 40%. Fluctuating availability of sugarcane for mills More sugarcane cultivation = More sugar mills. • Sugarcane requires 10 to 18 months to mature. 61

• This makes it extremely vulnerable to vagaries • Sugarcane has to compete with several other of the monsoons. crops like cotton, oilseeds, rice, etc. • Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar con- Government apathy tent & deficiency in rainfall produces a fibrous crop. • GOI imposes high excise duty on sugar exports. • Two-thirds of the total sugarcane produced in • GOI has made it mandatory to use jute bags India is used for making jaggery and khandsari, instead of synthetic bags to store 20% of the and the rest goes to sugar factories. produced sugar. • Since khandsari industry is free from excise du- • Through it is done to save the jute industry, it ty, it can offer higher prices of cane to the cane has turned out into a problem for the sugar in- growers. dustry as jute bags lead to more spillage. 8. Tea Industry

You must first read GS3: Major Crops and Crop- • Fermentation: The tea leaves are placed in a ping Patterns > Plantation Crops in India > Tea controlled humid atmosphere allowing the & Coffee leaves to oxidize. • The duration of exposure to oxygen affects the Major steps involved in the cultivation and processing of tea leaves: degree of fermentation, resulting in darkened leaves. • Plantation: tea plantations are managed as large • Black tea leaves (consumed with milk in India) estates with a dedicated labour force. are fermented leaves whereas green tea leaves • Pruning: tea plants will grow into a tree if left (consumed without mixing with milk in coun- undisturbed. Hence, they must be pruned tries like Japan where dairying is absent) are un- (trimming away dead or overgrown branches) fermented. for ease of plucking of leaves by women la- • Drying: the leaves are dried with hot air to pre- bourers from the ground. vent further fermentation. The flavour, aroma • It also enables the growth of new shoots bear- and character of the tea are controlled at this ing soft leaves. stage. • Plucking: hand picking is done by skilled wom- • Auctions: The various grades produced by the en labour. Proper picking is essential to main- tea estates are tasted and auctioned by traders. tain the quality of the leaves and for enabling • Blending: The tea leaves are blended at this the quick growth of new leaves. stage to create many varieties of tea. 8.2. Factors that determine the location of the tea industry

Climate • Tea bush requires warm (20°-30°C), moist (150-300 cm), frost-free climate through the year. • Tea plantations in India are rarely above 1,800 meters. Above this height, low temperatures and frost become the detrimental factors. • Frequent showers evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves. E.g. Darjeeling tea. • High humidity, heavy dew, and morning fog favour rapid development of young leaves.

E.g. Darjeeling tea. Vegetation • Tea is a shade-loving plant and develops more vigorously under shade. Topography • Waterlogging is detrimental to its roots. • Hence good soil drainage is a must for tea cultivation. • The undulating topography of hilly areas with virgin soils is ideal for teal cultivation. Soil • Virgin forest soils rich in humus and iron content are considered to be the best. E.g. Darjee- ling tea. • A relatively large proportion of phosphorus and potash in the soil gives a special flavour to the tea. E.g. Darjeeling tea. Capital • Tea cultivation and processing is a capital intensive industry. • Tea plants take about four years to mature. • Labour costs have accounted for around 45-60% of the total cost of production. • In the initial stages, the tea plantations were entirely financed by the British. • At present, the formal banking sector is playing a crucial role in supporting the organized tea industry. Labour • Tea has to be processed within the tea garden to preserve its freshness and quality. • Everything from fermentation to auctions occur at the tea estate itself. • Mechanization is not feasible as the tea cultivation is carried out on undulating topography of hilly areas. • This makes tea cultivation a labour-intensive industry that requires abundant, cheap, and skilled labour at every stage (from plantation to blending). 8.3. Major tea producing areas in In- • The Plantation Act permitted bonded labourers dia from Bihar & Bengal to work and settle on the plantations. • Upper Assam (upper Brahmaputra valley), • Capital: initially, in the 1830s, it was the British Lower Assam and Darjeeling, Nilgiri Hills of that infused the capital and created a thriving South India. tea industry in Darjeeling. The tea industry is 8.3.1 Tea industry of the Darjeeling district now self-reliant. • Market: Darjeeling tea, because of its distinc- • Climate: frequent showers, heavy dew, and tive aroma, is highly valued in the international morning fog improve tea quality. markets. • Cold winters retard plant growth and result in • Initially, the British had a full monopoly over the low yield compared to other regions in the NE. Darjeeling tea trade. With India gaining inde- • Soil: deep clayey soils rich in potash and phos- pendence, the Darjeeling tea thrived in the in- phorous give the tea a distinctive flavour. ternational market. • Topography: Less steep hills (low gradients) is • Transport: Kolkata port for exports. an added advantage. Mains 2014 Question • Labour: large estates with permanent labour force thrived since the time of the British. Whereas the British planters had developed tea gardens all along the Shivaliks and Lesser Hima- layas from Assam to Himachal Pradesh, in ef-

• The small size of the manufacturing units with • Pulp for paper: Brazil (24%); Canada (15%); obsolete technology makes them uneconomic. U.S.A. (11%); Chile (8%); Indonesia (7%); Finland • The cost of imported wood pulp and wastepa- (6%). per is ever increasing. • Recovered paper: U.S.A. (34%); United Kingdom • The production of paper, paper board and (8%); Japan (7%); Netherlands (5%); Germany above all, newsprint has always fallen short of (5%). the demand. • Paper and paperboard: Germany (12%); U.S.A. • This has forced the country to resort to heavy (10%); Finland (9%); Sweden (8%); Canada (6%); imports. Pulp, paper, paper board, newsprint China (4%). and wastepaper are imported from Norway, Major importers of forest products (2018) Sweden, Canada, etc. • Effluents released by the paper mills into open • Sawn wood: China (25%); U.S.A. (18%); United drains and rivers cause severe environmental is- Kingdom (5%); Japan (4%); Germany (4%). sues. • Pulp for paper: China (35%); U.S.A. (9%); Ger- many (7%); Italy (6%). 11.9. International lumber, pulp and • Recovered paper: China (31%); India (12%); paper imports and exports Germany (9%); Indonesia (6%). • Paper and paperboard: Germany (10%); U.S.A. Major exporters of forest products (2018) (8%); China (5%); Italy (5%); United Kingdom • Sawn wood: Russia (20%); Canada (19%); Swe- (4%). den (8%); Germany (6%); Finland (6%); U.S.A. Source (5%). 12. Commercial Marine Fishing Industry

• Aquaculture involves cultivating aquatic (freshwater and saltwater) populations (fish, crustaceans, molluscs, shrimp, crab, etc.) under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish (fish, whales, seals, etc.). • In 2018, an estimated 59.5 million people were engaged in the primary sector of fisheries and aquaculture. • In total, about 20.5 million people were employed in aquaculture and 39.0 million in fisheries. • World aquaculture production of farmed aquatic animals has been dominated by Asia (89 per cent share). • China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, etc. are the major aquaculture producers. 12.1. Marine Capture Fisheries

• Commercially, marine fisheries are a lot more important than freshwater (inland) fisheries. Production of fisheries & aquaculture 2017 2018 Capture Inland 11.9 12.0 Marine 81.2 84.4 Total capture 93.1 96.4 Aquaculture

Inland 49.6 51.3 Marine 30.0 30.8 Total aquaculture 79.5 82.1 Total world fisheries and aquaculture 172.7 178.5

• China, Indonesia, India, U.S.A., Russia, Peru, Japan, Vietnam, Norway, Denmark, Canada, etc. are the major marine fishing nations. • Tropical countries like Indonesia, India, Vietnam, etc. are mostly involved in intensive inshore (near the shore) fishing by small fishers and small to medium scale fishing trawlers. • China, U.S.A., Russia, Japan, Norway, Denmark, etc. are focused on both inshore and deep-sea fishing. • The deep-sea fishing operations are carried out by highly mechanized trawlers. • Modern canning and refrigeration facilities have greatly helped the fish export trade of these countries. • Canada, the U.S.A., Greenland, Norway, South Africa and Argentina are the major sealing nations. • Japan, Norway & Russia are the leading whaling nations. Most of the whaling happens in the North Pacific. • In recent years, whaling and sealing have decreased due to pressure from conservationists.

12.2. Factors that create the most fertile marine fishing grounds

Water temperature • Marine life is best developed in oceans of the high latitudes whose waters are at temperatures lower than 20 °C. • This is because the fish feed on minute marine organisms called plankton, and the plankton multiplies best in colder waters. • In the tropics, the warmer waters significantly inhibit the growth rate of the plankton population. • Hence the temperate and sub-polar seas (seas in the higher latitudes) offer better fishing grounds compared to the tropics. Ocean topography • Plankton of all kinds are abundantly available in shallow waters (continental shelves) where they have access to both sunlight as well as nutrients (brought by rivers). • Hence the most exceptional fishing grounds are found above continental shelves in the higher latitudes. Ocean water mix- • Plankton need both sunlight and nutrients (such as nitrate and phosphate) to be ing and upwelling able to photosynthesize. zones • Sunlight is only available in the uppermost layers. • During photosynthesis, the nutrients are quickly used up by phytoplankton, so they are not available for long periods in the upper layers under normal circumstances. • To escape this problem, the seawater needs to be mixed regularly to bring the nutrient-rich deep waters up to the sunlight zone.

Phytoplankton production is highest at high latitudes • Furthermore, in surroundings where atmospheric temperatures are often colder than oceanic temperatures, the top layers of the ocean are cooled by the atmosphere. • This increases the density of the surface waters and causes them to sink and therefore causes mixing (nutrient-deficient water sinks and nutrient-rich water is upwelled). • Hence the cold & warm current mixing zones (e.g. Grand Banks) and nutrient- rich cold water upwelling zones (e.g. upwelling near Peruvian coast) form fertile fishing grounds. 12.3. Factors that determine the location of the commercial fishing industry

Proximity to the • Proximity to the fishing grounds reduces refrigeration and transportation costs. fishing grounds • However, with the highly mechanized modern trawlers, proximity to the fishing grounds is no longer a significant factor. • For example, Japanese trawlers venture into waters as far as Antarctica & Grand Banks. Climate • The cold climate of the higher latitudes makes refrigeration (preservation and storage of fish) economical. • Whereas in tropics, the warmer climate and higher humidity (fungal and bacterial attacks) make preservation and storage (refrigeration) more expensive. • Hence the commercial marine fishing industry is less viable in tropics. Ports • Sheltered inlets and estuarine coasts make ideal sites for fishing ports and villages. • Both the Atlantic and Pacific coastlines of the middle and high latitudes in the northern hemisphere are very much indented and are backed by strong relief. • Here, ports exclusively for fishing industry are developed. The fishing ports have all the necessary infrastructure from processing to canning units. • Fishing ports make the fishing industry efficient and cost-effective. Capital • The commercial success of marine fishery depends on the cost optimization with the help of efficient technology. • Hence a lot of capital is required for R&D, mechanization and infrastructure. • Europe, Japan, U.S.A. and Canada have the requisite capital and well established financial services for the cost-intensive and risky marine fishery industry. Market • Fish are used as food, and raw material for fertilizers, lubricants, cosmetics, etc. • Seals and whales are hunted for meat, fur and oil. • Fish, fish meal, and fish waste are widely used as animal feed and feed for aquaculture and as fertilizer for paddy fields. • Fish oil represents the richest available source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which perform a wide range of critical functions for human health.

Fish as a primary food source

• Europe is a net exporter of horticulture products and a net importer of food grains and meat. • Fish meat is the most affordable option in many countries like Norway (hilly terrain; ice-covered land; little scope for agriculture and dairying; most of the population living along the coast). • Just like Norway, Japan has very few dietary alternatives to fish.

Fish as an essential part of the diet

• There is a great demand for fish along the North American coasts which are mostly in- habited by European settlers. • With the rapid economic development in Asia since the 1990s, fish is gaining a lot of importance as an inexpensive alternative to meat in the densely populated coastal re-

gions.

The insignificant market in the southern hemisphere

• On the other hand, commercial fishing is not of prime importance in the southern hemisphere (Peru, Falkland Islands are an exception) where cattle rearing and dairying are more economical options. • (Cattle rearing in Pampas of South America and Eastern Australia, dairying in New Zealand and agriculture in South Africa). Employment • Lack of viable alternate employment opportunities in the primary sector since time im- memorial has played a significant role in high dependence of Japan and Norway on the fishing industry. • Japan has high population pressure, hilly terrain & forests and very little cultivable land. • Norway is mostly hilly and experiences long, harsh winter months. • Hence, venturing into deep-sea fishing has remained the most practical and feasible primary economic activity for these countries. 12.4. The major commercial marine fishing grounds of the world

• The continental shelves of North-East Atlan- • This explains the abundant fish resources in the tic, North-West Atlantic and North-West Pa- region (Iceland continental shelf & North Sea cific are the most important global commercial continental shelf). fishing grounds. • Fishing is done on a highly organized basis by • The continental shelf around the Falkland Norway, Denmark, Spain, Iceland and the Islands and upwelling zones along the Peru- U.K. vian and Chilian coast are other major fishing • Fishing goes on all round the year in the shal- regions. low waters of the North Sea. • Dogger Bank is the most vigorously exploited region.

12.4.2 North-West Atlantic Region

• The North-West Atlantic Region extends from Newfoundland to the New England states of the U.S.A.

• Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold Labra- 12.4.1 North-East Atlantic Region dor currents and gently sloping continental shelves makes the region around the Grand • Colder atmospheric temperatures, and warmer Banks of Newfoundland the world's largest oceanic temperatures (influenced by warm fishing ground. North Atlantic Drift), cause mixing and nutri- • The gently sloping continental shelves stretch ent upwelling in the North-East Atlantic Region. for over 200 miles south-east of Newfoundland.

• Fish of all types and sizes feed and breed here • Within the enclosed seas ― the Sea of and support a thriving fishing industry. Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea and the • In Newfoundland, the fishing industry employs East China Sea ― intensive forms of inshore almost the entire population. (close to the shore) as well as deep-sea fishing • All the fishing activities are carried out by highly are carried out. mechanized trawlers which can store fish in re- • In the case of inshore fishing, processing (gut- frigerated chambers for months. ting to meat cuts) and canning is done at the • St. John's, chief port of Newfoundland is the fishing ports. headquarters of the Grand Banks fishing indus- • In deep-sea fishing, processing happens on the tries. vessel, and the meat is refrigerated for canning at the ports. • Commercial fishing is best developed in Japan, where the industry is very highly organized.

Pearl Fishery in Japan

• Natural pearls are derived mainly from oysters. • It was the Japanese that invented cultured pearls in 1913. • Young oysters are first collected, and grains of mother-of-pearl (the inner lining of oyster shells) are inserted into them. They are then placed in wire cages and lowered into shallow coastal waters. • After about two to five years, these oysters will be collected, and the artificial pearls will be extracted. • Japan is the leader in the production of artificial pearls.

• All processing activities like cutting, gutting, Why is fishing the dominant primary sector oc- cleaning, packing (canning) are done at the cupation of Japan? ports itself. Fishing is the only reliable primary sector activi- • Along with Canada and U.S.A., countries like ty Norway, U.K., Portugal, Denmark, Russia and Ja- pan, also send fishing fleets to the Grand Banks. • The rugged (mountainous) nature of Japan and parts of mainland eastern Asia support little 12.4.3 North-West Pacific Region agricultural activity (80 per cent land in Japan is

• The North-West Pacific Region extends from classified as 'non-agricultural'. Around 50% is the Bering Sea to the East China Sea. covered by forests). • China leads in the catch, followed by Russia, • Japan is not well endowed with natural re- Japan, South and North Koreas. sources.

• Hence fishing forms a dominant aspect of the • The Japanese fishing trawlers venture far and primary economy. wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the Atlan- tic waters. Geographical advantage • Advanced financial services, encouraging gov- • The continental shelves around the islands of ernment policy, an advanced technology at Japan are rich in plankton, due to the meeting hand, skilled workforce with decades of experi- of the warm Kuroshio and the cold Oyashio ence in fishing make Japan a leader in the fish- currents and provide excellent breeding ing industry. grounds for all kinds of fish. Whaling

• Hunting and eating whales is a part of Japanese culture. • Whale meat consumption became widespread after World War II when other food was scarce. • In 2018 Japan withdrew from the Internation- al Whaling Commission (I.W.C.) for banning whale hunting. • This means Japan will no longer hunt whales

in the Antarctic, as it did earlier under the Cold and warm ocean current mixing zone off Japan guise of research. • The indented coastline of Japan provides • The whaling will be conducted within Japan's sheltered fishing ports, calm waters and safe territorial waters and Exclusive Economic Zone. landing places, ideal for the fishing industry. • Hakodate and Kushiro are large fishing ports 12.4.4 China, India and South-East Asia with complete refrigeration facilities. China Ready market • China and India are the world's leading pro- • The scarcity of meat (there is little pasture in ducers of inland fish and aquaculture. Japan for livestock farming of any kind) • When it comes to commercial marine fishing, popularised fish as the principal item of diet China was nowhere in the scene until the 1980s. and the chief protein food of the Japanese and • Opening up of the economy in the 1980s, the the Chinese as well. inflow of foreign capital and the subsequent • There exists a great demand for fish and fish rise in income levels has made China one of the products in the nearby countries where the fish- major marine (inshore) fishing countries. ing industry is under-developed. • It is now far ahead of Japan in marine fish pro- • The Japanese make use of fish wastes, fish meal duction. and seaweeds as fertilizers in their farms. • However, for China, aquaculture and inland Capital, technology and infrastructure fisheries are far more important compared to commercial marine fishing. • Japan has huge stakes in international fishing enterprises, and her advanced fishing techniques give her an edge over competitors. 87

• Most of China's marine fishing happens in the • However, just like in China, aquaculture and Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South inland fisheries produce far more fish (70- China Sea. 80%) than commercial marine fishing. • From the table, it is clear that aquaculture in • Technological lag and financial constraints have the dominant form of fisheries in the tropics been the major bottlenecks in the take-off of and China and in the higher latitudes com- the commercial marine (inshore and deep-sea) mercial marine fishing is dominant. fishing industry in India. • By 2030, most of the fish production is going • The case is the same in the South East Asian to come from aquaculture. nations. • In South-East Asia, the South China Sea and India & South East Asia the Sunda continental shelf are major fishing • In India, the west coast is more significant for grounds. fishing than the east coast as the west coast has a more extensive continental shelf. World fisheries harvest for 2018 Country Capture Aquaculture Total Productio in 2018 in Million Tons (MT) 93.7 MT 101.1 MT 199.7 MT China 17.8 63.7 81.5 Indonesia 6.6 16.6 23.2 India 5.1 5.7 10.8 United States 4.9 0.4 5.4 Russia 4.8 0.2 4.9 Peru 3.8 0.1 3.9 Japan 3.3 1.1 4.3 Vietnam 2.8 3.6 6.4 Norway 2.2 1.3 3.5 12.4.5 Southern Hemisphere (Peru and Chile Water == Good for Fishing. Coast) El Nino • Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Warm Ocean • The continental shelf along the South Ameri- Water == Fishing industry takes a hit. can west coast is quite narrow. • However, the Walker Circulation causes upwelling off the coasts of Peru, Chile and Ec- uador. • This brings nutrient-rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks. • The bulk of the fish caught is not eaten but is used in the manufacture of fertilizers. Normal Conditions Falkland Islands (British overseas territory) • Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Cold Ocean

• Off the Argentine coast, the continental shelf is commercial fishing ports are hard to develop in wide, and the cold Falkland current meets the the tropics. warm Brazilian current, thus providing fertile grounds for fishing. ✓ If you purchased these notes from Pmfi- 12.4.6 Commercial marine fishing is little as.com, you have recognized and valued our developed in the southern hemisphere. Ex- plain work and have done us a lot of help. We really appreciate that :) • Topography: The continents in the southern ✓ If you got these notes from elsewhere, then hemisphere have very narrow continental shelves (except for the region around the you can do your bit by making a voluntary Falkland Islands). contribution from here • Market: Cattle rearing in Pampas of South https://imjo.in/5Gp8f5. Thank you in ad- America and Eastern Australia, dairying in New vance :) Zealand and agriculture in South Africa means that the southern hemisphere has more affordable alternatives to fish.

12.4.7 Commercial marine fishing is little developed in the tropics. Explain

• Climate: Warm ocean waters are less favourable for plankton growth. Warm and humid climate increases the cost of refrigeration. • Economies of scale: Fish occur in smaller and scattered groups which make fishing relatively expensive. • Market: Fish are not the primary dietary choice as the tropics have abundant agricultural resources and cheaper proteinaceous foods like poultry. • Export potential: Tropical fish have higher oil content compared to the proteinaceous temperate fish. • Capital: The poor tropical countries do not stand a chance against their affluent temperate counterparts in the capital intensive commercial fishing industry. • Coastline: Most of the tropics have a straight coastline, unlike the temperate region where most of the coast is indented and deep. Hence