Pauquachin!Traditional!Marine!Use! Study " Prepared"For"Proposed"Kinder"Morgan"Trans"Mountain"Expansion,"Marine"Shipping"Component" " " " " ! ! ! ! !

" ! ! ! Pauquachin!Traditional!Marine!Use! Study " Prepared"for"Proposed"Kinder"Morgan"Trans"Mountain"Expansion,"Marine"Shipping"Component" " " " " ! ! ! ! !

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3" ! Acknowledgements! " We"wish"to"acknowledge"the"exceptional"individuals"who"gave"their"time,"positivity,"guidance,"and"trust"to" the"Pauquachin"Marine"Use"Study."Special"thanks"to"Rebecca"Harry,"Danny"Henry,"Darlene"Henry"and"John" Pritchard"for"providing"solid"feedback"and"trusting"our"approach."" " Much"gratitude"to"the"respondents"and"participants"of"this"study:"Max"Henry"Sr.,"Arlene"Henry,"Elmer"Henry," George"David,"Curtis"Henry,"Russell"Henry,"Esther"Harry,"Sylvester"William,"and"Mark"Henry."Your"honesty" and"willingness"to"share"has"brought"to"light"the"resilience,"strength,"and"challenges"facing"the"Pauquachin" community"and"the"Salish"Sea"today."" " "

4" Pauquachin)Traditional)Marine)Use)Study)[DRAFT 1])...... )1" Acknowledgements)...... )4" Project)Understanding)...... )6" Executive)Summary)...... )7" Traditional)Use)Maps)...... )11" Section(I:(W̱SÁNEĆ(ETHNOHISTORY,(CONTEMPORARY(IDENTITY,(AND(CURRENT( ISSUES)...... )17" 1.)Introduction)...... )18" 1.1"Report"Structure"...... "19" 2.)Methodology)...... )19" 2.1""Summary"...... "19" 3.)Literature)Review)...... )20" 3.1$$The$W̱SÁNEĆ$Nation"...... "21" 3.2$$W̱SÁNEĆ$Linguistic$and$Social$Affiliations"...... "22" 3.3###W̱SÁNEĆ#Identity#and#Beliefs"...... "24" 3.4""The"Douglas"Treaty"...... "31" 3.5$$$Traditional$W̱SÁNEĆ Marine"and"Land"Use"...... "33" Section)II:)HARVEST)SURVEY)AND)TRADITIONAL)MARINE)USE)INTERVIEW)RESULTS )...... )43" 4.)Marine)Use)Harvest)Study)...... )44" 4.1"""Methodology,"Participant"Enrolment,"and"Limitations"...... "44" 4.4""Harvest"Study"Results"...... "46" Section)III:)...... )57" W̱ SÁNEĆ(RELATIONSHIPS(WITH(AND(KNOWLEDGE(OF(MARINE(RESOURCES )...... )57" 5.)Gathering)...... )58" 6.)Fishing)...... )68" 7.)Hunting)...... )77" 8.)Marine)Travel)Routes)...... )82" 9.)Review)of)Effects)...... )84" Section)V:)Works)Cited)...... )90" Appendix)A:)Archaeological)Overview)Assessment)of)the)Trans)Mountain)Expansion) Project)Marine)shipping)Component)...... )94" "

5" " " ! Project!Understanding! " This"report"presents"the"results"of"a"traditional"Marine"Use"Study"(MUS),"harvest"study"and"literature"review" undertaken"on"behalf"of"Pauquachin"First"Nation"regarding"Kinder"Morgan’s"application"for"a"Certificate"of" Public"Convenience"and"Necessity"under"Section"52"of"the"National"Energy"Board"Act"to"build"and"operate" the"Trans"Mountain"Pipeline"Expansion"Project."Trans"Mountain"filed"its"application"to"the"National"Energy" Board"(NEB)"in"December"2013."" " Trans"Mountain"is"proposing"an"expansion"of"its"current"1,150"km"pipeline"between"Strathcona"County," Alberta"and"Burnaby,"BC."If"approved,"the"proposed"expansion"will"create"a"twinned"pipeline"which"would" increase"the"capacity"of"the"system"from"300,000"barrels"a"day"to"890,000"barrels"a"day."The"pipeline" expansion"project"(the"Project)"includes:"approximately"981"km"of"new"pipeline,"new"and"modified"facilities" such"as"pump"stations"and"tanks,"and"the"reactivation"of"193"km"of"existing"pipeline"between"Edmonton"and" Burnaby."There"would"also"be"an"expansion"of"the"Westridge"Marine"Terminal"and"new"pipeline"capacity" added"between"Burnaby"Terminal"and"Westridge"Marine"Terminal."The"marine"component"of"the"proposed" expansion"would"increase"the"number"of"vessels,"including"tankers"and"barges,"being"loaded"at"the" Westridge"Marine"Terminal"and"exiting"through"Pauquachin’s"marine"territory"from"five"to"approximately" 37"a"month"(one"way)."The"proposed"expansion"at"Westridge"Terminal"is"geared"toward"loading"245"m" Aframax"tankers,"which"are"larger"than"the"tankers"currently"used." " Pauquachin’s"traditional"territory"is"bisected"by"the"proposed"tanker"route,"by"Trans"Mountain’s"Marine" Local"Study"Area"(LSA),"and"is"encompassed"by"the"entire"Regional"Study"Area"(RSA)."Research"for"this" report"centered"on"activities,"current"and"past,"within"the"marine"environment"of"Pauquachin"Territory,"as" well"as"additional"areas"within"Pauquachin’s"terrestrial"traditional"territory"that"could"be"affected"by"the" Project’s"regular"operations"or"malfunction"and"accidents.""" " "

6" " " Executive!Summary!! " This"Marine"Use"Study"(MUS)"report"presents"the"results"of"a"literature"review,"harvest"surveys"and" traditional"marine"use"interviews"undertaken"on"behalf"of"Pauquachin"First"Nation"regarding"Kinder" Morgan’s"application"for"a"Certificate"of"Public"Convenience"and"Necessity"under"Section"52"of"the"National" Energy"Board"Act"to"build"and"operate"the"Trans"Mountain"Pipeline"Expansion"Project"(the"Project)."It" focuses"on"members’"traditional"land"and"marine"use"in"the"Local"Study"Area"(LSA)"and"Regional"Study"Area" (RSA)"of"the"Trans"Mountain"Expansion"Project"Marine"Shipping"Component."Both"study"areas"are"spatial" components"of"the"impact"assessment"submitted"by"Kinder"Morgan"to"the"National"Energy"Board."Trans" Mountain’s"Marine"LSA"bisects"Pauquachin’s"traditional"territory,"and"the"RSA"for"the"proposed"shipping" component’s"tanker"route"encompasses"Pauquachin’s"traditional"territory"in"its"entirety."" " Research"for"this"report"centered"on"past"and"current"activities"within"the"marine"environment"of" Pauquachin’s"traditional"territory"in"the"Salish"Sea,"as"well"as"additional"areas"within"its"terrestrial"territory" that"may"be"affected"by"the"Project’s"regular"operations,"or"by"other"Project`related"vessels"and/or"other" malfunctions"and"accidents."" " This"study"provides"a"snapshot,"however"incomplete,"of"Pauquachin"members’"use"of"the"Salish"Sea"for"the" purposes"of"fishing,"gathering,"hunting,"and"other"harvesting,"travelling,"and"exercise"of"their"Douglas"Treaty" rights"and"other"Aboriginal"rights"–"especially"in"areas"that"may"be"affected"by"the"Project."It"identifies" specific"areas"that"are"intensively"used,"and"preferred"locations"for"harvesting"and"exercising"Treaty"rights." " Pauquachin"First"Nation"is"located"on"Vancouver"Island,"about"20"minutes"north"of"the"City"of"Victoria,"on" Cole"Bay"IR"No."3"(Aboriginal"Affairs"&"Northern"Development"Canada"2014:"”Reserves/"Settlements/" Villages”)."Approximately"239"of"the"First"Nation’s"394"registered"members"live"on"Cole"Bay,"Pauquachin’s" main"reserve,"with"the"majority"of"the"remaining"registered"members"living"off`reserve"altogether,"and"a" little"less"than"a"quarter"of"all"registered"members"living"on"other"reserves"(Aboriginal"Affairs"2014:" ”Registered"Population”)."In"addition"to"Cole"Bay,"the"Pauquachin"have"a"very"small"reserve"at"the"end"of" Finlayson"Arm"and"the"mouth"of"the"Goldstream"River,"and"another"at"Hatch"Point"on"the"west"shore"of" Saanich"Inlet."Members"of"the"Saanich"Nation"have"continuously"occupied"the"settlement"site"at"Coles"Bay"on" the"west"side"of"the"Saanich"Peninsula"in"the"Saanich"Inlet"since"at"least"the"middle"of"the"19th"century" (Suttles"1974:76,78)." " Eight"Pauquachin"members"participated"in"long`form"marine"harvest"surveys"and"traditional"marine"use" interviews"in"November,"2014."Interviews"focused"on"past"and"current"traditional"use"practices"and" locations,"as"well"as"the"availability"of"marine"resources."The"interviews"followed"a"map"biography"approach," prompting"individuals"to"recall,"locate,"and"describe"harvesting"that"they"had"undertaken"in"their"lives,"as" well"as"knowledge"that"may"have"been"handed"down"to"them"about"lands,"animals,"and"resources." Interviews"were"roughly"structured"around"an"interview"guide,"and"respondents"were"also"asked"to"discuss" the"state"of"the"Salish"Sea"and"the"Saanich"Inlet."Minimal"information"about"Trans"Mountain’s"Project"was" transacted"during"the"interviews."The"following"are"highlights"of"the"research"results:" " • The"LSA"for"the"Project"cuts"through"the"middle"of"Pauquachin’s"traditional"marine"territory,"which" it"shares"with"other"W̱ S Á N E Ć "bands"and"relatives"in"Lummi."The"territory"is"rich"in"Sencoten"

7" placenames,"heritage"sites,"sacred"places,"harvesting"areas,"travel"routes,"and"traditional"knowledge" that"bear"witness"to"the"long"residency"of"W̱ S Á N E Ć "people."The"Project"divides"this"world"roughly"in" two,"alienating"Pauquachin"members"from"some"parts"of"their"territory,"complicating"kinship"ties," and"laying"open"the"territory"to"the"effects"of"the"Project—both"from"regular"operations"and" accidents"or"mishaps." " • All"harvesting"of"marine"foods"by"Pauquachin"members"takes"place"within"the"Regional"Study"Area" and/or"the"Local"Study"Area"of"the"Project." " • Marine"resources"are"a"preferred"and"greatly"cherished"part"of"the"Pauquachin"diet,"for"subsistence," health,"and"spiritual"reasons,"but"access"to"these"resources"has"diminished"dramatically"in"recent" years,"due"in"part"to"cumulative"effects"in"Saanich"Inlet"and"elsewhere"throughout"their"territory." " • Other"barriers"to"harvesting"observed"by"participants"include"pollution"in"Saanich"Inlet,"government" restrictions"relating"to"pollution,"government"regulations"concerning"licenses,"lack"of"availability" due"to"over`harvesting,"lack"of"boats"and"other"gear,"costs"associated"with"traveling"to"harvesting" sites"outside"the"Inlet,"costs"associated"with"purchasing"marine"foods,"and"lack"of"network"and/or" relationships"required"to"receive"marine"foods"from"other"people"and"communities." " • Cumulative"effects"and"their"socio`economic"upshot"have"made"access"to"marine"resources"a"crisis" for"many"Pauquachin"memebrs:"“Everything"is"hard"for"everybody."You"used"to"be"able"to"go"and"get" it"all"the"time,"now"you"can’t”"(Participant"205,"PMUS"2014)." " • Community"members"fear"that"the"loss"of"access"to"marine"resources"is"adversely"affecting" Pauquachin"members’"health."Many"feel"the"future"health"of"younger"community"members"is" threatened"both"by"the"lack"of"access"to"marine"foods,"and"their"replacement"by"store`bought"foods." " • On"the"other"hand,"members"worry"about"the"safety"of"marine"foods"due"to"pollution." " • Pauquachin"members"have"linked"their"relationship"with"the"Inlet"and"marine"resources"to"the"fate" of"Southern"Vancouver"Island’s"orca"population:" " When"I"was"a"kid"we’d"be"out"there"fishing,"there’d"be"killer"whales"all"over."But"these"days" they’re"very"rarely"seen"in"our"bay…"It"just"makes"me"think"how"much"everything’s" changing."Like"the"food"source"I’m"thinking"is"disappearing."Like"the"food"chain"for" everything,"like"the"shrimp"to"the"cod"to"the"salmon,"seals,"killer"whales."I"know"everything’s" a"cycle,"so"I’m"thinking"the"cycle’s"breaking"up."Pretty"dramatic"change."(Participant"218," PMUS"2014)" " • Pauquachin"members"are"not"satisfied"with"the"amount"of"marine"resources"that"they"are"currently" able"to"access,"and"feel"that"it"is"not"enough"to"sustain"their"individual"physical"and"community" social"health." " • Paquachin"members"view"the"current"barriers"on"their"ability"to"harvest"as"violations"of"their" freedom"to"exercise"Douglas"Treaty"and"Aboriginal"rights." " • Because"waters"and"the"foreshore"area"adjacent"to"the"community"are"relatively"unproductive," polluted,"or"closed"to"harvesting,"Pauquachin"members"rely"on"inter`regional"trade"and"kinship" networks"to"access"marine"resources"from"less"polluted"areas,"often"in"the"southern"Gulf"Islands."" " • Pauquachin"members"state"that"cumulative"effects"have"so"adversely"affected"their"marine"foods" that"what"remains"of"Pauquachin’s"traditional"marine"resources"should"be"protected—especially" those"resources"that"may"require"farther"journeys"from"Pauquachin’s"main"reserve."

8" " • Pauquachin"members"identify"a"wide"variety"of"marine"resources"as"preferred"species,"including"but" not"limited"to"the"following:"bivalves,"including"clams"such"as"cockles,"butters,"and"steamers," oysters,"mussels,"and"chitons;"seaweed;"crabs;"sea"urchins,"now"unavailable"at"many"traditional" locations;"all"species"of"salmon,"cod,"halibut,"herring"and"herring"eggs,"sea"ducks"such"as"the"surf" scoter." " • Pauquachin"members"have"lost"access"to"many"of"the"traditional"gathering"areas"described"in"earlier" traditional"use"studies—all"of"which"would"lie"within"the"RSA"of"the"Project—especially"those"in" Saanich"Inlet,"and"around"the"top"of"the"Saanich"Peninsula."Pauquachin"members"identify"areas"in" the"southern"gulf"islands"as"important"current"harvesting"locations"for"bivalves,"sea"urchins,"crabs," molluscs,"seaweed,"and"eggs,"especially"in"the"waters"around"Mayne"Island,"Saturna"Island,"Pender" Island,"and"around"the"northern"part"of"Sidney"Island,"and"around"James"Island."These"locations"are" within"or"contiguous"with"the"LSA"and"shipping"lanes." " • Medicinal"plants"are"gathered"at"South"Pender,"Mayne,"James,"Saturna,"and"smaller"surrounding" islands,"all"within"or"proximate"to"the"LSA." " • Pauquachin"members"report"that"traditional"sea"urchin"harvesting"locations—including"Swartz"bay," Piers"Island,"Knapp"Island,"Pym"Island,"Goudge"Island"and"the"collection"of"small"islands"around" Fernie"Island—have"been"“fished"out.”"Some"respondents"reported"that"harvesters"would"now"need" to"cross"the"international"border"to"the"San"Juan"Islands"to"find"urchins." " • As"salmon"fishing"has"declined"in"the"Inlet"along"with"other"resources,"Pauquachin"members" identify"areas"in"the"southern"gulf"islands"as"important"current"harvesting"locations"for"salmon,"cod," halibut,"and"other"fish,"especially"in"the"waters"around"Galiano,"Mayne"Island"including"Active"Pass," the"waters"around"Saturna"Island,"especially"East"Point,"the"waters"around"South"Pender"Island," around"the"northern"part"of"Sidney"Island,"and"around"James"Island."These"locations"are"within"or" contiguous"with"the"LSA"and"shipping"lanes,"or"exposed"to"the"shipping"lanes"and"vessel"wake." Pauquachin"members"identified"several"fishing"areas"within"the"shipping"lanes."Harvesting"locations" on"Stuart"Island"and"the"San"Juans"are"beyond"the"shipping"lanes." " • The$reef`net$is$a$distinctive$W̱SÁNEĆ$technology.$Although$it$was$outlawed$by$the$Canadian$ government)in)1916)and)by)the)US)government)in)1950,)W̱SÁNEĆ)communities)on)both)sides)of)the) border"are"working"to"revive"the"fishery."A"Pauquachin"Elder"interviewed"for"this"study"recalled" working"annually"at"a"reef`net"site"on"Stuart"Island"on"the"American"side"of"the"Canada`U.S."border" during"the"1970s."He"described"traveling"with"his"family,"and"the"other"fishermen"and"their"families," to"the"reef`net"site"where"they"would"stay"in"little"houses"for"a"month"during"the"summertime" sockeye"salmon"run." " • Most%of%the%known%historical%reef%netting%sites%owned%by%W̱SÁNEĆ%throughout%the%Southern%Gulf%and% San"Juan"Islands"and"at"Point"Roberts,"are"either"within"or"beyond"the"LSA"and"shipping"lanes,"and" will"likely"be"adversely"affected"by"the"Project." " • Pauquachin"members"identify"areas"in"the"southern"gulf"islands"as"important"current"hunting" locations"for"deer"and"waterfowl,"especially"on"Saturna,"Mayne,"and"Sidney"islands"for"deer,"and" around"East"Point,"Saturna,"south"Pender,"around"D’arcy"Island,"in"Haro"Strait"east"of"Moresby," Gooch,"and"Sidney"islands."These"locations"are"within"or"contiguous"with"the"LSA"and"shipping" lanes,"or"exposed"to"the"shipping"lanes." " • An"Archaeological"Overview"Assessment"(AOA)"of"the"Trans"Mountain"Marine"Shipping"Component" (Appendix"A)"found"“three"potential"sources"of"impact"to"archaeological"sites"associated"with"the" Marine"Transportation"component"of"the"TMEP"Facilities"Application”":"1.)"Shoreline"erosion"due"to"

9" vessel"wake"caused"by"increased"marine"traffic;"2.)"Oil"contamination;"and"3.)"Impacts"associated" with"cleanup"measures"following"a"spill."

• Similarly,"the"risk"of"impacts"associated"with"oil"contamination"and"oil"clean"up"are"only"as"great"as" the"risk"of"a"spill,"but"the"report"notes"that"increasing"tanker"traffic"corresponds"to"increasing"risk," and"that"“a"2014"national"oil"spill"risk"assessment"study"commissioned"by"Transport"Canada" identifies"the"zone"around"the"southern"tip"of"Vancouver"Island"as"having"one"of"the"highest" probabilities"in"the"country"of"a"large"scale"oil"spill”"(Owens"&"Ramsay"2015:27)."In"the"event"of"a" spill,"the"report"warns"of"hundreds"of"sites"at"potential"risk."

10" Traditional!Use!Maps! Map$i:$SENĆOŦEN$place$names$and$reef$net$sites$

Map 2: SENĆOŦEN Place Names and Reef Net Sites in LSA

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LEPLIPEṈ !

ŚEḴŚEḴEM ! ȾEMȽTENEM TÁLEḴT SWÍNEM ! ! ! ḴEḴEW̱EKIȽĆ ! SENȻE,EȽEȽ ĆIWOK ! ! TEḴSENĆÁLE ! ḰEṈNI,ḴEN ȻESEWEL W̱ISTÁNEM ! SĆUOŦEN ! SETW̱EM! ! ḰIḰELEḴEN ! ! ! ! W̱PEYATW̱ ! MEK'MEK'IḴEN ! ! ! YALYALEM ! Ȼ!EȻELEX̱ SEN ŚȺW̱OM W̱EPITE!Ṉ ! ! STȺ,TO,LEU ! ḴELEX̱ LN ĆEL, ! ȽTENEM W̱SITES NEWENEWELA'Ć SȻEṈLI,N! ! F ! ! QELȺW̱EM SȻEȻE!CEṈELETĆ ! SȻEṈELIN W̱LEX̱ ṈȺ,LOY ! ! LEḴTELEĆ ! CW̱ILMEN ONEWEI M!ELÁX̱ EN ! ! ! MEMELÁX̱ EN ! ŚĆÁWOX W̱ELW̱ELEQ NȺ!WEḴSEN! ! SḰEM

TOMMEL SW̱I,LEMEṈ ! SḴELAMEḴS ! XIXNEŚETEṈ ! W̱CIW̱EM ! YÁYEMNEĆ F SYOW̱T ! F ! S,KŦAK WA̱ SW̱EN TEL,LAY ! ! ! TELLISI ȻAḴ,SEN ŦÁWEN ! ! ! X̱ EMYÁĆ ṮEPNATS ! ḴE,ḴEṈ,ES ! X̱ IX̱ YES W̱ḴIME,QEM ! ! W̱ṮEK,KIEM ! ! ÁKEUWEWEĆ XEO₭₭!EM ! X̱ EX̱ ÍÁĆŚEN S,DÁYES W̱ṮIṮKIEM ! ! ! ! ṮEKTEḴSEN PENÁW̱EṈ kEMI,ḴEN ȾUXILEM MENMONTOḰ TIELES ! TIȽES ! ! ! ! ȾESNDEṈ ILEĆEN ! ! W̱EN,NÁ,NEC ! ! SNEUES XINEPSEM ! SMONEĆ ! ! KELAKE ÁM,MEĆEN ! WȽAUḴENEṈ ! ȻAḴSEN ! ! ! W̱TEMEIEM ! SXE,ÁNEW̱ F E,HO ŚAḴETES ! XIX̱ ĆÁ!NEM ! WSEṈEN ! SX̱ TIS ! ṮELPOLES KOȾEḰ S,ĆUÁN ! ! ! ṮALEN SX̱ IX̱ ŦE YEUWE ÁLELEṈ CXEN.A DAMW̱IḴSEN ! ! F ! ! ! SXEĆOŦEN F ! ĆUÁN XEXOĆOŦEN ! QENENIW̱ ! ! PITEN ȽO,LE,CEN ! ! SJOS,S W̱MESMESILEṈ S₭EMIN ȾXENNI ! ! ! ! ! ŦELEḴS W̱LEMNI W̱TÁWIEM W̱EW̱NEĆ ! ! ! ! ! ṮXITEN WLEḰOI Ć!ELḰINES ! SQEQOTE ŚÁNNES ! ! ! ! HIHUḴS SWALEX̱ ! W̱S!I,I,KEM ȽEKTINES ! ! SEPELIḰ SMEW̱EMEN! ! ! ! ! ! SASIÁTEN SAI'TEN WELEḴIEM ! ! PEL!EP!W̱AṈ W̱LILEĆ TEL!Á!W̱EN SET'TINES ! ! W̱EMQIOŦEN ŚW̱ENḴEM ! W̱,SIKEM ! ! PW̱ÁṈ XELEXÁTEM ḰENNES ! TḴAYEĆ SḰELŦÁMEN F ĆITṈEW̱ MA'LEX̱ EȽ ! F W̱SÁNEĆ ! !! ḰELSET XOCEȽ W̱KIMIOQEṈ BOḰOĆEN S₭ŦAMEN ! YOS ! ! ! ! X̱ OX̱ DEȽ ! ! ȾELȽĆ ! XI,LEM S,LEḰTÁN ! SISȻENEM EWOEḰ ḰELES ḴELJIEU!EȽ ! MÁ!LEQE ! ȽAUW ELṈEW!̱ ! ḴELTAMAEḴS ! ! ! ! TḴAYEĆ ! ȽTÁĆSEṈ X̱ ENEḴSEN ! ! ȾELXOLU W̱ELALḴE TE,TÁET ṮTÁĆSEṈ ! ĆḰÁLETEN ĆOĆȻNEĆ!W̱Ȼ!AṈESEN ! ! ! XEMELOSEṈ ȽEȽINȻEI ! ȾKOLEḴS ! ! ! BOK!EC ! ! SEN,NI,NES ! ! ȽEL,TOS ! FṈEṈÁNET ! ! XELEĆEN F W̱EÁȻEĆEN ȾIEṈEȽNEȽ ! S,ŦAUTW̱ ! SX!̱ OX̱ ITEM ĆTESU ! ! ! XEMXEMIȽĆ XÍXÍṮEM Ḵ!ÁTEȽP ! ṮEMELÁĆEṈ ṮEKṮINES ! ! ! ! ! ĆTÍSU WICOSEṈ ! SȻEHENE WḰOŦEȽP W̱EĆE,ĆE FW̱,ÁYETEṈ ! ! ! S,TIKȻEL F ₭ĆEMES X̱ EOLX̱ ELEK F ! ! TḰOŦEȽP ! ĆITEMES FSW̱ELEĆ CELITĆ FX̱ ṮEC ! ! WȾISEĆEN !! SI,ĆENEṈ SNE,COVE ELE₭TEL XEUEṈ!EX̱ SEN ! ! I,OLEṈEW̱ ! ḴOḴOCINO,ŦEN! PKOLS FFSḰE,ÁNEW̱ SḰO,ANEX̱ PKOLS F KEXṈINEṈ PELȻECAṈ HELEṈIḴEN ! ! ! ṮIQENEṈ ȽEṈOLAĆEN ḴO!,LE ! ḴOṈEKSEN ! F ! KEMOSEṈ ! ! ! ₭OḰALEĆEC SXIMAȽEȽ !ŚĆO,Ƚ S,IĆONOȽ!! ! ! ! !BEḴKANEN !SW̱IṈW̱EṈ !! ŚȻOḴAḴOȽ! ! ! ! ṮĆÁS !W!̱SA,ḴEM ! ! ! ĆIKAWE!Ć ! ! ! SK'AXA'NA ! ĆEK!OṈIN W̱ELAȽĆ !ĆIKAWEĆ ŦIȻA,NEṈ

X̱ EL,LEṈ ! Esri, DeLorme, GEBCO, NOAA NGDC, and other contributors

F Reef Net Sites ¯ ! Place Names Kilometers 0 3 6 12 18 24 Produced By: CloverPoint Cartographics Shipping Routes For: Evernorth Authors: Dr. Earl Claxton, Ray Sam, LSA 1:500,000 Gabe Pelkey, Philip Pelkey, Lou Claxton, Projection: NAD 83 UTM Zone 10N and numerous Tsawout Elders and members of the WSANEC Nation Printing Date: Nov 25 2014 Document Path: P:\Projects\Traditional Use Studies (TUS)\13029_TUS_Other_Support\06_EverNorth\03_MXDs\PlacenamesMap2.mxd "

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!;" Map$iii:$bivalve,$sea$gull$egg,$sea$cucumber,$seaweed,$sea$urchin,$plant$and$berry$gathering$areas.$

13" Map$iv:$Fishing$areas$of$rock$cod,$ling$cod,$red$snapper,$halibut,$flounder,$sole,$and$salmon$species.$

14" Map$v:$Duck,$geese$and$deer$hunting$areas.$

15" Map$vi:$Documented$travel$routes$and$overnight$camp$areas.$

16" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Section!I:!WSÁNEĆ̱ !ETHNOHISTORY,! CONTEMPORARY!IDENTITY,!AND! CURRENT!ISSUES!! ! " "

17" " 1.!Introduction! " This"report"describes"Pauquachin"First"Nation"members’"traditional"use"of"the"Salish"Sea"and"its"resources."It" focuses"on"the"areas"that"Kinder"Morgan"employs"as"part"of"its"effects"assessment,"the"so`called"Local"Study" Area"(LSA),"and"the"Regional"Study"Area"(RSA)."Pauquachin’s"entire"traditional"marine"territory"is" encompassed"by"the"RSA,"while"the"LSA"bisects"the"territory"in"two"sections." " This"report"contains"a"summary"of"historical"and"current"traditional"marine"use"and"knowledge,"as"shared" by"Pauquachin"harvesters"in"structured"interviews"conducted"over"one"month"in"early"2014,"and" supplemented"with"existing"information,"including"interviews"conducted"for"previous"traditional"use" studies,"and"other"primary"and"secondary"sources." "" The"term"“traditional”"in"this"sense"refers"to"what"passes"from"generation"to"generation."The"meaning"of" traditional"comes"from"examining"historical"and"current"practices"in"one"another’s"light."Views"on"historical" marine"use"practices"have"been"assembled"from"readings"in"Saanich"ethnohistory"and"oral"history"from" Pauquachin"members."Traditional"Use/Traditional"Knowledge"studies"often"struggle"with"periodization"and" how"to"describe"change"over"time."For"this"reason,"we"have"used"the"term"“contemporary"past”"to"refer"to" accounts"of"traditional"marine"use"that"were"gathered"in"recent"years,"including"during"interviews" conducted"in"2012"(Parks"Canada"2012)"and"for"the"Georgia"Strait"Crossing"Project"in"2002"(GSX"2002)." These"studies"provide"important"spatial"information"on"the"project"area,"before"the"Project"itself"was" announced."Nevertheless,"it"is"hard"to"say"with"precision"what"time"period"the"use"takes"place"in."What"can" be"said"is"that"the"marine"use"described"occurred"within"the"memory"of"subjects"who"mapped"their" biographies"in"the"early"2000s,"and"is"thus"from"the"recent"past,"or"from"a"remembered"past"that"is" contemporary"with,"or"overlaps,"the"present."Views"on"more"current"marine"use"were"assembled"from" harvest"surveys/marine"use"interviews"conducted"for"the"Trans"Mountain"Project." " Pauquachin"First"Nation"is"one"of"five"groups"comprising"the"Saanich,(or(in(their(SENĆOŦEN(language,(the( W̱ SÁNEĆ(Nation.(Pauquachin(First(Nation(is(located(on(Vancouver(Island,(about(twenty(minutes(north(of(the( City"of"Victoria,"on"Cole"Bay"IR"No."3"(AANDC""2014:”Reserves/Settlements/Villages”)."At"last"count"239"of" the"First"Nation’s"394"registered"members"live"on"Cole"Bay,"Pauquachin’s"main"reserve"with"the"majority"of" the"remaining"registered"members"living"off`reserve"altogether,"and"a"little"less"than"a"quarter"of"all" registered"members"living"on"other"reserves"(Aboriginal"Affairs"2014:”Registered"Population”)."In"addition" to"Cole"Bay,"Pauquachin"has"a"very"small"reserve"at"the"end"of"Finlayson"Arm"and"the"mouth"of"the" Goldstream"River,"and"another"at"Hatch"Point"on"the"west"shore"of"Saanich"Inlet."Members"of"the"Saanich" Nation"have"continuously"occupied"the"settlement"site"at"Coles"Bay"on"the"west"side"of"the"Saanich"Peninsula" in"the"Saanich"Inlet"since"at"least"the"middle"of"the"19th"century,"and"researchers"Alison"Davis"and"Bjorn"O." Simonsen"report"that"it"was"a"Malahat"village"before"the"Pauquachin"came"to"inhabit"it"(Davis"&"Simonsen" 1995:2;"Suttles"1974:76,78)." " Prior"to"the"signing"of"the"North"Saanich"Treaty"in"1852,"the"subsequent"creation"of"discrete"reserves,"and" the"creation"of"“bands”"under"the"Indian"Act,%the%W̱SÁNEĆ%comprised%a%single%group,%or%knot,%of%extended% families(who(shared(the(SENĆOŦEN(language(and(a(cultural(order(that(revolved(around(their(relations(with( marine'creatures,'some'terrestrial'animals,'spirit'beings,'and'with'one'another.'The'W̱ SÁNEĆ&families& exploited)different)ecological)niches)within)the)W̱SÁNEĆ)world,)tailoring)their)seasonal)movements) according"to"the"timing"of"local"events."Such"a"pattern"meant"that"one"family"knot"could"acquire"through"

18" trade"with"another"family"knot"what"could%not%be%procured%locally.%Although%this%system%may%have%appeared% to#have#involved#a#notion#of#private#property#among#the#W̱SÁNEĆ,#in#fact,#people#rarely#say#that#they#“own”# the"locations"of"the"reefnet"fisheries"or"other"fisheries"associated"with"specific"families,"but"are"instead" descended"from"them,"or"are"owned"by"them."It"is"thus"a"complex"system"of"belonging"that"links"kinship"and" community"to"territory,"animals,"and"other"non`human"elements." "" !1.1!Report!Structure! " This"report"is"organized"into"three"parts:'Section'1'W̱SÁNEĆ'Ethnohistory,'Contemporary'Identity'and' Current"Issues;"Section"2"Harvest"Survey"and"Traditional"Marine"Use"Interview"Results"and"Section"3! W̱ SÁNEĆ(Relationships(with(and(Knowledge(of(Marine(Resources.( " " Section"1"provides"the"reader"with"context"for"the"results"presented"in"Sections"2"and"3."In"it,"we"explain"our" methodology*and*purpose,*and*then*provide,*through*a*review*of*existing*literature,*an*ethnohistorical* overview'of'the'W̱SÁNEĆ'Nation,'with'particular'attention'on'Pauquachin.'This'literature'review'is' structured"by"key"topics,"beginning$with$a$discussion$of$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$Nation,$including$linguistic$and$social$ affiliations,"identity"and"beliefs."Next,"a"description"of"the"Douglas"Treaty"provides"some"background"on"how" Saanich"understand"their"identity,"marine"use,"and"practices"related"to"rights."Section)1"provides"an" overview"of"Pauquachin’s"land"and"marine"use"patterns"and"practices,"including"a"description"of"the"seasonal" rhythm"of"harvest"and"fishing,"and"Pauquachin’s"heritage"in"the"study"areas"for"this"Project."This"Section" includes"a"map"of"SENĆOŦEN"place"names"and"reef"net"sites"on"page"20.""" " Section"2"Harvest"Survey"and"Traditional"Marine"Use"Interview"Results"discusses"cumulative"impacts"and" concerns"(Section"4.4.2)"in"relation"to"the"Local"and"Regional"Study"Area,"introduces"the"Archaeological" Overview"Assessment"(Appendix"A)"and"discusses"Pauquachin"species"preferences"and"harvest"satisfaction" (Section"4.4.5)."Section"3"W̱ S Á N E Ć "Relationships"With"and"Knowledge"of"Marine"Resources"synthesizes"the" results"of"all"aspects"of"this"study"and"is"organized"by"modes"of"production"or"use—gathering,"fishing"and" hunting—and"then"subdivided"by"resource"or"species."Maps"showing"current"gathering,"fishing"and"hunting" by"Pauquachin"members"are"provided"on"pages"58,"67,"72,"and"74."" " 2.!Methodology!

!2.1!!Summary! " Trailmark"Consulting"conducted"this"study"by"reviewing"prominent"ethnographic"and"ethnohistorical"source" materials,"published"and"unpublished"previous"traditional"land"use"and"marine"use"studies,"and"by" undertaking"new"research"in"the"form"of"harvest"surveys"and"traditional"marine"use"and"knowledge" interviews"with"select"Pauquachin"members." " The$literature$review$and$interviews$were$completed$between$October$and$November$2014.$Due$to$the$ scope&of&the&study&the&other&W̱SÁNEĆ&communities"were"not"directly"targeted"as"an"audience." "

19" 3.!Literature!Review! " This"section"provides"a"survey"of"prominent"ethnographic"and"ethnohistorical"sources,"published"and" unpublished"traditional"land"use"and"marine"use"studies,"and"oral"history"as"recorded"by"W̱ S Á N E Ć ( E l d e r s , ( reviewed"for"this"study"between"June"and"August"2014." " Ethnographer"Wayne"Suttles’"texts"were"all"consulted"during"this"review"``"in"particular,"his"doctoral" dissertation"The$Economic$Life$of$the$Coast$Salish$of$Haro$and$Rosario$Straits"(1974),"his"collected"Coast$ Salish$Essays"(1987),"and"his"contributions"to"the"Smithsonian"Institution’s"Handbook$of$North$American$ Indians,$Vol.$7:$Northwest$Coast"(1990)."Suttles"is"arguably"the"preeminent"ethnograher"of"the"Straits"Salish," and"is"thus"heavily"cited"throughout"the"other"published"works"and"gray"literature"reviewed"for"this"study." The"work"of"Suttles’"contemporary"and"peer,"Wilson"Duff,"of"whom"it"is"said"that"his"“entire"professional" career"centered"on"the"study"of"the"Northwest"Coast"First"Nations,”"(Sheehan"2010)"was"similarly" considered,"with"particular"attention"paid"to"The$Fort$Victoria$Treaties"(1969),"and"The$Indian$History$of$ British$Columbia:$The$Impact$of$the$White$Man"(1997)."University"of"British"Columbia"professor,"and"former" assistant"to"Duff"at"the"B.C."Provincial"Museum,"Michael"Kew’s"contributions"to"Suttles’"Handbook$of$North$ American$Indians$Vol.$7:$Northwest$Coast$``"namely"“Central"and"Southern"Coast"Salish"Ceremonies"Since" 1900,”"and"“History"of"Coastal"British"Columbia"Since"1846”"``"were"also"reviewed."Suttles"and"several"of"the" authors"of"the"gray"literature"reviewed"for"this"study"in"turn"drew"upon"the"work"of"pioneering" anthropologist"Diamond"Jenness,"whose"Faith$of$a$Coast$Salish$Indian"(1955)"was"also"consulted"here$for$its$ insights'into'the'W̱SÁNEĆ worldview"and"spiritual"beliefs." " Particular)attention)was)also)given)to)writings)by)members)of)the)W̱SÁNEĆ)Nation,)including)the)oral) histories"and"traditional"knowledge"recorded"and"published"by"Elders"Dave"Elliot"Sr."in"Saltwater$People" (1983"with"Janet"Poth),"and"Earl"Claxton"Sr."and"Ray"Sam"in"Everything$With$A$Prayer!(2010).'Both'works' offer%extensive%insight%into%traditional%W̱SÁNEĆ%territory,%traditional%land%and%marine%uses%throughout%it,%as% well$as$oral$history$and$SENĆOŦEN$names$relating$to$the$sites$and$resources$used$by$the$W̱SÁNEĆ.$The$ scholarly"work"of"contemporary&W̱SÁNEĆ&researchers&Jack&Horne&(2012)&and&Nicholas&Claxton&(2003;2014)& was$also$carefully$considered$and$found$invaluable$in$contributing$to$a$comprehensive$understanding$of$the$ practice(and(unparalleled(significance(of(reef`net$fishing$to$W̱SÁNEĆ$life"and"culture.""" " In"their"reports"entitled"“Traditional"Territorial"Boundaries"of"the"Saanich"Indians,”"(1991)"and"“An" Ethnographic"Examination"of"the"First"Nations’"Land"Use"of"the"Area"of"Potential"Selection:"Pacific"Marine" Heritage"Legacy,”"(1996),"Victoria`based"consultants"Randy"Bouchard"and"Dorothy"Kennedy,"who"founded" the"B.C."Indian"Language"Project"in"1972,"to"document"and"preserve"the"languages,"histories"and"cultures"of" the"province’s"First"Nations,"provide"thorough"reviews"of"existing"ethnographic"and"ethnohistoric"sources"as" well"as"oral"histories,"including"many"of"those"mentioned"above."Additionally,"Don"Welsh’s"(2002)"“Archival" and"Ethnographic"Review”"for"the"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance,"Alison"Davis"and"Bjorn"O."Simonsen’s"(1995)" “Saanich"Inlet"Study"Report"on"First"Nations"Consultation,”"Vanden"berg"&"Associates’"(1997)"“Report"on"the" Saanich"People’s"Fishing"Territory"and"Practices"on"the"Fraser"River,”"and"a"“Review"of"Ethnographic"and" Historical"Sources”"produced"by"the"Aboriginal"Research"Division%of%the%Legal%Service%Branch%in%the%Ministry% of#Justice#(2013),#all#offer#valuable#surveys#of#existing#ethnographic,#ethnohistoric#and#W̱SÁNEĆ#sources.#" " ""

20" 3.1$$The$WSÁNEĆ!Natioṉ ! "" Once,$long$ago,$the$ocean’s$power$was$shown$to$an$unsuspecting$people.$The$tides$began$rising$higher$ and$higher$than$even$the$oldest$people$could$remember.$It$became$clear$to$these$people$that$there$was$ something$very$dangerous$about$this$tide$[…]$ "" The$seawaters$continued$to$rise$for$several$days.$Eventually$the$people$needed$their$canoes.$They$tied$ all$of$their$rope$together$and$then$to$themselves.$One$end$of$the$rope$was$tied$to$an$arbutus$tree$on$top$ of$the$mountain$and$when$the$water$stopped$rising,$the$people$were$left$floating$in$their$canoes$above$ the$mountain.$ $$ It$was#the#raven#who#appeared#to#tell#them#that#the#flood#would#soon#be#over.#When#the#flood#waters# were$going$down,$a$small$child$noticed$the$raven$circling$in,$the$child$began$to$jump$around$and$cry$ out$in$excitement,$“NI$QENNET$TTH$W̱SÁNEĆ”$“Look$what$is$emerging!”(Below(where(the(raven(had( been$circling,$a$piece$of$land$had$begun$to$emerge.$The$old$man$pointed$down$to$that$place$and$said,$ “That&is&our&new&home,&W̱SÁNEĆ,&and&from&now&on&we&will&be&known&as&the&W̱SÁNEĆ&people.”&(Horne& 2012:8)$ "" " Pauquachin"First$Nation$is$one$of$five$bands$that$make$up$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$Nation,$along$with$Tsawout,$Tsartlip,$ Tseycum,)and)Malahat)bands.)Each)of)these)represents)a)permanent)W̱SÁNEĆ)winter)settlement)located)on) the"Saanich"Peninsula"or"southern"Vancouver"Island"that"has"been"occupied"continuously"since"roughly"the" middle"of"the"19th"century,"or"before"(Suttles"1974:76;"Ministry"of"Justice"2013:3)."Historically,"these" communities"did"not"consider"themselves"to"be"separate"from"one"another;"they"were"simply"different" Saanich"villages"comprised"of"interconnected"families"and"households"(Claxton"2003:7;"Elliot"1983:17;" Pelkey"2014;"Suttles"1974:76)." "" Prior"to"about"1850,"the"Saanich"had"many"more"than"just"these"few"winter"villages"on"the"Saanich" Peninsula." "" According"to"tradition,"in"the"late"18th"century"the"Saanich,"Songhees,"Lummi"and"Samish"all"had"wintered" villages"in"the"southern"Gulf"Islands"and"San"Juan"Islands."But..."ethnohistorical"and"ethnographic"data" indicate"that"profound"changes"in"settlement"patterns"occurred"in"the"early"l800s."Most"of"the"available"data," however,"reflect"patterns"of"land"use"and"subsistence"activities"as"they"were"in"the"mid"to"late`1800s."By"this" time,"the"Saanich"had"moved"their"main"winter"villages"to"the"Saanich"Peninsula"but"still"maintained"much"of" their"aboriginal"lifestyle."(Bouchard"&"Kennedy"1991:42`43)" "" Writing"in"1951,"Wayne"Suttles"(1974:76`82)"provided"a"list"of"12"different"Saanich"settlement"sites"on"the" Peninsula"and"throughout"the"San"Juan"and"southern"Gulf"Islands,"indicating"that"two"of"these"sites" contained"multiple"named"settlements."Neither"Suttles"nor"the"anthropologist"Wilson"Duff,"writing"later" about"the"number"of"Saanich"villages"around"the"Peninsula"and"throughout"the"islands,"suggest"any" meaningful"distinctions"between"these"communities"aside"from"their"separate"locations"and"some"possible" differences"in"their"harvesting"locations"as"a"result."" " According)to)the)late)W̱SÁNEĆ)Elders)Earl)Claxton)Sr.)and)Ray)Sam)(2010):" ""

21" Before"the"Douglas"Treaty"and"the"creation"of#reserves,#the#W̱SÁNEĆ#First#Nations#were#all#one# people%who%spoke%SENĆOŦEN%and%lived%by%an%ancient,%time`proven,(strict(system(of( ownership/stewardship.for.sharing.the.land,.beaches,.and.sea.of.the.W̱SÁNEĆ.home.place..Different. families"lived"in"different"places"throughout"the"islands,"depending"on"seasonal"needs"and"family" alliances."(28)" "" Suttles'(1963:513)'suggests'that'conventional'European'notions'of'community'may'be'insufficient'for' understanding+the+ties+between+W̱SÁNEĆ+families+and+villages.+Describing'the'entire'traditional'territory'as' a"social"continuum"“within"which"the"village"was"only"one"of"several"equally"important"social"groupings,”"he" distinguishes*at*least*six*different*and*coexistent*forms*of*community*that*organized*W̱SÁNEĆ*social* relations"(ibid)."Within"this"whole,"he"writes,"“the"village"was"certainly"not"a"self`contained"social"unit." Individual"and"family"ties"were"as"strong"between"villages"as"within"the"village”"(Ibid)."Indeed,"Suttles" observed"that"it"was"a"“nondiscrete,"nonlocalized,"property`holding"kin"group..."or"its"head,"rather"than"any" of"the"residential"groups,"that"owned"the"most"important"ceremonial"rights"and"the"most"productive"natural" resources”"(1963:213)." " Perhaps(the(sense(of(unity(amongst(W̱SÁNEĆ(villages(and(families&was&described&most&succinctly&by& W̱ SÁNEĆ(Elder(Dave(Elliot(Sr.((1983)(in(his(account(of(W̱ SÁNEĆ(history(and(culture: " "" We#have#always#been#one#People.#We#are#W̱SÁNEĆ.#Our#separate#community#sites#did#not#separate# us"as"a"People."(17)" " " 3.2$$WSÁNEĆ!̱ Linguistic!and!Social!Affiliations! "" The"W̱ S Á N E Ć ( are"part"of"a"larger"Coast"Salish"cultural"group"who,"according"to"W̱ S Á N E Ć ( oral"history," ethnographic"and"historical"research,"and"archaeological"findings,"have"occupied"the"Gulf"of"Georgia" continuously"for"thousands"of"years"(Claxton"2003:6;"Elliot"&"Poth"1983:5;"Suttles"1987:266)."Wayne"Suttles" (1990:456)"and"Wilson"Duff"(1997:40`41),"and"contemporary"linguist"Timothy"Montler"(1986),"all"classify" the"W̱ S Á N E Ć ( as"Northern"Straits`speakers"because"they"belonged"to"a"group"of"Coast"Salish"groups"who" collectively"used"and"occupied"the"straits"of"Juan"de"Fuca,"Haro,"Rosario"Straits,"and"Georgia,"and"who"spoke" slightly"different"dialects"of"a"common"language,"referred"to"as"Northern"Straits"Salish"(Welsh"2002:17)."In" addition"to"the"Saanich,"whose"dialect"is"Sencoten,"these"Northern"Straits`speaking"nations"included"the" Sooke,"Songhees,"Semiahmoo,"Lummi,"and"Samish"(Montler"1986;"Suttles"1990:456)."Elliot"(1983)"offers"the" following"description"of"the"relationship,"linguistic"and"otherwise,"between"these"nations"and"their" neighbours:" "" Many"people"lived"in"the"lands"close"by."Some,"like"the"Lummis,"the"Songhees,"and"Klallams"spoke"a" different"language"from"ours."But"their"language"is"related"to"ours"and"their"ways"were"very"similar." We"considered"them"brothers."We"did"not"know"strict"boundaries"between"our"brothers"and"our" friends."(15)" "" According"to"Suttles"(1990:456),"Northern"Straits"was"spoken"from"Saanich"Inlet"on"Vancouver" Island"to"Point"Roberts"and"Boundary"Bay"on"the"mainland"coast,"and"throughout"the"San"Juan"and" southern"Gulf"Islands"in"between."The"dialectical"differences"Suttles"(1974)"observed"between"the" Northern"Straits`speaking"nations"were"sufficiently"minor"that"he"considered"them"a"unified"group"

22" for"the"following"reasons:"“They"shared"a"common"language;"and"they"shared"a"common"pattern"in" their"relation"to"their"habitat,"a"greater"adaptation"to"life"on"salt`water"channels"than"that"of"their" Salish"neighbours,"with"an"emphasis"upon"reef`netting"for"sockeye"salmon"in"the"channels”"(61)." "" Indeed,"a"reliance"on"salmon"is"central"to"all"Coast"Salish"nations,"their"seasonal"rounds"and"cultures,"so" much"so"that"they"are"sometimes"called"the"“salmon"people”"(Boxberger"2007:57)."But"the"Northern"Straits` speakers"were"unique"in"the"locations"and"techniques"they"used"to"harvest"this"sacred"fish"(Vanden"berg"&" Associates"1997:3)."Elliot"(1983)"explains"that"unlike"the"rest"of"their"Coast"Salish"neighbours,"the"Northern" Straits"tribes"did"not"have"any"major"rivers"within"their"traditional"territory,"“and"so"we"went"to"the"sea"to" get"our"salmon."That"is"why"we"are"the"salt"water"people”"(16)." "" The"sockeye,"which"Elliot"(1983:26)"suggests"is"a"non`native"attempt"at"the"Northern"Straits"name"“TEKI,”"is" by"far"the"most#prized#of#all#five#salmon#species#to#the#Coast#Salish#people,#including#the#W̱SÁNEĆ.#Referring# to"maps"of"the"sockeye’s"migration"route,"Suttles"(1987)"observed:" " The"reef`net"locations"of"the"Straits"tribes,"which"I"have"mapped,"fall"very"neatly"along"these"routes." The"reef`net"was"used"by"the"Straits"tribes"only;"it"was"their"most"important"fishing"device;"and"it" seems"to"have"been"used"wherever"it"was"possible"to"take"sockeye"with"it."The"close"correspondence" of"language,"fishing"method,"and"fish"strongly"suggests"that"we"have"here"an"ecological"niche"nicely" filled"by"human"beings"culturally"distinguishable"from"all"others…"[Thus]"the"Straits"tribes"are"the" people"of"the"channels"leading"to"the"Fraser."(35`36)"" " """ " "

23" ! 3.3###WSÁNEĆ!Identity!and!̱ Beliefs! "" The$sea$was$our$home$as$much$as$the$land.$Our$homelands$and$home$waters$are$one$and$the$same$ thing.$ $$$$$$$$$ ~$Earl$Claxton$Sr.$&$Ray$Sam$(2010:5)$ $ The"name"W̱ SÁNEĆ,)or)XWSANETS,)and)also)anglicized)as)Saanich,)relates)to)a)visual)description)of)the) Saanich%Peninsula%where%the%W̱SÁNEĆ%have%long%maintained%what%Elliot%(1983:5,15)%calls%the%Nation’s% headquarters"or"home"base."Bouchard"and"Kennedy"connect"the"word"XWSANETS"to"SHSANETS,"which"they" assert"“is"used"to"describe"the"mirage"above"the"Saanich"Peninsula"that"is"visible"when"viewed"from"the" water"on"a"summer"day…"(and)"refers"generally"to"the"entire"Saanich"Peninsula”"(1991:9)."However,"as"they" also"note,"Elliot"has"translated"XWSANETS"to"mean"both"“raised"up,”"and"later"to"mean"“emerging"people,”" again,"both"in"reference"to"the"image"of"the"Saanich"Peninsula"as"viewed"from"the"water"(Bouchard"&" Kennedy"1991:9;"Elliot"&"Poth"1983:64;"Foster"1989:630),"but"perhaps"also"tying"in"with"their"creation"flood" story."This"practice"of"naming"places"and"locations"as"they"would"appear"to"people"approaching"by"canoe"is"a" perfect"illustration"of"how"fundamental"the"traditional"marine"territory"was"to"the"W̱ S Á N E Ć ( worldview"and" traditional"way"of"life"(Claxton"&"Sam"2010:5;"Pelkey"2014)."" "" 3.3.1$$Worldview$ " Suttles"(1974:104)"described"a"core"culture"trait"of"Northern"Straits`speaking"tribes"as"belief"in"a"set"of" possessions"and"techniques"that"could"be"used"in"their"struggle"to"subsist"and"thrive"within"their"territory." He"suggests"these"possessions"include"first"and"foremost"a"view"of"the"world"that"sees"nature"as"a"source"of" supernatural*powers*and*considers*food*a*gift*to*be*acquired*from*these*supernatural*forces.*Elliot*(1983)* describes(the(W̱SÁNEĆ(worldview(as(follows:" "" Our"people"lived"as"part"of"everything."We"were"so"much"a"part"of"nature,"we"were"just"like"the"birds,"the" animals,"the"fish."We"were"like"the"mountains."Our"people"lived"that"way."We"knew"there"was"an"intelligence," a"strength,"a"power,"far"beyond"ourselves."We"knew"that"everything"here"didn’t"just"happen"by"accident."We" believed"there"was"a"reason"for"it"being"here."There"was"a"force,"a"strength,"a"power"somewhere"that"was" responsible"for"it."That"is"the"way"our"people"lived."(9)" "" Welsh"(2002)"summarizes"the"indivisibility"of"Straits"Salish"beliefs"about"their"habitat"from"the"practical"and" material"aspects"of"their"harvesting"practices"and"use"of"their"territory:" "" The"people"are"not"separate"from"the"territory,"but"part"of"it."This"territory"has"physical"resources" distributed"throughout"in"a"variety"of"places"and"abundance;"some"places"are"rich"in"one"thing"for"a" period"of"time,"and"then"another"place,"rich"in"another."This"leads"to"the"annual"round"of"movement" through"the"territory,"with"one"of"the"primary"purposes"being"to"return"to"the"winter"village"with" the"largest"amount"of"the"widest"selection"of"resources." "" The"same"land"has"spiritual"power"distributed"throughout"in"a"variety"of"ways."This"power"could"be" quested"for"and"obtained."The"acquisition"of"this"power"often"resulted"in"the"accumulation"of"more"

24" food,"which"was"therefore"sacred."The"acquisition"of"food"had"a"spiritual"side"to"it,"which"could"not" be"easily"separated"from"its"practical"side..." "" In"this"way"the"territory"is"a"storehouse"of"raw"material,"a"training"ground,"a"sacred"place"or"church" and"a"history"book."From"earliest"childhood"till"death"the"territory"provided"a"broad"stage,"traveled" over"in"the"quest"for"food"and"material"during"the"annual"round."(16`17)" "" Like"all"Salish,"the"Straits`speaking"people"not"only"see"themselves"simply"as"one"qualitatively"equal"actor" within"their"natural"environment,"they"also"perceive"all"other"things"within"that"environment"to"be"actors"as" well,"alive"or"animated"by"a"life`force"in"the"same"sense"that"they"are"(Schaepe"2007:242,253;"Welsh" 2002:16)."Moreover,"they"believe"many"of"these"beings"to"be"ancestral,"as"in"the"case"of"the"salmon,"who" were"thought"to"be"people"that"transformed"themselves"into"fish"in"order"to"provide"food,"and"who"were" referred"to"and"even"addressed"as"“Elder"brother”!(Suttles(1974:171,228;(Vanden(Berg(&(Associates( 1997:4).(W̱SÁNEĆ(traditional(beliefs(hold(that(all(living(things(were(once(people(who(were(transformed(and( then"given"to"the"Saanich"as"gifts"(Claxton"2003:23)." "" This%unity%that%the%W̱SÁNEĆ%assumed%between%themselves(and(the(resources(within(their(natural( environment)suggests)an)essential)humility.)It)gave)rise)to)a)respect)for)those)resources)that)fostered)an) implicit'conservation'ethic,'one'which'is'infused'within'W̱SÁNEĆ'practices'developed'to'honour'the'“gifts”" they"received,"and"which"had"the"effect"of"helping"to"sustain"the"resources"within"their"world"(Claxton" 2003:24`26;"Claxton"&"Sam"2010:45;"Elliot"1983:10`11)."The"ceremony"to"celebrate"the"first"sockeye"catch," which"Claxton"(2003)"describes"as"“the"Saanich"way"to"greet"and"welcome"the"king"of"all"salmon,”"is"a"good" example"(27)." " As"Suttles"(1974)"explains,"“because"people"believed"that"the"salmon"were"like"people"and"that"they"had" come"to"feed"the"people"with"their"own"flesh,"they"showed"their"respect"for"the"salmon"with"the"first"salmon" rite”"(228)."According"to"Suttles,"a"similar"rite"was"practised"by"many"or"all"of"the"Northern"Straits`speaking" tribes,"and"involved"a"cessation"of"all"fishing"activities"for"one"to"four"days"while"the"people"prepared,"ate" and"celebrated"the"salmon"in"ritual"ways"(1974:228`235)."Claxton"(2003)"reports$that$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$ celebration"lasted"for"up"to"ten"days,"during"which"time"“all"fishing"stopped,"not"just"the"fishermen"who" caught"the"fish,"but"the"whole"nation"of"fishermen"joined"in"on"the"celebration”"(27)."At"this"time"of" celebration,"it"was"likely!that$the$peak$of$the$salmon$run$was$traveling$through$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$territory.$ Taking"time"to"celebrate"allowed"for"much"of"the"salmon"stocks"to"return"to"their"rivers"to"spawn,"and"to" sustain"those"lineages"or"stocks"(Claxton"2003:27`28)." " In"the"following"passage"taken"from"Everything$With$A$Prayer,"Claxton"and"Sam"(2010)"bring"several"of"the" themes"discussed"above"together:" " We"know"fish"as"our"relatives."These"waters"were"once"teeming"with"fish"and"we"were"taught"they" too"were"once"people."This"belief"provides"another"teaching"we"hold,"helpfulness"and"good"work." "" We"managed"our"fishery"carefully,"letting"some"of"the"strong"ones"we"caught"swim"free,"so"their" kind"would"survive"and"thrive"in"coming"years."We"let"the"salmon"runs"go"by"for"many"days"before" we"took"what"we"needed"to"eat,"as"well"as"to"preserve"for"the"winter."Whatever"we"fished"or"hunted," it"was"our"EK,"SAN"SAU,"or"laws,"that"you"give"out"your"first"catch,"as"a"reminder"of"the"SYA,"the" powers"taken"from"the"animal."You"give"it"all"away"to"the"Elders"and"the"children."You"don’t"keep"it" for"yourself."You"put"the"bones"and"other"parts"that"couldn’t"be"eaten"or"used"back"in"the"sea."(45)" "

25" 3.3.2$$Knowledge,$Spirit$Power$and$Roles$ " The"second"of"the"possessions"Suttles"(1974)"describes"to"illustrate"Northern"Straits"culture"is"“a"body"of" knowledge"concerning"means"of"exploiting"nature"for"both"natural"products"and"supernatural"power”"(105)." The"quality"and"extent"of"this"knowledge"differs"between"individuals"according"to"such"things"as"their" position"in"society"and"their"roles"within"their"family"and"community"(Suttles"1974:107)."Suttles"(1974:108` 111)"breaks"this"knowledge"into"three"categories"of"non`material"possessions,"those"acquired"through" supernatural"questing,"those"learned"from"other"people,"and"those"inherited"as"a"birthright."The"first"of"these" is"more"concerned"with"the"acquisition"of"special"powers"or"a"calling"that"might"shape"an"individual’s" destiny,"while"the"latter"two"had"more"to"do"with"practical"information"and"instruction"that"might"include" such"things"as"harvesting"rights,"locations"and"practices,"or"even"how"best"to"quest"for"acquired"knowledge" (Suttles"1974:108`111;"1987:8)." "" According"to"Suttles"(1974:383),"questing"for"power"from"spirits"began"in"childhood"and"intensified"as" people"reached"puberty."Young"people"left"their"villages"in"search"of"a"vision"or"some"form"of"possession"by"a" spirit"that"would"bestow"a"special"power"or"ability"upon"them."These"ranged"from"longevity"and"good"health," to"particular"prowess"in#hunting,#fishing,#craftwork,#or#preparation#and#use#of#ceremonial#paraphernalia# (Suttles(1974:384,386).(The(spirit(that(appeared(to(young(W̱SÁNEĆ(seekers(may(not(have(been(random(or( arbitrary,"as"“they"were"sent"out"for"no"specified"length"of"time"but"sometimes"to"specific"places"for"specific" spirits”"(Suttles"1974:383)."Although"specific"spirits"were"not"exclusively"correlated"with"specific"abilities," there"were"connections,"“for"example,"a"certain"man"with"a"blackfish"spirit"was"a"sea"mammal"hunter"and"a" certain"man"with"a"wolf"spirit"hunted"deer”"(1974:386)."" "" As#is#discussed#below,#within#W̱SÁNEĆ#longhouse#tradition#certain#families#inherited#and#held#exclusive# responsibility"for"specific"aspects"of"the"longhouse"ceremonies,"such"as"providing"the"wood"and"tending"the" fire"(Pelkey"2014)."Perhaps"the"members"of"a"family"with"a"specific"responsibility"in"the"longhouse"would"be" sent"to"quest"for"a"spirit"that"would"bestow"a"power"or"ability"that"would"be"beneficial"in"the"fulfillment"of" the"family’s"responsibility."Furthermore,"Suttles"(1974:383)"reports"that"spirits"and"their"corresponding" powers"and"abilities"could"also"be"inherited."This"suggests"that"a"fisherman"with"a"spirit"that"bestowed"an" ability"to"fish,"might"not"only"pass"down"his"spirit"and"a"corresponding"prowess"related"to"fishing"within"his" family,"but,"thereby,"his"role"or"function"within"the"community"too.)This%may%hep%explain%a%pattern%of%roles% performed(exclusively(by(members(of(specific(families(that(emerged(during(interviews(with(W̱SÁNEĆ" subjects"in"both"Pauquachin"and"Tsawout"in"2014."For"example,"it"was"suggested"during"these"interviews" that"for"generations"one"family"has"held"an"exclusive"responsibility"for"providing"marine"foods"for"Tsawout" community"functions,"another"for"providing"ducks"for"longhouse"ceremonies,"and"another"for"tending"the" fires"in"the"longhouse"(LaFortune"2014;"Pelkey"2014;"Sam"2014)."Participants"referred"to"this"role,"and"the" individual"who"embodies"it,"as"“a"provider.”)This"idea"may"be"a"formal"institutionalization"of"a"pervasive"and" culturally"defining"idea"that"every"individual"has"a"“role”"to"play"in"the"community,"and"that"the"purpose"of"a" good"life"is,"in"some"senses,"to"acquire"the"necessary"knowledge,"and"rise"to"the"responsibility"of,"that"role." To"find"one’s%place%in%the%order%of%the%W̱SÁNEĆ%community%is%to%find%one’s%place%in%the%world." "" The$formal$institutionalization$of$this$concept$was$related$to$social$divisions$in$W̱SÁNEĆ$society.$Within$ Coast"Salish"society"generally,"knowledge"was"considered"private"property,"a"commodity"owned,"protected" and"passed"down"by"the"individual"and/or"family."As"such"it"was"central"to"social"order"distinctions;" possession"of"knowledge"denoted"higher"standing."Families"with"inherited"knowledge"were"considered"to"be" higher"order,"and"not"just"when"their"knowledge"concerned"practical"and"material"advantages"(Suttles" 1987:8`9)."Even"knowledge,"or"“advice”"as"Suttles"called"it,"concerning"basic"etiquette"and"manners,"such"as"

26" “don’t"lie,”"“don’t"steal,”"and"“be"polite,”"was"considered"a"possession"to"be"passed"down"within"the"family," and"borne"as"a"marker"of"social"group"belonging."Certain"individuals,"for"example,"distinguish"themselves" through"their"possession"of"knowledge"concerning"how"to"be"polite."In"this"way"Coast"Salish"morality"was" taught"and"encouraged"with"social"sanctions"as"opposed"to"supernatural"ones,"and"valued"as"one"of"the"non` material"possessions"indicating"a"family’s"order"(Suttles"1987:9)." "" According"to"researcher"Nicholas"Claxton,"the"Elder"of"a"family"inherited"the"right"to"the"family"history"and" teachings,"or"NE,HIMET,"to"be"passed"on"orally."Among"other"things"these"included:" "" •)S,IST"–"What"was"owned,"all"that"was"in"your"canoe,"belongings,"your"assets"in"modern"terms." •)SX’OLE)–"Reef"net" •)SX’IX’ŦE)–"Land,"summer"home"location" •)SW’ÁLET)–"Physical"fishing"location" •)SMIEŦ)–"Hunting"grounds"in"and"around"summer"home" •)ЌO"–"Fresh"water"supply" •)Á,LEN"–"House,"longhouse" •)TEṈEW’"`"Land"(Claxton"2014)." "" The"Elder"also"inherited"the"right"to"be"captain,"or"CWENALYEN,"of"the"family’s"reef`net"fishery"(ibid)."Along" with"the"inherited"rights"to"all"this"knowledge"came"the"responsibility"for"passing"it"on"(Claxton"2003:26)." "" 3.3.3$$Reef\Netting$ " Contemporary+W̱SÁNEĆ+researcher,+educator,+and+fisherman,+Nicholas!Claxton((2003),(asserts(that(W̱SÁNEĆ( identity'and'marine'harvesting'practices,'which'ordered'and'powered'the'W̱SÁNEĆ'seasonal'round,'are'so' completely"interwoven"that"it"is"impossible"to"consider"either"in"isolation"(9)."According"to"Claxton"(2003)," reef`net"fishing"was"not"just"a"way"of"life"in"the"fullest"sense"of"the"term,"but"“what"it"meant"in"large"part"to" be"a"Saanich"person”"(9)." "" According"to"Saanich"teachings,"it"was"a"fishing"technique"that"was"given"as"a"gift"from"the"Salmon"People"to" the"Saanich"in"exchange"for"a"beautiful"Saanich"princess."It"was"intended"that"this"fishing"technique"was" given"(to)"allow"the"Saanich"to"prosper"in"their"own"lands"and"waters,"and"live"in"harmony"with"the"salmon" forever."This"fishing"technique"was"more"than"just"a"way"to"catch"lots"of"fish;"inherent"in"it"was"a"model"of" governance"for"the"Saanich"people."(Claxton"2003:9)" "" Like%the%salmon,%which%are%imbued%with%supernatural%powers%and%significance,%the%W̱SÁNEĆ’s%characteristic% technique"of"harvesting"them"is"seen"as"a"gift"from"the"supernatural"as"well."In"this"way"reef"netting"both" expresses&and&reinforces&the&W̱SÁNEĆ&view&of&themselves&as&being&“of”&their&natural&environment&``"in"no" way"separable"from"it"``"cooperative"and"fundamentally"respectful"actors"amongst"other"equal"actors" (Claxton"2003:22,24;"Elliot"1983:9;"Schaepe"2007:234`283)."Simply"put,"reef"netting"“could"not"be"successful" without"the"Saanich"Peoples’"deep"respect"for"the"salmon,"the"earth,"and"each"other."The"principle"of"respect" was"an"integral"part"of"the"Saanich"people’s"worldview”"(Claxton"2003:24)." "" This%is%a%theme%Claxton%returns%to%repeatedly%in%his%writings%about%the%W̱SÁNEĆ%reef`net"fishery."In" describing"the"ring"of"willow"that"was"woven"into"the"end"of"the"net"in"order"to"allow"some"of"the"salmon"to" escape,"he"observes"that"this"simple"and"effective%conservation%measure%was%in%fact%borne%of%a%profound% respect'for'the'salmon'(Claxton'2003:26).'Here'again'the'W̱SÁNEĆ'belief'that'everything'within'their'habitat'

27" was"animated"and"imbued"with"supernatural"powers"was"inextricably"interwoven"with"their"harvesting" practices." "" It#was#believed#that#the#runs#of#salmon#were#lineages,#and#if#some#were#allowed#to#return#to#their#home# rivers,'then'those'lineages'would'always'continue.'W̱SÁNEĆ'people'believed'that'all'living'things'were'once' people,"and"they"were!respected(as(such.(The(salmon(were(their(relatives((Claxton(2003:26).(As(has(been( mentioned,)the)first)salmon)ceremony,)during)which)all)W̱SÁNEĆ)honoured)the)king)of)the)salmon)by)pulling) up"their"reef`nets"and"ceasing"to"fish"for"a"period"of"up"to"ten"days"after"the"first"sockeye"salmon"was"caught," is"another"example"of"a"ritualized"demonstration"of"respect"arising"from"the"belief"that"the"sockeye"were" human"relatives"with"supernatural"powers"that"also"functioned"as"an"effective"conservation"measure" ensuring$the$future$health$of$the$resource$(Claxton$2003:27;$Suttles$1974:228`235).&That&the&W̱SÁNEĆ&took& time"to"celebrate"the"arrival"of"the"salmon"also"demonstrates"the"strong"spiritual"and"community"purposes" reef"net"fishing"served"in"addition"to"its"central"role"in"W̱SÁNEĆ"subsistence"activities"(Horne"2012:14)." "" Claxton"(2003:27)"and"Suttles"(1974:228`235)"both"describe"the"respect"shown"by"the"women"and"children" who"received"the"salmon"on`shore"during"the"reef"netting,"and"the"ritualized"way"in"which"the"captain"of"the" reef`net"crew"counted"out"the"fish"for"his"crewmembers"using"the"sacred"number"two,"again"to"show"respect" for"the"salmon"in"order"to"encourage"its"ongoing"return."Claxton"(2003)"explains"that,"“this"respect"built"a" relationship"to"the"resource"that"allowed"the"Saanich"peoples"to"thrive"as"a"nation"for"a"millennia."It"is"this" respect"for"the"land"and"its"resources"that"was,"and"still"is,"integral"to"the"Saanich"people’s"worldview”"(23)."" " Suttles"believed"that"reef`net"sites"were"privately"owned"by"individuals,"and"Kennedy"and"Bouchard" (1991:42)"cite"an"examination"of"reef`net"ownership"conducted"by"Easton"in"the"1980s"that"supports"this" assertion."However,"Claxton"(2003:26;"2014)"disagrees,"maintaining"these"sites"were"managed"by" individuals,!but$owned$by$families.$Moreover,$Claxton$states$that$the$relationship$between$families$and$their$ reef`net$sites$is$better$understood$as$families$belonging$to$their$sites$–!a"subtle"but"significant"distinction" that,%again,%reflects%the%W̱SÁNEĆ%view%of%themselves"as"elemental,"and"of"everything"within"their"habitat"as" animated"and"imbued"with"an"ordering"power." " The"role"of"site"manager"and"captain"of"the"reef`netting"crew"was"usually"held"by"the"Elder"of"the"family,"who" would"have"inherited"intricate"knowledge"of"the"site,"the"salmon,"and"all"of"the"ritual"and"technical"aspects"of" successful"reef`net"construction"and"use"(Claxton"2003:26;"Suttles"1974:217`218)."In"addition"to"his" responsibilities"for"managing"and"overseeing"the"family’s"reef"netting,"he"would"be"responsible"for"passing" on"all"of"the"knowledge"about"it"that"he"had"inherited,"in"effect"ensuring"the"ongoing"success"of"a"proven" approach"to"and"methods"for"governing"the"Saanich"reef`net"fishery"(Claxton"2003:26)." "" The"captain"“hired”"a"crew"of"six"to"twelve"men,"who"agreed"to"help"construct"the"net,"prepare"the"gear,"and" participate"in"the"fishing"for"the"season."In"exchange,"the"captain"fed"the"men"and"divided"the"catch"with" them"at"the"end"of"each"day"(Claxton"2003:27;"Suttles"1974:216`218,"235`236)."The"amount"of"time"and" labour"invested"in"reef"netting"was"considerable,"with"as"much"as"a"quarter"of"a"year"spent"preparing"the" lines,"constructing"nets"and"repairing"old"ones,"setting"the"anchors,"and"so"on,"most"of"which"also"involved" ritual"roles"and"practices"(Suttles"1974:218`223;"Welsh"2002:26`27)."There"was"also"the"work"of"setting"and" maintaining"camp,"processing"the"fish"for"storage,"and"other"supporting"efforts"generally"conducted"on` shore"by"the"crew’s"wives"and"families"(Suttles"1974:235`238;"Welsh"2002:26`27)."However,"according"to" Welsh"(2002:26),"reef"netting"was"such"an"efficient"system"for"harvesting"that"it"easily"warranted"the" dedication"of"so"much"energy."He"calculates"that"a"crew"of"10"could"obtain"enough"salmon"for"all"of"their" families"in"under"two"days"worth"of"work"(ibid)." "

28" Map 2: SENĆOŦEN Place Names and Reef Net Sites in LSA

ḴIȾEY !

LEPLIPEṈ !

X̱ EL,LEṈ ! Esri, DeLorme, GEBCO, NOAA NGDC, and other contributors

" Map$1:$Places$named$in$SENĆOŦEN'as'recalled'by'W̱SÁNEĆ'Elders.'Each'named'place'is'connected'by'the'Salish'Sea,'and' elucidates*the*broad*outline*of*marine*territory*used*by*the*W̱SÁNEĆ.!

29" " 3.3.4$$The$Longhouse$and$Spirit$Dancing$ " In#writing#about#the#traditional#ways#in#which#the#W̱SÁNEĆ#governed#themselves,#Claxton#(2003:31)# describes"several"interrelated"systems"of"governance"including"the"inherited"rights"of"and"roles"within" extended"family"units,"the"reef`net"fishery,"and"the"longhouse"and"winter"dancing."The"longhouse"was"and" continues"to"be"the"site"of"private"ceremonies"involving"dancing"and"important"opportunities"to"share" information"and"teachings,"and"“for"the"younger"people"to"listen"and"take"counsel"from"the"Elders”"(Horne" 2012:12)." " According)to)Suttles)(1987:200`203),&W̱SÁNEĆ&longhouse&ceremonies&were&held®ularly&throughout&the& winter"season,"as"often"as"once"a"week"or"even"daily"for"several"weeks:" "" A"dancer"was"a"man"or"woman"who"had"a"SYEWEN,"or"“spirit"song”"that"he"or"she"had"learned"to" dance"with."A"SYEWEN"was"acquired"through"the"return"of"the"vision"power"acquired"when"young," through"mourning,"and"through"initiation"after"kidnapping"by"a"group"of"dancers"hired"by"the"family" and"isolation"(usually"for"four"days)."The"new"dancer"wore"a"special"costume"and"was"subject"to" special"taboos"during"his"or"her"first"season."(Suttles"1990:467)" "" Suttles"(1987:200`203)"describes"a"longhouse"ceremony"he"attended"during"which"these"dances"were" frequently"interrupted"by"naming"ceremonies,"and"by"performances"involving"other"inherited"rights"and" possessions"such"as"rattles"and"songs." "" Wilson"Duff"describes"the"longhouses"as"“large"barn`like"structures"with"dirt"floors"and"tiers"of"benches" around"the"walls,"heated"by"two"large"bonfires,”"and"provides"a"description"of"the"dancing"similar"to"Suttles" (1995),"also"with"emphasis"on"the"new"dancer:" "" Initiation"as"a"new"dancer,"which"usually"occurs"in"the"late"teens,"still"involves"the"acquisition"of"a" supernatural"power."In"some"cases"the"power"has"entered"the"individual"earlier"in"life"(it"may"cause" a"sickness"that"can"only"be"cured"by"initiation"as"a"dancer),"but"more"often"nowadays"it"is"breathed" into"him"(or"her)"by"the"older"dancers,"who"begin"the"initiation"by"going"through"the"motions"of" forcibly"abducting"the"unsuspecting"initiate."The"power"brings"with"it"distinctive"personal"variations" in"the"song,"dance,"costume"and"pattern"of"painting"the"face."For"four"days,"while"these"are"being" learned,"the"new"dancer"undergoes"special"rituals"and"observances"to"help"him"through"this" important"period"of"change"in"his"life."(147)" "" Despite"such"reportedly"accurate"descriptions"of"longhouse"ceremonies"by"anthropologists,"most"of"the" practices"associated"with"the#longhouse,#their#meanings#and#significance,#remain#secret#and#are#likely#to#be# kept%so%from%everyone%outside%the%longhouse%tradition%(Horne%2012:12).%This%includes%members%of%the% W̱ SÁNEĆ(nation,(for(not(everyone(in(the(community(participates(in(the(acti vities"of"the"longhouse,"or"even" attends"the"ceremonies"held"there"(Suttles"1987:203)." " " " " "

30" The"reasons"for"the"secrecy"surrounding"the"longhouse"are"not"clearly"evident,"but"may"include"historic" injunctions"by"the"Canadian"government"and"various"Christian"churches"against"a"number"of"traditional" ceremonial"practices,"including"the"potlatch"and"ritual"dancing"(Kew"1990:162;"Suttles"1987:207)."Writing" in"1987,"Suttles"(203)"observed"that"despite"a"century"of"European"settlement"and"its"incursions"into"First" Nations’)life,)Salish)ceremonial)life)in)the)form)of)the)longhouse)appeared)to)be)flourishing.)W̱SÁNEĆ)were,) and"remain"today,"no"exception"to"this"statement."Indeed,"the"organizational"flexibility"within"the"longhouse," and"the"individual"expression"that"spirit%dancing%and%its%other%ritual%practices%provide,%may%have%made%it%the% perfect'vehicle'for'the'continuance'of'W̱SÁNEĆ'cultural'and'religious'practices'(Kew'1990:166;'Suttles' 1987:208)." "" These"sentiments"and"the"ongoing"importance"and"centrality"of"longhouse'traditions'to'both'sustaining'and' preserving)W̱SÁNEĆ)life)and)culture)are)echoed)by)Duff)(1997):" "" There"is"little"indication"that"spirit"dancing"will"die"out"within"the"near"future;"on"the"contrary,"it" gives"the"impression"of"being"a"flourishing"and"still`evolving"activity…"The"spirit"dancer"experiences" profound"sensations"that"are"fundamentally"religious"in"nature;"furthermore,"he"has"the"social" security"that"comes"from"belonging"to"an"exclusive"group,"he"has"an"emotional"safety"valve"that" provides"a"release"of"tensions"in"a"socially"approved"way"and"he"has"discovered"a"method"of" asserting"his"identity"as"an"Indian."(148)" "" Throughout"the"20th"century,"the"number"of"spirit"dancers"on"Vancouver"Island"increased"steadily,"and"even" dramatically"during"the"1980s."During"this"time"dancing"was"frequently"described"by"participants"as"“an" avenue"to"a"better"way"of"life,"an"Indian"way"that"provides"strength"and"protection,”"and"the"initiation"of"new" dancers"was"often"prompted"by"the"desire"to"treat"a"perceived"illness"or"potentially"threatening"state,"such" as"alcohol"or"drug"addiction,"that"might"be"seen"to"stem"from"a"loss"of"culture"(Kew"1990:477)." "" After"initiation,"the"dancer"who"fails"to"continue"dancing"may"again"become"ill."The"dancer’s"“song”"may"thus" insure"his"general"well`being"without"conferring"any"special"skill"as"it"would"have"in"the"past."Also,"initiation" as"a"new"dancer"is"sometimes"used"as"a"means"of"controlling"a"difficult"young"person,"and"so"dancing"may" imply"moral"well`being"as"well"as"physical."Perhaps"most"importantly,"being"a"dancer"is"the"most" unequivocal"symbol"of"being"Indian"(Suttles"1963:519)." "" "

3.4!!The!Douglas!Treaty!! "" In#February#1852,#James#Douglas,#Chief#Factor#for#the#Hudson#Bay#Company,#which#had#been#granted#title#to# Vancouver*Island*by*the*British*government,*brokered*two*agreements*with*the*W̱SÁNEĆ*(Davis*&* Simonsen"1995:2;"Duff"1969:6,"1997:84`85)."Although"the"documents"never"use"the"word"“treaty”"to" describe"these"agreements,"they"are"conventionally"referred"to"as"the"“Douglas"Treaties,”"and"have"been" ruled"by"the"courts"to"be"treaties"in"effect"(Claxton"2003:15;"Duff"1969:6)."The"treaties"arbitrarily"divide"the" W̱ SÁNEĆ(into(North(Saanich(and(South(Saanich,(with(Pauquachin(among(the(winter(villages(represented(by( the"former."This"treaty"states:" "" Our"understanding"of"this"sale"is"this"that"our"village"sites"and"enclosed"fields"are"to"be"kept"for"our"own"use," for"the"use"of"our"children,"and"for"those"who"may"follow"after"us,"and"the"land"shall"be"properly"surveyed" hereafter;"it"is"understood"however"that"the"land"itself"with"these"small"exceptions,"becomes"the"entire"

31" property"of"the"white"people"forever,"it"is"also"understood"that"we"are"at"liberty"to"hunt"over"the"unoccupied" lands,"and"to"carry"on"our"fisheries"as"formerly."(CanLII"1989:"Saanichton"Marina"Ltd."v."Claxton)" "" W̱ SÁNEĆ(oral(history(places(the(signing(of(the(Douglas(Treaty(at(a(point(of(escalating(ten sion%after%the% W̱ SÁNEĆ(sent(an(armed(party(to(stop(a(cedar(logging(operation(in(Cadboro(Bay(and(the(subsequent(shooting( of"a"young"First"Nations"boy"by"a"white"farmer"(Arnett"1999:36;"Elliot"1983:45`47;"Foster"1989:632`633;" Horne"2012:12;"Knighton"2004:12,18`20;$Pelkey$2014).$It$appears$that$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$may$have$been$ expecting)and)even)preparing)for)war)when)they)met)with)Douglas)in)1852)(Arnett)1999:36;)Knighton) 2004:18`20;$Pelkey$2014).$Pelkey$explains$that$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$entrusted$a$missionary$who$was$working" among"them"at"the"time"and"who"spoke"SENĆOŦEN"to"interpret"for"them"in"their"meeting"with"Douglas." "" They"asked"the"priest"to"tell"him,"that"they"wanted"him"to"honour"their"way"of"life"and"protect"their"way"of" life,"and"really"just"leave"their"people"alone."Let"them"live"in"their"villages,"and"leave"their"villages"to" themselves,"and"leave"them"to"their"way"of"life,"and"then"that"they"would"make"peace"with"them,"and"they" would"trade"with"them."So"that’s"what"they"thought"was"agreed"to"that"day."And"when"Sir"James"Douglas"was" making"hand"signals,"they"didn't"really"understand"what"he"was"talking"about,"and"he"was"waving"across" there,"and"they"took"it"to"mean"that"he"was"recognizing"their"territory."But"he"was"talking"about"actually"a" sale"of"land."So"that’s"what"they"took"him"to"mean,"that"he"was"recognizing"their"territory"by"waving"his"hand" across"their"territory"while"he"was"there."So"that's"what"they"believed"was"agreed"to"that"day"up"on"the" mountain,"and"they"gave"their"names"to"the"person"that"was"documenting"what"happened"there."(MUS"2014)" "" Elder&Gabriel&Bartleman&summarizes&W̱SÁNEĆ&oral&history&on&the&treaty,&stating&that&“the&understanding& that"[Douglas]"gave"the"people"at"home"was"that"their"way"of"life"was"never"ever"going"to"be"disturbed,"that" they"would"always"be"able"to"take"their"food"and"travel"as"they"did"before,"that"nothing"would"ever"be"taken" away"from"them”"(Knighton"2004:10)." "" Douglas"promised"that"he"could"never"interfere"with"their"C’ela’nen"(way"of"life),"that"it"would"never"ever"be" spoiled"the"way"they"were"living;"that"they"would"continue"to"live"the"way"they"always"lived."That"was"the" promises"made"by"Douglas."(Knighton"2004:16)" "" According)to)the)analysis)of)W̱SÁNEĆ)researcher)Nicholas)Claxton)(2003):" " The"Douglas"treaties"explicitly"state"that"those"indigenous"groups"signatory"to"the"treaties"have"the"“liberty" to"carry"on"their"fisheries"as"formerly.”"If"taken"literally,"those"indigenous"peoples"had"a"system"in"place,"a" system"of"governance"over"their"fisheries,"which"indeed"formed"the"core"of"their"traditional"societies."These" traditional"fisheries"and"their"subsequent"structures"of"governance"and"management"should"conceivably"be" still"intact"today,"which"is"overwhelmingly"not"the"case."To"the"contrary,"indigenous"fisheries"were"not" protected"as"promised."(35)" "" These"sentiments"are"echoed"in"the"following"statements"made"by"PMUS"participants"during"interviews"in" Pauquachin:" "" Our"treaty"says"you"can"hunt"and"fish"as"formerly."That’s"a"pretty"big"thing"because"formerly"we" were"able"to"go"any"time"anywhere."If"we"had"a"boat"or"not,"didn’t"matter."Now"if"you"have"a"motor" over"9.9"you"have"to"have"a"license"for"it."A"lot"of"our"people"don’t"like"that,"go"for"their"license"or" spend"money"to"buy"a"license."And"they"shouldn’t"have"to"‘cause"our"treaty"says"we"don’t."They’re" putting"a"lot"of"stuff"on"us."They"do"bother"a"lot."Fisheries"do"patrol."They"dump"their"stuff"on"them." They"tow"them"in,"say"we"have"to"tow"you"in,"you’re"not"using"your"motor,"you"don’t"have"a"license."

32" Those"little"things"bother"me."I"say"gee"I"wish"they’d"do"that"to"me…"I"hear"about"it."It"stops"them" from"going."So"they’re"not"going"out"any"more."Or"they"can’t"afford"to"buy"their"license"or"take"their" license"or"whatever."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)" " 3.5!!!Traditional"WSÁNEĆ̱ Marine!and!Land!Use! " From"December"through"to"February,"during"the"season"of"winter"spirit"dances,"Saanich"people"subsisted" largely"on"dried"fish"and"game,"supplemented"with"clams"and"ducks"and"fresh"rockcod."Once"the"stormy" winter"weather"ended"however,"large"amounts"of"food"were"harvested"during"the"spring,"summer"and"fall"at" widely`dispersed"seasonal"locations"that"took"the"Saanich"people"away"from"their"winter"villages."In"early" April,"smaller"groups"of"constituent"households"headed"out"to"various"camping"sites…" "" The"subsistence"quest,"therefore,"occupied"the"Saanich"from"approximately"April"through"November."The" aboriginal"Saanich"were"hunters,"fishers"and"gatherers;"they"did"not"practice"agriculture,"and"they"did"not" domesticate"food"animals"prior"to"the"arrival"of"Europeans."The"staple"food"item"was"salmon"caught"by"using" reef`nets"and"by"trolling,"trawling"and"weirs."This"was"supplemented"with"other"saltwater"fish,"especially" halibut,"a"few"species"of"trout."Deer"and"elk,"as"well"as"small"game"were"plentiful"on"the"forested"peninsula" and"offshore"islands."Ducks"and"other"game"birds"were"common."Shellfish"were"especially"important"for" people"residing"in"the"Strait"of"Georgia."Vegetable"products"round"out"the"diet."(Bouchard"&"Kennedy" 1996:28)" " W̱ SÁNEĆ(marine(and(land(use(was(defined(by(an(annual(seasonal(round(of(movement(between(locations(that( provided"a"great"variety"of"resources,"but"with"availability"fluctuating"according"to"the"season,"and"over"the" long"term."As"has"been"discussed,"the"dominant&force&in&this&cultural&pattern&of&movement&were&the&salmon,& and$in$particular$the$most$prized$of$all$salmon$species,$the$sockeye$(Boxberger$2007:57;$Vanden$berg$&$ Associates)1997:5).)Pursuit)of)this)sacred)and)seasonally)abundant)food)drove)the)W̱SÁNEĆ"from"their" winter"villages,"to"summer"settlements"at"sites"in"the"San"Juan"and"southern"Gulf"Islands,"throughout"Active" Pass"and"at"Point"Roberts"near"the"mouth"of"the"Fraser"River"(Bouchard"&"Kennedy"1991:44`45)."In"the" waters"and"on"the"lands"along"this$route$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$harvested$a$great$variety$of$marine$resources$and$ hunted"waterfowl"and"deer"(Davis"&"Simonsen"1995:2)."The"purpose"of"the"seasonal"round"was"to"return"to" the"winter"village"having"harvested"and"preserved"as"much"as"possible"of"the"resources"available"in"order"to" sustain"families"at"home"through"the"harshest"few"months"of"the"year." "" Success"in"this"endeavour"was"governed"by"respect"for"the"natural"environment"and"the"harvestable" resources"within"it."Many"of"the"harvesting"locations"and!practices)that)shape)W̱SÁNEĆ)marine)and)land)use) are$considered$sacred,$and$involve$ritual$activities$borne$of$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$belief$that$everything$in$their$ habitat"was"once"human,"and"intended"to"demonstrate"respect"for"these"equal"actors"within"their" environment.(Additionally,(many(W̱SÁNEĆ(marine(and(land(uses(serve(cultural(ends(by(providing(the( materials)and/or)occasion)for)cultural)practices.)For)these)reasons,)W̱SÁNEĆ)marine)and)land)use)for) subsistence"purposes"cannot"be"separated"from"cultural,"social"or"religious"purposes,"but"are"intimately" interwoven"with"them." " " " 3.5.1$$Seasonal$Round$ "

33" Our"people"didn’t"always"tell"the"time"by"the"day,"or"the"moon"or"the"sun."They"knew"the"tide"so"well"they" would"tell"the"time,"exactly"what"time"of"year"it"was,"by"the"tide"that"was"coming." " When"the"frogs"come"to"life"again,"when"they"come"out"of"hibernation"you"would"hear"them"croaking."That"is" the"reason"the"first"moon"of"Spring"was"called"WEXES"or"“frog”."My"people"had"been"home"all"winter."From" December"through"January"our"people"did"not"travel."Our"people"came"home"in"the"fall"as"the"bad"weather" began"to"set"in."They"came"in"from"their"territory"to"the"Saanich"Peninsula."The"Saanich"Peninsula"was"their" home."They"went"out"to"work"in"their"territory,"to"hunt,"gather,"to"fish"and"do"whatever"they"had"to"do"to"get" things"ready"again."""" ~"Dave"Elliot"Sr."(1983:19)" "" Perhaps(the(most(important(thing(to(understand(about(the(W̱SÁNEĆ(seasonal(round(and(harvesting( practices)as)they)relate)to)W̱SÁNEĆ)traditional)territory"is"that"“nature"is"exploited"by"the"intensive"use"of" specific'places'at'specific'times'in'the'year,'so'that'the'yearly'round'is'fairly'rigidly'determined”'(Suttles' 1974:105).*The*W̱SÁNEĆ’s*well*established*seasonal*round*was*first*documented*by*the*anthropologist" Diamond"Jenness,"based"on"a"conventional"12`month"calendar."However,"the"traditional"Saanich"calendar" included"13"moons,"and"was"dictated"by"seasonal"changes"within"the"natural"environment"(Welsh"2002:45)." In"fact,"different"individuals"may"have"recognized"different"seasonal"cues"to"indicate"the"same"moon" according"to"their"own"specialized"knowledge"of"their"habitat"(Suttles"1987:72)."Furthermore,"since" harvesting"activities"and"environmental"conditions"might"last"for"a"full"lunar"month"in"one"place"and"less"or" more"in"another,"“the"name"given"to"a"moon"in"one"village"might"be"the"name"for"the"succeeding"moon" elsewhere”"(Jenness"1955:87)." "" It#is#not#surprising,#therefore,#that#efforts#to#harmonize#the#traditional#W̱SÁNEĆ#13`moon"calendar"with"the" conventional*12`month&calendar&have&been&problematic&(Welsh&2002:45).&Nevertheless,&Davis&and&Simonsen& (1995)&provide&the&following&overview&of&the&W̱SÁNEĆ&seasonal&round&as&described&by&Jenness&and&others:" "" During"the"winter,"dried"salmon"served"as"the"main"food"staple"supplemented"with"dried"berries,"some"fresh" fish,"waterfowl,"intertidal"shellfish"and"seaweed."Game,"such"as"deer,"was"also"major"food"resource."This"was" also"a"time"when"ceremonial"activity"(such"as"dancing"and"initiation"rites)"took"place."With"spring’s"onset," various"other"marine"resources"were"exploited"such"as"seals,"spring"salmon,"rock"cod,"grilse,"halibut"and" herring."Land"mammals,"such"as"deer"and"elk,"were"more"frequently"exploited"with"the"better"weather"and" plant"harvesting"for"such"species"as"camas,"would"occur"in"May"in"dry,"rocky"shore"locations."A"late"spring" movement"of"families"out"of"the"sheltered"waters"of"Saanich"Inlet"progressed"through"the"Gulf"Islands,"where" fishing"would"occur"and"to"Point"Roberts,"where"the"Saanich"and"Malahat"would"net"sockeye"and"humpback" salmon."Returning"through"the"San"Juan"and"Gulf"Islands"throughout"August"and"September,"the"cycle"ended" with"chum"salmon"as"the"last"major"resource"harvested"in"the"Goldstream"area"from"October"onward."(2)" "" W̱ S Á N E Ć"Elders"Earl"Claxton"and"John"Elliot"created"a"written"version"of"the"traditional"13`moon$W̱SÁNEĆ$ calendar"in"1993,"which"is"included"below:" " )

The W̱ SÁNEĆ Year

34" ṈIṈENE"–"Moon"of"the"Child" Nettle"twine"made"into"nets." For"those"who"would"take"the"risk,"Halibut"fishing"resumed." Grilse"fishing"in"WJOLEP." Fawns"born,"deer"hunting"stops." Generally"living"off"supplies,"telling"tales,"instructing"children,"longhouse"ceremonies" continue." "" WEXES"–"Moon"of"the"Frog" Ocean"travel"safer." Fish"for"herring"and"gather"herring"roe." Duck"nets"were"used." Sections"of"reef"net"sewn"together,"captains"surveyed"beaches"for"anchor"rocks,"rafts"were""" assembled,"floats"and"cables"prepared." "" PEXSISEṈ"–"The"Moon"of"Opening"Hands"–"The"Blossoming"Out"Moon" Hunting"of"Brant"Geese" Clams,"oysters"and"Mussels"are"at"their"best." Cedar"logs"felled"for"canoes,"etc." Cedar"bark"gathered." Wool"dogs"shed"–"wool"gathered." " ""SXÁNEȽ"`"Bullhead"Moon" Gathered"Bullheads." Harvested"seaweed." Halibut"fishery"ends." Grouse"snared"in"the"woods." "" PENÁW̱EṈ"–"Moon"of"Camas"Harvest" Most"families"left"the"winter"village"for"spring"camps." Harvest"camas." Gather"gull"eggs." Purple"and"green"sea"urchins"gathered." "" ĆENŦEḴI"–"The"Sockeye"Moon" Dropping"of"the"anchor"rocks"at"the"family"reef"net"locations." First"salmon"ceremony" Start"of"salmon"trade." "" ĆENHENEN"–"Humpback"Salmon"Return"to"the"Earth" Reef"fishery"continues"–"especially"at"Point"Roberts." Sport"gatherings." Memorial"potlaches,"namings,"weddings"and"society"ceremonies." "" ĆENTÁWEN"–"The"Coho"Salmon"Return"to"the"Earth"

35" Cod"Fishing."Sea"urchins"used"as"bait"for"tommy"cod"and"tommy"cod"used"for"bait"for" lingcod." Deer"hunting"begins." Hog"Fennel"gathered." "" ĆENQOLEW̱)–"The"Dog"Salmon"Return"to"the"Earth" Hunting"for"deer"and"grouse." Dog"salmon"fishery"at"Goldstream." Langford"area"for"cranberries,"blueberries"and"grouse"hunting." " PEKELÁNEW̱)–"The"Moon"that"turns"the"Leaves"White" Splitting"logs"for"boards,"and"completing"canoes." Seal"and"sealion"hunting"in"the"San"Juans." Cod"fishing"tapers"off,"grouse"hunting"ceases." Preparation"for"the"fall"deer"and"elk"hunts." Deer"are"in"rut"–"easily"fooled." " W̱ E S E L Á N E W̱ ( –"Moon"of"the"Shaker"of"the"Leaves" Most"foods"are"in"storage." Fishing"close"to"winter"village." Elk"hunting"in"the"mountains"after"the"first"snowfall." Winter"fires"are"lit"–"Winter"gatherings." " SJEȻÁSEṈ"–"Moon"of"Putting"your"Paddle"away"in"the"Bush" Clam"digging." Weave"mats,"capes"and"knit"wool." Tools"and"fishing"gear"repaired." Bark"worked,"lines,"cables,"baskets." Logs"split"into"planks." Story"telling"and"Winter"Ceremonies,"living"off"stores"(Welsh"2002:48`51)." " 3.5.2!!W̱ SÁNEĆ(Settlement(Patterns $ " At$one$time$or$another$practically$every$sheltered$bay$and$nook$along$the$southeast$coast$of$ Vancouver$Island,$and$on$the$small$islands$adjacent$to$it,$carried$a$settlement$of$greater$or$less$size;$ but$at$the$coming$of$Europeans$late$in$the$18th$century$the$Salish$inhabitants$of$this$area$appear$to$ have$been$divided.$(Davis$&$Simonsen$1995:2)$ "" This%is%an%accurate%description%of%the%history%of%W̱SÁNEĆ%settlement!patterns,)which)at)one)time)covered)the) whole&of&their&traditional&territory,&but&were&arbitrarily&reduced&to&the&handful&of&reserve&sites&where& permanent(villages(remain(today.(Prior(to(about(1850,(W̱SÁNEĆ(winter(villages(and(permanent(settlements( were"distributed"throughout"the"San"Juan"and"southern"Gulf"Islands,"and"as"noted"above,"dotted"the"shores" of"the"Saanich"Peninsula."" " By"the"middle"of"the"19th"century,"however,"and"due"to"a"variety"of"factors"``"including"population"declines" brought"on"by"diseases"associated"with"European"contact,"as"well"as"raids"by"other"northern"first"nations,"

36" and"eventually"land"pre`emptions"by"white"settlers"``"most"of"the"families"from"the"island"villages"relocated" to"Saanichton"Bay,"the"largest"of"the"settlement"sites"on"the"Saanich"Peninsula"(Bouchard"&"Kennedy" 1991:18;"Claxton"&"Sam"2010:20;"Davis"&"Simonsen"1995:2;"Suttles"1974:76`82)."They"did"not"abandon" their"former"home"sites"though,"and"continued"to"return"to"use"and"occupy"them"as"camps"during"their" seasonal"rounds"(Vanden"Berg"1997:1;"Suttles"1974:76`82)."" " About&this&same&time&the&W̱SÁNEĆ&village&site&on&Cole&Bay&known&as&Pauquachin&was&founded&or&reoccupied.& Bouchard"and"Kennedy"(1991:20,28)"report"that"it"appears"to"have"been"populated"first"by"people"from"the" west%side%of%Saanich%Inlet%at%Malahat%and%Hatch%Point,%who%wanted%to%be%closer%to%the%winter%dances%held%on% the$Peninsula.$However,$they$also$note$that$W̱SÁNEĆ$oral$tradition$“includes$stories$of$people$migrating$ from"the"east"side"of"Saanich"Peninsula"to"the"west"side"in"the"19th"century,”"generally"to"avoid"attacks"by" northern"First"Nations"(1991:18)."In"keeping"with"this"motivation,"the"earliest"recorded"observations"of" Pauquachin"describe"a"stockaded"village"or"“Indian"fort”"at"Cole"Bay"on"the"west"side"of"the"Saanich" Peninsula"(Bouchard"&"Kennedy"1991:20)." " The"first"observations"of"an"Indian"village"at"Cole"Bay"were"made"in"1858."In"August"of"that"year,"an"Indian" village"site"at"Cole"Bay"was"described"as"having"a"population"of"20`30"people."They"were"living"in"several" huts"built"within"a"twenty`foot"high"palisaded"fortification"that"measured"about"one"hundred"feet"square." The"site"was"fortified,"according"to"the"Native"residents,"because"some"twenty"years"earlier"the"northern" residents,"because"some"twenty"years"earlier"the"northern"warriors"had"exterminated"almost"the"entire" Saanich"tribe,"and"they"lived"in"fear"of"further"hostilities."(Bouchard"&"Kennedy"1991:28)" " Nevertheless,*the*W̱SÁNEĆ*spent*no*more*than*three*to*six*months*sheltered*in*their*winter*villages*each* year"(Welsh"2002:44)."These"home"sites"on"Vancouver"Island"were"simply"the"bases"where"their"seasonal" rounds"embarked"in"the"spring"and"returned"in"the!fall.%W̱SÁNEĆ%families%spent%the%remaining%six%to%nine% months"on"the"waters"of"their"traditional"territory,"harvesting"resources"or"traveling"between"summer" camps"and"established"harvesting"areas"(Suttles"1974:76;"Tsawout"First"Nation"2014;"Welsh"2002:44)."" " In#addition#to#these#summer#camps,#W̱SÁNEĆ#families#traveled#across#the#Strait#of#Georgia#to#a#seasonal# settlement"at"Point"Roberts"on"the"mainland"where"they"owned"salmon"fishing"sites"alongside"other"Straits" Salish`speaking"first"nations"(Bouchard"&"Kennedy"1996:31`32;"Vanden"berg"&"Associates"1997:1)." "" References"in"the"Fort"Langley"journals"from"the"late"1820s"indicate"that"this"village"was"occupied"between" the"beginning"of"May"and"the"end"of"October."During"this"time,"Saanich"people"were"also"observed"going"to" the"salmon"fisheries"on"the"Fraser"River"near"Yale"in"July,"and"again"in"September"(McMillan"and"MacDonald" 1827`1830:17,25)."The"Saanich"Peninsula"villages"were"abandoned"during"July"and"August,"according"to" Jenness."(Bouchard"&"Kennedy"1991:44)" "" Elliot&(1983)&offers&the&following&description&of&the&W̱SÁNEĆ&Nation&and&its&traditional&movements&through& W̱ S Á N E Ć ( T e r r i t o r y : " "" We#can#call#the#W̱SÁNEĆ#Peninsula#our#headquarters#because#this#is#where#we#built#permanent# winter"homes."This"is"where"we"stayed"in"large"villages."Our"land"went"east"through"the"San"Juan" Islands"and"northeast"across"Georgia"Strait"to"Boundary"Bay..."In"the"summer"our"families"traveled" through"our"territory"to"fish"and"gather"food."When"we"traveled"we"made"temporary"homes"near"to" places"where"we"were"fishing"and"gathering"""food..."The"lands"and"seas"we"called"our"territory"were" the"lands"and"seas"that"we"traditionally"used."(1983:5,15)" ""

37" Salmon"fishing"not"only"dominated"the"subsistence"activities"of"all"Northern"Straits`speaking&tribes,&but&was& central(to(nearly(every(aspect(of(their(cultural(lives((Claxton(2004:9;(Suttles(1974:170;(Boxberger(2007:57).( As#Suttles#(1974:189;#1987:35`36)$observed,$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$Nation’s$seasonal$round,$and$by$extension$its$ territory,"was"defined!by#the#W̱SÁNEĆ#people’s#pursuit#of#the#five#salmon#species,#and#the#steelhead#trout,#in# the$straits$between$Vancouver$Island$and$mainland$British$Columbia.$Welsh$(2002),$writing$for$the$ SENĆOŦEN'Alliance,'which'represents'the'W̱SÁNEĆ,'and'includes'Semiahmoo,#summarized#the#relationship# between&the&salmon&runs&and&W̱SÁNEĆ&territory&as&follows:" "" Spring"salmon"run"in:"a."May"through"August,"and"b."Late"September."Sockeye"run"from"July"through" September."Chum"run"from"October"through"November."Coho"run"from"November"through" December."Pinks"run"from"September"through"October."All"of"these"runs"come"around"S.E." Vancouver"Island,"work"their"way"through"the"Islands"into"Boundary"Bay"and"then"into"the"Fraser" River."The"traditional"territory"of"the"SENĆOŦEN"people"is"primarily"composed"of"water."Courses"of" the"salmon"run,"through"Haro"and"Rosario"Straits"and"Active"Pass"and"the"islands"and"adjacent" mainland."(18)" " As#has#been#discussed,#W̱SÁNEĆ#families#maintained#reefnet#sites#and#other#fishing#and#harvesting#areas# throughout"the"waters"along"the"salmon’s"migration"route"to"the"Fraser"River"(Suttles"1987:35`36)."In" describing"the"seasonal"round"of"people"from"Pauquachin"and"neighbouring"communities"for"a"Saanich"Inlet" Study"Report"prepared"for"the"B.C."government,"Davis"and"Simonsen"write:"" " A"late"spring"movement"of"families"out"of"the"sheltered"waters"of"Saanich"Inlet"progressed"through" the"Gulf"Islands,"where"fishing"would"occur"and"to"Point"Roberts,"where"the"Saanich"and"Malahat" would"net"sockeye"and"humpback"salmon."Returning"through"San"Juan"and"Gulf"Islands"throughout" August"and"September,"the"cycle"ended"with"chum"salmon"as"the"least"major"resource"harvested"in" the"Goldstream"area"from"October"onward."(1995:2)" " " 3.5.3''Point$Roberts$ " The"Saanich"have"had"a"very"long"association"with"Point"Roberts."According"to"Jenness,""the"Saanich"had"an" immemorial"claim"to"[reef`net]"fishing"off"Point"Roberts.""The"available"evidence,"both"from"the"1827`1830" Fort"Langley"journals"and"from"affidavits"submitted"in"the"1895"U.S."et"al."v"Alaska"Packing"Association"et"al." litigation"(eg."Old"Polen"1895),"indicates"that"the"Saanich"predominated"those"Natives"camping"and"fishing"in" the"Point"Roberts"vicinity"from"the"1820s"through"until"about"1894,"after"which"time"a"newly`constructed" cannery's"operations"prevented"reef`net"fishing"here."(Bouchard"&"Kennedy"1996:31`32)" "" In#their#1997#report#on#W̱SÁNEĆ#fishing#territory,#Vanden#Berg#and#Associates#refer#to#the#work#of#multiple# anthropologists"and"ethnographers,"including"Wilson"Duff,"Wayne&Suttles,&Diamond&Jenness,&and&H.&G.& Barnett,(as(well(as(the(Fort(Langley(Journal(of(1827,(to(substantiate(the(W̱SÁNEĆ(seasonal(occupation(of(sites( in"Point"Roberts"and"their"use"of"the"waters"for"salmon"fishing."Most"of"the"natives"regarded"the"sockeye#as# the$choicest$of$all$fish,$but$not$all$of$them$possessed$fishing$rights$over$waters$where$the$sockeye$ran;$for,$ like%the%humpbacked,%it%does%not%enter%the%streams%on%Vancouver%Island.%The%W̱SÁNEĆ%had%an%immemorial% claim"to"the"fishing"off"Point"Roberts,"near"the"mouth"of"the"Fraser"River;"and"there,"during"July"and"August," they"caught"and"stored"for"the"winter"large"quantities"of"both"sockeye"and"humpbacked"(Vanden"berg"&" Associates"1997:5)." ""

38" Indeed,"Suttles"reported"that,"“most"of"the"reef`net"sites"at"Point"Roberts"belonged"to"Straits"Salish"people" from"Vancouver"Island”"(Vanden"berg"&"Associates"1997:3),"and"that"the"Fort"Langley"journals"put"the" Saanich"“at"Point"Roberts"in"early"summer,"locating"a"Saanich"village"there”"(Welsh"2002:51).)A"literature# review&conducted&by&the&Ministry&of&Justice&in&2013&focusing&on&Pauquachin&and&traditional&W̱SÁNEĆ& territory,"indicates"discrepancies"amongst"ethnographers"with"respect"to"which"of"the"communities"on"the" Saanich"Peninsula"the"Saanich"who"used"and"occupied"Point"Roberts"belonged."But"because"the"Saanich"are," for"the"most"part,"treated"as"a"unified"group,"and"the"few"descriptions"of"specific"territories"for"individual" Saanich"communities"are"inconsistent"and"contradictory,"the"report"concludes"that"“the"ethnographic" information"is"best"treated"as"applying"to"all"Saanich"groups"meaning"that"there"is"one"use"and"occupancy" area"rather"than"four"areas"associated"with"the"four"Saanich"groups”"(Ministry"of"Justice"2013:3)." "" Kennedy"and"Bouchard"(1991)"report"that"an"examination"conducted"by"Easton"in"1985"revealed"that" Suttles"assertions"concerning"the"ownership"of"reef`net"sites"were"correct,"and"that"“ownership"can"best"be" treated"as"if"it"were"individual,"recognizing"that"the"owner"may"have"felt"obligations"towards"kinsmen"who" might"be"co`heirs"but"not"co`owners”"(42)."Nevertheless,"contemporary"Coast"Salish"scholars"reject"this" position,"stating"that"reef`net"sites"could"not"be"owned"by"individuals,"and"instead"belonged"to"families"who" appointed"captains"to"coordinate"and"manage"the"fishing"operations"(Claxton"2003:26;"2014;"Naxaxalhts’i" 2007:96)." "" Regardless"of"whether"the"individual"responsible"for"each"reef`net"operation"was"an"owner"or"a"manager," the"relationship"between"this"captain"and"his"reef`net"crew"was$cooperative$and$essential$to$providing$ salmon'for'the'families'of'all'of'those'involved.'Therefore,'it'would'be'difficult'to'argue'that'participating' “only”'as'a'crewmember'diminished'the'fact'or'quality'of'a'W̱SÁNEĆ'fisherman’s'use'and'occupancy'of'the" fishing'grounds'at'Point'Roberts.'For'these'reasons'as'well,'it'is'problematic'to'suggest'that'the'reef`netting& sites%were%only%part%of%territory%belonging%to%specific%communities%on%the%Saanich%Peninsula,%as%opposed%to% the$territory$of$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$Nation"as"a"whole." "" Point"Roberts"was"a"remarkable"reef`net"fishing"ground"for"multiple"reasons."It"was"the"largest"in"the"entire" area,"it"was"useable"for"longer"periods"of"time"each"day"–"reef`netting"was"usually"limited"to"three"hours"a" day"by"the"tides"–"and"it"“was"a"striking"example"of"the"cooperation"possible"between"people"from"different" households(and(different(communities,”((Suttles(1974:(545)(including(the(W̱SÁNEĆ,(Semiahmoo(and(Lummi( (Suttles"1974:"258`259;"Welsh"2002:25)." "" Welsh"(2002)"describes"how"this"cooperation"Suttles"refers"to"extended"beyond"reef`" netting"at"Point"Roberts:" "" Southeastern"Vancouver"Island"is"poor"in"salmon"streams"but"rich"in"camas."Semiahmoo,"conversely" is"rich"in"salmon"and"poor"in"camas."The"Saanich"have"halibut"banks"while"the"Semiahmoo"have" sturgeon."The"mainland,"around"Boundary"and"Birch"Bays"has"seven"salmon"streams"and"the"Fraser" River,"as"well"as"elk"and"bears."The"Islands"have"deer"and"camas."Various"rich"reef"locations"are" located"through"the"territory."Several"good"duck"net"locations"were"located"strategically."All"of"these" resources"were"seasonally"exploited"and"provided"the"motivation"for"internal"movements"within" the"territory."(17)" "" "" 3.5.4''The$Islands$ "

39" When$the$Creator$finished$making$the$mountains$he$grabbed$some$of$our$people,$he$grabbed$them$and$ threw$them$out$in$the$ocean.$And$as$he$threw$them$out$there...$as$he$tossed$some$of$our$own$ancestors$ out$there$they$became$those$islands...$He$made$them$to$be$those$islands$that$are$still$there$today,$how$ they're$all$laid$out$there$as$you$can$see$them$on$the$map$there.$That's$how$they$came$to$be.$And$when$ he$threw$the$last$one$out$and$he$turned$to$the$people$remaining$there$on$the$top$of$the$mountain$on$ that$ledge$facing$east$and$he$said$to$them...$"You$will$look$after$your$relatives$of$the$deep."$$ $ …$The$Elders$taught$us$that.$And$they$were$taught$by$their$Elders,$and$those$Elders$were$taught$by$ their$Elders.$That$what$was$given$to$us$from$one$generation$to$the$next$until$we$arrive$down$to$today,$ and$we're$still$teaching$it.$And$I$became$a$teacher$after$spending$many,$many$years$with$my$Elders$ and$learning$and$understanding$what$it$is$to$be$W̱ S Á N E Ć .$For$when$we$throw$away$that$belief,$then$ we're$no$longer$W̱ S Á N E Ć .$We$lost$our$way.$We$lost$the$truth$of$who$we$are...$And$this$story$I'm$telling$ you$is$why.$Because$when$XÁLS$spoke$to$our$people,$our$ancestors,$and$said...$"you$will$look$after$your$ relatives$of$the$deep,"$and$that$became$a$law;$that$became$a$law.$You$must$look$after$your$relatives$of$ the$deep.$ ~$John$Elliot,$2014$ " " San Juan and Southern Gulf Islands

As#mentioned#above,#prior#to#the#mid#19th#century#W̱SÁNEĆ#winter#villages#were#scattered#throughout#the# San$Juan$and$southern$Gulf$Islands.$Duff$recorded$W̱SÁNEĆ$villages$on$Sidney,$Stuart,$Saltspring$and$Mayne$ Islands'in'particular,'and'described'W̱SÁNEĆ'territory"as"encompassing"“the"eastern"shore"of"Saltspring" Island,"and"the"islands"east"of"Saltspring"and"south"of"Active"Pass"perhaps"as"far"as"the"Northern"shores"of" Orcas"and"San"Juan"Islands”"(Vanden"Berg"&"Associates"1997:1)."This"would"include,"at"the"least,"North"and" South&Pender,&Samuel,&and&Saturna&Islands,&as&well&as&the&several&smaller&islands&between&the&Gulf&and&San& Juans.'Suttles'(1974:76,80`81)$describes$much$the$same$territory$and$village$sites$for$the$W̱SÁNEĆ$with$the$ addition"of"a"settlement"site"on"Pender"Island."" " Moreover,"Suttles"(1974:76,)80b81)"notes"that"the"settlement"site"on"Stuart"Island"was"occupied"year`round" with"a"population"increase"in"the"summertime."Bouchard"and"Kennedy"1996"also"quotes"from"Suttles’"list"of" the"six"places"he#understood#W̱SÁNEĆ#to#have#“owned”#reef`net"sites,"and"his"description"of"a"reef`net"owner" by"the"name"of"Jim"lháwesten"“of"Cole"Bay,"who"stayed"part"of"the"time"on"Stuart"Island,"and"had"a"[reef`net" site]"on"the"south"shore"of"John’s"Island,”"located"southeast(of(Stuart(Island((33).(Bouchard(and(Kennedy( (ibid)&record&that&W̱SÁNEĆ&source&Chris&Paul&recognized&this&name&as&“lháweshten,”&and&identified&him&as&a& former"chief"of"Pauquachin." "" According"to"Elliot"(1983),"Stuart"Island"used"to"be"a"fishing"camp,#and#is#called#KENES,#which#“means# whale”'(67).'Elliot'(1983)'recalls'that,'“Saanich'people'lived'on'many'of'the'Gulf'Islands'and'most'of'the'San' Juan%Islands,”%and%that%the%W̱SÁNEĆ%leader%CELOWENTET%is%buried%on%Samuel%Island%(5,7`8)."The"list"of" place"names&in&Saanich&Territory&he&provides&also&includes&W̱SÁNEĆ&names&for&nearly&all&of&the&southern& Gulf"and"San"Juan"Islands,"many"of"which"indicate"the"likely"resource"or"use"traditionally"associated"with"the" location."Prevost"Island,"for"instance,"is"called"WASWEM"meaning"“place"of"seal”"(Elliot"1983:66)."Blakely" Island"is"XEMXEMICL,"which"means"“place"of"cattails,”"and"Sucia"Island"or"LAUKEMEN"means"“place"of" mussels”"(Elliot"1983:67)." "" Elliot"also"refers"to"the"islands"of"Spidon"and"Mandarte,"the"former!a"San"Juan"Island"on"the"American"side"of" the$border$and$well$east$of$Mandarte,$a$small$island$on$the$Canadian$side$of$the$shipping$lane$not$far$from$

40" the$Saanich$Peninsula.$Spidon,$known$as$XODEL$in$W̱SÁNEĆ,$is$“said$to$be$the$mother$of$Mandarte,”$which$is" XOXDEL&in&W̱SÁNEĆ,&and&“said&to&be&the&daughter&of&XODEL&(Spiden&Island)”&(Elliot&1983:67`68).%The% relationship,described,by,these,islands’,W̱SÁNEĆ,names,underscores,the,unified,and,holistic,view,the, W̱ SÁNEĆ(had(of(their(territory,(despite(the(apparent(s eparateness"of"some"of"the"lands"within"it."" " According"to"Claxton"and"Sam"(2010),"Madarte"Island"was:" "" A"place"for"gathering"food:"cod,"halibut,"and"rockfish"from"the"surrounding"water;"seagull"eggs"and" camas"bulbs"from"the"land."There"were"clear,"though"invisible,"lines"that"divided"the"camas`"and"egg` gathering"areas."You"didn’t"go"over"those"lines,"because"each"area"was"owned"and"looked"after"by" different"families."(35)" " Davis&and&Simonsen&(1995:2)&describe&the&W̱SÁNEĆ&seasonal&movement&eastward&through"fishing"and" harvesting"sites"in"the"Gulf"Islands"to"the"reef`netting"sites"in"Point"Roberts,"and"back"through"the"Gulf"and" San"Juan"Islands"to"the"winter"villages"on"the"Saanich"Peninsula."Along"this"route"through"the"same"waters" that"the"salmon"follow"on!their&migration&to&the&Fraser,&Suttles&(1974:251`252)$notes$W̱SÁNEĆ$reef`netting" sites,"in"addition"to"those"at"Point"Roberts,"off"Stuart,"John’s,"Pender,"and"North"Pender"Islands."He"also" indicates"a"site,"or"“perhaps"several,”"in"Active"Pass,"presumably!off#Mayne#Island.#Duff#also#makes#specific# reference&to&the&W̱SÁNEĆ&returning&annually&to&reef&net&sites&off&Stuart&and&Pender&Islands,&in&addition&to& Point"Roberts"(Vanden"Berg"&"Associates"1997:1)." "" Kennedy"and"Bouchard"(1996)"provide"a"long"and"detailed#list#of#reef`net$sites$owned$or$used$by$W̱SÁNEĆ$ throughout"the"Gulf"Islands,"as"well"as"the"American"Gulf"Islands"“on"the"eastern"shore"of"Haro"Strait"and" Swanson"Channel,"[which]"included"a"site"or"sites"off"the"west"shore"of"the"mouth"of"Reid"Harbour"on"Stuart" Island"(in"Washington"State)”"(33)."They"also"note"clam"digging"at"West"Sound"on"Orcas"Island"in" Washington,"and"at"Ganges"Harbour"where"“it"has"been"reported"that"in"the"1870s,"early"non`Indian"settlers" on"Saltspring"Island"saw"as"many"as"500"Indians"gathered"at"Ganges"Harbour"during"May"and"June"to"dig" clams”"(Bouchard"&"Kennedy"1996:39)." "" Additionally,"“lingcod"and"rock"cod"fishing"throughout"the"southern"Gulf"Islands"was"popular"amongst"the" Saanich,”"with"Active"Pass"being"a"particularly"well"used"spot"for"rock"cod"and"herring"fishing"(Bouchard"&" Kennedy"1996:37)."The"importance"of"halibut"fishing"throughout"the"Gulf"Islands,"and"at"Mayne"and" Saltspring"Islands"in"particular"is"also"stressed"(ibid)."According"to"Kennedy"and"Bouchard"(1996):" " Saanich"fishermen"described"a"special"rite"that"was"used"to"encourage"the"halibut"to"bite"the"hook." This"involved"hanging"a"small"halibut"by"its"tail"and"having"young"children"beat"it"with"fir"boughs"as" they"laughed"and"sang."The"fish"was"then"cooked"and"served"to"all"but"an"old"man"who"then"went" fishing,"and"if"the"rite"had"been"successful,"came"back"with"plenty."(38)" "" Ducks"and"geese,"which"“were"considered"most"edible…"were"speared,"clubbed,"or"caught"in"aerial"nets"or" nets"thrown"over"a"flock"sitting"on"the"water,”"in"the"“myriad"small"bays,"channels"and"islets"throughout"the" Gulf"Islands"[that]"were"the"habitat"of"waterfowl”"(Bouchard"&"Kennedy"1996:40)." "" Saanich,"Songhees"and"possibly"Lummi"used"the"Mosquito"Pass"duck"net"location"between"San"Juan"and" Henry"Islands,"although"Louie"Pelkey"spoke"of"this"site"belonging"originally"to"the"Klalakamish"people."The" Saanich"joined"the"Samish"in"their"use"of"the"Pole"Pass"location"between"Orcas"and"Crane"Islands,"but"they" recognized"that"it"was"in"Lummi"territory."Anyone"with"a"net"could"catch"birds"here."(Bouchard"&"Kennedy" 1996:41)"

41" "" Arbutus"Island,"located"west"of"Piers"Island"in"the"waters"directly"north"of"the"Saanich"Peninsula,"is"called" skewmin"for"the"“name"of"little"black"duck"you"see"there”"(Bouchard"&"Kennedy&1996:69).&The&“Black&Duck”& is#considered#a#sacred#bird#by#the#W̱SÁNEĆ,#and#remains#a#preferred#species#for#ceremonial#use#today.#It#is# harvested"to"make"the"traditional"duck"soup"used"in"the"smokehouse,"and"its"feathers"are"still"used"in" longhouse"dances"to"initiate"new"dancers." "" In"all,"Kennedy"and"Bouchard"provide"a"list"of"93"“ethnographically"and"ethnohistorically"recorded"Saanich" village"sites"and"resource"procurement"places”"the"vast"majority"of"which"are"scattered"throughout"the"San" Juan"and"Southern"Gulf"Islands"(1996:45)."However,"as"Davis"and"Simonsen"(1995)"note:" " In"1846,"the"Treaty"of"Washington"established"a"United"States"`"British"border,"which…"made"it" illegal"for"the"Saanich"and"Malahat"to"venture"to"their"traditional"fishing"grounds"in"the"San"Juan" Islands"and"Point"Roberts."(2)""

Sidney, D’Arcy and James Islands

D’Arcy,(Little(D’Arcy,(Sidney(and(James(Islands(are(the(closest(islands(to(Saanichton(Bay(on(the(Saanich( Peninsula.*Not*surprisingly,*Elliot*(1983)*lists*W̱SÁNEĆ*names*associated"with"all"of"them,"as"well"as"nearly" all"of"the"small"islands"close"to"the"shores"of"the"Saanich"Peninsula,"including"Coal,"Shell,"Piers,"Arbutus," Moresby,"Portland,"and"Halibut"Islands,"and"the"Gooch"Island"Group"(64`68)." "" W̱ SÁNEĆ(researcher(Jack(H orne"(2012:14)"refers"to"a"series"of"interviews"with"Elders"conducted"in"2001" concerning"traditional"uses"of"specific"areas"within"the"Nation’s"traditional"territory."According"to"the"Elders" interviewed,"“many"of"the"islands"contained"specific"areas"where"certain"resources"had"been"extracted"for" thousands"of"years"prior"to"contact."There"were"also"places"for"specific"ceremonial"uses"and"many"areas"held" an"attached"spiritual"significance”"(ibid)." "" James"Island"in"particular,"which,"as"Horne"(2012:14)"points"out"is"so"close"to"the"Saanich"Peninsula"as"to"be" clearly"visible"from"shore,"is"associated"with"traditional"sites"for"harvesting"salmon,"halibut,"rabbit,"crab,"and" herring." "" W̱ SÁNEĆ(oral(history(relates(the(Nation’s(use(and(occupation(of(James(and(D’Arc y"Islands"from"time" immemorial(until(early(in(the(20th(century(when(they(were(ordered(to(move(by(governments(of(the(day(that( had$their$own$plans$for$the$islands$(Horne$2012:14).$Suttles$(1974:76,80)$also$documented$W̱SÁNEĆ$ settlements"on"the"west`shore"of"Sidney"Island"and"on"the"lagoon"south"of"Sidney"Spit." " In"their"list"of"93"“ethnographically"and"ethnohistorically"recorded"Saanich"village"sites"and"resource" procurement"places,”"Kennedy"and"Bouchard"(1996:45)"note"11"locations"on"Sidney,"D’Arcy"and"James" Islands." ! " " " "

42" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Section!II:!HARVEST!SURVEY!AND! TRADITIONAL!MARINE!USE! INTERVIEW!RESULTS! " "

43" ! " 4.!Marine!Use!Harvest!Study!

4.1!!!Methodology,!Participant!Enrolment,!and!Limitations! $ This"report"was"prepared"by"Trailmark"Systems"and"Consulting"under"contract"to"Pauquachin"First"Nation." Its"contents"are"the"property"of"Pauquachin"First"Nation.""Trailmark"undertook"a"standard"literature"review," examining"available,"prominent"ethnographic"and"ethnohistorical"texts,"published"and"unpublished" traditional"land"use"and"marine"use"studies"that"it"was"able"to"source."To"supplement"this"historical" information,"we"undertook"new"research"in"the"form"of"harvest"and"traditional"marine"use"and"knowledge" interviews"with"Pauquachin"members."" " Predicting"the"potential"effects"of"the"Project"on"Pauquachin’s"traditional"marine"use,"interests,"and"ability"to" exercise"and"enjoy"Douglas"Treaty"rights"requires"an"understanding"of"Pauquachin’s"traditional"uses"in"the" LSA"and"RSA"in"the"past,"present,"and"future."" " Baseline"information"about"aboriginal"traditional"use"is"typically"gathered"through"interviews"or"group" workshops"where"areas"used"in"the"past,"or"presently"used,"are"marked"on"maps."This"process"illuminates" specific"areas"used"by"respondents"for"specific"purposes."It"can"gather"qualitative"information"(insight"into" the"particular"qualities"that"a"thing"has)"about"those"uses"and"purposes,"as"well"as"the"cultural"and"social" meaning"and"function"of"harvesting,"but"often"tends"to"ignore"equally"important"quantitative"indicators:" information"about"frequency"of"use"(whether"some"areas"are"more"productive"than"others,"for"eg.),"harvest" quantity"(whether"some"harvesters"are"more"productive"than"others,"for"eg.),"systematic"patterns"and"depth" of"uses,"projections"of"future"needs,"and"changes"in"resource"base/population"needs"over"time."" " We"attempted"to"address"the"bias"of"traditional"use"studies"toward"qualitative"measures"by"adding"a"harvest" survey"component,"which"allows"for"a"different"kind"of"calculus"regarding"Pauquachin’s"marine"use"and" exercise"of"Treaty"rights"in"the"past,"present,"and"future"vis"a"vis"the"Project"and"other"projects."Both"aspects` `the"qualitative"traditional"use"and"knowledge"components"and"the"quantitative"harvest"information``come" together"to"present"a"baseline"of"understanding"beyond"the"“where”"and"“what”"of"aboriginal"traditional"land" use"to"understanding"“how"much”,"“how"often”"and"“how"meaningful.”"These"aspects"are"at"the"heart"of"the" subsistence"economy,"and"at"the"core"of"understanding"impacts"to"aboriginal"land"use"and"rights."" " The"survey"tool"and"species"list"was"forged"from"a"literature"review,"input"from"knowledgeable"community" members,"and"a"pilot"survey."In"addition,"we"used"a"review"of"best"practices"or"“lessons"learned”"of"previous" harvest"studies"conducted"in"various"locations"in"Canada"as"a"basis"to"build"a"survey"tool"that"would"enlist" the"most"accurate"response"rates"possible."The"final"survey"instrument"was"reviewed"by"an"external"expert" on"harvest"and"social"survey"methodology,"Jack"Hicks,"an"adjunct"professor"at"Carleton"University"and"a" well`known"statistician"in"the"field"of"indigenous"peoples’"affairs."" " "

44" Prior"to"the"development"of"the"PMUS,"the"authors"engaged"in"a"critical"review"of"past"and"current"industry" standards"in"aboriginal"land"use"research."This"review"followed"case"studies"of"the"use"of"aboriginal"land"use" research"in"environmental"impact"assessment"decision`making,"and"harvest"studies"used"for"wildlife" management"decision`making."Analysis"of"the"quality"of"information"and"outcomes"of"dominant"approaches" to"aboriginal"land"use"research"informed"the"development"of"the"methods"and"unique"harvest"study"focus"of" the"Pauquachin"MUS"(PMUS)."" " The"PMUS"methods"framework"followed"the"guidance"of"the"Tri`council"Policy"Statement:"Ethical"Conduct" for"Research"Involving"Humans,"2nd"Edition"(see"in"particular"Research"involving"the"First"Nation,"Inuit"and" Métis"Peoples"of"Canada)."Key"components"of"this"framework"include"employing"a"system"of"informed" consent,"confidentiality,"compensation,"providing"information"verification"opportunities,"and"returning"of" personal"data"to"each"study"participant."In"addition,"quality"control"schemes"and"qualitative"analysis"tools" assisted"with"the"analysis"of"results"and"sound"data"gathering."These"include"the"triangulation"of"data" presented"in"interviews"with"information"presented"in"surveys,"as"well"as"the"benefits"of"repeated" interviews"with"key"individuals,"including"review"and"discussion"of"information"provided"in"past"studies"or" at"earlier"stages"of"the"PMUS."We"consolidated"all"of"Pauquachin’s"available"past"research"data"into"a"digital," searchable"database."This"enabled"us"to"readily"draw"from"participant"data"from"past"studies"to"form" interview"questions,"and"in"turn"greatly"prevented"response"fatigue,"and"allowed"us"to"verify"and"build"upon" information"supplied"in"previous"studies."" " Interviews"followed"a"mixed"qualitative`quantitative"approach,"with"the"interviewer"leading"the"respondent" through"a"harvest"survey"targeting"the"previous"12"months"of"harvesting"activity,"followed"by"a"series"of" follow`up"questions"on"harvesting"patterns"casting"back"over"a"longer"period"of"time,"descriptions"of" environmental"change,"and"projections"of"future"use." " Participants"included"active"harvesters"and"Elders,"both"male"and"female,"and"were"identified"through" review"of"earlier"traditional"land"use"projects,"and"in"consultation"with"counsellor"Darlene"Henry"and"then" band"manager"Danny"Henry,"and"anthropologist"John"Pritchard." " A"total"of"eight"members"of"Pauquachin"First"Nation"participated"in"interviews"in"November,"2014." " New"spatial"interview"data"was"mapped"directly"during"the"interview"into"the"Trailmark"web"application." Any"spatial"data"from"a"participant’s"past"interviews"was"verified"at"the"beginning"of"each"interview.""All"TUS" data"from"past"studies"as"well"as"the"2014"Marine"Use"Study"was"consolidated,"organized"and"stored"in" Pauquachin’s"Trailmark"secure"database"and"web`mapping"application."Prior"to"publishing"results," participants"were"provided"with"an"opportunity"to"verify"and"review"their"data."At"the"closure"of"the"study," all"interviewees"and"survey"respondents"had"their"transcripts"and"compiled"personal"maps"returned"to"them" in"a"booklet"form."" " At"this"stage"of"gathering"baseline"information,"ground`truthing"was"not"deemed"a"valuable"research" exercise."At"a"later"stage"in"the"process,"ground`truthing"will"assist"with"the"refinement"of"understanding"and" mitigating"effects"to"marine"use"during"the"NEB"effects"assessment"process"or"the"Project’s"later"planning" stages,"should"it"proceed." " "

45" 4.4!!Harvest!Study!Results! " 4.4.1'$Subsistence$ " Interviewer:$Did$your$family$do$a$lot$of$harvesting$of$clams$and$fish$and$salmon?$ $ Elder:$Oh$we$did.$We$didn’t$go$to$the$store...$That’s$why$we$lived$out$on$the$beach$there,$shellfish$and$all$ that$stuff.$I$really$liked$those$days.$$ Participant$207,$PMUS$2014$ " The"interviews"conducted"for"this"study"suggest"that"marine"resources"are"a"preferred"and"highly"valued" part"of"the"Pauquachin"diet,"but"that"access"to"these"resources"has"diminished"dramatically"due"in"large"part" to"cumulative"effects"in"Saanich"Inlet"and"elsewhere"throughout"their"territory"at"high`value"harvesting" locations,"and"a"variety"of"additional"compounding"barriers."Questions"about"how"often"participants"ate" seafood,"or"what"percentage"of"their"diet"seafood"represents"yielded"such"answers"as:" " Two`3"days"a"week..."[In]"the"past,"we"used"to"have"it"all"the"time."(Participant"205,"PMUS"2014)" " Not"very"often"now."It’s"hard"to"go"down"there"now."(Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)" " Oh,"about"20%"now."…"If"we"could"get"it"all"the"time"it"would"be"all"the"time."(Participant"216,"PMUS" 2014)" " Not"much"‘cause"I"have"to"buy"some"stuff..."Cause"I"can’t"find"any"here."Nobody"has"any"here..."and" that’s"taking"a"big"bite"of"our"grocery"money."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" " Maybe"one`third."(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)" " Forty`five"percent."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" " A"lot"of"it."I"fish"every"three"days"or"whatever"I"do…"Probably"60%"maybe."But"a"lot"of"it."As"much"as" I"can."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)" " The"frequency"with"which"responses"to"these"questions"jump"to"contrasting"current"and"past"access"is"telling" ``"current"consumption"rates"belie"the"continued"importance"and"preferred"centrality"of"marine"foods"to"the" Pauquachin"diet."Quantifying"the"amount"of"marine"foods"they"consume"appeared"to"remind"participants"of" how"diminished"these"amounts"have"become,"especially"in"waters"adjacent"to"the"community."It"is"worth" noting"that"these"last"two"responses"quoted"above"were"given"by"participants"who"own"boats,"and"are"thus" able"to"travel"farther"in"search"of"marine"foods."" " Barriers"to"access"observed"by"participants"include"pollution"in"Saanich"Inlet,"government"restrictions" relating"to"pollution,"government"regulations"concerning"licenses,"lack"of"availability"due"to"over`harvesting," lack"of"boats"and"other"gear,"costs"associated"with"traveling"to"harvesting"sites"outside"the"Inlet,"costs" associated"with"purchasing"marine"foods,"and"lack"of"network"and/or"relationships"required"to"receive" marine"foods"from"other"people"and"communities."" "

46" The"perceived"impacts"on"the"community"associated"with"lack"of"access"are"varied,"but"taken"as"a"whole"they" describe"an"overall"condition"that"is"summarized"by"one"Elder"as"“Everything"is"hard"for"everybody."You" used"to"be"able"to"go"and"get"it"all"the"time,"now"you"can’t”"(Participant"205,"PMUS"2014)." " There"is"considerable"concern"that"the"loss"of"access"and"lack"of"marine"resources"as"a"staple"of"the" Pauquachin"diet"is"tied"directly"to"health"problems"in"the"community."According"to"one"participant:"“All"the" Elders"are"gone,"they’re"pretty"well"leaving"us."Like"I"say,"they"don’t"grow"too"old"any"more."Sicknesses,"and" cancer,"and"whatever."It’s"all"because"of"the"diet"that"we"can’t"get”"(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)."" " This"same"participant"reported"being"reluctant"to"share"the"marine"resources"he"does"harvest"from"within" the"Saanich"Inlet"with"Elders"because"he"is"afraid"contaminants"associated"with"pollution"in"the"Inlet"will" harm"them."Another"Elder"indicated"that"seven"of"his"family"members"were"diagnosed"with"diabetes"during" the"previous"year,"which"he"connects"to""the"absence"of"sufficient"traditional"marine"foods"from"their"diets" (Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)." " Many"feel"the"future"health"of"younger"community"members"is"threatened"both"by"the"lack"of"access"to" marine"foods,"and"their"replacement"by"store`bought"foods."As"these"participants"reported:"" " I"hardly"see"any"children"here"eat"seafood."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" " We"can’t"stop"these"young"people"to"eat"the"stuff"they"eat"today."That’s"why"I’m"not"really"happy"we" can’t"go"down"to"our"own"beach"to"get"it."(Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)" " The"sense"that"restoring"access"to"marine"foods"and"ensuring"their"presence"as"a"staple"of"the" Pauquachin"diet"could"reverse"negative"impacts"observed"by"participants"is"pervasive"amongst" them." " If"they"had"more"they’d"save"money"and"they’d"be"healthier…"You"know,"if"they"eat"regular"stuff" that’s"supposed"to"be"in"their"diet"again"their"health"would"start"coming"back."(Participant"216," PMUS"2014)" " However,"those"participants"who"reported"harvesting"marine"foods"indicate"that"they"are"not"satisfied"with" the"amounts"they"are"able"to"obtain,"and"all"of"the"participants"reported"having"to"rely"on"other"people"for" access"to"some"or"all"of"the"traditional"foods"in"their"diet."In"this"way"access"to"marine"foods"is"limited"again" by"the"strength"of"individual’s"networks,"and"other"social,"financial"and"age"related"barriers." " Active"harvesters"report"trading"with"other"harvesters"from"Pauquachin"as"well"other"First"Nation" communities"to"obtain"a"wider"variety"of"marine"foods,"but"other"participants"rely"on"family"and"community" members"to"share"their"harvests,"or"are"forced"to"purchase"marine"foods.""Although"most"active"harvesters" reported"sharing"some"or"all"of"their"harvests"with"other"households,"there"is"also"considerable"disparity" between"Elders"who"described"receiving"marine"foods"through"family"and"community"networks,"and"those" who"felt"forced"to"purchase"marine"foods"or"go"without."Participants"who"attend"community"feasts"and"other" social"functions"report"being"able"to"access"marine"foods"at"these"events;"however,"others"indicated" transportation"barriers"that"prevent"them"from"attending"these"kinds"of"events.""" " "

47" 4.4.2'$Cumulative$Effects$and$Concerns$ " The"majority"of"2014"PMUS"participants"describe"the"Saanich"Inlet"as"polluted,"contrasting"its"current"state" with"conditions"in"the"recent"past"when"they"report"the"Inlet"was"healthy"and"abundant"with"seafood." Community"members"routinely"harvested"in"the"Inlet"to"provide"food"for"their"families"and"the"community." As"one"participant"remarked:"“You"walk"in"the"sand"over"here"and"smell"your"feet,"oh"it’s"gross."And"you" wonder"why"there’s"no"clams."There’s"clams"down"there,"but"I"wouldn’t"eat"them."I"wouldn’t"eat"them"in"this" bay."We"used"to...”"(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)." "" This"perception"has"adverse"effects"that"extend"beyond"individual"decisions"not"to"harvest"or"to"consume" marine"foods"harvested"from"the"Inlet."Even"members"who"still"actively"harvest"from"sites"within"the"Inlet" report"being"reluctant"to"share"their"harvests"with"others"in"the"community"because"of"concerns"related"to" contamination"and"public"health."As"a"result,"the"networks"of"individuals"who"traditionally"rely"on"active" harvesters"for"their"access"to"marine"foods"are"unable"to"do"so."Participant"213"explained:" "" Because"of"the"pollution,"I"used"to"share"food"before,"now"I"won’t"share"it"with"anybody."I’ll"take"it" because"I"know"how"to"clean"them"or"whatever,"but"I"won’t"share"with"anybody;"not"much"anymore." Scared"of"the"pollution"now"for"the"elderly."I"used"to"bring"them"to"Elders"all"the"time."But"now" because"of"their"sicknesses,"seems"like"a"lot"of"our"Elders"are"more"sick"even"than"they"have"been" before."All"the"pollution."It’s"really"bad"now."Our"beaches"are"terrible,"they’re"just"dirty."It’s"bad." (PMUS"2014)." "" The"majority"of"respondents"believe"that"pollution"in"the"Inlet"is"linked"to"development,"runoff,"and"poor" drainage"and"septic"management,"but"many"would"like"a"better"understanding"of"what"has"happened"to"the" Inlet’s"waters,"and"whether"anything"can"be"done"to"reduce"pollution"and"replenish"the"area."" "" Participants"indicated"that"sea"urchins"were"among"the"most"difficult"traditional"marine"food"to"access."They" report"that"this"has"been"the"case"for"the"last"10`15"years,"and"attribute"the"loss"of"sea"urchins"from" previously"prolific"sites"to"over`fishing"by"commercial"divers."In"the"past,"Pauquachin"harvesters"travelled" out"of"the"inlet"and"to"the"other"side"of"the"peninsula"to"harvest"urchins"at"Swartz"bay,"Piers"Island,"Knapp" Island,"Pym"Island,"Goudge"Island"and"the"collection"of"small"islands"around"Fernie"Island."Today," participants"say"these"areas"have"been"“fished"out.”"Some"respondents"reported"that"harvesters"would"now" need"to"cross"the"international"border"to"the"San"Juan"Islands"to"find"urchins,"but"that"such"harvesting"would" require"addressing"additional"barriers"including"regulations,"restrictions,"and"access"to"equipment"and" resources." "" Pauquachin"members"report"having"witnessed"dramatic"changes"to"the"availability"of"fish"and"other" traditional"foods"at"key"harvesting"areas"throughout"the"Saanich"Inlet,"including"Coles"Bay."" " It’s"really"getting"hurt"by"the"commercial"fish."When"I"was"younger"we’d"go"out"and"catch"about" eight"fish."But"these"days"we’re"sitting"out"there"for"4"of"5"days"minimum."(Participant"218,"PMUS" 2014).""" " Can’t"catch"no"more"now"down"here."No"more"fish."Nothing."(Participant"215,"2014)" " Everybody"will"tell"you"it’s"a"big"change."I"built"my"house"34"years"ago"I"think,"and"when"I"used"to"go" out"in"my"boat,"an"hour"before"sunset"take"off"to"the"sandbar"out"here"in"Cole"Bay"and"catch"a"fish"

48" and"come"back"in."You"wouldn’t"have"to"spend"that"much"time"out"there."Now"you"can"spend"a"whole" day"out"there"around"that"bar"and"not"catch"anything."It’s"very"poor."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)." "" Pauquachin"fishermen"report"linkages"between"cumulative"effects"and"changes"in"populations"of"seals," salmon,"and"orcas"in"the"Inlet."They"believe""that"an"increase"in"the"Inlet’s"seal"population"is"linked"to"" decreases"in"salmon"and"cod"populations"(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014),"already"adversely"affected"by" cumulative"effects."They"also"observed"a"decline"in"the"number"of"orca"whales"entering"the"Saanich"Inlet."" Pauquachin"members"believe"the"orca"are"staying"away"for"the"same"reasons"that"they"are."" " When"I"was"a"kid"we’d"be"out"there"fishing,"there’d"be"killer"whales"all"over."But"these"days"they’re" very"rarely"seen"in"our"bay…"It"just"makes"me"think"how"much"everything’s"changing."Like"the"food" source"I’m"thinking"is"disappearing."Like"the"food"chain"for"everything,"like"the"shrimp"to"the"cod"to" the"salmon,"seals,"killer"whales."I"know"everything’s"a"cycle,"so"I’m"thinking"the"cycle’s"breaking"up." Pretty"dramatic"change."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" "" Participants"reported"that"they"experience"negative"social"interactions,"including"being"“treated"like"an" intruder”"by"non`aboriginals"when"fishing"or"gathering"at"traditional"sites"near"Pender"and"Saturna"Islands," and"at"various"beaches"in"the"Saanich"Inlet,"particularly"Mill"Bay."This"experience"compounds"the"coinciding" fear"of"being"fined"or"confronted"by"authorities"for"harvesting."The"invisibility"of"harvesting"rights"to" outsiders,"various"closures"at"harvesting"locations,"and"the"requirements"for"boating"and"harvesting"licenses" can"be"discouraging"forces"for"Pauquachin"harvesters"wishing"to"exercise"their"rights,"but"having"few" resources"at"their"disposal"to"do"so."" " It’s"a"big"difference…"It’s"restrictions."They’re"taking"away"their"ducks."We"can’t"go"hunting"without" people"stopping"us"from"doing"something."Trying"to"stop"us."And"people"do"get"scared"of"them."They" don’t"want"to"get"fined."They’re"trying"to"stop"everything”"(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)." "" When"crabbing"in"Saanich"Inlet,"Pauquachin"members"report"that"their"crab"traps"are"routinely"raided," vandalized,"or"stolen."Harvesters"have"been"forced"to"alter"their"established"practice"of"setting"and"leaving" traps"unattended"for"fear"of"what"might"happen"to"their"equipment"or"catch."Participants"attributed"this"to" increased"waterfront"development"as"well"as"negative"attitudes"towards"aboriginal"harvesting"rights,"and" reported"that"they"feel"watched"by"property"owners"and"users"near"harvesting"sites"in"Saanich"Inlet."" " In"Mill"Bay,"me"and"my"son"dropped"our"traps"over"there"last"during"the"summer."They"didn’t"cut" them,"but"they"just"raided"our"crabs."There’s"houses"all"over,"they"can"see"where"you’re"putting"your" traps,"they"can"tell"we’re"First"Nations"Indians,"right."Crabs"are"in"close"to"the"beach,"so"they"can"see" very"easy."They"go"out"there"at"night"time"and"take"them,"the"baits"gone,"everything’s"gone…"You" can’t"leave"them"overnight."I"don’t"leave"them"out"overnight"any"more."I"put"them"out"in"the"morning" and"go"across"and"take"them"back."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)" " Others"reported"similar"barriers"to"accessing"clams"and"other"marine"foods"traditionally"harvested"on" beaches"now"adjacent"to"waterfront"homes"and"property"in"the"Inlet"(Participants"212,"218,"PMUS"2014)."All" of"these"beaches"are"posted"“closed”"to"clam"harvesting."Some"Paquachin"members"believe"non`aboriginal" residents"of"the"Inlet"report"harvesting"activities"to"DFO."" " You"just"have"a"watchful"eye"for"everybody."There’s"houses"all"over"now"so"once"you"start"doing" something"they’re"phoning."They"phone,"it’s"bad..."If"they"come"over"and"if"clamming"is"closed"that" time"they’ll"make"them"dump"it."But,"again,"we"can"do"any"time"we"want"to"we"can"get"them"there."

49" Lot"of"people,"like"I"can’t"go"everyday"because"I"work,"but"a"lot"of"people"on"welfare"they"can"go"out" there"and"spend"all"day"out"there"and"get"their"stuff."But"they"can’t"afford"to"go"to"court"with"them." So,"they"do"whatever"they"say."My"mom"and"dad"went"digging"every"tide."(Participant"213,"PMUS" 2014)" " Lot"of"times"we"used"to,"like"me"and"my"mom,"be"down"in"Coles"Bay,"like"down"in"here."That’s"where" we"used"to"do"all"our"little"necks"or"baking"clams"and"our"clam"chowder."But"then"after"all"those" houses"got"in"there"that’s"when"all"the"signs"started"going"up."When"I"was"young"kid"she"was" threatened"that"she"was"going"to"be"charged,"when"I"was"a"young"kid."All"there,"and"all"down"in"here." (Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" " Participant:"There"used"to"be"a"time"when"I"used"to"dig"on"the"white"man’s"side"and"then"the"warden" would"tell"me"dump"the"clams"out."But"that"hasn’t"happened"for"long"time."Somebody"must"have" said"something,"or"I"must"have"complained"to"somebody"on"the"reserve"and"they"said"something."" " Interviewer:"Did"he"give"you"a"reason"you"had"to"dump"your"clams?" " Participant:"He"just"said"it’s"polluted"down"there."I"told"him"I"been"eating"clams"here"I’m"still"alive." (Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)" " Participants"view"restrictions"on"their"ability"to"harvest"as"violations"of"their"Douglas"Treaty"and"Aboriginal" rights."Some"harvesters"say"that"they"feel"qualified"to"judge"the"health"and"cleanliness"of"marine"foods."Many" harvesters"find"ways"to"circumvent"government"restrictions"on"harvesting"in"order"to"access"traditional" foods."Perhaps"as"a"result,"many"have"also"experienced"or"observed"negative"interactions"with"DFO"while" harvesting." " Our"treaty"says"you"can"hunt"and"fish"as"formerly."That’s"a"pretty"big"thing"because"formerly"we" were"able"to"go"any"time"anywhere."If"we"had"a"boat"or"not,"didn’t"matter."Now"if"you"have"a"motor" over"9.9"you"have"to"have"a"license"for"it."A"lot"of"our"people"don’t"like"that,"go"for"their"license"or" spend"money"to"buy"a"license."And"they"shouldn’t"have"to"‘cause"our"treaty"says"we"don’t."They’re" putting"a"lot"of"stuff"on"us."They"do"bother"a"lot."Fisheries"do"patrol."They"dump"their"stuff"on"them." They"tow"them"in,"say"we"have"to"tow"you"in,"you’re"not"using"your"motor,"you"don’t"have"a"license." Those"little"things"bother"me."I"say"gee"I"wish"they’d"do"that"to"me…"I"hear"about"it."It"stops"them" from"going."So"they’re"not"going"out"any"more."Or"they"can’t"afford"to"buy"their"license"or"take"their" license"or"whatever."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)" " Pauquachin"hunters"also"face"barriers"in"the"form"of"restrictions"and"regulations"related"to"licensing"and" public"safety"in"traditional"hunting"areas."Participants"report"the"same"types"of"barriers"restricting"access"to" former"deer"hunting"sites"in"and"around"the"community:"“I"just"go"up"the"hill"here."I"used"to..."just"on" Pauquachin"Reserve."Up"on"this"hillside”"(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)."" " But"now"anything"you"shoot"down"here"20"cop"cars"be"down"there"right"away."Take"whatever"you" have."If"you"don’t"have"license"for"your"“food"getter.”"They"do"that"when"you"go"hunting"too,"and" poor"folks"who"don’t"bother"with"that"stuff,"they"get"all"their"stuff"taken"away."Then"you"get"it"given" back"and"by"the"time"it"gets"given"back"the"deer’s"bad"and"their"guns"are"all"rusty"‘cause"they’re"just" terrible"(incomprehensible)."But"that’s"why"a"lot"of"it’s"getting"stopped"because"of"them"folks"like" that."(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)" "

50" We"can’t"go"hunting"without"people"stopping"us"from"doing"something;"trying"to"stop"us."And"people" do"get"scared"of"them."They"don’t"want"to"get"fined."They’re"trying"to"stop"everything."(Participant" 213,"PMUS"2014)" " When"asked"about"the"Project,"many"participants"stated"that"cumulative"effects"have"adversely"affected"their" abilities"to"easily"access"marine"foods"to"such"a"degree"that"what"remains"of"Pauquachin’s"traditional"marine" resources"should"be"protected,"especially"those"resources"that"may"require"farther"journeys"from" Pauquachin’s"main"reserve." " If"they"ever"broke"down"or"anything"wouldn’t"they"have"oils"spills"on"whatever"and"you"can’t"clean"it" up,"right?..."The"thing"that"I"know"it"would"do"is"wreck"more"of"the"clams"things"we"do"and"the"fish," and"the"ducks"and"everything."That’s"what"we"always"eat."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)"" " If"they"ever"had"a"spill,"this"whole"place,"this"is"the"best"place"fishing"and"octopus,"halibut,"anything." That’s"our"store,"that’s"our"supermarket."If"there’s"ever"a"spill"that’s"gone."It’s"totally"gone."And"the" current’s"so"bad"there"you"should"see"it,"it’ll"wash"all"over"the"place."It"won’t"just"stay"there,"it’ll"go" all"over"because"of"the"tide"changes."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)" " If"they"get"more"of"an"area"and"more"accidents"they’re"going"to"screw"up"more"stuff."Should"save" whatever"we"have"left"right"now"‘cause"we"don’t"have"much."So,"they"should"just"block"out"all"those" folks"that"are"just"trying"to"make"their"nice"million"dollars"out"of"there"and"go"make"it"somewhere" else."No"offence"to"them."They’re"just"destroying"the"rivers"left"and"right,"and"we"ain’t"got"much."So" once"they"destroy"all"that"we’re"screwed…"There"ain’t"much"here"no"more"anyway."You"might"as" well"protect"what"we’ve"got"and"it"ain’t"much."There’s"only"a"few"places"we"can"go"digging"here"now." Other"places"got"shut"down."Least"we"can"still"go"digging"there."That’s"why"whole"place"should"be" protected"instead"of"just"areas."‘Cause"either"way"wherever"it’s"going"to"happen"it’s"going"to"affect" everywhere"anyway."So"they"shouldn’t"even"be"allowed"to."They"ain’t"gonna"clean"up"their"mess," they’ll"just"leave"and"say"oh"it’s"their"problem"they"took"the"contract."Then"these"other"people"will" say"no"it’s"not"my"problem"they"fixed"the"contract"last,"and"they"just"ship"it"on"down,"and"it"just" never"gets"cleaned,"and"it’ll"just"stay"worse,"and"it’ll"just"pollute"everything."That’s"what"happens" though,"they"get"their"paperwork"fixed"the"way"they"want"it"to."(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)" " As"these"comments"illustrate,"most"participants’"concerns"are"related"to"the"perceived"likelihood"of"a"tanker" spill."However,"respondents"also"expressed"concerns"about"pollution"derived"from"increased"traffic"volume" in"the"shipping"lanes,"and"other"issues"related"to"general"operations." " It’ll"turn"out,"like"our"bay,"it’s"gonna"be"polluted."All"the"fuel"and"spills,"there’s"gonna"be"so"many,"be" like"a"highway."Soon"as"you"let"one"in"there’s"going"to"be"more,"and"more"and"more"and"more."Be"a" Coquihalla"for"them."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)" " Others"had"concerns"about"increased"traffic"and"vessel"size"in"the"shipping"lanes"related"to"the"negative" effects"of"vessel"wake"and"wave"action."" " Participant:"Some"don’t"seem"to"slow"down"when"they"go"by"the"islands."It’s"just"like"they’re"rushing" through."So,"when"it’s"high"tide"or"lower"tide"the"waves"rush"up."Seems"like"to"me"it"disturbs"the" shellfish"and"sea"urchins"and"stuff"like"that,"and"they"move"out"further"so"they’re"not"bothered."" " Interviewer:"Would"that"make"them"harder"to"harvest"too?"

51" " Participant:"Yeah,"cause"at"low"tide"we"used"to"be"able"to"get"red"and"green"sea"urchins."After"a"while" we"couldn’t"get"them"any"more"‘cause"they"were"going"down"deeper."" " Interviewer:"And"you"blame"that"on"the"wake"from"vessels?" " Participant:"Yeah"on"the"big"waves."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" " "" 4.4.3$$Archaeological$Overview$Assessment$ " The"Archaeological"Overview"Assessment"(AOA)"of"the"Trans"Mountain"Marine"Shipping"Component" conducted"by"Millennia"Research"found"“three"potential"sources"of"impact"to"archaeological"sites"associated" with"the"Marine"Transportation"component"of"the"TMEP"Facilities"Application”"(Owens"&"Ramsay"2015:27)." These"are:" "" i. Shoreline"erosion"due"to"vessel"wake"caused"by"increased"marine"traffic;" ii. Oil"contamination;"and" iii. Impacts"associated"with"cleanup"measures"following"a"spill." "" According"to"the"AOA,"if"Trans"Mountain’s"projected"wake"heights"are"accurate,"the"number"of"sites"that"may" be"at"risk"due"to"erosion"is"low,"but"that"“even"small"waves,"combined"with"high"tide"and"storms,"may"have"a" negative"cumulative"impact,"particularly"given"the"frequency"and"high"volume"of"the"predicted"traffic”" (Owens"&"Ramsay"2015:ii)."Similarly,"the"risk"of"impacts"associated"with"oil"contamination"and"oil"clean"up" are"only"as"great"as"the"risk"of"a"spill,"but"the"report"notes"that"increasing"tanker"traffic"corresponds"to" increasing"risk,"and"that"“a"2014"national"oil"spill"risk"assessment"study"commissioned"by"Transport"Canada" identifies"the"zone"around"the"southern"tip"of"Vancouver"Island"as"having"one"of"the"highest"probabilities"in" the"country"of"a"large"scale"oil"spill”"(Owens"&"Ramsay"2015:27)."In"the"event"of"a"spill,"the"report"warns"of" hundreds"of"sites"at"potential"risk."Therefore,"the"AOA"contains"the"following"recommendations:" "" • Development"of"a"general"archaeological"specific"spill"response"plan,"including"protocols"and" procedures,"“to"ensure"protection"of"archaeological"sites"where"possible,"and"mitigation"of"impacts" where"these"are"unavoidable”"(Owens"&"Ramsay"2015:28)." " • Revisits"to"the"13"sites"at"potential"risk"of"impacts"due"to"vessel"wake."These"revisits"should"be" conducted"at"low"tide"in"order"to"facilitate"mapping"of"artifacts"visible"in"the"intertidal"zone,"and"of" bank"edges"to"compare"with"future"erosion"rates."“Ideally,"several"years"of"data"should"be"collected" prior"to"any"significant"increase"of"tanker"traffic,"assuming"Facilities"Application"approval”"(Owens" &"Ramsay"2015:28)." " The"complete"AOA"of"the"TMEP"is"appended"to"this"report"at"Appendix"A." "" Below"is"a"map"showing"Archaeological"Data"compiled"in"2002"for"the"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"Study"and"the" TMEP"LSA.""

52" !"#$;&$74.8"/9-9:%."-$'%6/2$"2$95$;<<;=$2."-/$>&?<<=<<<@$ "

EF" $ 4.4.5'$Species$Preferences$and$Satisfaction$ " Bivalves

Clams"are"a"much"cherished—for"nutritional"and"cultural"reasons"both—resource"among"Pauquachin" families."Every"Pauquachin"participant"reports"harvesting"bivalves"throughout"their"lives,"beginning"in" childhood"with"their"parents"and"grandparents,"and"in"many"cases"continuing"today,"despite"diminished" access"due"to"contamination"and"restrictions"related"to"pollution"in"the"Saanich"Inlet."Most"describe" clamming"in"particular"as"an"activity"central"to"their"family"and"community"lives"growing"up"and,"therefore," to"their"education"and"to"their"very"sense"of"what"it"means"to"be"Pauquachin."" " For"example,"recalling"his"childhood,"one"participant"stated,"“every"summer"we"would"go"camp"out"at"the" islands"and"go"digging,"all"summer”"(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)."Another"recalled,"“I"would"always"have"to" be"kept"busy"cutting"wood,"or"I"would"be"down"the"beach,"clam"shucking”"(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)."Yet" another,"attempting"to"describe"the"time"of"year"during"which"she"was"busiest"with"harvesting"activities" reported,"“during"the"summertime"I’d"be"taking"clams"the"whole"time,"constantly"drying,"‘cause"as"I’m"drying" the"kids"are"eating"them,"or"as"I’m"cooking"the"kids"are"eating"them."It’s"a"full"time"job”"(Participant"206," PMUS"2014)."One"of"the"community’s"most"active"harvesters"summarized"his"tutelage"in"harvesting"practices" by"saying,"“my"grandfather"pretty"much"taught"me"what"I"know"today,"‘cause"we"could"dig"clams"right"at"the" point"there”"(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)."" " Multiple"respondents"indicated"that"cockles"were"their"“favourite"clams”"(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)."In" describing"this"preferred"species"one"participant"enthused:"" " Yeah,"those"are"deadly"too."Those"are"the"best"ones,"fried."Go"digging"around"the"corner"when"it’s" open,"you’ll"only"get"about"4"of"those."But"if"you"can"get"about"20"of"them"and"have"a"nice"fry,"those" are"awesome"fried."But"you"never"see"them"no"more."(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)" " In"addition"to"cockles,"butters"and"steamers"(or"littlenecks),"were"also"reported"as"preferred"species."" " Sea Urchins / Squitzi

Sea"urchins,"also"known"as"sea"eggs,"are"another"traditional"favourite"marine"food,"widely"regarded"as"a" delicacy,"as"medicine,"and"now"reportedly"unavailable"for"gathering"at"many"traditional"sites:" " I"used"to"love"sea"eggs."I"still"do,"but"my"dad"and"mom,"they’re"all"gone"now."They"lived"off"that."They" couldn’t"wait"for"us"to"go"out"there."They’d"just"jump"for"joy"when"we"came"in…" " …"Now"that"they’re"hard"to"get,"we"have"our"gathering"in"the"longhouses"going"through"the"year," somebody"goes"out"and"brings"them"in,"oh"everybody"goes"over"there."Because"nobody"gets"them" any"more."They’re"hard"to"find."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)" " Traditionally"called"SQUITZI,"these"sea"eggs"are"not"only"eaten"raw,"but"as"one"participant"states,"“still"alive" and"we"eat"them”"(Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)."One"participant"explained"that"this"was"not"simply"a" preference"but"a"requirement"for"sea"urchins,"and"one"that"makes"acquiring"this"delicacy"even"more" challenging."

54" " Participant:"Sea"urchins"hard"‘cause"it"has"to"be"fresh"when"you"get"it."And"if"it’s"not"that"great,"I" wouldn’t"buy"it"if"it"was"already"old"already."" " Interviewer:"Has"to"be"still"alive,"moving?" " Participant:"If"it’s"dead"you"won’t"eat"it,"I"wouldn’t"eat"it."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" "" Sea"urchins"are"prized"as"medicine,"believed"to"be"rich"in"healing"properties"and"nutrients"including"iron"and" calcium."They"are"also"an"important"ceremonial"food"served"in"particular"at"funerals,"and"at"other" community"events." " Salmon

Fishing,(and(in(particular(salmon(fishing,(lies(at(the(heart(of(the(W̱SÁNEĆ(traditional(diet,#seasonal#round,# cultural'practices,'and'identity.'The'five'species'of'Pacific'Salmon'and'steelhead'trout'that'frequent' W̱ SÁNEĆ’s*marine*territory*were,*as*Suttles*(1974)*notes,*“the*most*important*food*for*the*Straits*people”* (189)."More"so,"salmon"were"the"material"and"spiritual"centre"around"which"the"architecture"of"Salish" culture"developed."To"illustrate"the"continued"importance"of"this"fish,"one"Pauquachin"harvester"described"a" first"salmon"ritual"still"followed"by"his"family"today:"“For"the"first"one"of"our"season,"the"first"one"we"catch"of" our"household"we"give"away"each"year."So,"that’s"how"my"son"got"brought"up."The"first"one"you"catch"you" give"it"away"or"present"it"to"another"friend"of"family”"(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)."" " Three"of"the"2014"PMUS"participants"reported"fishing"for"salmon"within"the"last"year,"and"two"of"these" indicated"fishing"for"other"species"at"the"same"time,"as"well"as"gathering"for"sea"urchins"on"the"same"trips." Sockeye,"coho"and"spring"salmon"were"reported"as"preferred"salmon"species"amongst"respondents,"and"the" other"preferred"fish"species"harvested"on"these"fishing"trips"were"lingcod"and"rock"cod."In"fact,"Pauquachin" fishers"reported"381"rock"cod,"lingod"and"red"snapper"harvesting"sites"in"the"2002"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance" study,"compared"to"just"271"salmon"kill"sites"(Aberley"2002:15`17)." " Herring"eggs"are"a"coveted"delicacy,"now"seldom"seen"or"harvested"within"the"Saanich"Inlet."Elders,"who" reported"that"when"they"were"young"the"herring"runs"in"the"Inlet"were"always"plentiful,"described"fishing"for" them"in"front"of"the"community"with"a"weighted"throw"net:"“Off"the"beach"‘cause"it"was"just"loaded"down" here"before…"I"guess"water’s"polluted"down"here"now;"not"allowed"to"get"anything"now”"(Participant"205," PMUS"2014)."" " Despite"being"a"preferred"delicacy"and"one"of"the"marine"foods"respondents"most"often"indicated"they"would" like"to"have"more,"herring"eggs"were"received"by"any"participants"in"the"previous"year."The"same"was"true" for"octopus,"which"many"report"a"delicacy"that"they"“love”"but"which"is"now"much"more"difficult"to"find"or" access."" " The"surf"scoter,"also"referred"to"by"respondents"as"“black"duck”,"is"considered"a"sacred"bird"and"a"preferred" species"for"ceremonial"use."It"was"the"traditional"food"used"in"the"longhouse,"with"rules"govern"its" processing"and"preparation."Duck"feathers,"and"black"duck"feathers"in"particular,"are"also"used"in"longhouse" ceremonies."One"participant"reported"duck"hunting"in"the"recent"past,"“right"from"beginning"of"winter"to"the" end"of"winter,"‘cause"used"to"give"all"the"duck"feathers"to"the"big"houses"here,"or"sometimes"give"them" everything."They"just"use"it”"(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)."" "

55" Most"participants"indicated"their"preference"for"black"ducks,"frequently"described"as"“the"best”"(Participants" 205,"212,"216,"PMUS"2014)"and"prepared"as"a"soup"with"a"characteristically"burnt"flavour:"“From"burning" the"feathers"off."Yeah,"they"all"burn"the"feathers."It’s"good”"(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)."" " All"respondents"reported"barriers"preventing"them"from"accessing"what"they"would"consider"a"satisfactory" amount"of"marine"foods."Even"those"participants"who"manage"to"harvest"some"marine"foods"indicate"that" they"are"not"satisfied"with"the"amounts"they"are"able"to"obtain,"and"all"of"the"participants"reported"having"to" rely"on"other"people"for"access"to"some"or"all"of"the"traditional"foods"in"their"diet."In"this"way"access"to" marine"foods"is"limited"again"by"the"strength"of"individual’s"networks,"and"other"social,"financial"and"age" related"barriers." " Active"harvesters"report"trading"with"harvesters"from"Pauquachin"and"other"First"Nation"communities"to" obtain"a"wider"variety"of"marine"foods,"but"other"participants"report"having"to"rely"on"family"and"community" members"to"share"their"harvests"with"them,"or"being"forced"to"purchase"marine"foods"from"the"store"or" other"communities."Although"most"active"harvesters"reported"sharing"some"or"all"of"their"harvests"with" other"households,"there"is"also"considerable"disparity"between"Elders"who"described"receiving"marine"foods" through"family"and"community"networks,"and"those"who"felt"forced"to"purchase"marine"foods"or"go"without." Participants"who"attend"community"feasts"and"other"social"functions"report"being"able"to"access"marine" foods"at"these"events,"however"others"indicated"transportation"barriers"that"prevent"them"from"accessing" these"preferred"foods"in"this"fashion.""" " "

56" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Section!III:! WSÁNEĆ̱ !RELATIONSHIPS!WITH!AND! KNOWLEDGE!OF!MARINE!RESOURCES! " "

57" 5.!Gathering!! " $I$just$knew$when$the$tide’s$out$the$table’s$set.$That’s$what$they$used$to$say.$$ ~Participant$206,$PMUS$2014$ " Interview"data"collected"for"this"study"indicates"that"gatherable"marine"resources—including"clams,"oysters," mussels,"sea"urchins,"chitons,"seaweed,"and"herring"eggs—are"preferred"staples"of"the"Pauquachin"diet,"both" currently"and"historically."Participants"reported"gathering"marine"resources"most"often"as"a"discrete"pursuit," and"in"conjunction"with"fishing"and/or"hunting"activities."However,"participants"also"reported"that"access"to" these"resources"has"diminished"dramatically"at"preferred"areas"throughout"their"territory,"due"in"large"part" to"pollution"in"Saanich"Inlet"and"a"variety"of"additional"compounding"barriers"discussed"below."In" interviews,"many"Pauquachin"members"report"that"the"state"of"harvesting"has"declined"rapidly"between"the" recent"past"and"the"present,"when"availability,"access"and"species"health"and"populations"were"all"greater." " Clams"are"a"much"cherished—for"nutritional"and"cultural"reasons"both—resource"among"Pauquachin" families.""Historically,"bivalves"including"clams,"mussels,"and"oysters"were"harvested"at"low"tide,"the"first" often"being"“dug"with"digging`sticks"at"the"lower"edge"of"gravel"slopes"and"horse"clams"out"on"the"mud"flats,”" and"the"latter"two"being"pried"from"exposed"flat"rocks"(Suttles"1974:121)."" " Rock"clams"and"cockles"could"be"broken"and"eaten"raw,"but"they"were"also"steamed."Mussels"were"simply" thrown"on"the"fire"and"roasted"or"were"steamed."Butter"clams"(and"oysters?)"were"usually,"if"not"always," steamed."Rock"clams,"butter"clams,"and"horse"clams"were"roasted"and"dried"for"winter"use…"Clams"were" steamed"in"a"pit"upon"hot"rocks"as"camas"was."But"for"shellfish"the"various"leaves"and"barks"used"to"impart" fragrance"and"colour"to"the"camas"were"not"required."A"woman"simply"put"the"clams"on"the"hot"stones"and" covered"them"with"kelp"blades"or"white"fir"bough."After"about"fifteen"minutes"she"looked"in"and"if"they"had" opened"she"took"them"out."If"they"were"butter"clams"and"she"were"going"to"preserve"them,"she"would"then" wash"out"the"sand"and"thrust"a"sharpened"stick"or"ironwood"through"several,"tying"each"to"the"stick."She" then"leaned"a"number"of"these"sticks,"each"holding"several"clams,"diagonally"over"a"fire"against"a"horizontal" pole"supported"above"it."When"the"clams"were"roasted,"she"took"them"off"the"sticks"and"threaded"a"line"of" cedar"bark"through"them."Thus"strung"they"could"be"dried"until"hard."In"this"form"they"could"be"preserved" indefinitely,"to"be"used"in"the"winter"or"to"be"traded"away."(Suttles"1974:121`123)" " Butter"clams,"cockles"and"rock"clams"were"probably"all"preserved"this"same"way."Despite"their"year`round" availability"on"“nearly"every"bay"and"beach,”"bivalves"were"traditionally"harvested"once"a"year"from"the" same"sites"that"were"considered"to"be"the"most"productive."As"a"result,"certain"select"beds"were"visited"at"the" same"time"every"year"by"a"variety"of"different"people,"often"from"different"groups"(Suttles"1974:123)."Suttles" (1974)"indicates"that"“as"with"camas"beds,"most"shellfish"beds"were"open"to"anyone,"but"a"few"beds,"at"least" among"the"mainland"groups,"were"private"property,”"noting"that"“these"beds"were"inherited,"I"do"not"know" in"what"way”"(124,125)."He"records"beds"“owned”"by"Lummi,"Samish"and"Semiahmoo$families,$but$used$by$ families(from(all(these(groups(as(well(as(W̱SÁNEĆ(and(Nooksack((123`124).""" " Every"Pauquachin"participant"surveyed"and"interviewed"reports"harvesting"bivalves"throughout"their"lives," beginning"in"childhood"with"their"parents"and"grandparents,"and"in"many"cases"continuing"to"the"present," despite"diminished"access"due"to"contamination"and"restrictions"related"to"pollution"in"the"Saanich"Inlet"and" elsewhere."Most"describe"clamming,"in"particular,"as"an"activity"central"to"their"family"and"community,"to" their"education,"and"to"their"very"sense"of"what"it"means"to"be"Pauquachin.""

58" " For"example,"one"participant,"recalling"his"childhood"stated,"“every"summer"we"would"go"camp"out"at"the" islands"and"go"digging,"all"summer”"(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)."Another"recalled,"“I"would"always"have"to" be"kept"busy"cutting"wood,"or"I"would"be"down"the"beach,"clam"shucking”"(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)."Yet" another,"attempting"to"describe"the"time"of"year"during"which"she"was"busiest"with"harvesting"activities" reports,"“during"the"summertime"I’d"be"taking"clams"the"whole"time,"constantly"drying,"‘cause"as"I’m"drying" the"kids"are"eating"them,"or"as"I’m"cooking"the"kids"are"eating"them."It’s"a"full"time"job”"(Participant"206," PMUS"2014)."One"of"the"community’s"most"active"harvesters"summarized"his"tutelage"in"harvesting"practices" by"saying,"“my"grandfather"pretty"much"taught"me"what"I"know"today,"‘cause"we"could"dig"clams"right"at"the" point"there”"(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)."" " The"contrast"they"draw"between"contemporary"and"historical"access"notwithstanding,"the"following" comments"from"one"Elder"underscore"the"role"of"clamming"as"a"defining"aspect"of"Pauquachin"life:" " It’s"really"polluted"down"on"the"beach"to"where"we"can’t"go"down"there"any"more."That’s"where"I" used"to"live"down"there,"when"I"was"a"young"fellow."Growing"up"we"used"to"just"go"down"we’d"have" clams."We"can’t"do"it"no"more."Fisheries"all"come"down"and"say"it’s"the"tides,"red"tides."That’s"what" they"all"say,"don’t"dig"clams"from"the"beach..."That’s"our"food"a"long"time"ago."That’s"how"we"eat."We" don’t"go"to"the"store,"we"just"go"down"there."We"don’t"boil"clams."Before"we"start"digging"when"the" tide’s"gone"out,"we"start"a"big"fire"and"bring"rocks"and"make"a"big"fire"so"the"rocks"are"hot"and"just" throw"your"clams"in"there,"just"opens"up."That’s"what"we"do."We"used"to"hang"them"up"on"a"drying" rack…"Don’t"see"that"no"more."(Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)" " In"attempting"to"describe"a"similar"dichotomy"between"the"past"and"present,"a"younger"participant"offered:" " That’s"the"way"my"parents"brought"us"up,"to"always"help"out,"help"our"family"out,"and"the"other" communities."But"these"days"I"know"it’s"like"even"if"I"go"down"clam"digging"the"other"side"(white" people’s"side),"people"come"around"and"say,"hey"what"are"you"doing?"But"it’s"something"we’ve"done" all"our"lives."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" " In"this"example,"clam`digging"is"not"only"equated"with"honouring"one’s"parents"and"being"a"good"community" member,"but"also"with"what"it"means"to"lead"a"happy"life."This"participant"described"clamming"with"his" parents"as"a"venue"for"formative"teachings"and"the"transfer"of"traditional"knowledge"between"generations." " Participant:"That’s"why"I’m"thankful"for"my"dad"showing"me"those"places."I"think"it"just"made"me"a" better"person."He"also"said"don’t"you"ever"complain,"as"you’re"always"asked"or"told…"Learn"by" doing…"We’d"paddle"from"there,"we’d"go"all"the"way"out,"we"used"to"be,"this"is"Pat"Bay"here."We’d"be" there"for"getting"a"few"clams."But"then"we’d"be"down"Moses"Point."Then"we’d"be"down"over"in" Cowichan"Bay;"not"very"often,"but."Lot"of"time"these"little"islands"over"here,"my"dad"always"had"me" there."All"in"there."There’s"a"bunch"of"little"islands"in"there." " Interviewer:"You"said"that"was"seen"as"the"cleanest?" " Participant:"Yeah"because"all"of"his"grandparents"always"said"it’s"because"the"currents"are"running" through."From"there"we"would"have,"my"dad"would"pull"just"up"and"then"we’d"just"boil,"or"lot"of" times"he"would"just"break"his"clams"and"then"slurp"them"up."Which"I"haven’t"done"that"in"a"lot"of" years,"since"I"was"a"kid..." "

59" …"We’d"be"here"and"then"we’d"make"our"way"back,"and"then"we’d"be"heading"across."But"you’d" always"wait"for"the"tide"coming"in"there."It"would"be"a"lot"easier"paddling."My"dad"always"taught"me" the"way"of"the"tides…"Low"tides,"rip"tides."First"thing"he"showed"me"is"when"I"was"a"young"kid"he" brought"me"out"to"the"islands"here."And"we"were"paddling"a"wooden"canoe,"and"he"says"take"my" coat"off."So"I’m"down"to"my"gitch"and"I’m"just"a"young"kid"and"he"threw"me"in,"and"said"I’m"showing" you"something."He"said"now"you"swim"to"those"islands"and"go"left."You"always"want"to"stay"right"but" I"went"left"like"he"told"me"to,"and"I"was"way"out"in"the"middle"there"just"because"of"the"tides,"the"rip" tide"there."He"just"did"all"that"to"show"me."Then"he’d"take"me"over"to"Mill"Bay"and"do"the"same"thing." Show"me"how"the"water’s"moving."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" " From"his"parents,"Participant"218"inherited"a"mental"map"of"the"best"clam"beaches"near"Pauquachin," although"barriers"such"as"pollution,"government"restrictions,"and"disappearance"of"some"species"limit" members’"ability"to"harvest"there." " Lot"of"times"we"used"to,"like"me"and"my"mom,"be"down"in"Coles"Bay,"like"down"in"here."That’s"where" we"used"to"do"all"our"little"necks"or"baking"clams"and"our"clam"chowder."But"then"after"all"those" houses"got"in"there"that’s"when"all"the"signs"started"going"up."When"I"was"young"kid"she"was" threatened"that"she"was"going"to"be"charged,"when"I"was"a"young"kid."All"there,"and"all"down"in"here," like"those"are"little"steamers"we’d"get"here."And"down"here"is"all"butter"clams"and"horse"clams."And" another"thing"is"horse"clams"are"not"seen"about"any"more,"not"as"much"as"when"I"was"younger." (Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" " Another"Elder"also"noted"the"loss"of"horse"clams"in"Coles"Bay."She"is"no"longer"physically"able"to"harvest" clams"herself,"but"reported"that"in"the"past"she"would"gather"them"from"beaches"in"the"community"despite" barriers"such"as"contamination"and"government"restrictions." " Participant:"We"check"out"here"before"we"dig"clams."If"the"clams"aren’t"white"we"don’t"eat"it."If"it’s" got"funny"looking"dark"shell"don’t"eat"it."It’s"not"in"a"very"good"condition."" " Interviewer:"But"you"can"still"eat"clams"here"sometimes?" " Participant:"Yeah."Cause"we"checked"it"out,"and"if"it"doesn’t"look"right,"they"say"it’s"contaminated." But"we"check"out"the"clams,"if"the"clams"is"really"white"we"know"it’s"clean."It’s"not"contaminated"if" it’s"white."If"it’s"black"and"looks"funny"or"green,"you"don’t"touch"it."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)"" " Participant"218"reported"gathering"clams"within"the"previous"year"“for"funerals"or"whatever,”"a"purpose"that" once"again"suggests"the"elevated"significance"of"clams"within"the"community."Clams"remain"one"of"the"few" marine"foods"even"participants"without"access"to"boats"report"still"being"able"to"harvest"in"Coles"Bay"today," although"they"must"ignore"DFO’s"prohibitions"to"do"so.""It"is"possible"that"their"contemporary"status"is"due"at" least"in"part"to"their"availability"relative"to"other"harder`to`find"staples"of"the"traditional"marine"diet,"such"as" salmon"and"urchin."However,"participants"indicated"that"barriers"to"harvesting"clams"within"the"Saanich" Inlet"have"driven"community"members"to"sites"on"the"Southern"Gulf"Islands"such"as"Pender"and"Saturna," which"are"also"within"their"territory"and"knowledge."This"would"appear"to"suggest"that"desire"for"clams"is" rooted"in"more"than"mere"proximity"to"the"resource."Several"participants"reported"camping"and"clamming"at" Pender"Island"in"the"recent"past,"and"on"Saturna"Island"where"some"families"were"also"taken"to"dig"clams"for" commercial"sellers"in"the"recent"past." "

60" In"a"study"conducted"by"the"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance,"Pauquachin"respondents"recorded"a"total"of"258"sites"for" gathering"clams,"mussels"and"oysters,"and"an"additional"109"sites"for"other"bivalves"including"cockles" (Aberley"2002:20),"which"multiple"participants"in"this"PMUS"indicated"were"their"“favourite"clams”" (Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)."In"describing"preferred"“clams”"one"participant"enthused,"“Yeah,"those"are" deadly"too."Those"are"the"best"ones,"fried."Go"digging"around"the"corner"when"it’s"open,"you’ll"only"get"about" four"of"those."But"if"you"can"get"about"20"of"them"and"have"a"nice"fry,"those"are"awesome"fried."But"you"never" see"them"no"more”"(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)." " In"addition"to"cockles,"butters"and"steamers"or"littlenecks"were"also"reported"favourites."Participants"also" report"gathering"manilla"and"horse"clams."Clams"are"generally"prepared"by"frying"or"boiling,"or"used"in" soups"and"chowders."One"particularly"active"harvester"also"reported"steaming"clams,"drying"them"for"the" winter"time,"and"added"“butters"you"can"freeze"‘cause"you"can"shell"them"and"then"put"them"in"a"freezer"bag." You"gotta"make"sure"all"the"air’s"out"of"the"bag"so"they"don’t"get"freezer"burned"or"nothing"like"that”" (Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)." " All"of"the"participants"report"clamming"throughout"their"lives,"and"three"reported"gathering"clams"within"the" previous"year."Of"those,"one"reported"digging"clams"once"as"part"of"an"annual"Christmas"tradition,"another" reported"gathering"clams"six"to"ten"times"over"the"year"for"funerals"and"other"occasions,"and"one"reported" collecting"them"from"within"Coles"Bay"“every"other"low"tide,"or"every"tide,”"(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)." When"they"did"harvest,"virtually"all"report"harvesting"enough"to"share"with"other"households"and"in" particular"with"family"members"and"Elders."Those"unable"to"harvest"clams"today"due"to"various"barriers" report"relying"on"family"members"able"to"find"access"to"clams"outside"the"community,"or"having"to"buy"them" from"harvesters"in"other"communities"including"Tsawout"and"Ladysmith:"“Cost"a"lot"of"money"though."For"an" ice"cream"bucket"it’s"$25"you"have"to"buy"now…"From"Ladysmith,"it’s"open."It’s"not"polluted"up"there”" (Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)." " Several"participants"recalled"mussels"being"prevalent"in"Coles"Bay"during"their"lifetimes,"however,"like"the" sea"urchin,"they"now"appear"to"have"vanished"from"local"harvesting"sites:"“Any"time"we"wanted"before"we" just"used"to"go"get"it,"boil"it."Not"any"more”"(Participant"205,"PMUS"2014)."Perhaps"this"is"why"so"few"of"the" respondents"reported"even"having"tried"mussels"more"than"once."Those"who"did"indicate"the"presence"of" mussels"in"their"household"diet"discussed"them"in"historical"terms." " I"forgot"about"that."Used"to"be"loaded"down"here"too."Used"to"eat"a"lot"of"that."(Participant"205," PMUS"2014)" " I"think"my"mom"used"to"eat"lots"of"those."That"was"her"delicacy."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" " Never"really"see"much"of"them."Ate"them"once"and"they"were"deadly."Haven’t"had"them"for"a"while" now."(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)." " Similarly,"oysters"appear"to"be"largely"absent"from"the"diet"of"the"respondents,"although"participants"report" that"unlike"mussels,"oysters"are"present"in"the"Saanich"Inlet"but"cannot"be"harvested"due"to"contamination."" " Another"traditional"favourite"marine"food,"widely"regarded"as"a"delicacy"and"now"reportedly"unavailable"for" gathering"at"established"sites,"is"sea"urchins,"also"known"as"SQUITZI","or"sea"eggs."" " I"used"to"love"sea"eggs."I"still"do,"but"my"dad"and"mom,"they’re"all"gone"now."They"lived"off"that."They" couldn’t"wait"for"us"to"go"out"there."They’d"just"jump"for"joy"when"we"came"in…"

61" " …"Now"that"they’re"hard"to"get,"we"have"our"gathering"in"the"longhouses"going"through"the"year," somebody"goes"out"and"brings"them"in,"oh"everybody"goes"over"there."Because"nobody"gets"them" any"more."They’re"hard"to"find."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)" " SQUITZI"are"not"only"eaten"raw,"but"as"one"participant"states,"“still"alive"and"we"eat"them”"(Participant"207," PMUS"2014)."One"participant"explained"that"this"was"not"simply"a"preference"but"a"requirement"for"sea" urchins,"and"one"that"makes"acquiring"this"delicacy"even"more"challenging." " Participant:"Sea"urchins"hard"‘cause"it"has"to"be"fresh"when"you"get"it."And"if"it’s"not"that"great,"I" wouldn’t"buy"it"if"it"was"already"old"already."" " Interviewer:"Has"to"be"still"alive,"moving?" " Participant:"If"it’s"dead"you"won’t"eat"it,"I"wouldn’t"eat"it."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" " Anthropologist"Wayne"Suttles"(1974)"recorded"that"historically"urchins"were"picked"off"of"exposed"rocks" and"“smashed"and"then"the"orange"portions"(probably"the"gonads)"were"eaten"raw,"or"they"were"thrown"into" the"fire"and"roasted"first”"(121`122)."Reflections"of"this"practice"are"also"observable"in"the"following" traditional"knowledge"shared"by"one"Pauquachin"Elder." " Participant:"You"can"fry"that"stuff,"the"yellow"stuff"inside."In"the"summertime"it’s"no"good."It"changes" to"milk"after"in"the"summertime."It’s"no"good"in"the"summer,"July."Every"year"it"gets"that"way."" " Interviewer:"So"when"is"the"best"time?" "" Participant:"In"the"winter,"like"today."In"the"summer"they’re"no"more"good."Milk"inside…"Nobody" knows"how"any"more,"the"young"people."They"don’t"know"how."(Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)" " This"last"lament"relates"to"the"pervasive"sense"shared"by"all"PMUS"participants"that"sea"urchins"have"all"but" disappeared"from"some"Pauquachin"waters"due"to"overharvesting"by"commercial"divers."The"following" exchange"offers"an"illustration"of"this"perception"as"well"as"local"traditional"knowledge"and"medicinal"uses"of" sea"urchins.""" " Participant:"They’re"not"around"here."The"little"orange"things,"the"sea"urchin."But"whoever"has"a" brain"tumour"or"something"wrong"with"them"up"here"and"they"use"that"and"soak"themselves"with"it" and"they"eat"some"of"it,"and"it’s"supposed"to"heal"it"up."I"know"an"old"guy"down"the"road"here"was" sick."His"son"was"telling"me"about"that."He"was"going"to"get"some."But"he"was"going"to"get"some"up" Port"Renfrew"‘cause"there’s"none"around"here…"The"little"tiny"orange"ones."That’s"for"something" wrong"with"you"if"you"get"head"injury"or"something…"I"seen"the"purple"ones"and"stuff,"they"taste" good."I"never"seen"the"little"orange"ones."" " Interviewer:"So"there’s"the"purple"ones,"the"green"ones,"and"then"there’s"a"tiny"orange"one?"" " Participant:"Yeah."I"see"the"purple"one,"but"I"never"seen"the"other"ones."Cause"there’s"a"lot"of"purple" ones,"used"to"be"on"the"reefs"near"Sidney."I"think"they’re"all"cleaned"out"by"the"divers."(Participant" 216,"PMUS"2014)" "

62" Multiple"participants"described"harvesting"from"this"site"near"Swartz"Bay"historically,"including"one"Elder" who"reported"visiting"the"site"frequently"for"urchins"with"his"grandfather"(Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)." Another"recalled,"“when"I"was"young"my"dad"would"always"get"me"out"there"catching"sea"urchins,"and"that’s" one"of"the"biggest"delicacies"to"our"elderly"people,"used"to"be."Really"good"in"iron"and"calcium”"(Participant" 218,"PMUS"2014)." " Anywhere"you"want"to"go,"the"sea"eggs"used"to"be"there,"but"they’re"not"here."All"along"this"Sidney," any"island"around"Swartz"Bay."Anywhere"you"can"get"sea"eggs,"you"can’t"get"them"any"more."They’re" all"gone."They’re"cleaned"out"by"divers,"cleaned"right"out."It’s"really"sad."(Participant"213,"PMUS" 2014)" " Other"participants"believe"vessel"wake"may"be"implicated"in"the"apparent"disappearance"of"sea"urchins"from" traditional"harvesting"sites." " Participant:"So,"when"it’s"high"tide"or"lower"tide"the"waves"rush"up."Seems"like"to"me"it"disturbs"the" shellfish"and"sea"urchins"and"stuff"like"that,"and"they"move"out"further"so"they’re"not"bothered."" " Interviewer:"Would"that"make"them"harder"to"harvest"too?"" " Participant:"Yeah,"cause"at"low"tide"we"used"to"be"able"to"get"red"and"green"sea"urchins."After"a"while" we"couldn’t"get"them"any"more"‘cause"they"were"going"down"deeper."" " Interviewer:"And"you"blame"that"on"the"wake"from"vessels?"" " Participant:"Yeah"on"the"big"waves."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" " Unfortunately,"data"concerning"sea"urchin"harvesting"sites"in"the"2002"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study"is" aggregated"with"sea"cucumber"and"chiton"data."However,"it"indicates"a"total"of"64"sites"reported"by" Pauquachin"members"for"this"species"grouping"(Aberley"2002:22)."Significantly,"58"of"these"sites"were" reported"by"respondents"over"the"age"of"40"in"2002,"suggesting"that"knowledge"of"sea"urchin"harvesting" sites"amongst"Pauquachin"members"has"dropped"dramatically"from"one"generation"to"the"next.""" " In"the"past,"Pauquachin"harvesters"travelled"out"of"the"inlet"and"to"the"other"side"of"the"peninsula"to"harvest" urchins"at"Swartz"bay,"Piers"Island,"Knapp"Island,"Pym"Island,"Groudge"Island"and"the"collection"of"small" islands"around"Fernie"Island."Today,"participants"report"finding"sites"in"these"areas"have"been"“fished"out.”" Some"respondents"reported"that"harvesters"would"now"need"to"cross"the"international"border"to"the"San" Juan"Islands"to"find"urchins,"but"that"such"harvesting"would"require"addressing"additional"barriers"including" regulations,"restrictions,"and"access"to"equipment"and"resources." " All"2014"participants"indicated"that"sea"urchins"are"rarely"available"within"the"community"today,"outside"of" their"occasional"appearance"at"special"events"such"as"funerals."One"participant"reported"harvesting"sea" urchins"within"the"previous"year,"describing"the"experience"in"distinctly"negative"terms." " Participant:"Last"summer."We"just"went"out"by"Swartz"Bay."I"was"really"looking"for"a"good"spot"to"get" them,"but"I"just"got"frustrated"looking."Cause"all"the"places"we"used"to"go"they’re"all"gone."All"around" there"was"so"good"20,"30"years"ago."It"was"awesome,"we"can"go"anywhere,"just"load"up"and"come" home."There’s"nothing,"cleaned"right"out."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)" "

63" Yet"another"traditionally"gathered"marine"food"prized"by"Pauquachin"Elders"as"a"delicacy"and"now" apparently"gone"from"traditional"harvesting"sites"is"the"chiton"or"TEṈSEWEĆ,"also"known"as"the"rock"sticker," stick"shoe,"or"Chinese"slipper." " That’s"another"thing"that"you"never"see"any"more,"it’s"a"very"rare"thing."But"used"to"get"a"lot"of"that." Cause"a"lot"of"our"elders,"TEṈSEWEĆ"was"a,"one"of"their"favourite"things"to"get."They"would"ask"us" for"a"few,"but…" " …"You"don’t"see"too"many"of"that"around"any"more."I"mean,"all"the"places"that"my"dad"showed"me," like"I"remember"being"able"to"go"at"low"tide"and"say"oh"yeah"there’s"some"here,"and"then"go"all"these" spots."But"I"went"last"summer"at"low"tide"and"there"was"hardly"anything"anywhere."(Participant"218," PMUS"2014)" " According"to"Suttles"(1974:121`122),"W̱ SÁNEĆ"people"probably"ate"chitons"occasionally,"picking"them"off" of"exposed"rocks"along"with"other"shellfish,"and"usually"steaming"them."PMUS"Participant"206"explained"that" in"the"more"recent"past"Pauquachin"gatherers"use"a"knife"to"remove"chitons"from"rocks"at"low"tide,"and"then" boil"the"mollusks"before"eating." " If"you"touch"it"then"it"will"stick"on"it."You"gotta"use"a"butter"knife…"You"got"to"take"those"toe"nail"off," and"then"they"got"little"innards"and"you"peel"that"off,"and"then"the"rest"is"edible"after"that." (Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" " As"mentioned,"the"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study"aggregated"data"for"chitons"together"with"sea"urchins"and"sea" cucumbers,"reporting"64"sites"for"this"species"group,"with"the"vast"majority"of"those"sites"having"been" recorded"by"respondents"over"the"age"of"40"in"2002"(Aberley"2002:22)."One"2014"participant"in"this"age" cohort"reported"feeding"chitons"to"her"children"(Participant"206),"and"another"recalled,"“we"used"to"love"that" when"we"were"kids;"pretty"chewy"but"good”"(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)."One"participant"reported"seeing" chitons"during"the"previous"year."He"not"only"left"them"unharvested,"he"elected"to"keep"their"presence"a" secret:"“I"never"want"no"one"there"taking"them."I"mean,"if"we"could"just"leave"them"alone"and"let"them"come" back"it’d"be"great”"(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)." " Participants"also"reported"that"the"seemingly"less"popular"delicacy,"sea"cucumbers,"which"were"grouped" along"with"chitons"and"sea"urchins"in"the"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study,"were"gathered"within"the"recent"past." Historically,"sea"cucumbers"were"picked"off"of"exposed"flats"during"low"tides."Suttles’"W̱ SÁNEĆ"informants" described"seeing"people"cut"the"“head”"off"of"sea"cucumbers,"“squeeze"out"the"insides,"and"roast"the"flesh"in" hot"ashes."He"also"saw"it"boiled”"(1974:122)."However,"Suttles"(1974:122)"indicates"that"these"“sea" sausages”"were"only"eaten"by"some"people."As"the"only"study"participant"who"reported"having"eaten"sea" cucumber"stated:"“Oh,"it"tastes"funny."Rubber."I"bet"nobody"eats"that"stuff"now."But"I"tried"it”"(Participant" 207,"PMUS"2014)."" " Other"participants’"comments"concerning"sea"sausage"bear"out"these"themes:" " My"grandparents"they"always"had"(incomprehensible),"sea"cucumber..."I"don’t"know"how"to"clean"it," so"I"wouldn’t"want"to"try"it"because"I"don’t"know"how…"I"know"they"boiled"it"and"ate"it."But"being"as" we"didn’t"eat"it,"we"always"left"the"table"and"let"them"eat"it."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" " My"dad"used"to"eat"the"sea"cucumber."He"loved"those"too."As"soon"as"you"put"them"in"the"boat"they," aaaaagh"(laughing)."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)"

64" " Other"thing"they"used"to"harvest"was"sea"cucumber."Some"people"used"to"eat"that."I"never"did"eat" that."(Participant"205,"PMUS"2014)" " Indeed,"one"participant"reported"gathering"sea"cucumbers"personally"during"his"lifetime,"but"he"too"stressed" that"he"was"not"about"to"eat"them:"“I"used"to"get"it"for"our"elders"when"I"was"a"kid."But"I"never"ate"it"myself”" (Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)." "" Similarly,"one"Pauquachin"participant(described(gathering(and(consuming(seagull(eggs(during(his(lifetime,( although(Elders(from(other(W̱SÁNEĆ(communities(indicate(that(historically(they(were(a(carefully(managed( food"source"(Elliot"&"Poth,"1983;"Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)."Participant#207#reported#gathering#seagull# eggs$from$Mandarte$Island,$a$well$established$W̱SÁNEĆ$harvesting$site$for$both$seagull$eggs$and$camas,$with$ traditional"rules"governing"family"harvesting"locations"and"practices." " They"would"go"to"the"nests"that"had"less"than"four"eggs,"because"a"seagull"only"lays"four"eggs."If" there’s"one"egg"they"wouldn’t"take"it,"because"the"mother"would"abandon"her"nest."If"there"were" two,"they"would"take"one."If"there"were"three,"they"would"take"two."They"wouldn’t"take"the"only"egg" and"they"wouldn’t"take"from"the"nest"of"four"in"it,"the"mother"could"already"be"sitting"on"it…"They" would"take"eggs"from"a"nest"of"two"or"three."While"they"were"harvesting"camas"and"putting"them" together"to"bring"home"they"would"be"living"part"of"the"time"on"seagull"eggs."They"boiled"them." (Elliot"&"Poth"1983:23`34)" " In#addition#to#gathering#marine#fauna,#W̱SÁNEĆ#harvesters#traditionally#collected#a#wide#variety#of#seaweeds# for"different"uses."For"example,"Elliot"(1983)"offers"the"following"description"of"uses"for"LEKES,"or"red"laver," also"known"as"red"sea"lettuce." " They"would"be"digging"clams,"roasting"clams,"drying"clams."They"took"seaweed"or"LEKES"at"that" time."It"grows"on"rock"between"high"tide"and"low"tide."When"the"tide"is"partly"out"it"comes"out"of"the" water,"and"in"some"places"it"grows"very"thick,"and"of"course"our"people"harvested"it."They"would" pick"LEKES"and"spread"it"out"in"the"sun"to"dry."They"had"to"be"very"careful"it"didn’t"get"rained"on" because"fresh"water"would"spoil"it."It"would"turn"bad."If"it"looked"like"it"was"going"to"rain"they"would" have"to"run"out"and"cover"it"or"pick"it"up"and"get"it"out"of"the"rain."That"was"another"nourishing"food." After"it"was"dry,"it"was"pressed"into"blocks;"pressed"and"compacted"and"put"away"for"the"winter."In" the"winter"time"it"would"be"take"out"and"used"in"cooking"or"just"eaten"the"way"it"was."There"was"no" way"you"could"starve"in"this"country."We"had"too"much"of"everything."(24)" " Referring"to"seaweed,"one"Pauquachin"Elder"observed,"“some"of"our"ancestors"used"to"get"a"lot"of"that"and" dry"it"up”"(Participant"205,"PMUS"2014)."The"2002"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study"records"a"total"of"nine"seaweed" harvesting"sites"for"Pauquachin"(Aberley"2002:32`33)."Today,"PMUS"participants"report"harvesting"sites"in" Saanich"Inlet,"and"on"James"and"Discovery"Islands."At"least"one"Elder"reported"finding"seaweed"available"at" community"functions"within"the"previous"year,"and"another"reported"having"eaten"locally"harvested" seaweed"within"the"previous"several"days." " Participant:"They’d"go"just"out"here."They"got"lots"out"here." " Interviewer:"From"the"inlet?"Would"you"eat"it"from"there"now?"" " Participant:"Oh"yeah,"I"had"some"last"Thursday."(Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)"

65" " This"same"Elder"described"seaweed"as"“our"medicine,”"adding"“everything"up"the"hill"is"our"medicine”" (Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)."Another"participant"also"indicated"gathering"medicinal"plants"in"Coles"Bay" and"around"the"community:"“Used"to"be"able"to…"There"used"to"be"lots"around"here”"(Participant"216,"PMUS" 2014)."" " They"used"to"get"a"lot"of"stinging"nettle"there."That"was"for"people"that"had"strokes"too."As"soon"as" you"had"a"stroke"they’d"gather"it."And"they"don’t"get"them"over"a"foot"and"a"half"high"because" (incomprehensible)…"Then"you"have"them"drink"a"cup"of"tea"when"they"have"a"stroke."Drink"it"just" all"day"though."You"don’t"drink"it"all"at"once"cause"it’ll"alarm"your"insides."So"you"sip"on"it"all"day"and" after"that"they’ll"be"able"to"walk"and"talk"again."When"they"get"paralyzed,"and"they"can’t"walk"or"talk" and"stuff."But"this"affects"them"to"be"able"to"walk"and"talk"again"after"they"get"that"help..."Stinging" nettles,"yeah,"like"the"poison"ivy"stuff."That’s"what"you"use"for"a"stroke."But"for"clearing"all"your" arteries"in"your"heart"and"you’re"too"old"you"get"a"juniper"leaves"and"wild"rose"bud."Mix"tea"out"of" that"and"it"does"it"in"two"days,"and"you"don’t"even"need"an"operation."You"just"go"back"to"yourself." Even"if"you"need"heart"pills,"you"drink"that,"and"you"won’t"need."It"works,"I"tried"that…"You"could" pick"this"stuff"at"that"island,"but"I"don’t"know"if"you"can"any"more."(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)" " Pauquachin"respondents"recorded"a"total"of"15"medicinal"plant"harvesting"sites"in"the"2002"SENĆOŦEN" Alliance"study"(Aberley"2002:31)."In"addition"to"the"Pauquachin"area,"Participant"216"reported"gathering" medicinal"plants"with"his"uncle"on"South"Pender,"Mayne,"James,"Saturna,"and"smaller"surrounding"islands,"all" within"or"proximate"to"the"LSA"and/or"RSA:"“Yeah,"anywhere"they"seen"them"they"grab"them."But"they"were" all"over"the"place."Not"any"more”"(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)." " " " " " " "

66" Map$3:$Crab,$bivalve,$sea$gull$egg,$sea$cucumber,$seaweed,$sea$urchin,$berry$and$medicinal$plant$gathering$sites.$

67" 6.!Fishing! " Every$chance$I$get.$I$love$fishing.$I$just$like$being$out$on$the$water$and$catching$fish.$ ~Participant$212,$PMUS$2014$$ " Fishing,(and(in(particular(salmon(fishing,(lies(at(the(heart(of(the(W̱SÁNEĆ(traditional(diet,(seasonal(round,( cultural"practices,"subsistence"economy,"and"identity."The"five"species"of"Pacific"Salmon"and"steelhead#trout# that$frequent$W̱SÁNEĆ’s$marine$territory$were,$as$Suttles$(1974)$notes,$“the$most$important$food$for$the$ Straits"people”"(189)."More"so,"salmon"were"the"material"and"spiritual"centre"around"which"the"architecture" of"Salish"culture"developed." " Differences&between&the&species,&in&terms&of&their&migratory&habits,&their&natural&histories,&and&their&size&and& quality,)led)to)the)development)of)different)fishing)practices.)The)most)fundamental)environmental)fact) around'which'W̱SÁNEĆ'subsistence'economy'and"culture"developed"was"the"lack"of"a"major"freshwater"river" in"their"territory."Only"the"mainland"family"groups"who"had"access"to"large"rivers"used"river"weirs"and"trawl" nets."But"all"the"Straits"groups"shared"a"defining"technology"in"the"reef"net.""""" " At"the"time"of"Suttles’"fieldwork,"springs"were"targeted"by"trolling"in"winter,"spring,"and"summer;"silvers"in" summer."Suttles"(1974)"notes"that"reports"of"fishing"in"the"1890s"were"consistent"with"practice"at"the"time"of" his"fieldwork"in"the"late"1940s—that"many"Straits"groups"trolled"in"spring,"summer,"and"winter"in"the"Strait," often"many"miles"offshore."The"San"Juans"were"considered"a"good"winter"ground." " Trolling"was"done"by"a"man"alone"in"a"single"canoe,"with"a"line,"rock"sinker,"leader,"hook,"herring"bait,"and" club."“The"fisherman"held"the"line"in"his"hand"while"paddling"or"tied"it"to"his"paddle"at"the"hand"nearest"the" blade."In"this"way"the"hook"jerked"a"little"as"it"travelled"through"the"water”"(192)."Straits"groups"also"used" gill"nets``attached"to"a"line"of"floats"on"the"top"and"weights"at"the"bottom``for"springs"and"silvers"in"spring" and"summer"(192)."Suttles"(1974)"notes"that"the"Saanich"used"the"same"gillnet"for"herring"when"they"ran"at" Ganges"Harbour."Gill"nets"could"be"operated"by"a"single"fisherman"in"a"canoe."The"nets"were"designed"to"be" used"in"deep"water."Nets"used"by"the"Saanich"had"upright"floats"on"the"top"and"long"stone"sinkers"along"the" bottom"(194):"“The"Saanich"net"for"springs"had"an"8`inch"mesh"and"was"about"20"mesh"wide"and"10"fathoms" long”"(ibid)."Straits"groups"also"used"a"salmon"spear"(XSAMTAN),"which"was"similar"to"the"seal"harpoon"but" the"head"was"unbarbed"and"the"shaft"was"longer."The"spear"was"used"in"the"spring"in"saltwater:"“The" fisherman"cut"a"channel"through"a"kelp"bed,"anchored"his"canoe"across"it,"and"harpooned"the"salmon"as"they" came"through”"(196)." " Fishing"was"the"main"autumn"activity."Springs,"silvers,"and"chum"salmon"were"taken"with"harpoon,"gaff,"dip" net,"and"trawl"net."Each"technique"was"particular"to"only"some"groups,"but"the"gaff"was"used"by"all."“The" Saanich"mainly"gathered"at"Goldstream,"where"they"took"dog"salmon"with"harpoons"and"gaffs”"(198)."Suttles" notes"that"fall"fish"had"to"be"transported"home"for"smoking,"where"summer"fish"could"be"sun`dried"on"racks" (ibid)."" " Salmon"featured"prominently"in"the"cosmology"of"W̱ SÁNEĆ,"and"they"observe"a"system"of"ethical" obligations"toward"salmon,"which"includes"several"rituals,"including"the"first"salmon"ceremony."Straits"Salish" families"were"the"first"humans"to"intercept"migratory"salmon"returning"to"the"Fraser,"so"their"conduct" toward"them"was"extremely"important." "

68" All"of"the"Straits"groups"recognized"a"crooked`nosed"sockeye"as"the"chief"of"the"sockeye"with"control"over" the"run,"and"when"one"was"caught"they"gave"it"special"treatment."It"was"never"eaten,"but"was"used" essentially"as"a"charm"to"bring"fish"to"the"location"the"following"season." " The"Semiahmoo"informant,"JC,"explained"that"the"Transformer"taught"people"to"treat"fish"like"persons," therefore"the""king""or""queen""of"the"sockeye"should"get"special"attention."All"salmon`like"fishes"have" "queens";"the""queen""of"the"sockeye"can"be"told"by"its"owlish"face,"turned`down"mouth,"and"bulging"eyes." One"was"caught"on"the"reef"net"every"once"and"a"while."When"it"was,"the"captain"or"an"old"woman"who"was"a" ritualist"carried"up"the"fish,"laid"carefully"across"both"hands,"and"put"it"on"a"bed"of"ferns."This"person"painted" stripes"across"it"with"red"ocher"and"sprinkled"white"down"on"the"stripes."Then"he"or"she"made"a"little"fire"in" front"of"it"and"burned"red"ochre,"white"down,"and"hog"fennel"seeds."Afterwards"the"captain"buried"the"fish"by" the"head"of"his"bed"to"bring"him"good"fishing."(Suttles"1974:238`239)" " Suttles"1974"gathered"several"accounts"of"this"ritual,"including"from"W̱ SÁNEĆ informants:" " One"Saanich"informant,"LP,"said"only"that"the"appearance"of"a"crooked`nosed"sockeye"meant"a"good" run."However,"another"Saanich"informant,"CT,"described"a"first`salmon"rite"that"incorporated"the" rite"of"the"crooked`nosed"sockeye."The""king"of"the"sockeye""was"called"swi''walas"(which"means" "young"fellow""nowadays);"he"came"in"the"first"catch"of"fish."A"boy"with"red"paint"on"his"face"carried" the"fish"up"across"his"arms,"holding"the"dorsal"fin"in"his"teeth,"while"the"rest"of"the"catch"was"carried" up"in"baskets."The""king""was"placed"beside"a"small"fire"where"hog"fennel"seeds"were"burned."After" this"it"was"tied"to"a"post"of"the"house"for"a"day,"then"split"and"hung"by"itself"on"the"rack."Meanwhile" the"rest"of"the"first"catch"was"roasted"over"a"fire"in"a"long"trench."As"they"lay"on"the"rack"with"their" heads"all"pointing"in"the"same"direction,"hog"fennel"seeds"were"put"along"the"trench"on"that"side"and" hot"coals"were"dropped"on"the"seeds"to"burn"them."This"was"to"feed"the"fish."It"would"have"been" dangerous"not"to"use"hog"fennel"seeds."The"fish"were"turned"with"a"board."They"had"to"be"eaten"by" everyone."The"bones"were"saved"in"a"basket."When"they"finished"eating,"a"man,"carrying"the"basket" by"a"tumpline"from"his"forehead,"limped"once"around"the"camp"in"a"counter`clockwise"direction"and" then"down"to"the"beach"where"he"dumped"it."(240`241)" " One"Pauquachin"harvester"described"a"first"salmon"ritual"still"followed"by"his"family"today:"“For"the"first"one" of"our"season,"the"first"one"we"catch"of"our"household"we"give"away"each"year."So,"that’s"how"my"son"got" brought"up."The"first"one"you"catch"you"give"it"away"or"present"it"to"another"friend"of"family”"(Participant" 218,"PMUS"2014)."" " A"reliance"on"salmon"is"central"to"all"Coast"Salish"nations,"their"seasonal"rounds"and"cultures,"so"much"so" that"they"are"sometimes"called"the"“salmon"people”"(Boxberger"2007:57)."But"the"W̱ S Á N E Ć ( a n d ( o t h e r ( Northern"Straits`speaking"nations"were"unique"in"the"locations"and"techniques"they"used"to"harvest"the" sacred"salmon"(Vanden"berg"&"Associates"1997:3)."Elliot"(1983)"explains"that"unlike"the"rest"of"their"Coast" Salish"neighbours,"the"Northern"Straits"tribes"did"not"have"any"rivers"within"their"traditional"territory,"“and" so"we"went"to"the"sea"to"get"our"salmon."That"is"why"we"are"the"salt"water"people”"(16)."Reef"netting,"the" deeply"ceremonial"and"highly"productive"fishing"technique"employed"by"the"W̱ SÁNEĆ(at(sites(throughout(the( Southern"Gulf"and"San"Juan"Islands"and"at"Point"Roberts,"was"developed"and"used"exclusively"by"these" groups"to"harvest"salmon"before"they"left"ocean"waters."" " Although(efforts(are(underway(on(the(Saanich(Peninsula(to(restore(the(W̱SÁNEĆ(reef(net(fishery,(the( technique"is"no"longer"practiced"today"due"to"government"restrictions"and"other"barriers."However,"one" Pauquachin"Elder"interviewed"for"this"study"recalled"working"annually"at"a"reef`net"site"on"Stuart"Island"on"

69" the"American"side"of"the"Canada`U.S."border"during"the"1970s."He"described"traveling"with"his"family,"and" the"other"fishermen"and"their"families,"to"the"reef`net"site"where"they"would"stay"in"little"houses"for"a"month" during"the"summertime"sockeye"salmon"run."Fishing"was"done"with"the"tides,"and"involved"one"man"acting" as"a"lookout,"standing"on"a"50`foot"ladder"in"a"canoe"about"800`feet"from"shore"watching"for"the"fish"to"enter" the"reef"net:"“Watch"them"go"in"and"then"lift"it"up”"(Participant"205,"PMUS"2014)."The"participant"reported" that"the"reef"net"was"only"used"to"catch"sockeye"salmon,"and"that"he"estimated"catches"to"be"about"400"each" time."Unlike"the"traditional"reef`net"fishery,"the"captain"at"this"site"employed"the"fishermen,"paying"them"at" the"end"of"the"fishing"season"and"keeping"the"catch"to"sell"himself."However,"during"their"downtime"the" fishermen"were"free"to"catch"and"smoke"or"dry"their"own"fish,"and"Participant"205"noted"that"he"would"also" harvest"octopus"for"his"mother`in`law"during"these"breaks"(PMUS"2014)." " Another"participant"reported"his"grandfather"building"his"own"dugout"canoes"for"fishing,"which"he"used"in" the"shipping"channel"at"Active"Pass"to"harvest"salmon:"“That’s"before"it"got"busy”"(Participant"212,"PMUS" 2014)."The"2002"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study"recorded"a"total"of"271"salmon"kill"sites"for"Pauquachin"members" (Aberley"2002:15`16),"with"nearly"two`thirds"of"these"reported"by"harvesters"over"the"age"of"40"at"that"time." In"addition"to"the"reef`net"site"at"Stuart"Island,"2014"PMUS"participants"reported"salmon"fishing"sites"used" during"their"lifetimes"outside"of"the"Saanich"Inlet"at"Pender,"Mayne,"and"Coal"Islands,"and"at"Sidney"Spit,"but" indicated"that"the"majority"of"salmon"harvesting"was"done"inside"the"Inlet"at"sites"located"in"Coles"Bay," Goldstream,"Mill"Bay,"Bamberton,"and"Hatch"Point,"or"just"trolling."As"with"gathering,"however,"fishing"in"the" Inlet"has"changed."" " When"the"salmon"run,"a"few"years"back,"they"used"to"always"come"in"our"bay,"spring"salmon,"coho" and"sockeye."There’s"so"many"seals"out"there"(now)"they’re"just"getting"chased"out."I"used"to"enjoy" fishing"in"the"bay"for"salmon..."When"there"was"lots,"used"to"be"a"couple"in"a"few"hours."Cause"they" were"right"in"the"bay."(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)" " Out"here"we’d"always"be"catching"coho."Used"to"catch"a"lot"of"coho"out"here."But"not,"like"I"have"a" couple"friends"who"go"out"here"fishing"and"they"don’t"catch"fish,"they’re"out"there"for"hours"but" they’re"not"catching"anything."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" " One"boat"owner"observed"a"similar"depletion"of"salmon"stocks"outside"of"the"Inlet"at"one"of"his"family’s" preferred"fishing"sites"near"Coal"Island." " Participant:"Spring"salmon"is"huge"right"here."’Bout"all"the"First"Nations"people"used"to"go"there." Drop"their"lines,"drift"fish."They"still"do."There’s"not"too"many"fisherman"around"any"more,"but..."We" went"there"a"couple"times"this"year."But"again,"it"was"kind"of"a"waste"of"time."We"stayed"about"three" hours"out"there"and"didn’t"catch"anything..."" " …"Me"and"my"brothers"went"out"probably"once"a"week,"during"the"summer"anyway."Very"unlucky." " Interviewer:"How"often"did"you"catch"fish?" " Participant:"Nothing."Rarely." " Interviewer:"Did"you"go"over"to"east"side"or—" " Participant:"Went"here"in"the"bay"here,"and"that"side."Both"places."Everything"in"our"fishery’s"gone." (Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)"

70" " Three"of"the"2014"PMUS"participants"reported"fishing"for"salmon"within"the"last"year;"two"of"these" respondents"indicated"fishing"for"other"species"at"the"same"time,"as"well"as"gathering"for"sea"urchins"on"the" same"trips."Sockeye,"coho"and"spring"salmon"were"reported"as"preferred"salmon"species."The"other" preferred"fish"species"harvested"on"these"fishing"trips"were"lingcod"and"rock"cod."In"fact,"Pauquachin"fishers" reported"381"rock"cod,"lingod"and"red"snapper"harvesting"sites"in"the"2002"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study," compared"to"just"271"salmon"kill"sites"(Aberley"2002:15`17)." "" Cod

According"to"Suttles"(1974),"the"cod"targeted"by"Straits"Salish"are"not"true"“cod,”"but"several"different"species" that"all"go"by"the"common"name,"including"lingcod,"several"species"(appx."20)"of"rock"fish"called"variously" “rock"cod,”"“black"bass”"and"“red"snapper”"(180)."“English"terminology"is"confusing,"especially"in"the"case"of" rock`fishes;"Fishermen"do"not"distinguish"species"separated"by"zoologists,”"he"writes"(1974:180)." “Informants"gave"native"names"which"appear"to"be"more"or"less"equivalent"to"English"common"names," suggesting"that"they"too"lump"several"species"under"a"single"name”"(Suttles"1974:180)." " The"largest"of"these"is"the"lingcod"(Ophiodon"elongatus),"which"attains"a"length"of"five"feet."Its"habitat"is" "near"the"bottom"of"the"tidal"zone"down"to"at"least"60"fathoms,"amongst"kelp`beds,"and"reefs,"especially" where"there"are"strong"tidal"movements.""Several"species"of"rock`fishes"(Sebastodes)"are"called""rock"cod."" This"genus"has"20"some"species"ranging"in"habitat"from"tidal`water"to"several"hundred"fathoms."Those"living" near"the"surface"are"mostly"brown"in"color"while"those"in"deeper"water"are"often"reddish."The"brownish" species"are"usually"called""rock"cod,""one"or"two"darker"species"are"called""black"bass,""and"one"or"more"of" reddish"species"are"called""red"snapper.""The"last"attains"a"size"of"three"feet."(Suttles"1974:180)" " At"the"time"of"Suttles"(1974)"fieldwork,"Straits"fishermen"harvested"cod"with"several"techniques,"including" 18`20"inch"“shuttlecock”"lures"made"of"a"cedar"head"with"three"paddle`shaped"vanes"made"of"maple,"and"a" 15"to"20`foot"spear."“The"fisherman"used"the"spear"and"shuttle`cock"lure"at"low"tide"from"anchored"canoes" or"on"points"where"rocks"overlook"kelp"beds”"(181)."The"spear"would"push"the"lure"down"to"the"desired" depth."As"it"was"retrieved"to"the"surface,"cod"would"follow"and"the"fisherman"would"spear"them"in"the" shallower"water."Lingcod"were"caught"using"an"ingenious"combination"of"urchin"and"tommycod:" " The"fisherman"broke"sea"urchins"and"threw"them"into"the"water."The"sea"urchins"attracted"small" greenlings"(tommycod)"and"the"fisherman"speared"one."He"then"tied"a"line"around"the"greenling,"put" a"rock"in"its"stomach,"and"cut"the"flesh"off"one"side"to"make"it"uneven."He"could"then"drop"the" greenling"to"the"bottom,"then"pull"it"up"rapidly,"making"it"wobble"or"spin."Sometimes"a"lingcod"only" followed"it"up"to"where"he"could"be"speared,"but"often"he"gulped"the"greenling"down."(Suttles" 1974:180)" " Suttles’"informants"told"him"that"cod"were"fished"for"all"year"round."“Cod"locations,”"such"as"those"described" at"Waldron"and"Peavine"islands"(Peavine"Pass)"on"the"far"side"of"the"shipping"channel,"were"not"privately" owned"and"anyone"could"fish"there." " One"Pauquachin"PMUS"participant"reported"cod"fishing"as"an"important"forum"for"passing"on"traditional" knowledge"about"fish"species,"harvesting"sites"and"techniques,"and"other"things."His"father"used"to"take"him" fishing"for"cod"near"the"bluffs"on"Pender"Island,"and"to"other"harvesting"sites,"“just"to"show"me"again"where" they"all"are”"(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)."" "

71" Just"out"here"in"our"bay,"right"at"the"point,"Green"Spar."Cause"that"was,"my"dad"always"told"me"that’s" good"for"rock"cod…"He"showed"me"all"these"different"areas"where"you"could"catch"these."Almost" looked"like"a"trout"to"me,"but"I"think"he"called"it"a"green"snapper."That’s"how"he"called"it"to"me."Like" he"showed"me"there,"and"all"through"the"islands"there"he"showed"me"great"places."It"was"amazing" when"I"was"a"kid."He"says"we’ll"just"anchor,"when"I"was"a"kid"it"was"just"a"big"rock"tied"up"and"we’d" drop"it"out"of"our"canoe."We’d"sit"there"and"he’d"say"you"cast"over"here,"so"we"would."And"he"said" you’re"guaranteed"a"great"lingcod,"and"sure"enough"I"caught"a"rock"cod,"but"on"top"of"the"rock"cod" the"lingcod"was."Seemed"to"amaze"me"how"much"he"knew."And"that"was"always"just"shown"to"him" by"his"siblings"or"his"father."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" " This"same"participant"is"now"taking"his"own"son"out"cod"fishing"in"order"to"pass"on"the"knowledge"he" received."However,"he"indicated"that"fishing"conditions"within"the"Saanich"Inlet"have"changed"considerably:" “Like"when"I"was"a"young"kid"we’d"be"out"there,"be"able"to"just"catch"them"and"throw"them"back,"but"these" days"you’re"sitting"out"there"for"quite"a"while"before"you"catch”"(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)."" " In"addition"to"the"sites"mentioned"above,"participants"reported"having"cod"harvesting"near"Galiano"Island,"at" a"reef"in"the"shipping"lane"near"Active"Pass,"and"at"East"Point"on"Saturna"Island."Participant"213"reported" fishing"for"cod"at"the"same"site"near"Coal"Island"where"his"family"fished"for"salmon,"and"stated"that:"" Anywhere"on"the"east"side"you"can"fish"there"are"huge"fish."Again,"any"island"you"want"to"go"to"there’s"a"little" rock"cod"or"lingcod."Lingcod’s"pretty"well"all"along"those"islands,"by"James"Island."The"far"side"of"James"Island" is"good"lingcod"fishing."(PMUS"2014)" " Cod"fishing"sites"within"the"Saanich"Inlet"were"reported"at"a"long"reef"right"in"front"of"Pauquachin"in"Coles" Bay,"in"Mill"Bay,"Deep"Cove,"and"Lands"End"“at"their"black"spar”"(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014),"as"well"as"just" “moving"around"all"over”"(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)."As"with"salmon"fishing"and"gathering"in"the"Inlet," however,"the"general"consensus"is"easily"summarized:"“Not"as"much"as"there"used"to"be."Used"to"be"lots”" (Participant"205,"PMUS"2014)." " In"the"summertime"I"like"to"go"as"much"as"I"can."Like"I"said,"I"just"freeze"it"for"the"winter."But"it’s" getting"more"and"more"harder"to"catch,"‘cause"there’s"so"many"seals"out"there."(Participant"212," PMUS"2014)" " Mostly"just"rock"cod"and"a"few"lingcod."Used"to"be"lots"of"lingcod,"not"too"much"any"more."Still"a"few" rock"cod."Think"I"was"out"here"about"8"hours"one"time,"I"only"caught"about"4"rock"cod."But"I"was" moving"around"all"over,"places"I"used"to"go,"but"nothing."Just"the"way"it"is."(Participant"216,"PMUS" 2014)" " Just"last"month"Josh"got"a"couple"rock"cods."He"wanted"a"lingcod"but"there"was"no"lingcod"out"there." He"said"he"couldn’t"catch"any…"Arnie’s"been"out"there"too."But"he"hasn’t"caught"any"rock"cod"or" lingcod"either."He"rows"out"there."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" " Now"you"catch"them"and"you’re"lucky"just"a"small"little…"It’s"hard"to"catch"them."You"could"spend" hours"out"there"to"get"one."You"do"get"them."Need"to"be"pretty"patient."(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)"" " Participants"indicated"the"same"is"true"for"virtually"all"of"the"fish"that"were"previously"harvested"within"the" Inlet,"including"salmon,"rock"cod,"lingcod,"herring,"flounder"and"red"snapper." "

72" Used"to"be"a"lot"of"seafood"down"here,"like"herrings"and"lingcod,"rock"cod,"flounders."But"you"don’t"see"it"any" more,"‘cause"the"water’s"polluted"I"guess."You"go"down"and"look"now,"nothing."(Participant"205,"PMUS"2014)" " Further"to"our"right"was"known"for"red"snapper."But…"it’s"not"there."When"I"was"a"kid"I’d"go"out,"my"dad" would"say"I"want"red"snapper,"so"I’d"go"out"and"catch"them,"red"snapper."But"these"days,"like"I"said,"you"got" to"sit"there"a"lot"longer."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" " I"used"to"go"out"fishing"all"over"here"when"I"was"a"kid,"and"nowadays"you"go"out"fishing"right"from"daybreak" to"dark"and"don’t"catch"nothing."All"over"along"in"here."You"really"notice"a"difference…"Lots"of"lingcod,"lots"of" everything."Don’t"get"very"many"anything"any"more."Used"to"get"lots"of"red"snapper"too,"don’t"catch"very" many"of"those"any"more."Used"to"catch"them"as"big"as"this"table."When"I"was"12`years"old"an"old"timer" brought"me"out"there,"sitting"in"the"side"of"Deep"Cove,"gave"me"a"300’"line,"I"didn’t"believe"him."Then"he"said" it"takes"two"of"us"to"pull"them"up…"Nice"to"see"a"red"snapper"as"big"as"this"table"get"pulled"up."I"didn’t"believe" it"till"I"seen"it."But"I"don’t"see"that"any"more."(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)"" " Herring

Participants"report"that"herring"used"to"pass"through"the"Saanich"Inlet"directly"in"front"of"Pauquachin"each" year."Vast!schools&of&herring&arrived&in&late&winter`early&spring&and&laid&their&eggs&in&eel&grass&beds&along& shorelines)throughout)W̱SÁNEĆ)territory.)Their)arrival)heralded)the)conclusion)of)the)ritual)dancing)season) and"the"onset"of"spring`summer"fishing."Elliot"(1983)"explains:" "" WEXES"was"the"month"that"the"herring"came,"sometimes"in"the"middle"of"that"moon."The"herring"were"the" only"fish"that"came"to"us"automatically"so"our"people"took"good"advantage"of"it."Our"people"knew"exactly" when"those"herring"were"going"to"arrive."The"old"people"would"say,"“They"are"not"going"to"arrive"on"this" tide.”"Our"people"didn’t"always"tell"the"time"by"the"day,"or"the"moon"or"the"sun."They"knew"the"tide"so"well" they"would"tell"the"time,"exactly"what"time"of"year"it"was,"by"the"tide"that"was"coming"and"they"would"say" those"herring"are"going"to"arrive…"Our"people"would"take"enough"for"their"own"use,"not"more,"just"enough" that’s"all."They"would"put"out"cedar"and"balsam"branches"so"the"herring"would"spawn"on"the"branches,"and" hang"them"up"in"the"sun"and"the"wind"to"dry."That’s"how"they"were"preserved."When"it"was"completely"dry" they"would"put"it"away"for"the"next"winter."(20)" "" W̱ SÁNEĆ(harvesters(took(both(the(herring(roe(and(the(whole(fish.(The(fish(was(eaten(whole(fresh(r oasted'on' a"spit,"dried,"or"rendered"into"oil;"it"was"also"an"important"bait"for"halibut"and"cod"(Suttles"1974:127)." According)to)Suttles)(1974),)W̱SÁNEĆ)harvesting)practices)included)the)use)of)a)special)rake)for)harvesting) herring:" "" They"were"taken"with"a"rake"(ta’taman?),"which"was"made"by"setting"sharpened"teeth"into"a"fir"pole." The"teeth"were"made"of"hemlock"or"white"fir"limbs"or"possibly"of"bone;"in"recent"times"nails"have" been"used."The"shaft"was"8"to"12"feet"long"with"one"side"cut"flat"for"3"to"5"feet."Into"the"flattened"part" the"teeth"were"set"about"an"inch"apart." "" The"fisherman"used"the"rake"from"his"canoe"when"he"found"himself"over"a"school"of"herring."Holding" the"rake"as"one"would"a"paddle,"he"drew"it"quickly"through"the"water,"impaling"with"each"stroke" several"fish,"which"he"then"dropped"into"the"bottom"of"the"canoe."(126`127)" "" Roe,"which"was"eaten,"was"harvested"by"hung"cedar"branches"in"the"water"during"the"spawning"run."Suttles" 1974"notes"that"both"Jenness"and"Stern"described"this"practice:"

73" "" Cedar"branches"were"sunk"by"sinkers"and"floats"into"an"eel`grass"bed"a"few"feet"above"the"bottom"so" that"the"roe"was"deposited"on"them."After"the"spawning"the"branches"were"raised"and"dried"and"the" roe"could"be"shaken"off."Stern"says"it"was"stored"in"baskets"and"eaten"with"oil."(127)" "" Pauquachin"MUS"participants"reported"using"the"same"technique"during"their"lifetimes"to"gather"herring" eggs"at"the"beach"in"Coles"Bay." "" We"used"to"be"able"to"go"put"cedar"branches"all"along"the"beach"and"get"a"whole"bunch"of"eggs…" Haven’t"done"that"in"a"long"time."Probably,"maybe"it’s"too"polluted"to"do"that"now."(Participant"216," PMUS"2014)" "" According"to"the"Department"of"Fisheries"and"Oceans"(DFO),"the"herring"population"in"the"Strait"of"Georgia" declined"due"to"overfishing"in"the"1960s,"recovered"during"the"mid`1970s,"declined"again"during"the"1980s," but"by"2006"was"near"historical"high"abundances"(as"recorded"in"1956)"(DFO"June"2006)."This"is"in"keeping" with"Participant"216’s"observation"that"herring"“come"through"once"every"March;"sometimes"there’s"lots," sometimes"there"isn’t,”"and"that"it"has"been"about"a"decade"since"he"has"seen"“lots”"(PMUS"2014)." "" Elders"who"reported"enjoying"plentiful"herring"runs"when"they"were"young"described"fishing"for"them"in" front"of"the"community"with"a"weighted"throw"net:"“Off"the"beach"‘cause"it"was"just"loaded"down"here" before…"I"guess"water’s"polluted"down"here"now;"not"allowed"to"get"anything"now”"(Participant"205,"PMUS" 2014)."" " One"also"demonstrated"the"proper"way"to"prepare"a"herring:" " Participant:"You"have"to"take"the"head"off"and"the"tail,"and"you"start"from"the"back"and"it"just"opens" up"this"way…"The"back"and"down"and"both"sides,"and"it"just"opens"up." " Interviewer:"Do"you"fillet"out"the"rib"bones"from"the"back?"" " Participant:"Yeah,"it’s"no"bones"on"there"when"you"do"that."If"you"try"to"make"a"steak"out"of"them" you’re"eating"bones."I"don’t"do"that"way."(Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)" " Respondents"listed"herring"and/or"herring"eggs"among"the"marine"foods"they"have"had"access"to"historically," and"that"they"would"like"to"have"greater"access"to."Pauquachin"members"reported"nine"kill"sites"for"herring" in"the"2002"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study"(Aberley"2002:18)."In"the"Inlet,"Coles"Bay"and"Mill"Bay"were"identified" as"past"harvesting"places."Active"Pass"was"identified"as"an"important"fishing"area:"“We"used"to"get"a"whole" tub"full,"and"my"grandmother"would"sit"on"the"beach"and"clean"them"out,"and"then"dry"them,"smoke"them”" (Participant"212,"PMUS"2014).""" " Participants"report"frying"is"a"preferred"way"of"preparing"herring:"“Yeah,"herring"fried"and"smoked"is"really" awesome."That’s"dying"out"too."You"never"see"too"much"of"that"anymore”"(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)." Only"one"participant"reported"fishing"for"herring"within"the"previous"year,"although"others"indicated" accessing"it"through"their"networks,"trading"smoked"fish"for"it,"purchasing"it"from"other"communities,"and" receiving"it"at"community"events."Herring"eggs,"despite"being"a"preferred"delicacy"and"one"of"the"marine" foods"respondents"most"often"indicated"they"would"like"to"have"more"of,"had"not"been"received"by"any" participants"in"more"than"a"year."" "

74" Octopus

The"same"was"true"for"octopus,"which"many"reported"was"a"delicacy"they"“love”"but"that"is"now"much"more" difficult"to"find"in"the"Inlet"that"it"has"been"in"the"recent"past."Suttles’"informants"told"him"that"they" traditionally"fished"for"octopus"in"canoes"at"low"tide,"armed"with"a"two`pronged"spear"and"a"long"pole"with"a" crook"at"the"end."The"fishermen"paddled"in"4`8"feet"of"water,"scanning"the"bottom"for"signs"of"an"octopus’" cave,"which"were"frequently"marked"by"clam"and"crab"shells"scattered"around"the"entrance." " Participant"205"reported"using"a"similar"device"to"harvest"octopus"in"the"shallows"near"a"reef`net"site"on" Stuart"Island:"“Just"sort"of"a"fork."Long"handle."Just"shaped"like"a"fork”"(PMUS"2014)."Another"participant"also" described"using"a"spear"from"inside"a"boat"as"the"way"to"catch"an"octopus:"“You"have"to"have"a"pretty"good" eye."You"just"go"out"really"slowly,"see"them"against"the"reef"or"something;"gaff"them"up”"(Participant"213," PMUS"2014)."Yet"another"participant"reported"catching"an"octopus"simply"by"casting"from"a"boat"in"the"Inlet." " I"went"out"here"casting,"just"off"Senanus"Island,"when"we"rented"a"boat."I"thought"I"was"snagged"on"the" bottom."So"I"was"trying"to"break"my"line,"and"it"wouldn’t"break,"and"it"came"up"like"this,"and"it"was"a"50` pound"octopus."And"I"put"it"in"one"of"those"rent`a`boat"scoop"nets;"just"tore"it"apart"like"it"was"butter."I"got"it" in"the"boat"just"in"time,"and"it"went"and"laid"on"top"of"the"motor."Laid"right"on"top"like"this,"and"he"put"the" motor"right"underneath"him,"the"heat."Holy"smokes,"it"didn’t"even"burn"him."That"driver"goes"you’re"lucky" you"didn’t"put"your"hand"under"there,"he"would"have"bit"your"hand"right"off."So"he"cut"that"beak"open,"it"was" still"alive"and"had"a"great"big"chomper"underneath"there."(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)" " Pauquachin"members"reported"14"kill"sites"for"octopus"and"squid"in"the"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study,"with"the" majority"of"those"recorded"by"harvesters"over"the"age"of"60"(Aberley"2002:23)."2014"PMUS"participants" expressed"a"desire"for"octopus,"and"one"participant"suggested"that"there"are"harvesters"who"specialize"in" catching"octopus,"but"no"participants"reported"harvesting"or"receiving"octopus"within"the"previous"year:"“I" went"out"looking,"but"I"didn’t"see"any”"(Participant"213)."Again,"this"reported"lack"of"availability"exists"in" contrast"to"conditions"participants"observed"in"the"Saanich"Inlet"during"their"lifetimes." " Used"to"catch"a"lot"of"octopus"out"here."Just"like"fishing,"you"know"casting."(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)" " I"remember"being"a"kid"and"I"used"to"be"clam"digging"with"my"uncle,"my"dad"and"my"mom,"late"at"night"when" there’s"low"tide."And"my"late"uncle"and"my"other"uncles..."say"come"here"and"I’ll"show"you."And"they"would" walk"along"at"the"drop"off"and"they"would"hold"out"their"lanterns,"and"that’s"when"you"used"to"see"actually" octopus"in"our"bay,"but"you"never"see"them"any"more..."But"when"I"was"a"young"kid"my"late"uncle"showed"me" how"you"get"right"in"there,"you"gotta"be"very"careful,"and"you"pull"them"up."But"that"was"quite"something"to" see."I"must"have"been"about"10,"11"years"old,"when"they"showed"me"that."And"they"don’t"move,"they’re"rock" hard."They"don’t"move"when"you"shine,"if"you"hold"the"lamp"like"this"at"the"drop"off..."probably"go"out"a"good" 40"yards"and"then"there’s"always"a"drop"off."I"remember"always"seeing"little"octopuses"down"here"when"I" was"a"kid."At"low"tide"and"you"pick"em"up"and"you"throw"them"out"further"‘cause"they"get"caught"in"the"low" tide."I"would"always"walk"along"and"return"them"to"another"area."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" " One"contemporary"Elder"described"harvesting"octopus"in"similar"fashion"from"beaches"in"the"Saanich"Inlet"at" low"tide,"from"Cowichan"Bay"all"the"way"down"to"Mill"Bay"directly"across"the"Inlet"from"Pauquachin." "

75" ! Map$4:$Fishing$areas$of$rock$cod,$ling$cod,$red$snapper,$halibut,$flounder,$sole,$and$salmon$species$

76" 7.!Hunting! " We$can’t$go$hunting$without$people$stopping$us$from$doing$something;$trying$to$stop$us.$And$people$do$ get$scared$of$them.$They$don’t$want$to$get$fined.$They’re$trying$to$stop$everything.$ ~Participant$213,$PMUS$2014$ " " Traditionally,"hunting"sites"throughout"the"Gulf"Islands"and"southern"Vancouver"Island"were"shared" amongst"all"W̱ SÁNEĆ"families."Their"use"was"open"to"all"W̱ SÁNEĆ,"and"this"understanding"continues"to" this"day."As"one"W̱ SÁNEĆ hereditary"chief"explained,$“whoever"got"there,"got"there."As"long"as"you're"from" Saanich"you're"allowed"to"be"out"there"anywhere"in"the"territory"to"hunt"and"to"fish”"(Pelkey"2014)." " Interview"data"indicates"that"the"majority"of"hunting"reported"involved"marine"birds"harvested"in"traditional" Pauquachin"waters,"and"deer"located"on"the"islands"and"harvested"by"accessing"marine"travel"routes"within" or"proximate"to"the"LSA"and/or"RSA." " W̱ S Á N E Ć "territory"is"host"to"a"variety"of"duck"and"geese"species."Before"firearms"the"people"of"the"Straits" used"a"variety"of"hunting"methods"tailored"to"a"duck’s"species"and"habitat."These"included"nets"suspended" from"poles,"nets"on"poles"held"by"hand,"nets"set"under"water,"spears,"arrows,"and"slings"(Suttles"1974:126)." Ducks"were"also"hunted"at"night"using"a"fire"on"the"bow"of"a"canoe"and"then"speared"(Webber"2000:7;" Suttles"1974:128)."Raised"nets"were"used"at"very"specific"locations"where"they"could"be"strung"across"a"spit" or"narrow"channel"or"other"location"where"ducks"often"flew."These"locations"were"few"in"number,"and" creating"a"raised"net"required"significant"labour."Suttles’"W̱ SÁNEĆ informant"told"him"of"a"raised"net" location"at"Mosquito"Pass"(between"San"Juan"and"Henry"Islands),"where"one"pole"stood"on"Pole"Island,"the" other"100"ft"across"on"Henry"Island.)The"W̱ SÁNEĆ"used"this"net"alongside"the"Songhees"and"the"Lummi"``" whoever"had"a"net"could"access"these"areas"(Suttles"1973:128)."Elliot"(1983)"describes"duck"netting:"“Where" the"land"is"low"or"marshland"the"ducks"would"shortcut"across"to"take"off"into"the"wind,"our"people"would" hide"there"and"catch"them"from"the"air”"(31)." " One"duck"in"particular,"the"surf"scoter,"also"referred"to"by"respondents"as"“black"duck”,"is"considered"a" sacred"bird"and"a"preferred"species"for"ceremonial"use."It"was"the"traditional"food"used"in"the"longhouse" with"strict"rules"governing"its"processing"and"preparation"``"rules"one"PMUS"participant"reported"chafing" against."She"described"having"an"accident"on"the"first"of"four"days"and"nights"she"was"expected"to"remain"at" the"longhouse"helping"to"prepare"the"black"ducks."" " I"had"to"pluck"some"for"the"big"house..."like"take"all"the"feathers"off,"pluck"it"all"off."And"I"guess"I" squished"it"too"much"and"it"fell"out"all"over"my"dress."It"was"gross."They"won’t"let"me"go"home"either," and"I"got"mad"and"I"walked"home."That"was"in"West"Saanich"and"I"walked"all"the"way"back"to"my" mom’s"place."They"kept"telling"me"I"wasn’t"allowed"to"come"home,"cause"whoever"was"in"the" longhouse"had"to"stay"there"and"help"them"cook…"That"was"the"first"day"they"told"me"pluck"the" ducks,"and"I"wasn’t"going"to"live"in"my"clothes"for"three"more"days."(Participant"206,"PMUS"2014)" " Participant"206"reported"that"she"has"not"had"black"duck"since,"and"misses"it."She"reported"that"she"did," however,"have"cormorant"on"a"regular"basis"in"the"autumn,"which"she"preferred"roasted"and"described"as" “our"turkey.”"Most"participants"indicated"their"preference"for"black"ducks,"frequently"described"as"“the"best”"

77" (Participants"205,"212,"216,"PMUS"2014)"and"prepared"as"a"soup"with"a"characteristically"burnt"flavour:" “From"burning"the"feathers"off."Yeah,"they"all"burn"the"feathers."It’s"good”"(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)."" " Duck"feathers,"and"black"duck"feathers"in"particular,"are"also"used"for"ceremonial"purposes"within"the" longhouse."One"participant"reported"duck"hunting"in"the"recent"past,"“right"from"beginning"of"winter"to"the" end"of"winter,"‘cause"used"to"give"all"the"duck"feathers"to"the"big"houses"here,"or"sometimes"give"them" everything."They"just"use"it”"(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)."Participant"216"reported"hunting"for"black"ducks" on"the"beach"in"East"Saanich,"and"within"the"Saanich"Inlet,"“all"the"way"from"Brentwood"to"here" (Pauquachin),"just"in"the"canoe,"dugout"canoe."Sometimes"we"also"go"out"hunting"from"here"all"the"way"to" Goldstream,"all"along"the"beach”"(PMUS"2014)." " The"2002"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study"recorded"96"waterfowl"harvesting"sites"for"Pauquachin"members" (Aberley"2002:24)."Current"PMUS"participants"were"somewhat"divided"on"the"contemporary"availability"of" ducks,"but"most"indicated"that"duck"continues"to"be"a"staple"part"of"the"marine"foods"served"at"funerals"and" other"important"community"events"in"Pauquachin:"“We"go"to"like"our"longhouses,"funerals"where"there’d"be" ducks”"(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)." " All"participants"who"reported"hunting"ducks"indicated"having"done"so"within"the"community"at"Coles"Bay," among"other"locations"within"the"Saanich"Inlet."" " We’d"just"go"right"down"to"the"beach,"next"to"the"beach"here."Just"hide"by"the"embankment,"and"they" dive"and"come"up"and"we’d"shoot"them."(Participant"207,"PMUS"2014)"" " Every"kind"of"duck"you"can"think"of"I"got"in"there."(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)" " When"I"was"a"kid"used"to"be"able"to"almost"walk"on"their"backs"down"here"in"our"bay,"but"you’re" lucky"to"see"15"or"12"down"here."That’s"one"thing"I"told"my"brother"is"I"don’t"see"any"more"around" here,"ducks."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)"" " Today,"in"addition"to"seeing"fewer"ducks"in"the"bay,"Pauquachin"hunters"face"barriers"in"the"form"of"hunting" restrictions"and"regulations"related"to"licensing"and"public"safety"in"traditional"hunting"areas."Participants" report"the"same"types"of"barriers"restricting"access"to"former"deer"hunting"sites"in"and"around"the" community:"“I"just"go"up"the"hill"here."I"used"to..."just"on"Pauquachin"Reserve."Up"on"this"hillside”"(Participant" 212,"PMUS"2014)."" " But"now"anything"you"shoot"down"here"twenty"cop"cars"be"down"there"right"away."Take"whatever" you"have."If"you"don’t"have"license"for"your"food"getter."They"do"that"when"you"go"hunting"too,"and" poor"folks"who"don’t"bother"with"that"stuff,"they"get"all"their"stuff"taken"away."Then"you"get"it"given" back"and"by"the"time"it"gets"given"back"the"deer’s"bad"and"their"guns"are"all"rusty"‘cause"they’re"just" terrible"(incomprehensible)."But"that’s"why"a"lot"of"it’s"getting"stopped"because"of"them"folks"like" that."(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)" " Pauquachin"members"recorded"295"sites"for"hunting"deer,"elk"and"bear"in"the"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study" conducted"by"Aberley"(2002:14),"although"all"but"51"of"those"sites"were"recorded"by"harvesters"over"the"age" of"40"at"that"time."None"of"the"2014"PMUS"participants"reported"hunting"deer"within"the"last"year,"however," two"participants"reported"hunting"deer"during"their"lifetimes"at"sites"on"Mayne,"Galiano,"Saturna,"Sidney," James"and"Big"D’Arcy"Islands."One"of"these"participants"indicated"a"preference"for"fallow"deer,"which"are"the" only"species"found"on"Sidney"and"James"Islands,"and"reported"receiving"deer"regularly"from"other"

78" individuals"within"his"network"“every"three"or"four"months”"(Participant"216,"PMUS"2014)."Participant"216" also"reported"harvesting"deer"“any"time"except"for"summer"‘cause"they’re"all"wormy"in"summer”"(PMUS" 2014)." """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Hunting'sea'mammals'was'also'once'a'part'of'W̱SÁNEĆ'traditional'fisheries.'Harbour'seal,'or'ASW̱,'California' sea$lion,$and$the$Northern$sea$lion$are$all$found$in$W̱SÁNEĆ$marine$territory.'The'W̱SÁNEĆ'incorporated'seal' hunts"into"their"seasonal"activities,"timing"the"hunt"with"the"return"of"the"humpback"salmon."This"time," around"July,"was"marked"as"the"moon"of"ĆENHENEN,"“Humpback"Salmon"Return"to"Earth”."As"Elliot"(1983)" writes:" " [At"this"time]"the"men"would"go"out"hunting"seals."They"would"go"out"hunting"seals"to"vary"their" diet."They"had"many"ways"of"catching"seals."There’s"one"way"they"would"call"the"seal,"they"would" make"the"same"noises"the"seal"makes"to"attract"them"so"they"could"harpoon"them."Another"way"they" caught"seals"was"when"they"would"be"out"on"a"reef"at"low"tide."The"men"would"come"from"one"side" of"the"reef"upwind."They"wouldn’t"go"downwind"because"the"seal"would"smell"them"coming."They" would"come"upwind"and"harpoon"them,"or"club"them."Seals"climb"out"onto"the"reef"and"you"can" sneak"up"on"a"seal"because"they"are"slow"on"land."It"takes"them"a"little"time"to"get"into"the"water." (28)" " Sea"lions"were"also"eaten"opportunistically,"particularly"in"instances"where"orca"whales"would"injure"or"kill" sea"lions,"driving"them"to"shore."When"this"happened,"writes"Elliot"(1983),"“it"was"like"a"free"gift"to"our" people”"(29)."" " The"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study"recorded"just"six"Pauquachin"harvesting"sites"for"seal"and"sea"lion"and"all"of" these"were"reported"by"hunters"over"the"age"of"40"in"2002"(Aberley"2002:14)."Today,"one"participant" reported"having"eaten"seal"during"his"lifetime,"and"another"stated:"“I"wasn’t"allowed"to"eat"seal"when"I"was"a" child."I"don’t"know"why”"(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014).#Another#participant#recalled#a#seal#hunter#from#the# neighbouring*W̱SÁNEĆ*community*of*Tsartlip*who*drowned*during*a*seal*hunting*trip*to*Stuart*Island* (Participant"205,"PMUS"2014)." " The$KELȽOLEMEĆEN$or$orca$whale,$is$a$prominent$figure$in$W̱SÁNEĆ$cosmology$and$oral$history.$However,$ there%are%a%few%references%indicating%that%the%W̱SÁNEĆ%hunted%whales%or%relied%on%them%for%food,%oil,%or% trade,"although"the"whales"are"no"longer"hunted,"and"the"2002"SENĆOŦEN"Alliance"study"did"not"include"a" category"for"whale"kill"sites"(Aberley"2002;"Claxton"&"Sam"2010)."" " Stories(about(orca(whales(depict(them(as(spiritual(intermediaries(between(W̱SÁNEĆ(families(and(the(sea.(As( retold"by"Adelynne"Claxton!(ed.%2007),%“the%Thunderbird,%the%Whale,%the%Raven,%and%the%Wolf%are%the%spirit% protectors(of(the(W̱SÁNEĆ(people.(The(Whale(gives(us(protection(when(we(travel(on(the(sea”((125)." " The$inlets$within$W̱SÁNEĆ$territory$were$safe,$quiet$harbours$for$whales$to$rear"their"young."Elliot"(1983)" recalls"“sometimes"a"whale"would"stay"for"several"weeks."Before"it"left"you"would"see"a"small"whale"trailing" behind"the"big"whale”"(29)."Several"Pauquachin"PMUS"participants"reported"stories"of"orcas"using"a"hole"in" the"bottom"of"Saanich"Inlet"near"Goldstream"that"according"to"oral"history"allowed"them"to"swim"underneath" southern"Vancouver"Island"to"an"opening"into"the"Strait"of"Juan"de"Fuca"near"Sooke."" " The$whale$also$poses$as$a$helper$in$W̱SÁNEĆ$oral$history.$In$the$two$stories&that&follow,&the&whale&is& connected'by'fate'to'two'other'important'W̱SÁNEĆ'figures,'Thunderbird'and'Raven:" "

79" The"story,"as"I"recall"it,"was"about"a"time,"eons"ago,"when"the"indigenous"people"who"lived"at"the" Goldstream"estuary"had"easy"access"to"all"the"salmon"they"ever"wanted"because"an"enormous"whale," residing"at"the"mouth"of"Saanich"Inlet,"blocked"the"fish"from"leaving,"just"like"a"giant"fish"trap."The" people,"having"all"the"food"they"wanted,"became"lazy."With"time"on"their"hands,"they"started"to"fight" among"themselves."Then,"Skipper"recounted,"the"Creator"sent"his"little"watchman"bird,"Chickadee,"to" tell"the"people"not"to"fight"but"to"be"kind"and"generous"to"one"another."The"people"improved"their" behaviour"for"a"while,"but"then"they"began"to"argue"and"fight"again.""The"Creator"sent"Raven,"his"big" black"watchman,"to"warn"the"people"that"they"should"mend"their"ways."They"did"for"a"short"time," but,"alas,"they"reverted"to"their"arguments"and"squabbles."Then"one"day,"without"further"warning," the"sky"became"black"even"though"it"was"the"middle"of"the"day."A"gigantic"bird"``"Thunderbird"``"flew" overhead."“The"Beat"of"his"wings"was"like"thunder,"the"gleam"of"his"eye"was"like"lightning"and"the" lake"on"his"back"spilled"over"and"it"rained"in"torrents..."The"people"were"so"frightened"that"they"hid" their"eyes,"but"Thunderbird"flew"right"past"their"village."He"headed"directly"to"the"mouth"of"Saanich" Inlet,"and"with"his"enormous"talons"he"picked"up"the"whale"by"its"back"and"flew"with"it"to"Mount" Newton"(ŁÁUWELṈEW̱).&He"deposited"the"whale"there"on"the"side"of"the"mountain,"turning"it"into" stone."" ~"As"told"by"Skipper"and"recounted"by"Nancy"Turner"(2005:41`42)" " *" " Every"day"the"indolent"Mr."Raven"would"fishing,"but"when"returning,"he"would"tell"his"people"the" same"ancient"story,"“I’m"sorry"my"people,"there"appears"to"be"no"fish"again”."For"days"this"went"on," until"one"early"morning"there"was"a"big"commotion"in"the"village."Everyone"was"yelling"about"the" great"whale"that"was"settled"on"the"beach." " Mr."Raven"hurried"down"to"the"beach."When"arriving"he"saw"the"whale"and"he"jumped"on"the"whale." This"was"to"show"his"people"that"he"was"not"afraid"of"the"huge"whale."But,"to"his"surprise,"the"whale" was"still"alive"and"it"started"back"into"the"sea."Poor"pathetic"Mr."Raven"hung"onto"the"whale"with"all" his"might."The"whale"continued"to"jump"into"the"water"and"Mr."Raven"still"grasped"on"and"yelled," ‘Whee,"Whee.’"That"is"why"to"this"day"if"you"ever"see"a"whale,"it"jumps"in"and"out"of"the"water" making"the"raven"scream"‘Whee,"Whee.’"(Sarah"Anne"Bob"1975,"in"Claxton"ed."2007)" " Several"2014"PMUS"participants"observed"declining"numbers"of"orcas"in"the"Saanich"Inlet"and,"in"keeping" with"their"role"as"helper"animals"alluded"to"above,"one"described"the"whales"as"a"sort"of"indicator"species"for" the"health"of"Inlet." " Participant:"I"seen"a"great"change"in"our"killer"whales."I"haven’t"seen"killer"whales"in"our"bay,"I"seen" one"two"years"ago,"end"of"the"summertime."But"when"I"was"a"kid"we’d"be"out"there"fishing,"there’d" be"killer"whales"all"over."But"these"days"they’re"very"rarely"seen"in"our"bay." " Interviewer:"How"does"it"make"you"feel"when"you"don’t"see"them"any"more?" " Participant:"It"just"makes"me"think"how"much"everything’s"changing."Like"the"food"source"I’m" thinking"is"disappearing."Like"the"food"chain"for"everything,"like"the"shrimp"to"the"cod"to"the"salmon," seals,"killer"whales."I"know"everything’s"a"cycle,"so"I’m"thinking"the"cycle’s"breaking"up."Pretty" dramatic"change."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)"

80"

Map$5:$Duck,$geese$and$deer$hunting$areas."

81" " 8.!Marine!Travel!Routes! One"participant"who"grew"up"and"spent"many"years"living"on"Mayne"Island"reported"that,"historically," harvesters"travelling"to"fishing"sites"on"the"other"side"of"the"Strait"of"Georgia"“went"through"Active"Pass,"just" eastward"and"back,”"(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)"following"roughly"the"same"route"as"the"ferries"do"now." The"same"participant"recalled"his"grandfather"travelling"back"and"forth"from"Mayne"Island"to"Cowichan"by" canoe"using"travel"routes"still"used"today,"with"a"stopover"near"Salt"Spring"Island"along"the"way."In"order"to" make"the"trip"in"one"day,"his"grandfather"would"time"his"departure"according"to"the"tides,"and"“used"to"have" a"square"sail"on"his"canoe"to"catch"the"wind”"(Participant"212,"PMUS"2014)." " The"fishing,"gathering,"and"hunting"locations"identified"thus"far"are"all"accessed"as"part"of"the"seasonal" patterns"of"Pauquachin"harvesters"within"the"RSA."Harvesters"time"and"plan"their"routes"around"weather," tides,"currents,"and"vessel"traffic."As"the"following"statements"illustrate,"routes"are"chosen"for"familiarity," knowledge"of"rips,"and"with"the"limitations"of"equipment"in"mind."" " Just"paddling"a"canoe…"it’s"whether"we’re"going"with"the"tide,"or"if"it’s"a"riptide"we’d"be"going"all" through"here"and"probably"cut"across"over"here"and"then"over"all"through"the"little"islands"here." Then"we"would"just"shoot"across."Depending"on"our"tides,"right."We"don’t"want"to"work"too"hard" paddling"against"the"tide."Mostly"you"want"to"go"with"the"tide…"Depending"on"what"time"of"day"it"is" you"want"either"be"out"or"you"don’t"want"to"be"fighting"rip"tides"so"you"want"to"be"in"to"shore."Closer" to"shore"you’re"mostly"not"bucking"against"the"tide."(Participant"218,"PMUS"2014)" " [We"would"go]"anywhere"it"wasn’t"too"rough."We"didn’t"have"very"big"boats."(Participant"212,"PMUS" 2014)"

In"addition"to"the"factors"above,"travel"routes"are"determined"by"productivity"and"availability"of"resources." Participants"reported"planning"routes"based"on"knowledge"of"harvesting"areas,"and"also"in"order"to"visit" multiple"locales"for"the"same"or"different"species."These"trips"are"made"with"the"intent"to"harvest,"and"also"in" order"to"assess"availability"for"future"route"planning."As"one"participant"summarized:"“We"used"to"just"go" riding"and"seeing…"We"used"to"go"look."Looking"around”"(Participant"213,"PMUS"2014)."This"participant"has" recently"begun"actively"harvesting"again"after"a"break"of"multiple"years,"and"reported"taking"a"similar" approach"to"planning"travel"routes"today"in"order"to"visit"a"variety"of"known"harvesting"areas."

82" " Map$6:$Documented$travel$routes$and$overnight$camp$areas.!

83" ! 9.!Review!of!Effects!

Overview$ " Although"there"are"two"likely"scenarios"that"would"result"in"adverse"effects"to"Pauquachin’s"traditional" marine"use"and"exercise"of"Douglas"Treaty"and"Aboriginal"rights—general"operations,"and"accidents"and" malfunctions—only"the"effects"of"general"operations"are"discussed"in"relation"to"TMRU"in"the"Application."" " Transmountain"identifies"two"effect"sources"for"likely"project`related"effects,"both"direct"and"indirect,"on" traditional"marine"use"for"all"affected"indigenous"groups:" ) • “Increased"marine"vessel"traffic"associated"with"the"proposed"expansion"and"operation"of"the" Westridge"Marine"Terminal;”) • “General"increase"in"marine"vessel"traffic"in"the"region.”) " It"states"that"marine"vessel"traffic"coming"from"Westridge"Terminal"may:) " • Cause"changes"to"“local"harvesting"locales"as"well"as"the"broader"ecological"system.”) • Directly"and"indirectly"disrupt"subsistence"hunting"and"fishing,"and"plant"gathering"(4.3.10.4," p.364).) " It"states"that"general"increases"in"marine"vessel"traffic"in"the"region"may:) " • Result"in"changes"to"the"distribution"and"abundance"of"subsistence"resources"due"to"wake"effects"on" shoreline"habitats"and"sensory"disturbance.) • Sensory"disturbance"[that]"has"the"potential"to"result"in"disruptions"to"cultural"activities"(eg." gathering"places,"sacred"areas)"whereby"noise"and"activity"as"a"result"of"increased"marine"vessel" traffic"may"influence"the"focus"and"intent"of"ceremonial"activities"(4.3.10.4,"p."364).) • Raise"the"likelihood"of…"possible"collision"(4.3.10.4,"p."364)"or"other"conflicts.) " " Spatial$Scope$ " The"Local"Study"Area"(LSA)"for"TMRU"runs"from"the"Westridge"Terminal,"through"Burrard"Inlet,"the" southern"part"of"Georgia"Strait,"through"the"southern"Gulf"Islands"and"Haro"Strait,"and"through"Juan"de"Fuca" Strait"to"the"12`mile"limit."The"LSA"includes"the"inbound"and"outbound"shipping"lanes,"the"water"between" them,"and"a"two`kilometre"buffer"on"each"side."Transmountain"states"that"it"designed"its"LSA"and"RSAs" through"feedback"with"stakeholders,"and"following"advice"from"the"NEB."The"LSA"incorporates"“the"primary" ZOI"[zone"of"influence]"likely"to"be"affected"by"marine"vessel"wake,"atmospheric"and"underwater"noise" generated"by"transiting"tankers.”"Transmountain"appears"not"to"have"taken"any"aboriginal`specific"issues" into"consideration"when"devising"its"spatial"study"area.) )

84" The"RSA"is"a"very"large"marine"area"that"takes"in"the"entirety"of"Pauquachin’s"marine"territory."Trans" Mountain"defines"the"RSA"as"“the"area"where"the"direct"and"indirect"influence"of"other"marine"activities" could"overlap"with"Project`specific"marine"transportation"effects,"potentially"resulting"in"residual"or" cumulative"effects"on"TMRU”"(4.3.10.2,"p.8A`358)."It"is"normal"in"impact"assessment"practise"to"use"a" regional"study"area"for"this"cumulative"effect"analysis"purpose."The"problem,"however,"lies"in"Trans" Mountain’s"use"of"the"RSA"as"the"area"where"primary"effects"are"looked"at:" ) The"results"of"the"literature/desktop"review"indicate"that"Aboriginal"communities"have"historically" used"or"presently"use"the"Marine"RSA"to"maintain"a"traditional"lifestyle"and"continue"to"use"marine" resources"throughout"the"Marine"RSA"for"a"variety"of"purposes"including"fish,"shell`fish,"mammal" and"bird"harvesting,"aquatic"plant"gathering,"and"spiritual/cultural"pursuits"as"well"as"through"the" use"of"navigable"waters"within"the"Marine"RSA"to"access"subsistence"resources,"neighbouring" communities"and"coastal"settlements"(Section"4.2.10.3;"quoted"in"V8A"pp."364,"4.3.10.4).) " For"the"purposes"of"this"discussion"of"effects"we"have"maintained"Trans"Mountain’s"assessment"logic," although"we"note"its"deficiencies.) " " Disruption$of$Subsistence$Hunting$Activities$ " Transmountain"identifies"the"following"potential"residual"effects"on"subsistence"hunting"activities,"post` mitigation:) " • Disruption"of"subsistence"hunting"activities) • Alteration"of"subsistence"resources) • Disruption"of"traditional"marine"resource"user"activities"from"Project`related"marine"vessel"wake) " Some"traditional"hunting"areas"will"become"relatively"inaccessible"due"to"increased"vessel"traffic."Preferred" duck"and"goose"harvesting"areas"off"east"Saturna,"off"Mayne,"east"of"Sidney"Island,"around"South"Pender,"and" near"D’Arcy"Island,"and"into"the"open"channel"east of Moresby, Gooch, and Sidney islands"will"become" relatively"inaccessible"and/or"dangerous"with"the"increase"in"vessel"traffic."Increased"wake"will"affect"both" the"safety"and"practise"of"harvesting."Vessel"traffic"and"wake"will"affect"the"aesthetic,"visual,"and"sensory" experiences"of"harvesting."Pollution"or"perception"of"pollution"may"affect"the"desirability"of"some"foods.) " Harvesting"in"areas"outside"the"LSA"may"be"altered"by"effects"not"accounted"for"in"the"application,"including" increases"in"competition"from"other"harvesters"and"small"vessel"traffic"displaced"from"the"LSA.) " Trans"Mountain"has"not"modelled"the"Project`induced"changes"in"waterfowl"behaviour"that"may"in"turn"alter" the"availability"of,"access"to,"and"practices"required"to"harvest"Pauquachin’s"preferred"species"in"their" preferred"locations." " The"travel"routes"used"to"reach"duck"and"deer"hunting"locations"may"be"affected"by"Project`induced"vessel" traffic"and"its"effects."The"timing"of"Project`related"vessel"movements"may"interrupt"harvesters’"ability"to" plan,"expose"them"to"increased"wake"from"Project"vessels"as"well"as"other"traffic"displaced"from"the"LSA.) " "

85" $ Disruption$of$Subsistence$Fishing$Activities$ " KMP"identifies"(Table"4.3.10.3,"p."367)"the"likelihood"of"“Disruption"of"subsistence"fishing"activities”"within" the"RSA."It"identifies"the"location"of"mitigation"measures"throughout"the"application,"and"synopses"of" communications,"insurance`based,"and"regulatory"compliance"measures."KMP"identifies"the"following" potential"residual"effects"on"subsistence"fishing"activities,"post`mitigation:) " • Disruption"of"subsistence"fishing"activities) • Alteration"of"subsistence"resources) • Disruption"of"traditional"marine"resource"user"activities"from"Project`related"marine"vessel"wake) " Some"traditional"and"preferred"fishing"areas"will"become"relatively"inaccessible"and/or"dangerous"with"the" increase"in"vessel"traffic."Increased"wake"will"affect"both"the"safety"and"practise"of"harvesting."Vessel"traffic" and"wake"will"affect"the"aesthetic,"visual,"and"sensory"experiences"of"fishing."This"may"occur"at"current" salmon,"cod,"and"halibut"harvesting"areas in the southern gulf islands including the waters around Galiano, Mayne Island including Active Pass, the waters around Saturna Island, especially East Point, the waters around South Pender Island, around the northern part of Sidney Island, and around James Island. These locations are within or contiguous with the LSA and shipping lanes, or exposed to the shipping lanes and vessel wake. Pauquachin members identified several fishing areas within the shipping lanes. Harvesting locations on Stuart Island and the San Juans are beyond the shipping lanes and will thus become more inaccessible." " Most%of%the%known%historical%reef%netting%sites%owned%by%W̱SÁNEĆ%throughout"the"Southern"Gulf"and"San" Juan"Islands"and"at"Point"Roberts,"are"either"within"or"beyond"the"LSA"and"shipping"lanes."They"will"become" more%inaccessible%due%to%vessel`related'traffic.'This'may'in'turn'frustrate'the'attempts'by'W̱SÁNEĆ' communities"to"revive"the"fishery."The"resource"itself"may"also"be"adversely"affected,"through"pollution,"loss" of"habitat,"or"displacement"of"fish"from"migratory"routes."Trans"Mountain"has"not"modelled"the"Project` induced"changes"in"fish"behaviour"that"may"in"turn"alter"the"availability"of,"access"to,"and"practices"required" to"harvest"preferred"species"in"preferred"locations." " " Disturbance$of$Gathering$Places$ " KMP"identifies"(Table"4.3.10.3,"p."368)"the"likelihood"of"“Disturbance"of"gathering"places”"within"the"LSA."It" identifies"the"location"of"mitigation"measures"for"nuisance"air"and"noise"in"the"application"sections"dealing" with"marine"air"emissions,"marine"GHG"emissions,"marine"acoustic"environment,"and"identifies"continued" engagement"with"affected"communities"as"an"additional"measure."KMP"identifies"the"following"potential" residual"effects"on"gathering"places,"post`mitigation:) " • Increased"sensory"disturbance"for"marine"users) • Disruption"of"traditional"marine"resource"user"activities"from"Project`related"marine"vessel"wake) " Some"traditional"and"preferred"gathering"areas"for"preferred"resources"including"bivalves,"molluscs,"eggs," crab,"and"seaweed"will"become"relatively"inaccessible"and/or"dangerous"with"the"increase"in"vessel"traffic." Increased"wake"will"affect"both"the"safety"and"practise"of"gathering"these"preferred"species"by"traditional" means"in"preferred"locations."Vessel"traffic"and"wake"will"affect"the"aesthetic,"visual,"and"sensory" experiences"of"gathering."

86" " Gathering"in"areas"outside"the"LSA"may"be"altered"by"effects"not"accounted"for"in"the"application,"including" increases"in"competition"from"other"harvesters"and"small"vessel"traffic"displaced"from"the"LSA."

Disturbance$of$Travel$Routes$ " KMP"identifies"(Table"4.3.10.3,"p."367)"the"likelihood"of"“Disruption"of"use"of"travelways”"within"the"RSA."It" identifies"the"location"of"mitigation"measures"in"the"application,"as"well"as"community"communications" programs"it"will"institute."KMP"identifies"the"following"potential"residual"effects"on"travelways,"post` mitigation:) " • Alteration"of"traditional"marine"resource"users’"vessel"movement"patterns) • Disruption"of"traditional"marine"resource"user"activities"from"Project`related"marine"vessel"wake) " KMP"claim"that"transits"of"tankers"will"increase"from"“once"a"week"to"approximately"once"a"day.”"This"seems" to"include"both"inbound"and"outbound"routes"as"a"single"“transit.”"In"addition,"it"does"not"include"the" cumulative"effects"of"other"projects,"either"planned"or"reasonably"expected"to"occur.) " Pauquachin"harvesters"will"encounter"tanker"vessels"while"they"are"harvesting"in"or"near"the"shipping"lanes," or"traversing"them"to"access"harvesting"sites."KMP"notes:) " Traditional"marine"resource"user"vessels"are"required"to"keep"the"shipping"lanes"clear,"however"are" permitted"to"cross"the"shipping"lanes"and"harvest"in"and"near"the"lanes"when"it"is"considered"safe." (4.3.10.6.1,"p.371)) " Harvesters"will"experience"reduced"ability"to"harvest"in"some"areas;"missed"opportunities;"increased"travel" time"(4.3.10.6.1,"p.371).) " " Disturbance$of$Archaeological,$Heritage,$and$Sacred$Sites$$ " As noted earlier, W̱ SÁNEĆ territory is rich in place names, heritage sites, gathering locations, trails and travel routes, reefnet sites, clam gardens, longhouse sites, graves, and special and sacred story sites— to name but a few. The ability to access some of these locations, and enjoy them, will be adversely affected by the Project.

Transmountain identifies (Table 4.3.10.3, p. 368) the likelihood of “Disturbance of sacred sites” within the LSA. Transmountain identifies the following potential residual effects on sacred sites, post-mitigation:

• Increased sensory disturbance for marine users • Disruption of traditional marine resource user activities from Project-related marine vessel wake • Negative user perspectives of increased marine vessel traffic

87" According to an Archaeological Overview Assessment (AOA) of the Trans Mountain Marine Shipping Component (Appendix A) there are “three potential sources of impact to archaeological sites associated with the Marine Transportation component of the TMEP Facilities Application”:

1. Shoreline"erosion"due"to"vessel"wake"caused"by"increased"marine"traffic;" 2. Oil"contamination;"and"" 3. Impacts"associated"with"cleanup"measures"following"a"spill." " The report notes that increasing tanker traffic corresponds to increasing risk of an oil spill, and that “a 2014 national oil spill risk assessment study commissioned by Transport Canada identifies the zone around the southern tip of Vancouver Island as having one of the highest probabilities in the country of a large scale oil spill” (Owens & Ramsay 2015:27). In the event of a spill, the report warns of hundreds of heritage sites at potential risk. " " Cumulative$Effects$ " Volume"8A"of"Transmountain’s"application"contains"a"brief"discussion"of"cumulative"effects."This"section" does"not"begin"to"address"the"many"issues"related"to"the"existing"state"of"the"marine"environment"and"the" ability"to"exercise"Douglas"Treaty"rights"that"Pauquachin"members"indicated"during"the"research"for"this" report"that"they"are"very"concerned"about."Transmountain"did"determine"that"the"potential"cumulative"effect" on"traditional"marine"resource"use"for"subsistence"activities"and"subsistence"sites"would"be"“significant”"but" “not"significant”"for"cumulative"effects"on"cultural"sites"(8A`493),"despite"that"Transmountain"did"not"do"a" marine"archaeological"overview"assessment." " Cumulative"effects"are"a"high"priority"issue"for"Pauquachin"community"members."In"recent"decades,"access" to"marine"resources has diminished dramatically due in large part to cumulative effects in Saanich Inlet and elsewhere throughout their territory at high-value harvesting locations, and a variety of additional compounding barriers."

Pauquachin members state that cumulative effects have so adversely affected their marine foods that what remains of Pauquachin’s traditional marine resources should be protected—especially those resources that may require farther journeys from Pauquachin’s main reserve.

Additional$Likely$Effects$ ) • Disruption"to"marine"access"and"use"patterns"during"construction"and"operations;) • Alteration"of"subsistence"resources;) • Change"in"distribution"and"abundance"of"harvested"species"including"marine"fish"and"fish"habitat;) • Displacement"of"commercial,"recreational"and"tourism"users"from"the"LSA"into"the"RSA;) • Disruption"to"subsistence"hunting,"fishing,"and"plant"gathering"activities;) • Disruption"to"use"of"travelways"by"traditional"marine"resource"users;) • Disturbance"to"gathering"places"including"increased"sensory"disturbance"for"marine"users;) • Disruption"to"the"use"of"travelways;) • Loss"of"habitation"sites"or"reduced"use"of"habitation"sites;) • Alteration"of"coastal"plant"harvesting"sites"during"operations;) • Disruption"to"marine"subsistence"activities"including"marine"access"and"use"patterns;) • Change"to"access"to"protected"areas;) • Sensory"disturbance"to"land"and"marine"resource"users"from"noise,"air"emissions,"lighting,"visual;)

88" • Disturbance"to"and"change"in"access"to"Reserves,"communities,"and"traditional"territories;) • Disruption"to"traditional"land"and"marine"use"activities;) • Increased"harvesting"costs;) • Disruption"of"inter`regional"subsistence"exchange"and"social"networks.) • Adverse"effects"to"the"retention"of"traditional"language"and"identification"with"traditional"culture.) • Decreased"childhood"education"in"traditional"harvesting"methods) • Disturbance"to"sacred"sites;) • Disturbance"to"cultural"sites"including"sensory"disturbance"from"noise,"air"emissions,"lighting,"and" visual"during"construction"and"operations;) • Disturbance"to"known"and"previously"unidentified"archaeological"sites"during"operations;) • Disturbance"to"previously"unidentified"historic"sites"during"operations;) • Negative"impacts"to"culturally"or"spiritually"sensitive"areas;) • Disruption"to"aboriginal"commercial"fishing"activities;) • Change"in"distribution"and"abundance"of"target"species"for"commercial"fishers;) • Alteration"of"existing"movement"patterns"of"marine"commercial,"recreational,"and"tourism"users;) • Marine"vessel"collisions"with"marine"commercial"users,"other"recreational"users,"and"marine" tourism"users;) • Negative"recreational"and"tourism"user"perspectives"of"increased"project`related"marine"vessel" traffic;) • Changes"to"aquaculture"uses"including"effects"on"resources"due"to"disturbance"of"natural" underwater"substrate,"effects"on"aquacultured"resources,"effects"on"access,"introduction"of" invasive"species;) • Alteration"of"viewsheds;) • Negative"effects"to"wildlife"and"fishery"resources"from"oil"spills;) • Change"in"marine"water"quality"from"an"accidental"release"of"contaminated"bilge"water;) • Physical"contact"between"a"tanker's"hull"and"marine"subtidal"habitat"from"vessel"grounding;) • Interference"with"navigation"from"a"vessel"grounding;) • Physical"injury"or"mortality"of"a"marine"mammal"due"to"a"vessel"strike;) • Venting"of"tanker"at"anchor"or"in"transit;) • Negative"user"perspectives"of"increased"project`related"marine"vessel"traffic;) • Direct"loss"of"vegetation"communities,"bird"and"mammal"populations,"threatened"and"endangered" species,"fish"populations,"and"benthic"communities;) • Decreased"survival"capacity"in"fish"and"fish"larvae;) • Decreased"water"quality;) • Shoreline"contamination;) • Negative"effects"from"oil"spill"clean`up"techniques;) • Contamination"of"ocean"floor"and"loss"of"benthic"organisms;) • Introduction"of"alien"species;) • Increased"mortality"of"marine"birds"(Water,"ballast"water,"and"contaminant"discharges);) • Changes"in"income"patterns;) • Effects"on"Aboriginal"culture"from"employment"opportunities"and"other"TMEP"activities;) • Disruption"to"resource`based"income"or"livelihoods;) • Effects"on"mental"well`being"from"demographic"changes,"changes"in"income,"and"changes"to"culture;) • Effects"on"alcohol"and"drug"misuse;) • Increase"in"demand"on"mental"health"and"addictions"services;) • Increase"in"stress"and"anxiety"related"to"perceived"contamination;) • Decrease"in"health"and"well`being"due"to"loss"of"traditional"foods;) • Effects"on"mental"well`being"in"Aboriginal"communities;) • Effects"on"diet"and"nutritional"outcomes;) • Effects"on"mental"well`being"in"Aboriginal"communities;)

89" Section!V:!Works!Cited! " Arnett,"Chris." 1999."The"Terror"of"the"Coast."Vancouver:"Talon"Books." "" Beamish,"Richard"and"Gordon"McFarlane." 2014."The"Sea"Among"Us:"the"amazing"Strait"of"Georgia."Madeira"Park:"Harbour"Publishing"Co."Ltd." " Boxberger,"Daniel"L." 2007."The"Not"So"Common."In"Be"Of"Good"Mind."Bruce"Granville"Miller,"ed."Pp."55`81." Vancouver:"UBC"Press." " Bouchard,"Randy"&"Dorothy"Kennedy" 1991."Traditional"Territorial"Boundaries"of"the"Saanich"Indians."B.C."Indian"Language"Project." 1996."An"Ethnographic"Examination"of"the"First"Nations’"Land"Use"of"the"Area"of"Potential"Selection:"" Pacific"Marine"Heritage"Legacy."B.C"Indian"Language"Project." " Brown,"C."Rebecca"and"James"I."Reynolds." 2004."Aboriginal"Title"to"Sea"Spaces:"A"Comparative"Study."University"of"British" Columbia"Law"Review,"Vol."37,"No."2."Pp."449`494."http://heinonline.org.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/HOL/" Page?handle=hein.journals/ubclr37&collection=journals&page=449#500" "" CanLII" 1989."Saanichton"Marina"Ltd."v."Claxton."CanLII"2721."http://canlii.ca/t/216p9." " Claxton,"Adelynne" 2007.%W̱SÁNEĆ%Legends%and%Stories.%Victoria:%Trafford%Publishing." "" Claxton,"Earl"Sr." 2008."Oral"History"Recordings."September"26,"2008." "" Claxton,"Earl"Sr."and"Ray"Sam" 2010."Everything"With"a"Prayer."Saanichton:"Tsawout"First"Nation." "" Claxton,"Nicholas" 2003.%The%Douglas%Treaty%and%W̱SÁNEĆ%traditional%fisheries:%A%model%for%Saanich" Peoples"Governance."Paper"submitted"in"partial"fulfillment"of"requirements"for"M.A.,"Department"of" Indigenous"Governance,"University"of"Victoria." " " Davis,"Alison"and"Bjorn"O."Simonsen" 1995."Saanich"Inlet"Study"Report"on"First"Nations"Consultation."Bastion"Group" Heritage"Consultants." "" Duff,"Wilson" 1969."The"Fort"Victoria"Treaties."BC"Studies,"No."3."Pp"3`57."

90" 1997."The"Indian"History"of"British"Columbia:"The"Impact"of"the"White"Man." Victoria:"Royal"British"Columbia"Museum." "" Elliot,"Dave"Sr."and"Janet"Poth" 1983."Salt"Water"People."Saanich:"School"District"No."63." " Elliot,"John" 2014."Oral"Presentation."Hearing"Order"OH`001`2014."National"Energy"Board."" https://docs.neb`one.gc.ca/ll` eng/llisapi.dll/fetch/2000/90464/90552/548311/956726/2392873/2498240/2558065/14`11`24_` _Volume_19_`_A4F2L3.pdf?nodeid=2558066&vernum=`2" "" Elmendorf,"William"W." 1971."Coast"Salish"Status"Ranking"and"Intergroup"Ties."Southwestern"Journal"of" Anthropology,"Vol."27,"No."4."Pp"353`380."http://www.jstor.org/stable/3629261" "" Glavin,"Terry" 1989."Indians"cheer"rights"upheld"under"1852"Treaty."The"Vancouver"Sun."Pp"A13." March"31,"1989."http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/" docview/243589561?pq`origsite=summon" "" Foster,"Hamar" 1989."The"Saanichton"Bay"Marina"Case:"Imperial"Law,"Colonial"History"and" Competing"Theories"of"Aboriginal"Title."University"of"British"Columbia"Law"Review,"Vol."3,"No."3."Pp."629` 651."http://heinonline.org.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/HOL/" Page?handle=hein.journals/ubclr23&collection=journals&page=629#643" "" Harris,"Douglas"C." 2009."A"Court"Between:"Aboriginal"and"Treaty"Rights"in"the"British"Columbia"Court" of"Appeal."BC"Studies,"No."162."Pp."137`152,154`164,214" http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/docview/" 196883266?accountid=14846" "" Horne,"Jack" 2012.%W̱SÁNEĆ:%Emerging%Land%or%Emerging%People.%The%Arbutus%Review,%Vol.%3," No."2."http://journals.uvic.ca/index.php/arbutus/article/view/11639/3279" "" Jenness,"Diamond." 1955."Faith"of"a"Coast"Salish"Indian."In"Anthropology"in"British"Columbia,"Memoir" No."3."Victoria:"British"Columbia"Provincial"Museum." "" " Kew,"J."E."Michael" 1990."Central"and"Southern"Coast"Salish"Ceremonies"Since"1900."In"Handbook"of" North"American"Indians,"vol."7"Northwest"Coast."Wayne"Suttles"ed."Pp."476`480."Washington,"DC:" Smithsonian"Institution." 1990."History"of"Coastal"British"Columbia"Since"1846."In"Handbook"of"North"

91" American"Indians,"vol."7"Northwest"Coast."Wayne"Suttles"ed."Pp."159`168."Washington,"DC:"Smithsonian" Institution." "" Knighton,"Janice"Rose" 2004."The"Oral"History"of"the"1852"Saanich"Douglas"Treaty:"A"Treaty"for"Peace." Paper"submitted"in"partial"fulfillment"of"requirements"for"M.A.,"Department"of"Indigenous"Governance," University"of"Victoria." "" LaFortune,"Perry"Sr." 2014."Interview"by"Peter"Evans."June"19,"2014." "" Ministry"of"Justice" 2013."“Pauquachin"First"Nation:"Review"of"Ethnographic"and"Historical"Sources”."Legal"Services"Branch,"" Aboriginal"Research"Division." "" Montler,"Timothy" 1986."An"Outline"of"the"Morphology"and"Phonology"of"Saanich,"North"Straits"Salish." In$Occasional"Papers"in"Linguistics,"No."4."Missoula:"University"of"Montana"Linguistics"Laboratory." http://www.cas.unt.edu/~montler/Saanich/Outline/index.htm" "" Naxaxalhts’i,"McHalsie,"Albert"(Sonny)" 2007."We"Have"to"Take"Care"of"Everything"That"Belongs"to"Us."In"Be"Of"Good"Mind." Bruce"Granville"Miller,"ed."Pp."82`130."Vancouver:"UBC"Press." "" Newell,"Dianne" 1993."Tangled"Webs"of"History:"Indians"and"the"Law"in"Canada’s"Pacific"Coast" Fishery."Toronto:"University"of"Toronto"Press"(P."34)" "" Owens,"D’Ann"and"Phoebe"Ramsay" 2015."Trans"Mountain"Pipeline"Expansion"Project"Marine"Transportation:"An"" Archeological"Overview"Assessment."Millennia"Research"Limited." " Pelkey,"Eric" 2014."Interview"by"Peter"Evans."June"20,"2014." "" Sam,"Raymond" 2014."Interview"by"Peter"Evans."June"11,"2014." " Sheehan,"Carol" 2010."Wilson"Duff."The"Canadian"Encyclopedia."Historica"Foundation."" http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca." "" " Suttles,"Wayne" 1955."Katzie"Ethnographic"Notes."In"Anthropology"in"British"Columbia,"Memoir" No."2."Victoria:"British"Columbia"Provincial"Museum." 1963."The"Persistence"of"Intervillage"Ties"Among"the"Coast"Salish."Ethnology,"Vol."2," No."4."Pp."512`525."http://www.jstor.org/stable/3772960"

92" 1974."The"Economic"Life"of"the"Coast"Salish"of"Haro"and"Rosario"Straits."In"Coast" Salish"and"Western"Washington"Indians,"Vol."1."David"Agee"Horr"ed."Pp"41`570.""New"York:"Garland" Publishing"Inc." 1987."Coast"Salish"Essays."Vancouver:"Talon"Books." 1990."Central"Coast"Salish."In"Handbook"of"North"American"Indians,"Vol."7" Northwest"Coast."Wayne"Suttles"ed."Pp."453`475."Washington,"DC:"Smithsonian"Institution." " Thom,"Brian"and"Karen"Fediuk" 2009."“Coast"Salish"Food"Security"in"the"21st"Century”."Keynote"Address"Presented"to"the"6th"Annual"" Anthropology"Conference"on"Culture,"Community,"and"Well`Being"“Sustaining"Food:"Conference"on"Past"and" Present"Food"Systems”"Kwantlen"Polytechnic"University,"20"March"2009." " Turner,"Nancy"J."" 2008."“The"Earth’s"Blanket:"Traditional"Teachings"for"Sustainable"Living”.""University"of"Washington"" Press." " Turner,""Nancy"J."and"Richard"J."Hebda" 2012.%“Saanich%Ethnobotany:%Culturally%Important%Plants%of%the%W̱SÁNEĆ%People”.%%Royal%British%" Columbia"Museum."" " Vanden"berg"&"Associates" 1997."“Report"on"the"Saanich"People’s"Fishing"Territory"and"Practices"on"the"Fraser" River”."Vanden"Berg"and"Associates." "" Welsh,"Don" 2002."“Archival"and"Ethnographic"Review”."SENĆOŦEN"Alliance." "" Woolford,"Andrew" 2005."Between"Justice"and"Certainty:"Treaty"Making"in"British"Columbia."Vancouver:" UBC"Press." " " "

93" ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Appendix!A:!Archaeological!Overview! Assessment!of!the!Trans!Mountain! Expansion!Project!Marine!shipping! Component! !

94" Trans Mountain Pipeline Expansion Project Marine Transportation: An Archaeological Overview Assessment

Prepared for: Trailmark Systems

Submitted to: The Pauquachin First Nation

Millennia Research Limited 510 Alpha Street Victoria, BC V8Z 1B2 (250) 360-0919

March 10th 2015 Project #MR 1434 Credits

Project Director Phoebe Ramsay, BA

Author Phoebe Ramsay, BA D’Ann Owens, BA, RPCA

Editing Stephanie Sketchley, BA

Mapping and GIS Sarah Kessick, MSc

Acknowledgements Millennia Research would like to thank the following people for their help and cooperation during this project: Peter Evans and Beth Keats of Trailmark Systems and the Pauquachin First Nations for the opportunity to conduct this study; Nathan Cardinal of Parks Canada for accommodating our request for information about archaeological sites in the Gulf Islands National Park Reserve; Brian Ostahowski of HDA, for providing us with the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill response archaeological reports.

TMEP Marine Transportation i Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Management Summary Millennia Research Limited (Millennia) was contracted by Trailmark Systems on behalf of the Pauquachin First Nation to conduct an Archaeological Overview Assessment (AOA) of the Marine Transportation component of the proposed Trans Mountain Pipeline Expansion Project (TMEP). Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC (Trans Mountain), owned by energy company Kinder Morgan, proposes to expand the capacity of its existing Trans Mountain Pipeline system which transports crude oil products from Edmonton, Alberta, to Burnaby, BC. This expansion would result in an increase of oil tanker traffic departing the Westridge Marine Terminal in Burnaby, and travelling through the Haro Strait to the Pacific Ocean to reach Pacific Rim markets (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013a). It is projected that the TMEP would result in a monthly increase of approximately 30 Aframax class tankers, an additional 720 tanker transits each year. The AOA consisted of a desktop review and spatial analysis only; no site revisits or survey were conducted. This study was conducted in a manner generally consistent with the BC Archaeological Impact Assessment Guidelines (BC Archaeology Branch 2000) and to the standards of the British Columbia Association of Professional Consulting Archaeologists (BCAPA). The objectives of the AOA are to: 1. formulate a statement of archaeological resource potential and distribution in the study area; 2. complete a preliminary assessment of anticipated impacts in light of the proposed project; and 3. provide recommendations concerning the need for further archaeological studies. Two spatial boundaries were considered for the AOA: a Marine Regional Study Area (RSA) and Marine Local Study Area (LSA), consistent with the TMEP Facilities Application. The Marine RSA is comprised of a large portion of the Salish Sea, the southern Strait of Georgia and Juan de Fuca Strait.The Marine LSA, ais a 2 km buffer on either side of the inward and outward marine shipping lanes, extending from the Westridge Marine Terminal to Buoy J at the western extent of the Juan de Fuca Strait. The findings of this AOA indicate three potential sources of impact to archaeological sites associated with the Marine Transportation component of the TMEP Facilities Application erosion from vessel waves; and in the case of an oil spill, oil contamination of artifacts and sediments, and oil clean up measures.The analysis of sites within the LSA suggests that the number of sites which are at possible risk of TMEP-related vessel wake erosion is small, assuming the projected wake heights provided by Trans Mountain are accurate. However it is possible that even small waves, combined with high tide and storms, may have a negative cumulative impact, particularly given the frequency and high volume of the predicted traffic. With respect to the potential impact of any oil spill within the RSA, this study has found that there are potentially hundreds of sites at theoretical risk. It is recommended that a general archaeological specific spill response plan is developed which includes protocols and procedures to ensure protection of archaeological sites where possible, and mitigation of impacts where these are unavoidable.

TMEP Marine Transportation ii Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Table of Contents Credits ...... i Acknowledgements ...... i Management Summary...... ii Introduction and Background ...... 1 Archaeological Regulatory Framework...... 1 Project Description ...... 2 Spatial Area of Study...... 2 Approach and Methodology ...... 5 Study Area...... 5 Environment ...... 6 Paleoenvironment and Sea Level History...... 6 Ethnography...... 7 Archaeological Context of Study Area ...... 8 Strait of Georgia Culture History ...... 8 West Coast Archaeological Culture History...... 10 Archaeological Site Types and Archaeological Potential of the RSA...... 11 Shoreline Erosion and Vessel Wake...... 12 Marine Oil Spills ...... 15 Properties and Behaviour of Diluted Bitumen...... 15 West Coast Marine Response Corporation (WCMRC) Oil Spill Response...... 16 Exxon Valdez, Deepwater Horizon and Westridge Oil Clean-up Responses ...... 16 Results and Impact Assessment...... 17 Assessment of Potential Wake Related Impacts ...... 18 Assessment of Potential Spill Related Impacts...... 25 Conclusion and Recommendations...... 27 Limitations...... 29 Professional Statement ...... 29 References ...... 30

TMEP Marine Transportation iii Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 List of Tables Table 1. Known Culture History Sequence for the Strait of Georgia Region...... 9 Table 2. Excerpted Table 4.3.6.4 *...... 14 Table 3. Excerpted Table 4.3.6.5**...... 14 Table 4. Minimum archaeological site distance to inbound/outbound lane...... 18 Table 5. Archaeological sites by type in the LSA within 10 m of the coastline...... 18 Table 6. Archaeological sites within 10 m of the coastline of the Marine LSA and potential for vulnerability to TMEP vessel wake erosion...... 20

List of Figures Figure 1. Marine Regional Study Area (RSA) Marine Local Study Area (LSA) and shipping lanes ...... 4 Figure 2. South Pender Island archaeological sites within the LSA; DeRt-101 and DeRt-56...... 23 Figure 3. Saturna Island archaeological sites within the LSA; DeRs-2 and DeRs-30...... 24 Figure 4. Burrard Inlet archaeological sites within the LSA; DhRr-8, DhRr-15 and DhRr-27...... 25 Figure 5. Submerged sites and terrestrial sites within 10 m of the shoreline in the RSA (Washington sites excluded) ...... 26

TMEP Marine Transportation iv Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Introduction and Background Millennia Research Limited (Millennia) was contracted by Trailmark Systems on behalf of the Pauquachin First Nation to conduct an Archaeological Overview Assessment (AOA) of the Marine Transportation component of the proposed Trans Mountain Pipeline Expansion Project (TMEP). Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC (Trans Mountain), owned by energy company Kinder Morgan, proposes to expand the capacity of its existing Trans Mountain Pipeline system which transports crude oil products from Edmonton, Alberta, to Burnaby, BC. This expansion would result in an increase of oil tanker traffic departing the Westridge Marine Terminal in Burnaby and travelling through the Georgia, Haro and Juan de Fuca Straits to the Pacific Ocean to reach Pacific Rim markets (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013a). The TMEP Marine Transportation AOA considers the potential impacts of the marine transportation component of the TMEP on archaeological sites. The study arose from concerns raised by several First Nations about the impact of TMEP vessel-related wake on archaeological sites within the Salish Sea, including the inland marine waters of the southern Strait of Georgia and Juan de Fuca Strait and their connecting channels, passes and straits (refer to Intervenor Information Requests section, Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b). Trans Mountain’s response to these concerns was to refer to the heights of predicted wake generated by the tankers and tow vessels, discussed further below, and to state that the waves are within natural range, and therefore will not have any impact (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013a). Pauquachin First Nation, through Trailmark Systems, requested that Millennia consider two specific potential impacts be considered by the AOA: vessel wake generated by the increased tanker traffic associated with the TMEP; and a potential marine oil spill and the associated clean-up efforts. This study was conducted in a manner generally consistent with the BC Archaeological Impact Assessment Guidelines (BC Archaeology Branch 2000) and to the standards of the British Columbia Association of Professional Consulting Archaeologists (BCAPA). The objectives of the AOA are to: 4. formulate a statement of archaeological resource potential and distribution in the study area; 5. complete a preliminary assessment of anticipated impacts in light of the proposed project; and 6. provide recommendations concerning the need for further archaeological studies.

Archaeological Regulatory Framework In British Columbia, all recorded and unrecorded sites which show evidence of human habitation prior to 1846, and which are located on provincially regulated private or public land, are protected under the Heritage Conservation Act (HCA). Protected sites cannot be altered or damaged in any way without a permit issued under the HCA. This protection extends to submerged and intertidal archaeological sites, and to heritage wrecks (shipwrecks or aircraft) older than two years. Aboriginal rock art and carvings (petroglyphs and pictographs) and burials are also protected regardless of age, provided they have historical value (British Columbia 1996). The Archaeology Branch, BC Ministry of Forests, Lands, and Natural Resource Operations, is responsible for administering the HCA. Archaeological materials on federally regulated lands, such as Department of National Defense land or First Nations reserves, are not subject to the TMEP Marine Transportation 1 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 HCA, but are regulated by Treasury Board policy instruments: the Guide to the Management of Movable Heritage Assets (Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat 2008) and the Policy on Management of Materiel (Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat 2006). These policies outline a general approach to the protection, conservation, and management of heritage assets, but do not provide specific guidelines. National Parks and some National Historic Sites are administered by Parks Canada, which maintains its own guidelines and permitting system for the protection and management of archaeological and heritage sites (Parks Canada 2005).

Project Description In December 2013 Trans Mountain submitted an eight volume Facilities Application, presently under review, with the National Energy Board (NEB) (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013a). The Facilities Application, as well as supporting technical documents and responses to Information Requests, can be viewed in full at http://application.transmountain.com/facilities- application. In summary, as outlined in the Facilities Application, the proposed TMEP would increase the transportation capacity of the pipeline system from its current 300,000 barrels of bitumen a day to 850,000 barrels a day. At present, an average of five vessels are loaded with heavy crude oil, primarily diluted bitumen, at the Westridge Marine Terminal every month. It is projected that the TMEP would result in a monthly increase of approximately 30 Aframax class tankers, which equals an additional 720 tanker transits each year. This number is expected to be a maximum, while the actual number will fluctuate dependant on market conditions (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b:34). The Facilities Application primarily addresses the on-shore components of the proposed project; that is, the pipeline and associated pump stations and infrastructure. The marine transportation component is addressed in Volume 8 Marine Transportation (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b). Volume 8 provides an Environmental and Socioeconomic Assessment (ESA) of the anticipated effects of the increased marine traffic related to the project, as well as a quantitative risk assessment of the potential of a marine oil spill. Although an Archaeological Impact Assessment (AIA) conducted under HCA Permit 2013-165 was undertaken for the on- shore components of the project, archaeology was not one of the elements considered in the assessment for the Marine Transportation component (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b:246). Although marine transportation related impacts were considered by the Facilities Application, Trans Mountain will not own or operate any of the tankers accessing product from the Westridge Marine Terminal. In its Facilities Application, Trans Mountain (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013a) states that it is not responsible for vessel operations and not the responsible party in the case of an oil spill at sea. All companies which ship oil products operating in Canadian waters are required to maintain a contract with a certified spill response organization. The Western Canadian Marine Response Corporation (WCMRC) is the response organization for the west coast of Canada and would be the body responsible for co-ordinating the response in the case of a marine oil spill in the project area. Trans Mountain is responsible for safety of terminal operations at the Westridge Terminal (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013a)

Spatial Area of Study Two spatial boundaries were considered for the AOA: a Marine Regional Study Area (RSA) and Marine Local Study Area (LSA). This approach is consistent with that used in the TMEP Marine Transportation 2 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Facilities Application. The RSA is defined as the area where project-related effects may overlap with the direct and indirect influence of other activities in the region and cause cumulative impacts. The LSA is the area within the RSA most likely to be directly affected by the project- related effects (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b). In order to delineate an area of focus for the purposes of this report, the RSA as defined by Trans Mountain is used here as the general study area, and is also the spatial boundary used to discuss the potential effects of an oil spill. The Marine RSA used by Trans Mountain throughout Volume 8a is shown in Figure 1. This area is comprised of a large portion of the Salish Sea, including the inland marine waters of the southern Strait of Georgia and Juan de Fuca Strait and their connecting channels, passes and straits. It encompasses the Gulf Islands, as well as the San Juan Islands, but not Puget Sound (Figure 1). However, it should be noted that several of the stochastic oil spill models included in Trans Mountain’s assessment show the potential for oil to extend beyond this RSA, both further west out into the Pacific Ocean as well as north within the Salish Sea towards Powell River (eg. Figure 5.6.2-4 in Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC (2013b)). The Marine LSA, as defined in Volume 8a, is a 2 km buffer on either side of the inward and outward marine shipping lanes, extending from the Westridge Marine Terminal to Buoy J at the western extent of the Juan de Fuca Strait and the defined RSA boundary, as shown in Figure 1. This is the spatial boundary used to assess the potential impacts of vessel wake on archaeological sites. The shipping lanes pass closest to the land in the narrow Burrard Inlet, as well as in the Haro Strait and in Boundary Pass areas, where the LSA crosses portions of southern Saturna Island and Pender Island; as well as Stuart Island and San Juan Island in Washington state.

TMEP Marine Transportation 3 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Figure 1. Marine Regional Study Area (RSA) Marine Local Study Area (LSA) and shipping lanes

TMEP Marine Transportation 4 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Approach and Methodology The AOA consisted of a desktop review and spatial analysis only; no site revisits or survey were conducted. The study area was subject to a review of sources available through the on-line services of the BC Archaeology Branch and the Millennia in-house library and, in particular, the archaeological reports regarding the 1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (EVOS) Cultural Resource Program (Haggarty, et al. 1991; Mobley, et al. 1990) and the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon spill (Ostahowski and Hanlon 2014). The online Remote Access to Archaeological Data (RAAD) tool maintained by the provincial Archaeology Branch was used to identify British Columbia site locations and site types within the study area. Basic site type and location information was also obtained for sites within the Gulf Islands National Park Reserve (GINPR) through an application to Parks Canada. Site maps were downloaded, geo-referenced and imported to GIS, then laid over the geo- referenced project area map. A dataset consisting of submerged, intertidal, and terrestrial sites within 10 m of the shoreline of both the LSA and RSA was then generated. Legacy sites, sites which have been completely destroyed, were excluded from this dataset. Many sites contain multiple components with varying degrees of susceptibility to erosion, with midden and organic wetsite materials being the most susceptible. As such, any site with a midden component (there are no recorded wetsites in the study area) was given precedence with respect to consideration of impacts. In addition to considering site type, the distance of each site from both the ingoing and outgoing shipping lanes was used to determine susceptibility. The distance to shipping lanes determined with reference to data obtained through RAAD and the distance categories outlined in the TMEP wave height model: 0-100 m, 100-500 m, 500-1000 m and 1000-2000 m from each shipping lane. Two primary data gaps in this overview assessment were identified. The RAAD database is only mandated to include archaeological and heritage sites on provincially regulated land under the jurisdiction of the Heritage Conservation Act (HCA). Although some sites on federal land such as National Parks, National Heritage Sites, and Department of National Defence property have been uploaded to the RAAD database, it may not include all recorded sites on federal land. Although the RSA includes portions of Washington State, the Washington archaeological database does not allow users to download spatial information, and manually digitizing site locations was beyond the scope of the current project. Therefore, archaeological sites in Washington State are not included in this analysis. In general, the focus of the study is on archaeological sites in British Columbia.

Study Area The RSA spans a large, diverse, and complex area, which encompasses an international boundary, multiple ecoregions, and varied political and physical geographies, including several urban centres and the traditional territories of dozens of First Nations. As the significance of sites, as well as their density, distribution, and diversity are influenced by the environmental, paleo-environmental, ethnographic and archaeological histories of the region, these themes are briefly outlined below.

TMEP Marine Transportation 5 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Environment The RSA includes two biogeoclimatic zones. Southeastern Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands and San Juan Islands, and a thin strip of the adjacent mainland of British Columbia fall into the Coastal Douglas-fir (CDF) biogeoclimatic zone as identified by Nuszdorfer et al. (1991). The islands of the zone have fewer wildlife species than mainland British Columbia, and the CDF zone is characterized by warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Snowfall is minimal, with the region receiving the least amount for the shortest duration of any zone in British Columbia. Coastal Western Vancouver Island and the northern Olympic Peninsula fall into the Coastal Western Hemlock (CWH) biogeoclimatic zone. The CWH is, in contrast, the rainiest biogeoclimatic zone in British Columbia. The zone typically has a cool mesothermal climate: cool summers and mild winters. Vegetation typical to the CWH zone includes a predominance of mosses and shrubs and a low presence of herbs, with western hemlock and western red cedar being the principle tree species. The CWH zone has incredible abundance and diversity of wildlife habitat (Pojar, et al. 1991). Palaeoenvironmental studies of southern British Columbia indicate that although minor regional changes have occured, relatively modern environmental conditions were established between 4500-3000 years before present (BP) (Hebda 1995; Mathews 1985).

Paleoenvironment and Sea Level History During the last regional glacial maximum, between 15,000 and 14,000 14C years BP, the entire RSA was covered by the Cordilleran ice-sheet at depths of up to 2 km (Clague and James 2002). Deglaciation was rapid, with the Strait of Georgia area completely free of ice by 13,000 14C years BP. Sea levels on the British Columbia coast have fluctuated significantly over the past 18,000 years as a result of the dramatic transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, a period of relatively stable climate and more gradual landscape transformation (Clague and James 2002). The extraordinary changes in ice volume and glacial loading which occurred at the end of the Pleistocene caused a great deal of sea level change both globally through melting ice (eustatic change) and on a regional basis through crustal rebound movements (isostatic change). While sea level changes have dramatically altered the BC coastline, the regional crustal response has been highly variable along different areas of the coast. Late Holocene changes in relative sea level have important implications for understanding the human and natural history of the RSA, especially in regards to the potential for submerged and intertidal archaeological sites along ancient coastlines now inundated by rising sea levels. Sea level research for the west coast of Vancouver Island is in the preliminary stages. Research at Hesquiat Harbour indicates that sea levels reached 32-34 m above present day levels following deglaciation (Clague, et al. 1982 in McMillan 1999). After reaching this height, sea levels then dropped significantly, with research at Clayoquot Sound indicating sea levels of 3m below present day between 7000 and 8000 years BP (Friele 1991, Bobrowsky and Clague 1992). Based upon fieldwork on Vargas Island, Friele (1991) proposes that sea levels then rose to a height of approximately 3 m above the present level by about 5100 BP. The sea level then remained stable for over a thousand years, a period Friele has termed the Ahous Bay Stillstand. After 4000 BP sea levels began to drop to approximately 2m above the present sea level where they reached another stillstand at about 2200 BP. Since this time the land has emerged relative to the sea and this process continues at the present time (Friele 1991) (Clague, et al. 1982). This

TMEP Marine Transportation 6 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 suggests the potential for submerged and intertidal sites in this region dating to the 7000 BP and 8000 BP time period. The sea level history of the southern Strait of Georgia region has been the subject of several recent studies, including several that specifically explore its implications for archaeological site modelling (Fedje, et al. 2009; C. Grier, et al. 2009; Hutchinson, et al. 2004). James et al (2009) have developed a relative sea level curve for the Victoria area. In summary, the available evidence suggests that immediately after deglaciation at 13,000 years BP the RSL reached a maximum of 75 m above present-day sea level, then dropped rapidly, reaching present day sea levels by 12,000 BP. The period between 12,000 and 6,000 BP is poorly defined, but the available data suggest that sea levels continued to drop, reaching 20 m to 30 m below present day sea level by about 10,000 years BP, and then rose gradually until the present day (Fedje, et al. 2009; James, et al. 2009) Two 2009 studies (Fedje, et al. 2009; C. Grier, et al. 2009) using radiocarbon dates obtained from intertidal and coastal sites in the Gulf Islands have revealed that relative sea level was approximately 1.5 m below the present day level at 4,000 years BP, and reached 0.5 m below its present level by 1,000 years BP. This evidence suggests that in the southern Strait of Georgia region intertidal sites between 1,000 and 4,000 years old can be expected in the intertidal zone, and that coastal sites older than this may be completely submerged.

Ethnography The TMEP Application lists 27 British Columba First Nations communities with whom they are engaging in relation to the Marine Transportation component. The Ditidaht First Nation of the Nuu-Chah-Nulth are not included in this list, nor are the six Washington State tribes or the Hwlitsum First Nation (historically Lamalcha) of the Southern Gulf Islands area, a community currently seeking recognition as a band government from the Provincial and Federal governments(http://www.bctreaty.net/nations/hwlitsum.php). The contemporary political organization of these First Nations does not always reflect prehistoric configurations or identities: in many cases they represent the amalgamations or divisions of family groups and/or villages which occurred in the historic period. Classic ethnographies divide the RSA broadly into two major ethnographic groups: Nuu-Chah-Nulth and Coast Salish. , The Nuu-Chah-Nulth of the west coast of Vancouver Island, speakers of Southern Wakashan dialects and languages, are considered to be a part of the larger Wakashan language family. The general history and ethnography of the Southern Wakashan language area is reviewed in Arima and Dewhirst (1990), Arima et al. (1991) and McMillan (1999). The Pacheedaht and Ditidaht of the southern west coast of Vancouver Island, as well as the closely related Makah of the Cape Flattery area of the Olympic Peninsula constitute the southernmost branch of the Nuu-Chah-Nulth within the RSA. The First Nations groups on south eastern Vancouver Island, the Gulf and San Juan Islands, and the Lower Mainland are broadly classified as Central Coast Salish, on the basis of shared linguistic and cultural traits, with the exception of the Sechelt who are considered to Northern Coast Salish (Kennedy and Bouchard 1990; Suttles 1990). Represented within this broad classification scheme are several distinct language groups. The general history and ethnography of the Coast Salish is reviewed in Kennedy and Bouchard (1990) and Suttles (1990). The Northern Straits Salish of the Victoria area and the Saanich Peninsula, Gulf Islands and San Juan Islands, as well as the Point Roberts area on the mainland include the Esquimalt, TMEP Marine Transportation 7 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Scia’new (Beecher Bay), Songhees, T’Souke, and the four Saanich First Nations: Pauquachin, Tsartlip, Tsawout, and Tseycum. The Lummi and Samish, in Washington state, are also considered Northern Straits Salish, and the Klallam are closely related to the Scia’new (Suttles 1990). The Island Halkomelem, whose core territory is eastern Vancouver Island between Nanaimo and the Malahat area, include the Malahat, SnawNaw’As, Snuneymuxw, and the six First Nations of the Hul’qumi’num Treaty Group: Stz’uminus, Halalt, Lyackson, Penelakut, Lake Cowichan, and Cowichan. On the Lower Mainland, Downriver Halkomelem language speakers within the study area include the (Squamish) of the Howe Sound area and the Musqueam, Tsawassen, Tsleil-Waututh, Katzie and Kwikwetlem of the group have territory within the RSA.

Archaeological Context of Study Area Archaeological evidence shows that people began occupying portions of the RSA immediately subsequent to deglaciation. Both the Manis mastodon site in Sequim, Washington, and the Ayer Pond site in the San Juan Islands have recently been dated to 13,800 years cal BP (Kenady, et al. 2011; Waters, et al. 2011) and several archaeological sites in the Strait of Georgia region have components which date to more than 9000 years old (Alan D. McMillan 1999). These sites are understood with reference to culture histories which are specific spatial and temporal frameworks established through archaeological research for the organization and analysis of material culture. The RSA can be very broadly divided into two main culture history areas: the West Coast and the Strait of Georgia, which roughly correspond to the ethnographic Nuu-Chah-Nulth and Coast Salish territories. The Strait of Georgia region includes Southern Vancouver Island, the Gulf and San Juan Islands, and the Lower Mainland. This region has been subject to intensive archaeological study and as such the culture histories for this region are reasonably well understood. The archaeology of the west coast of Vancouver Island and northwest Washington is somewhat less well defined. A summary of archaeological culture histories known for the region are included below.

Strait of Georgia Culture History The culture history of the Strait of Georgia region is comprised of at least six archaeological units, also known as cultures or phases, dating to at least 9,000 years before present (BP). Two sites dating to 13,800 years BP have also been identified in the region, but as evidence for this time period is highly limited a culture history for this period has yet to be established. The local archaeological cultures are reviewed in many sources, including Mitchell (1990), and a detailed summary is available in Morgan and Hartmann (1999). A portion of the general cultural sequence has recently been reviewed and revised for southern Vancouver Island by Clarke (2000).

TMEP Marine Transportation 8 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Table 1. Known Culture History Sequence for the Strait of Georgia Region Age Mainland/Gulf and Southern Vancouver Island (years Before Present) San Juan Islands Present–200 Contact/Historic Period 200-1600 Strait of Georgia Period 1600-2000 Marpole Bowker Creek Locarno Old Musqueam 2000-2400 Locarno 2400-3500 Locarno 3500-5000 Charles 5000-9000 Old Cordilleran/Olcott 9000-13,800 Early Post Deglaciation

Old Cordilleran/Olcott (9000-5000 BP) - also known as the Pebble Tool Tradition, is defined by the abundance of unifacial pebble choppers and leaf shaped bifaces (Carlson 1990). The Old Cordilleran culture is “clearly derived from the earlier Proto-western cultures” (Matson and Coupland 1995:68). Old Cordilleran components have been recorded and excavated at the Glenrose Cannery site near Vancouver, Milliken in the Fraser Canyon, and the Bear Cove site at the northern tip of Vancouver Island. The analysis of faunal remains from Old Cordilleran sites suggests that the people were generally large game hunters, although the faunal remains of Bear Cove suggests a wider subsistence base (Matson and Coupland 1995:76). Charles Culture Type (5000-3500+ BP) - is characterised by a culture reliant on riverine, maritime, and terrestrial resources. Chipped stone artifacts dominate the artifact assemblage for this sequence and are comprised largely of unshaped flake tools and various forms of pebble tools manufactured from local basalt, quartzite and chert. Living floors, post holes, and hearths are present in the archaeological record for this phase (Ham 1982; Matson and Coupland 1995). Locarno Culture Type (3500+ - 2400 BP) - represents a continuation of a culture adapted to aquatic and terrestrial resources. Fire cracked rock is widely present in the archaeological record and suggestive of subsistence practices that incorporated pit roasting and steaming. Exotic artifacts made of soapstone, coal and bone indicates that social hierarchies may have developed during this cultural sequence (Preckel, et al. 1991). Marpole Culture Type (2400-1600+ BP) - as with previous culture types, this phase continues to focus on marine and riverine resources, with an emphasis on salmon. The exploitation of salmon and other maritime resources enabled the establishment of large settlements comprised of rectangular wooden houses. Evidence of pit roasting and steam cooking is well documented for this phase, as is social stratification and trade, as suggested by the recovery of stone carvings, copper, beads and dentalia shell. As well, the presence of seated human figure bowls, scallop shell rattles, graphite, and ochre in the archaeological record for the Marpole phase is indicative of the practice of spirituality and ceremony within the culture (Burley 1980; Mitchell 1971). Strait of Georgia Culture Type (1600 BP to Contact) - represents a direct development from the earlier Marpole culture. Characteristics of this phase include large winter and summer villages with small spring summer and fall camps. Fortified sites are also noted for this period. As with earlier cultures, reliance on maritime resources is reflected in the artifact assemblage by TMEP Marine Transportation 9 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 the presence of herring rakes, fish gorges, leister spear points, toggling harpoons, hooks, points, net and line weights, reef net heart and fish weirs. Notable in the assemblage is the extensive use of bone and less frequent presence of chipped stone artifacts (e.g., Preckel, et al. 1991).

West Coast Archaeological Culture History Evidence of occupation dating to 5,000 years BP has been identified on the west coast of Vancouver Island. Excavations conducted at two ancient village sites in Barkley Sound (DfSi-12 the village of Huu7ii on Diana Island and DfSi-16 the village of Ts’ishaa on Benson Island) have identified raised beach features both dating to approximately 5,000 years BP. These components of the sites would have been occupied when sea levels were approximately 3m higher than present day (Alan D. McMillan and St. Claire 2005, 2012). A recent publication by McMillan (1999) provides a cumulative and thorough examination of archaeological research carried out on the west coast of Vancouver Island and Washington state which illustrates a regional culture history which is complex and not yet well understood. From the results of excavations at Yuquot (Dewhirst 1980) and Hesquiat Harbour (Calvert 1980; Haggarty 1982) it is apparent that material culture on the west coast has remained relatively stable over the last 4000 years. Termed by Mitchell the “West Coast Culture Type”, these assemblages appear very different from those of the Gulf of Georgia and Queen Charlotte Strait areas of the same period. Characteristic attributes of the assemblages of the West Coast Culture Type include a dominance of small bone points, bone bipoints, bone splinter awls, bone valves and points of composite toggling harpoon heads, abrasive stones, and the absence of chipped stone and scarcity of ground stone artifacts (Crockford 2000; Mitchell 1990 356-358). Assemblages from a site at Shoemaker Bay, at the head of the Alberni Inlet, contrast strongly with those at Yuquot and Hesquiat Harbour. They appear, however, quite similar to assemblages from Locarno-aged sites (3300-2400 BP) found in the Strait of Georgia (Alan D. McMillan and St. Claire 1982). At Shoemaker Bay, artifacts typical of Mitchell’s West Coast Culture Type only occur in association within the late prehistoric period. These findings suggest that the West Coast Culture Type may have appeared in the area approximately 1000 years ago (McMillan 1999). Located at the head of Alberni Inlet, Shoemaker Bay is quite close to the Strait of Georgia and this proximity to Salish communities may explain the similarities. However, further west at Ucluelet, excavations recovered 3000-4000 year old rock cairn burials, burials in shell midden, ground slate, and chipped stone artifacts at Little Beach: features and assemblages characteristic of those found in contemporaneous Locarno and Marpole cultures from the Strait of Georgia (Arcas Consulting Archeologists Ltd. 1991). Western Washington assemblages generally lack chipped stone artifacts and are dominated by bone points and mussel shell cutting implements, generally similar to the West Coast pattern found at Yuquot (Wessen 1990a). An exception to this is the artifact assemblage of the Hoko River site. Located on the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the site was dated at 3000 years old and is characterised by Locarno-like stone and bone artifact assemblages. Interestingly, basketry recovered from the site is indicative of traditional Makah styles (Croes 1989). Basketry has long been held as a good indicator of ethnicity and therefore a West Coast Culture Type presence at this site is quite likely. However, further research is necessary.

TMEP Marine Transportation 10 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Archaeological Site Types and Archaeological Potential of the RSA The RSA has been subject to relatively intensive archaeological study, including several regional surveys. Given this, the archaeological inventory may be more complete than other, more remote, areas of the province which have not been as well studied. Nevertheless, there are likely unrecorded archaeological sites present in the RSA and models for predicting areas of potential for archaeological sites have been created for the majority of the British Columbia portion of the RSA. While archaeological potential is not directly correlated with the presence of cultural sites, unrecorded sites are present on the landscape and the boundaries of many recorded sites are likely larger than recorded. Consideration of this modelled potential was beyond the scope of the current project. Site types which are more likely to be unrecorded are those which are less readily visible, such as submerged sites (for example buried intertidal deposits) and isolated lithic scatters. Furthermore, there are many sites within the RSA which were originally recorded several decades ago and which have not been revisited since. Information about the location, extent, and integrity of these sites is often inaccurate and poorly defined. Following are basic descriptions of known site types in the region: Burial Cairns- Cairns are a type of grave found in the Strait of Georgia region, comprised of a pile of large rocks placed over a burial. They are often found in spatial association, in clusters, and can also be found buried in middens. Rarely, they occur in the intertidal, where they have been inundated by rising sea levels. Canoe Runs – Canoe runs are pathways created on a beach where boulders and cobbles were removed, so that a canoe could be drawn up on shore without damage. These are often found in front of shell midden village sites. Clam Gardens-A site type which has only recently become recognized, clam gardens are beach terraces which are created by constructing a rock wall at low tide, in order to retain sand and increase shellfish production. Cultural Depressions-Depressions excavated by people; such depressions may have several uses including habitations such as plank houses and pit houses, fire pits, roasting pits, or storage pits. Culturally Modified Trees- Culturally Modified Trees, or CMTs, are trees which have been altered by an aboriginal person as part of their traditional use of the forest. Most often redcedar or yellow cedar in the Pacific Northwest region, these include trees which have been bark stripped, had planks removed, or which have been logged by traditional methods. Defensive Sites-Also called fortified sites, these are sites which were typically protected by a wooden palisade, or trench embankment. The earthworks are often the only archaeologically visible remnant of these sites, which are often found on points or peninsulas. Fish Traps-Fish traps include a variety of technologies used to capture fish as they swim with the current, and are found in rivers as well as intertidal areas. Fish traps include stone walls (petroforms) as well as wooden weirs and stakes. Lithic Scatters- Lithic scatters are surface scatters of stone tool artifacts, or flake debris from the making of stone tools. These often represent isolated events, and are

TMEP Marine Transportation 11 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 often evidence of human activity in inland areas; a single person manufacturing or reshaping a tool during a hunting trip, for example. Intertidal lithic scatters are also often found in front of shell middens, deposited as material erodes out of the midden face onto the beach. Middens- Middens are the most abundant site type found throughout the RSA, and the largest are typically located along coastlines. Middens are a deposit of accumulated household refuse which can be several meters thick. They are comprised of primarily discarded shellfish, organic remains, and anthropogenic soils, and also usually contain animal bones, bone and stone artifacts, and fire cracked rock. Human burials are also common. Midden sizes range from small, representing short term occupations to very large representing repeated seasonal occupations and village sites. Midden may contain or be in association with other features, such as house depressions and post holes, canoe runs, and CMTs. Pictographs and Petroglyphs-A pictograph is an image created by painting on a stone surface, and a petroglyph is an image formed by pecking or carving into a stone surface. These are often found on cliffs or boulders along coastlines. Frequently they have a spiritual meaning usually known only to their creator. Wet sites-This is a broad term used to describe organic material which has been preserved due to anaerobic conditions. Common examples of wet site features include wooden fish weirs and stakes found in intertidal areas or rivers, and basketry, cordage, and wood debris often found in peat bogs or wetland contexts.

Shoreline Erosion and Vessel Wake Two potential wake related impacts have been identified by a review of background literature: impacts to artifacts and impacts to site integrity. Possible impacts to artifacts include breakage and attrition (or water-rolling) of inter-tidal cultural materials if wake from increased marine vessel traffic increases the movement of on-shore sediments. Such impacts occur as a consequence of natural wave and tidal action but may be exacerbated by increased wake frequency. Shoreline erosion is regularly cited in archaeological reports and site records as a major threat to coastal shell midden sites. For example, the 1974 Gulf Islands Survey reported that 45% of shell midden sites on Salt Spring Island showed damage due to shoreline erosion (Cassidy and Seymour 1974). The loss of sediments and stratigraphic provenience which accompanies erosional impacts has significant consequences for archaeological interpretation and analysis. The stratigraphic context of material culture is crucial to its meaningful spatial and temporal interpretation, both within sites and between them. Vertical erosion of the sediments in which cultural materials are situated distorts temporal associations between artifacts and features, while horizontal movement of cultural materials interferes with their spatial association and destroys features. In addition, important palaeo-environmental evidence which contextualises the material culture is lost. Erosion can also expose human remains leaving them vulnerable to the elements and to looting (McLay 2001, 2002). Waves are the primary physical cause of shoreline erosion. All other things being equal, the higher the wave energy the greater the rate of erosion. The rate of erosion, however, is also influenced by the geology and geomorphology of the shoreline, with the resistance capability of TMEP Marine Transportation 12 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 the rock and shoreline sediments and the beach shape, gradient and sediments increasing or decreasing wave energy. For example, a study of San Juan Islands archaeological sites describes the typical erosional characteristics of beaches in the area as “characterized by long periods of stability with sudden mass wasting events every few decades, often caused by high-tide storms” (Taylor, et al. 2011:297). The same study indicates that sites most vulnerable to erosion are likely situated in long-fetch wave environments with steep nearshore bathymetry (Taylor, et al. 2011:297). A detailed analysis of the complex interaction of these variables and potential for increased erosion of archaeological sediments associated with vessel wake is beyond the scope of the current study but the preliminary discussion below suggests areas for future consideration which are outlined in the recommendation section of this report. Shell middens are, by their nature, unconsolidated, and exposed shoreline profiles are vulnerable to wave action. This erosion is a natural and ongoing process, but it is also influenced by rising sea-levels, storm events and especially by marine vessel activity. Boat wake is commonly cited as an aggregating factor in the erosion of shoreline shell midden sites (Colin Grier and McLay 2007; Parks Canada 2010). A 2008 study at DgRv-006 at Dionisio Point on Galiano Island, estimated as much as 10 m of shoreline recession over the previous two decades (Colin Grier and McLay 2007). The authors of the study point out that while the suspected incremental rise in sea level over the past thousand years is partially responsible for the extreme rate of erosion noted at that site, any sea level rise is exacerbated by boat traffic as well as the presence of driftwood on the beach. At high tide, driftwood (which is predominantly a result of stray cut logs from log booms), grinds against the midden cut bank and causes significant damage (Grier and McLay 2007). As part of this study, McLay and Grier recorded the edge of the eroding berm in order to establish baseline data to assess the rate of erosion at this site. Vessel wakes were identified as the major source of erosion of archaeological sites on locations with limited fetch, on the lower Fraser River and Nitinat Lake (Eldridge and Fisher 1997; Harper 1990). Further from the study area, wave erosion was found to have removed up to 7 m horizontally of shell midden over a five year period in an area subject to large wakes from escort tugs returning after escorting ships, although storm waves at high tides were also destructive (Eldridge, et al. 2014). The literature review for the current AOA identified no publicly available studies of the impact of the wake generated by ferries, tankers or other boat traffic on archaeological sites in the RSA. The Application suggests an average of 30 additional tankers a month loading at the Westridge Terminal in Burnaby, equalling a potential maximum total of 78 tanker transits a month through the Haro Strait (inbound and outbound) to the Pacific Ocean (Figure 1). If approved, TMEP -related vessels (including tankers and tugs) are projected to represent 26% of marine traffic in the Burrard Inlet, and 12 % of marine traffic in Haro Strait, by the year 2030 (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b:469). At present, an escort tug and/or tethered tugs are required for portions of a laden tanker’s passage from the Westridge Terminal to the Pacific, specifically within Second Narrows as well as through the Haro Strait area. However, as part of its application, Trans Mountain has suggested that an escort tug be used for a laden tanker’s entire transit as an additional safety measure (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b:530). As part of its assessment of the potential effects of vessel wake upon marine fish and fish habitats, Trans Mountain modelled the predicted wave heights generated by vessel wake. The model predicted wave heights generated by both Aframax class tankers and escort tugs according to different variables, including various speeds, distances from the vessel, and channel depths

TMEP Marine Transportation 13 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013a:290). The models are also useful for a generalized consideration of the potential for increased erosion associated with vessel wake at shoreline archaeological sites. The models are excerpted below for reference (Table 2, Table 3). Table 2. Excerpted Table 4.3.6.4 *

*(Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b:290)

Table 3. Excerpted Table 4.3.6.5**

**(Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b:290) As shown in Table 2 and Table 3, the models predict that escort tugs will generate greater waves than the tankers, with the highest waves generated at the fastest modelled vessel speed and wave heights diminishing with greater distance from the vessel and with greater depth in the channel. The highest wave height predicted from the models is 1.53 m at 10 m from tugs travelling at 16 knots in channels of 55 m depth. By 100 m from the vessel, wave height in a 55 m deep channel is 0.5 m. TMEP-related tankers will travel at speeds of between 6 knots and 14.5 knots within the shipping lanes. In Haro Strait and Boundary Pass, tankers are required to

TMEP Marine Transportation 14 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 travel at a speed no greater than 10 knots, and within the Burrard Inlet at speeds no greater than 8 knots (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b). As such, Trans Mountain concludes that “vessel wake is not expected to be detectable from existing wave conditions along most of the shoreline in the RSA”(Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b:291). Trans Mountain further concludes that shoreline erosion from vessel wake may result from high speed vessels, but less likely from vessels moving at conventional speeds of 12-15 knots, such as the tankers (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b:291). Furthermore, Trans Mountain concludes that shoreline erosion from vessel wake typically occurs only where the heights of vessel wake waves are different from those of natural waves, and as that predicted wave heights at the shoreline are well within the range of natural conditions there will be no cumulative effect despite the increased in marine traffic (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b:291).

Marine Oil Spills This AOA considers both the potential impacts to archaeological sites and site components which may arise should a marine oil spill occur and potential impacts stemming from associated clean-up activities. The following report section provides a very cursory overview of the products to be transported in the pipeline in order to understand their potential effects on archaeological sites, summarizes the Western Canadian Marine Response Corporation oil spill response, and provides a review of archaeological considerations with respect to three previous marine oil spill clean-up responses: the 1989 Exxon Valdez tanker spill, 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil rig explosion, and the 2007 Westridge Terminal Trans Mountain Pipeline accidental release.

Properties and Behaviour of Diluted Bitumen The oil products transported by the TMEP will include both light and heavy crude oil as well as diluted bitumen (dilbit). It is expected that dilbit will be the primary product shipped, but tankers may also carry other crude oil products (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b:539). Dilbit is a highly viscous and dense product and is mixed with other products, typically natural gas condensate or light crude oil, in order for it to achieve a viscosity which will flow through a pipeline. Once exposed to air, these diluents evaporate and the dilbit weathers and increases in density (Environment Canada 2013; Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b). There is some controversy as to whether dilbit is likely to sink in a marine environment. A study commissioned by Trans Mountain, the Gainford Study, found that although bitumen reached the same density as water after 8-10 days, none was observed to sink (Witt O'Briens 2013). However, a study conducted by Environment Canada found that when fine sediments were suspended within the saltwater, high-energy wave action mixed the sediments with the diluted bitumen, causing the mixture to either sink or form floating tarballs (Environment Canada 2013). A report outlining the modeled penetration depth of weathered dilbit into various substrates was completed in support of the TMEP. As indicated by the report, dilbit is more viscous than other oil types, it will penetrate less deeply than most other oil products. The models indicates penetration depths of only 1 cm in sand, 2 cm in wood, 2 cm in pebbles, and 30 cm in boulder and cobble beaches (EBA Engineering Consultants 2013). Crude oil which coated beaches in the Burrard Inlet area following a rupture of the TransMountain pipeline in 2007 reportedly penetrated sediments to a depth of approximately 4 cm (Howe and Vigneault 2009).

TMEP Marine Transportation 15 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 West Coast Marine Response Corporation (WCMRC) Oil Spill Response A 2013 report by WCMRC describes how their existing response capacity may be enhanced in order to accommodate the worst case oil spill scenario as outlined by the TMEP (Western Canada Marine Reponse Corporation 2013), for example, the spilling of the entire contents of a fully loaded Aframax class tanker, which would be 20,000 tonnes of oil (Western Canada Marine Reponse Corporation 2013). The WCMRC provides only a brief commentary on shoreline cleanup, noting that “shoreline treatment operations will depend largely upon the physical characteristics of affected shorelines, degree of oiling, and character of stranded oil” (Western Canada Marine Reponse Corporation 2013:49). Specific methods of shoreline clean-up are not described, although the following literature review suggests that chemical, manual and mechanical methods of shoreline clean-up will be deployed.

Exxon Valdez, Deepwater Horizon and Westridge Oil Clean-up Responses Review of archaeological reports on the oil clean-up responses indicate two broad types of potential impacts of an oil spill on archaeological sites in the RSA: the impacts of the oil itself, and the impacts of the clean-up efforts. The archaeological reports for three clean-up responses are reviewed: for the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill; the 2010 Deepwater Horizon explosion and sinking; and the 2007 rupture of the Trans Mountain pipeline (termed an “accidental release”) near the Westridge Terminal in Burnaby, BC. The Exxon Valdez struck a reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska, spilling at least 257,000 barrels of crude oil, resulting in the oiling of an estimated 2,000 km of coastline (Haggarty, et al. 1991; Mobley, et al. 1990; Yarborough 1995). Although the actual volume of crude oil spilled by the 2010 explosion and sinking of the Deepwater Horizon is disputed, the scale is vastly greater than either the Exxon Valdez or Westridge spill, with millions of barrels of crude oil lost, some of which subsequently reached the shorelines of Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida. In 2007, the Trans Mountain pipeline leading to the Westridge Terminal was accidentally ruptured by a backhoe during sewer work for the City of Burnaby, releasing 234,000 litres, or approximately 1472 barrels of crude oil, of which approximately 100,000 litres reached Burrard Inlet(Howe and Vigneault 2009). Both the Exxon Valdez and Deepwater Horizon spills triggered extensive, multi-year clean-up responses, while the response to the Westridge Terminal release was more restricted, in keeping with the smaller size of the spill. The Westridge Terminal release however, is situated within the current study area and eight archaeological sites within the LSA were in the area of potential impact from the release, although only one was impacted by clean-up activities (Howe and Vigneault 2009). The primary direct physical impacts of oil as indicated by these studies include the obscuring of intertidal artifacts during survey prior to shoreline clean-up, as well as immobilizing artifacts in the intertidal zone when solidified tar mats and asphalt formed (Mobley, et al. 1990:103). In addition, there is potential for oil to adversely affect pictographs if in direct contact, and organic wet sites remains, such as fish weir stakes, may absorb and retain oil, making them more challenging to clean. A further issue often raised is the potential for contamination of archaeological deposits, especially with respect to the loss of radiocarbon dating potential for contaminated organic items such as charcoal (Haggarty, et al. 1991; Mobley, et al. 1990), although radiocarbon dates have reportedly been successfully obtained from two oiled sites in Alaska (Yarborough 1995). Oil also has the potential to affect submerged shipwrecks by altering the structure of the microbial communities present on the wood and metal

TMEP Marine Transportation 16 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 surfaces. A multi-year study funded by the US Bureau of Ocean and Energy Management (BOEM) which aims to assess how the Deepwater Horizon oil spill may have affected the microbiomes of shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico, and specifically whether the additional hydrocarbons either accelerate or slow the rate of microbial corrosion of metal and degradation of wood, is presently underway (Melanie Damour, BOEM marine archaeologist, pers. comm. January 2015; see also http://mbac.gmu.edu/mbac_wp/gulf_wrecks/). The findings of this study (which should be released shortly) as they relate to the effects of the oil on wood may potentially be extrapolated to other submerged or intertidal site types present in the RSA such as wooden fish traps and stakes. Where oil directly contaminates human remains, there may be a spiritual impact. The discussion of potential impacts from shoreline cleanup focusses on the physical cleanup measures for which there is clear data. The physical methods of shoreline cleanup employed during one or more of the projects included both manual and mechanical approaches. Manal efforts included removing surface oily debris by hand, rake, and shovel, the use of absorbent materials to soak up oil, and the burning or removal and burning of oiled driftwood. Mechanical methods include tilling and agitation of beach sediments by heavy machine, vacuum systems; washing the shoreline (using both hot and cold, and low and high pressure water systems, as well as steam cleaning) to dislodge oily material which can then be captured by booms and skimmers; burning of oil; and mechanical removal or screening of sediment using heavy equipment (Howe and Vigneault 2009; Mobley, et al. 1990; Ostahowski and Hanlon 2014). Archaeological survey in advance of clean-up activities or concurrent with them was a key feature of all three clean-up responses. In the case of the Exxon spill, a primary challenge for the Cultural Resource Program was that the area affected included remote shorelines where very little archaeological survey had taken place. A total of 326 archaeological sites were recorded during the course of the Exxon Valdes Oil Spill Cultural Resource Program (Mobley, Haggerty, et al. 1990). Similarly, during the Deepwater Horizon response, a considerable portion of the program was undertaking inventory and survey of beaches where archaeological information was deficient (Ostahowski and Hanlon 2014). Even in the relatively heavily developed Burrard Inlet area, eight previously unrecorded archaeological sites were identified by the archaeological crew accompanying the clean-up team(Howe and Vigneault 2009). Another significant impact which occurred during the EVOS clean-up were incidents in which archaeological sites were vandalized. Sixteen sites were vandalized in the summer of 1989; these ranged from graffiti on a historic building, to the looting of artifacts and, in several cases, the removal of human remains. Clean-up crews may also have non-malicious impacts to archaeological sites. For example, crews cutting across high ground could inadvertently impact inland archaeological sites, damage CMTs by collecting firewood, or create fire-cracked rock scatters by starting warming fires (Mobley, et al. 1990).

Results and Impact Assessment The following section outlines the results of the desktop review. Three potential sources of impact to archaeological sites associated with the Marine Transportation component of the TMEP have been identified: erosion of coastal shell midden sites resulting from vessel wake generated by the increased tanker traffic, the effects of oil coming into direct contact with

TMEP Marine Transportation 17 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 archaeological materials in the case of a marine oil spill, and the impact of shoreline clean-up efforts associated with the response to a marine oil spill.

Assessment of Potential Wake Related Impacts Potential wake related impacts are assessed with reference to the LSA. Within the British Columbia portion of the LSA, there are 35 recorded archaeological sites which are either submerged or within 10 m of the coastline, as well as eight shipwrecks. This includes four recorded sites in the Gulf Islands National Parks Reserve (GINPR). Only one site, a lithic scatter, is within 100 m of either the inbound or outbound shipping lane (Table 4). The majority of sites within this study are situated at least 1000 m from a shipping lane, and of the remainder, over half are more than 500 m from a shipping lane suggesting, according to TMEP projections (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b), that they are likely at limited risk of wake generated wave erosion. At these distances, the maximum TMEP predicted wave heights are 0.27 m and 0.42 m, respectively (see Table 2 and Table 3). Although the TMEP application concludes that wakes were well within natural wave heights, and therefore insignificant, the complex interaction of their frequency, that is - more common than storm events, their energy and high tides is not explored. Natural waves can combine with wakes to produce much larger waves, at least momentarily, which, during high tides in particular, may not be accurately reflected in the projected wake heights. Table 4. Minimum archaeological site distance to inbound/outbound lane. Minimum distance from an inbound/outbound lane 0-100 m 100-500 m 500-1000 m 1000-1500 m 1500 m-2000 m # of sites 1 9 11 7 7 Seventeen non-shell midden archaeological sites are present in the LSA study area (Table 5). Archaeological site types other than shell middens are not likely to be significantly affected by vessel wake at the distances indicated, provided the models given in the TMEP application are reasonably accurate. For example canoe runs, clam gardens, and stone fish traps are typically comprised of large cobbles and boulders and are unlikely to be impacted by minor increases in wave action. Surface lithic artifacts in the intertidal zone may be moved or further water rolled by increased wave action; however such artifacts are typically already eroded out of adjacent midden and have therefore lost their original context. No buried, intact inter-tidal sites have been identified in the study area. The net impact of slightly increased wave action is considered negligible. CMTs, burial cairns, or isolated surface lithic scatters on land are not expected to be affected by wave erosion, except for possible displacement through erosion and slumpage of the non-cultural sediments which support them. Table 5. Archaeological sites by type in the LSA within 10 m of the coastline Basic Site Type # of sites Shell Midden 18 Lithic Scatter 10 CMT 2 Burial 1 Fish Trap 2 Cultural 2 Depression TMEP Marine Transportation 18 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Total 35 Eighteen shell midden sites or sites with midden components are situated within the LSA (Table 5), several of which encompass other site features such as burials and burial cairns. Most of these sites do not appear to be at risk of wake related wave impacts (Table 6). Although many of the sites within Stanley Park are close to the shipping lanes, including the only site within 100 m, they are protected from waves by a seawall. Furthermore, several of the shell midden sites are located either within sheltered bays facing away from the shipping lanes, as on Discovery Island, or on the opposite side of a landform from the shipping lanes, as with three sites on Saturna Island, where wake generated from TMEP-related vessels would not be expected.

TMEP Marine Transportation 19 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Table 6. Archaeological sites within 10 m of the coastline of the Marine LSA and potential for vulnerability to TMEP vessel wake erosion. Borden # or Site Type General Location Possible risk of Comments GINPR Site # wake impact? 1783T Lithic scatter Saturna Island No On land, not vulnerable to erosion 1961T Burial Rum Island Unknown Information minimal 1962T CMT Rum Island No Site type not vulnerable to erosion 1963T CMT Rum Island No Site type not vulnerable to erosion DcRt-135 Shell Midden Discovery Island Minimal Partly sheltered behind landform; 1500 m – 2000m from shipping lane DcRt-136 Shell Midden Discovery Island No Not exposed to shipping lane DcRt-6 Shell Midden Discovery Island No Not exposed to shipping lane DeRs-17 Shell Midden Saturna Island No Not exposed to shipping lane DeRs-2 Shell Midden, Human Saturna Island Possible Partially sheltered, 500 m- Remains 1000 m from shipping lane DeRs-8 Shell Midden Saturna Island No Not exposed to shipping lane DeRs-9 Shell Midden Saturna Island No Not exposed to shipping lane DeRs-30 Shell Midden Saturna Island Possible Exposed, 500 m-1000 m from shipping lane DeRt-56 Shell Midden, Burial South Pender Possible Exposed, 500 m-1000 m from Cairn Island shipping lane DeRt-101 Shell Midden South Pender Possible Exposed, 1000 m-1500 m Island from shipping lane DhRr-8 Shell Midden, Human Burrard Inlet Possible 100 m-500 m from shipping Remains lane DhRr-15 Shell Midden, Burial Burrard Inlet Possible Information minimal, 500 m- Cairn, Intertidal Lithic 1000 m from shipping lane Scatter DhRr-27 Shell Midden Burrard Inlet Possible Information minimal, 1000 m- 1500 m from shipping lane DhRr-212 Intertidal Lithic Scatter Burrard Inlet Minimal Site type not vulnerable to erosion; artifacts may be at greater risk of breakage or attrition DhRr-216 Intertidal Lithic Scatter Burrard Inlet Minimal Site type not vulnerable to erosion; artifacts may be at greater risk of breakage or attrition DhRr-218 Intertidal Lithic Scatter Burrard Inlet Minimal Site type not vulnerable to erosion; artifacts may be at greater risk of breakage or attrition DhRr-230 Intertidal Lithic Scatter Burrard Inlet Minimal Site type not vulnerable to erosion; artifacts may be at greater risk of breakage or attrition

TMEP Marine Transportation 20 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Table 4 continued Borden # or Site Type General Location Possible risk of Comments GINPR Site # wake erosion? DhRr-231 Intertidal Lithic Scatter Burrard Inlet Minimal Site type not vulnerable to erosion artifacts may be at greater risk of breakage or attrition DhRr-368 Shell Midden Burrard Inlet Unlikely Sparse and heavily disturbed site, 1500 m-2000 m from shipping lane. DhRs-2 Human Remains, Stanley Park No Protected by sea wall Cultural Depression DhRs-5 Shell Midden Stanley Park No Protected by sea wall DhRs-79 Shell Midden, Human Stanley Park No Protected by sea wall Remains DhRs-275 Cultural Depression, Stanley Park No Protected by sea wall Petroform, DhRs-301 Lithic Scatter Stanley Park No Protected by sea wall DhRs-302 Lithic Scatter Stanley Park No Protected by sea wall DhRs-303 Lithic Scatter, Burial Stanley Park No Protected by sea wall Cairns DhRs-304 Shell Midden Stanley Park No Protected by sea wall DhRs-312 Fishing Weir Burrard Inlet No Site type not vulnerable to erosion DhRs-678 Fish Trap, Canoe Run Stanley Park No Site type not vulnerable to erosion DhRs-800 Shell Midden Burrard Inlet Possible Heavily disturbed, 100 m-500 m from shipping lane DhRs-801 Intertidal Lithic Scatter Burrard Inlet Minimal Site type not vulnerable to erosion Of the 18 shell midden sites in the LSA study area, seven are situated on shorelines directly exposed to the shipping lanes; these sites are assessed as at “Possible” risk of wake related erosion. Six intertidal lithic sites and one midden site are assessed as at “Minimal” risk of wake related impacts. The lithics may be damaged by wave action; the midden site is situated at the edge of the LSA boundary and is partially sheltered by a landform. The seven sites at possible risk are described below: DeRt-56 is an extensive, but shallow, shell midden site on Gowland Point on South Pender Island (Figure 2). One burial cairn, excavated in the 1950’s is recorded at the site, and the site form notes there may be more cairns. A note in the site form made during initial recording in 1974 reads, “there is erosion all along the seaward face of the midden in Drummond Bay. This seems to be caused by tidal action easting [sic] away at the subsoil and causing slumpage.” This site is within 500-1000 m of the outbound shipping lane. DeRt-101 is a shell midden site on South Pender Island (Figure 2). There is very little information provided about this site, originally recorded in 1974. It is slightly sheltered within a bay, so may not be highly vulnerable to wake. It is located 1000-1500 m from the outbound shipping lane.

TMEP Marine Transportation 21 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 DeRs-2 is comprised of two discrete patches of shell midden located on two points on Saturna Island. (Figure 3).The site is within 500-1000 m of the outgoing shipping lane, however, they also are located on the far side of small points and so may be somewhat protected from wake. A 1974 comment on the site form notes that there is little erosion problem. DeRs-30 is a shell midden site on East Point on Saturna Island (Figure 3). The site is located within 500-1000 m of the outgoing shipping lane, and faces the shipping lane. The site form notes ongoing erosion as an impact DhRr-8 is a large shell midden site extending approximately 1.5 km along the shoreline of Cates Park in North Vancouver (Figure 4). The site was visited by archaeologists during the clean-up activities for the Westridge Terminal release. Very light oil was observed at the site and no impacts were noted. Several artifacts were collected from the intertidal zone, including obsidian flakes and dacite artifacts. This site is actively eroding, and as recently as 2007 was recommended that measures be put in place to slow erosion (DhRr-8 Siteform). The site is 100-500 m from the outbound shipping lane. DhRr-15 is a shell midden, lithic and burial site on Burrard IR3 in North Vancouver (Figure 4). The site was visited by archaeologists during the clean-up activities for the Westridge Terminal release and a previously unidentified intertidal lithic component of widely scattered dacite and andesite artifacts identified. Very light oil was observed at the site and no impacts were noted. The site is 500-1000 m from the outbound shipping lane. DhRr-27 is a shell midden site in North Vancouver near Second Narrows (Figure 4). There is uncertainty as to its location and integrity. A 1978 note in the site form comments that it appears almost completely destroyed, it may be inland and not shoreline. The site is 1000-1500 m from the outbound and inbound shipping lanes.

TMEP Marine Transportation 22 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Figure 2. South Pender Island archaeological sites within the LSA; DeRt-101 and DeRt-56.

TMEP Marine Transportation 23 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Figure 3. Saturna Island archaeological sites within the LSA; DeRs-2 and DeRs-30.

TMEP Marine Transportation 24 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Figure 4. Burrard Inlet archaeological sites within the LSA; DhRr-8, DhRr-15 and DhRr- 27.

Assessment of Potential Spill Related Impacts There are 1,395 submerged or terrestrial archaeological sites recorded within 10 m of the shoreline in the British Columbia portion of the RSA, including those sites within the LSA discussed above (Figure 5). This includes sites in the provincial RAAD database as well as sites in the GINPR. Sites listed as legacy sites, i.e. those which have been completely destroyed, are not included in this dataset. Of these, the overwhelming number, 1,157, list shell midden as a component. Most of these sites are multi-component, for example, a shell midden site with associated intertidal lithic scatters and CMTs. Other site types included are rock art sites, including petroglyphs and pictographs, burial cairns, CMTs, earthworks, historic structures, shipwrecks, petroforms such as canoe runs and fish traps, fishing weirs and lithic scatters.

TMEP Marine Transportation 25 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Figure 5. Submerged sites and terrestrial sites within 10 m of the shoreline in the RSA (Washington sites excluded)

TMEP Marine Transportation 26 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 With respect to oil spill responses, the literature review indicates most clearly that clean- up efforts in response to a spill have the highest potential to affect archaeological sites, while oil contamination of artifacts and archaeological sediments is also a potential impact. Mechanical and manual clean-up of intertidal areas could damage artifacts, disturb archaeological sediments and impact the spatial relationships between surface features and artifacts. High pressure washing, typically used to remove oil adhering to boulder or cobble beaches, has the potential to dislodge artifacts, and also be destructive of surface or near surface archaeological artifacts, deposits and features. Mechanical removal of sediment has the potential to have a significant impact, as it could expose or destroy artifacts and unidentified submerged intertidal deposits. This method has the potential to especially be highly destructive of submerged or intertidal deposits, which are less likely to be inventoried. Sites at the greatest risk contain surficial or near surficial deposits, features or artifacts within the intertidal zone -sites such as fish traps, lithic scatters, canoe runs, clam gardens, and rock art sites. The effect of chemical cleaning agents on archaeological sites and artifacts is not thoroughly reviewed in the spill response reports considered for this study. Theoretically, the chemical agents may pose harm to rock art sites and may contaminate perishable artifacts such that they could not be radiocarbon dated or conserved. Impacts to human remains, if present, would also be of a physical nature although the spiritual impact would likely be of greater significance. The number of recorded sites with intertidal components has not been fully explored by this study given the number of recorded sites within the RSA (1,395) and its large size. It seems reasonable to assume however, that there are likely several hundred sites with intertidal components and that within any spill affected area potentially dozens of these may be at some risk of impact. In addition to these known sites, archaeological survey conducted during all three spill response programs reviewed for this study found unrecorded sites within the impact zone (Howe and Vigneault 2009; Mobley, et al. 1990; Ostahowski and Hanlon 2014).

Conclusion and Recommendations The results of this AOA indicate three potential sources of impact to archaeological sites associated with the Marine Transportation component of the TMEP Facilities Application (Trans Mountain Pipeline ULC 2013b): erosion from vessel generated waves; and in the case of an oil spill, oil contamination of artifacts and sediments, and oil clean up measures. None of these three are directly related to the Facilities Application itself for the proposed increase to pipeline capacity, but are related to the anticipated increase in marine traffic in the study area which would be a consequence of the increased transportation capacity. Vessel wake related erosion is the only potential impact directly related to the operation of more tankers. The other two potential impacts – oil contamination of sediment and site impacts resulting from spill clean-up – are more theoretical and would occur only in the case of an oil spill, although any resulting increase in tanker traffic does increase the probability of such an event occurring. A 2014 national oil spill risk assessment study commissioned by Transport Canada identifies the zone around the southern tip of Vancouver Island as having one of the highest probabilities in the country of a large scale oil spill (WSP Canada Inc. 2014). The analysis of sites within the LSA suggests that the number of sites which are at possible risk of TMEP-related vessel wake erosion is small, assuming the projected wake heights are accurate. Of the seven shell midden sites at possible risk, two (DeRt-101 and DeRs-2) may in TMEP Marine Transportation 27 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 fact be sheltered from waves behind landforms; and two (DhRr-15 and DhRr-27), are poorly mapped and recorded, and may not be shoreline adjacent or vulnerable. Only one of the sites, DhRr-8, is within 500 m of a shipping lane, and it is within Burrard Inlet where any vessels would be traveling at speeds of only 6-8 knots. The remainder of the sites are more than 500 m from the shipping lanes, where the predicted wake height generated by an escort tug (according to the model provided by TMEP) would be no greater than 12cm in a channel depth of 155 m; or 25 cm in a channel depth of 55 m, assuming a speed of 14 knots (Table 3). However it is possible that even small waves, combined with high tide and storms, may have a negative cumulative impact, particularly given the frequency and high volume of the predicted traffic. The results of the present study suggest a number of archaeological measures which could be implemented in order to better assess the actual impact of wake related erosion of archaeological sites, if any, stemming from increased tanker traffic associated with the proposed pipeline expansion. One of these is archaeological revisits to the 13 sites identified as at “Possible” or “Minimal” risk of wake related impact. These revisits should be conducted at low tide and would provide the opportunity to assess the current state of the sites based on surficial and natural exposures. Any artifacts visible in the intertidal zone should be mapped and recorded, but left in place. Bank edges could be mapped using a Total Station or RTK GPS instrument to establish baseline data for future comparison of erosional rates. Ideally, several years of data should be collected prior to any significant increase of tanker traffic, assuming Facilities Application approval. BC Hydro has undertaken or is currently undertaking a number of erosion studies within their reservoirs which are similar to this recommended scope of work. These erosion studies (Eldridge, et al. 2010; D. A. Owens, et al. 2010; D. Owens, et al. 2014) include yearly site visits for the recording of artifacts on the site surface and in several cases, the mapping of bank edges. .There are three issues with assessing the types of impact and risk: 1) oil spills are relatively rare events and may never be associated with the traffic from this terminal; 2) the existing archaeological inventory is insufficient to be clear which inventoried sites would be within the direct and indirect impact zones of any particular oil spill, and 3) the inventory is particularly deficient regarding the presence of intertidal artifacts, features and deposits at archaeological site within the direct impact zone. It is recommended that a general archaeological specific spill response plan is developed which includes protocols and procedures to ensure protection of archaeological sites, including Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Team (SCAT) work, avoidance, monitoring, and mitigation of impacts. Mitigation plans should consider the clean-up and conservation of perishable vegetal materials within an impacted archaeological site, if conditions for preservation may be present. The identification of specific archaeological response teams and the allocation of resources to the implementation of plan are also recommended. The response plan should involve archaeologists in the assessment of potential impacts as well as in the development of site specific clean-up approaches; archaeological crews would also be embedded in clean-up response teams operating within known sites or in areas of high archaeological potential.

TMEP Marine Transportation 28 Millennia Research Limited Archaeological Overview Assessment March 10 th 2015 Limitations The information contained in this report has been compiled specifically for the project as defined by the proponent and discussed herein. Any subsequent changes to the proposed project may not be addressed by the current archaeological study and additional studies may be appropriate.

Professional Statement The information compiled in this report has been prepared in accordance with the standards of the BC Association of Professional Archaeologists, and the BC Archaeological Impact Assessment Guidelines (British Columbia Archaeology Branch 1998). This report has been prepared by Millennia Research Limited staff and reviewed by a senior archaeologist (see signatories below).

Millennia Research Limited

Per: Signature:

Signature: Name: Phoebe Ramsay, BA Name: D’Ann Owens, RPCA Title: Archaeologist Title: Senior Archaeologist

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