DESIGN A MINI RACE CAR POWERED BY SOLAR

MUHAMAD FIRDAUS BIN BUKHARI

This report presented to fulfil the requirement in order to be awarded with Bachelor of Degree in Mechanical Engineering (Thermal-Fluid)

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka

JUNE 2012

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I hereby admit that have read this report and from my point of view this report is enough in term of scope and quality for purpose for awarding Bachelor of Degree in Mechanical Engineering (Thermal-Fluid)

Signature : …...... Supervisor’s name : Imran Syakir Bin Mohamad Date : 22 June 2012

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DECLARATION

“I admit this report has been written by me myself except for some quotation that has been noted well for each of them”

Signature : …...... Student’s name : Muhamad Firdaus Bin Bukhari Date : 22 June 2012

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DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to my beloved parents

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of ALLAH S.W.T., the most Merciful and the most Gracious

Alhamdulillah, a lot of thanks to ALLAH S.W.T for His blessing for me to complete my report and this report is the symbolic of the support and guidance from everyone involving.

I would like to express my heartily gratitude to my first supervisor, Mohd Afzanizam Bin Mohd Rosli for the guidance and enthusiasm given throughout the progress of this project. Last but not least my gratitude to my second supervisor Imran Syakir Bin Mohamad who love to guidance and advising me.

My appreciation also goes to my family who has been so tolerant and supports me all these years. Special thanks for their encouragement, love and emotional supports. Thank you for those who has given the constructive comments and ideas in completing this project.

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ABSTRACT

Solar energy is a renewable energy source. Solar energy or solar photovoltaic (PV) is a new energy source that is clean and meets the environmental aspect. Projects implemented through this report explains how the energy produced by solar radiation able to generate electricity by using solar cells. Solar energy that are generated arising from reception rate of solar radiation are evaluated by three types of solar panels of different sizes and power. The solar panel used in this project is Monocrystalline the best in its class. There are two types of models designed to test the capabilities of solar panel. The design for each models of this car through several design concept which takes into consideration the basic factors of car components. In this report, software for designing of this car models is by using Solidworks. Analysis performed on each components are discussed in detail. from the results obtained showed that solar energy can affect the rate of car velocity at within the specified distance without changing the physical form of models other than the difference in time and power of solar panel capacity only.

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ABSTRAK

Tenaga solar merupakan sumber tenaga yang boleh diperbaharui. Tenaga solar atau photovoltaic (PV) adalah sumber tenaga baru yang bersih dan menepati aspek persekitaran. Projek yang dilaksanakan di dalam laporan ini menerangkan bagaimana tenaga yang terhasil dengan radiasi matahari mampu menjana tenaga elektrik dengan menggunakan sel solar. Kuasa yang terjana hasil sinaran matahari dinilai kadar penerimaannya melalui tiga jenis panel solar yang berlainan saiz dan kuasa janaan. Panel solar yang digunakan di dalam projek ini adalah daripada jenis monohablur yang terbaik di dalam kelasnya. Terdapat dua jenis model kereta yang direka untuk menguji keupayaan panel solar ini. Reka bentuk bagi setiap model kereta ini melalui beberapa konsep reka bentuk yang mana mengambil kira faktor- faktor asas komponen kereta. Dalam kajian ini, reka bentuk konsep model kereta adalah dengan menggunakan perisian “Solidworks”. Analisis dilaksanakan ke atas setiap komponen turut dibincangkan dengan terperinci. Hasil dari keputusan yang diperoleh menunjukkan tenaga solar mampu mempengaruhi kadar masa halaju kereta pada jarak yang ditetapkan dengan tidak mengubah bentuk fizikal model kereta selain dari perbezaan waktu dan kuasa pada panel solar sahaja.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

SUPERVISOR’S VERIFICATION ii DECLARATION iii DEDICATION iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v ABSTRACT vi ABSTRAK vii TABLE OF CONTENT viii LIST OF FIGURES xii LIST OF TABLE xiv LIST OF SYMBOL xv LIST OF APPENDIX xvi

CHAPTER 1 PREFACE 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Project background 2 1.3 Problem Statement 3 1.4 Objectives 3 1.5 Scope of Studies 3 1.6 Project Outline 4 1.7 Gantt Chart 5

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6 2.1 Solar Energy 6 2.2 Types of Solar Panels 7 2.2.1 Monocrystalline silicon panels 7

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CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

2.2.2 Polycrystalline silicon panels 7 2.2.3 Amorphous silicon panels 7 2.3 What are Solar Panels Made of 8 2.4 How Are Solar Panels Made 9 2.4.1 Crystalline silicon solar panels 9 2.4.2 Amorphous silicon solar panels 9 2.5 How Electricity Arising From Solar Energy. 10 2.6 Solar Panel Installation 11 2.6.1 Solar panel mounting 11 2.6.2 Notice obstructions to sunlight 11 2.6.3 Position solar panel in direct sunlight 11 2.7 Power Produced by Solar Panels 12 2.8 Solar Efficiency 12 2.9 General Climate of Malaysia 13 2.9.1 Sunray and solar radiation in Malaysia 13 2.9.2 Evaporation 14 2.9.3 Seasonal rainfall variation in peninsular Malaysia 14 2.9.4 Solar Radiation Mapping 15 2.10 Design Characteristic 16 2.10.1 Chassis 16 2.10.2 Power source 16 2.10.3 Transmission 17 2.10.4 Wheels 17 2.10.5 Body shell 17 2.11 Design Specification 18 2.11.1 Tyre traction 18 2.11.2 Lubrication 18 2.11.3 Bearings 19 2.11.4 Solar panel angle 19 2.11.5 Weight distribution 20 2.11.6 Wheel alignment 20 2.11.7 Sunray reflector 21 x

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

2.11.8 Aerodynamic 21 2.12 Advantages of Solar Energy 22 2.13 Principle of DC motor 23

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 24 3.1 Introduction 24 3.2 Flow Chart 25 3.3 Project Outline 26 3.4 Research 27 3.4.1 Internet research 27 3.4.2 Survey approach 27 3.4.3 Site visit 28 3.5 Direct Current Motor 28 3.6 Design 29 3.6.1 Concept Design 29 3.6.2 Concept Generation 31 3.6.3 Concept Evaluation and Selection 33 3.6.4 Concept Scoring Matrix 34 3.7 Equipment and Material 35 3.7.1 Multimeter 35 3.7.2 Tools 36 3.7.3 Material 37 3.8 Fabrication 38 3.9 Platform 41 3.10 Energy Utilisation 42 3.11 Safety Precautions 43

CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 44 4.1 Introduction 44 4.2 Theoretical Calculations For A Solar Car 46 4.2.1 Wheel Size 47 4.2.2 Gear Ratio 48 xi

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

4.3 Measurement and Testing 49 4.3.1 Solar Panel Measurement 49 4.3.2 Power and Circuit Connection 51 4.3.3 DC Motor and Gear Ratio Measurement 53 4.3.4 Tilt 55 4.3.5 Comparison Between Two Models 56 4.3.6 Test Results Summary 57 4.5 Design Considerations For A Solar Car 58 4.6 Troubleshooting 59

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 60 5.1 Conclusion 60

REFERENCES 62 APPENDIX 65

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LIST OF FIGURES

NO. TITLE PAGE

Figure 1.1 Principle of solar car 2 Figure 2.1 Components of a PV Array 6 Figure 2.2 Band Gap 10 Figure 2.3 Monthly average daily solar irradiations of Malaysia for the 15 month of May Figure 2.4 Tyre traction 18 Figure 2.5 Angle of panel solar 19 Figure 2.6 Alignment 20 Figure 2.7 Solar reflector 21 Figure 2.8 Air drag 21 Figure 2.9 Fundamental of electric motor 23 Figure 3.1 Project Outline Flowchart 25 Figure 3.2 5.9 volt DC motor 28 Figure 3.4 Concept design process flow chart 29 Figure 3.5 Model 1 31 Figure 3.6 Model 2 32 Figure 3.7 Measuring to obtain voltage and current 35 Figure 3.8 Measurement to conduct parallel and series circuit 36 Figure 3.9 (a) Cutting process 38 Figure 3.9 (b) Dimension checking 38 Figure 3.9 (c) Axle 39 Figure 3.9 (d) Panel stand installation 39 Figure 3.9 (e) Pulley 40 Figure 3.9 (f) Complete model 40 Figure 3.10 Squash court at UTeM 41 Figure 3.11 Competition field in Nasional Science Centre, Mont Kiara 41 xiii

NO. TITLE PAGE

Figure 4.1 Graph of Power versus Time period 51 Figure 4.2 (a): 0° tilt of the solar panel 55 Figure 4.2 (b): 5° tilt of the solar panel 55

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LIST OF TABLE

NO. TITLE PAGE

Table 1.1 Gantt chart for final year project part one 5 Table 1.2 Gantt chart for final year project part two 5 Table 3.1 Morphology Chart 30 Table 3.2 Comparison of model features 33 Table 3.3 Criterion for Concept Scoring Matrix 34 Table 3.4 Concept Scoring Matrix 34 Table 3.5 list of tools 36 Table 3.6 List of material 37 Table 3.7 Energy losses 42 Table 4.1 Solar panel specification 49 Table 4.2 Voltage measurement in actual condition 49 Table 4.3 Current measurement in actual condition 49 Table 4.4 Solar panel power produced 50 Table 4.5 Comparison of series and parallel 52 Table 4.6 Circuit connection against time 52 Table 4.7 DC motor against velocity 53 Table 4.8 Gear ratio analyses by 5.0v capacity 54 Table 4.9 Comparison of angle on panel installation against speed 55 Table 4.10 Comparison of model 56 Table 4.11 Test Results Summary 57

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LIST OF SYMBOL

= Acceleration, m/s2

푎 = Circumference 퐶 = Current, mA 퐼 = Diameter, m 퐷 = Diameter of pulley/gear (motor) 푚 퐷 = Diameter of pulley/gear (driven) 푑 퐷 = Diameter of wheel 푤 퐷 = Distance travelled, m 푑 = Force, Nm 퐹 = Mass, kg 푚 = Number of teeth (driven) 푑 푁 = Number of teeth (motor) 푚 푁 = Power, watts 푃 = Ratio 푅 = Speed of wheel, rpm 푑 휔 = Speed of motor, rpm 푚 휔 = Time, s 푡 = Velocity, m/s 푣 = Voltage, volts 푉

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LIST OF APPENDIX

NO. TITLE PAGE

A Detail drawing for model 1 65 B Detail drawing for model 2 66 1

CHAPTER 1

PREFACE

1.1 Introduction

Due to the energy crisis, renewable energy sources have been deeply concerned as possible solutions to remain resources on the earth. Among these energy sources, solar energy one of the undisposed energy are to be concerned. A free conversion, non-polluted and inexhaustible energy source and has been use to generate electricity for decades.

The solar energy is produced by sunray and converted to electricity energy by using solar cell. For example, one of the applications that using photovoltaic technology is street lamp. There are many application can be found were using solar panel to powered the energy. Solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.

The main focus of this project is to design the mini race car with environmentally friendly materials and powered by solar panel. The energy produce may not been keep it, but connect directly to the motor.

This project consists of three main elements which are panel solar, motor and mini car. The panel solar is used to power the motor and transmit to car shaft. The solar panel need to choose wisely since they are types with high and low efficiency accordingly. The car created is main mechanism to measure the overall efficiency of the objective project. 2

1.2 Project Background

In this project, the main objectives should be given attention is how to design a solar car that has the potential to run on solar energy. Further, these project requirements are made even more complex because many of the design may involve. In part, this means identifying and testing a broad range of tools and techniques.

This study is adopting the renewable energy program to improve and acknowledge the energy sources and counteract the greenhouse effect. In part, it also means investigating the ramifications of participatory made for and to realise the importance of preserving the earth and pollution control.

A key issue for this project is condition of the track and the situation during the day. The outcomes of this project are expected to produce a single solar car among the others prototype which every aspect is measured according the objective required.

Figure 1.1: Principle of solar car (Source: http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz)

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1.3 Problem Statement

Solar energy is an energy obtained by converting the solar radiation into electricity. The ability of solar energy is limited and only capable to generate electricity only during the day. This energy is also not stable and a lot of factors that need to be considered for the use of solar energy. Solar photovoltaic (PV) is a way to collect solar energy generated through solar radiation. But arising of solar power capacity is unknown and the percentage decrement of this energy potential is hidden.

One way to evaluate the ability of solar energy is to use solar energy into physical form. A mini solar car will be designed to evaluate the ability of solar energy collected by solar panels. Electricity generated is measured by taking the speed of a car moving in particular distance. If there is a difference of speed was recorded even in the same condition, it is clear there are factors that affect the speed. This difference may have occurred in cars that are designed or because the collection of solar radiation.

1.4 Objectives

The objectives of this project are as follows:

1. To evaluate the performance of three different solar cells in terms of power. 2. To design and fabricate an actual mini race car.

1.5 Scope of Studies

There are two main elements considered in this project which are:

1. Evaluate the performance of solar energy through the car speed. 2. Perform analysis on each component of the solar car at a maximum level. 4

1.6 Project Outline

This project consists of five chapters including this chapter. The content of each chapter are outlined as follows:

Chapter 1: Introducing the overview of project including the background, objectives, problem statement, and scope of the project.

Chapter 2: Describes about the reviews on previous researches conducted that are related to this project. Before starting the project, the background and literature review about alternative using solar has been studied in order to understand more about the operation and principle of solar energy.

Chapter 3: Include the project methodology. This will explain how the project was organized and the flow of system designed. Before developing the prototype, the test run has been done to make sure that the mini car would be working properly.

Chapter 4: The result will be analysed and discussed. This chapter shows the result achieved by doing this project. The results are gathered and evaluated after all the experiment conducting is done.

Chapter 5: The overall conclusion of this project that have been completed. The final chapter which is chapter five elaborates the conclusion and future work of the project. The future works are suggestions made for the project to be improved in near future.

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1.7 Gantt Chart

Table 1.1: Gantt chart for final year project part one Weeks Activities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Research and analysis

Literature review

Poster submission

Generate concepts

Concept selection

Detail design

Report writing

Draft report submission

Table 1.2: Gantt chart for final year project part two Weeks Activities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Research and analysis

Car design

Fabrication of a prototype

Experimental and testing

Design evaluation

Discussion and result

Writing report

Presentation

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Solar Energy

Solar energy is unsurpassed by any other form of energy. Solar energy was originally coming from sun. Solar cell convert this solar radiation into useful electrical energy and store them in storage such as batteries, but in this cases, it will directly converted to be used for competition. Solar radiation strikes the earth surface and creates the paramount source of alternative energy. Solar panels help to harvest this energy and convert it into usable energy.

Solar is an intermittent power source that functions only when the sun is shining. Solar cells or photovoltaic cells are arranged in a grid like pattern on the surface of the solar panel (David S.F. 2010). These solar voltaic cells collect sunlight during the daylight hours and convert it into electricity.

Figure 2.1: Components of a PV Array (Source: http://www.zeh.ca) 7

2.2 Types of Solar Panels

There are three main types of solar panels to generate electricity currently that always been used. They are Monocrystalline Silicon Panels, Amorphous Silicon Panels, and Polycrystalline Silicon Panels (Mukund R.P. 2006).

2.2.1 Monocrystalline silicon panels

Monocrystalline silicon solar panels have a return electricity rate of anywhere from 14 to 18 percent. These panels are made from one continuous sheet of silicon that has pieces of metal nailed to the edges to increase the conductivity and to excite the electrons. Monocrystalline panels are more expensive than some of the other types of solar panels that more effective for used in the long term.

2.2.2 Polycrystalline silicon panels

Polycrystalline silicon panes have an electricity return rate of about 12 to 14 percent and less efficient than monocrystalline silicon solar panels. These panels are made up of lots of individual PV cells that have metal conducting materials nailed to the sides that will help excite the electrons and also connect the cells together. The maintenance costs are lower than the maintenance cost of monocrystalline solar panels.

2.2.3 Amorphous silicon panels

Amorphous or thin film silicon panels have the lowest electricity return rate of any type of solar panels. Have an electricity return rate of between 5 to 6 percent. These panels are not made with crystalline silicon. They are composed of a piece of 8 semi conductive metal, like copper, with a thin silicon film over the top that is attached to some metal pieces. Less efficiency of any type of panel and are not going to be cost effective in the long run.

2.3 What are Solar Panels Made of

Solar panels are typically constructed with crystalline silicon, and the more expensive gallium arsenide, which is produced exclusively for use in photovoltaic cells. Solar cells are made from a range of semiconductor material, usually one of three types of base materials: (Mukund R.P. 2006)

i. Silicon (Si), which includes single-crystalline, multicrystalline, and amorphous forms ii. Polycrystalline thin films, which include copper indium diselenide (CIS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and thin-film silicon iii. Single crystalline thin films, which include gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Many high efficiency solar cells are constructed from gallium arsenide by a process called molecular beam epitaxial. Silicon and other semiconductor materials come in these main forms:

i. Monocrystalline: Crystals are repeated in a regular pattern from layer to layer. ii. Polycrystalline: Small crystals are arranged randomly, similar to shattered glass. iii. Amorphous silicon: Materials in these panels have no crystalline structure.

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2.4 How Are Solar Panels Made

Making solar panels is a delicate process, below their two type of solar cell. Semiconductors and photovoltaic design allowed increasingly efficient and affordable solar cells to be developed.

2.4.1 Crystalline silicon solar panels

The creation of solar panels typically involves cutting crystalline silicon into tiny disks less than a centimetre thick. These thin, wafers like disks are then carefully polished. After polishing, dopants and metal conductors are spread across each disk. The conductors are aligned in a thin, grid like matrix on the top of the solar panel, and are spread in a flat, thin sheet on the side facing the earth. A thin layer of cover glass is then bonded to the top of the photovoltaic cell then attached to a substrate by thermally conductive cement. The thermally conductive property of the cement keeps the solar panel from becoming overheated; otherwise reduce the efficiency of the solar cells (John T. 2006).

2.4.2 Amorphous silicon solar panels

Amorphous silicon solar panels are a powerful compare with crystalline silicon output, structure, and manufacture. Amorphous silicon solar cells are developed in a continuous roll to roll process by vapour depositing silicon alloys in multiple layers, with each thin layer specializing in the absorption of different parts of the solar spectrum. Come with shade resistant or multiple circuits within the cells, so the circuit would not be completely broken and some output can still be gained. The development process renders this panel much less susceptible to breakage during transport or installation (John T. 2006).

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2.5 How Electricity Arising From Solar Energy

The process of producing solar energy is a process of converting light (photons) into electrical propulsion known as the photovoltaic effect (PV). Contained within photon of light contains the number or rate of energy varies depending on the wavelength and spectrum of solar generated. When the photon is in violation or in contact with the solar panel, solar panels will absorb photons in some degree.

Not all photons are absorbed by the solar panels because it depends on the type of semiconductor materials used to produce the solar panels. Photon energy at certain levels is able to dissolve the bonding electrons from atoms to produce electricity. Quantity of the energy produce is difference between a material with other material in the production of solar cells. This energy level is known as band- gap energy which is measured in units of electron-volts (Andreev V.).

Figure 2.2: Band Gap (Source: http://www.eere.energy.gov)

Different materials with band-gap energy values are different. Materials with band-gap energy between 1eV and 1.8 eV is the best material and has a high efficiency of energy production. Photons with less energy than the band gap energy pass through the material.

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2.6 Solar Panel Installation

Solar Panels are typically installed on rooftops, building tops, or stand-alone facilities. It is important to install solar panel so that it gets the most direct sun exposure. These determine solar panel is maximally effective during the testing conducted. To implement, there are several resources in helping properly to set up and installing solar panels by tracking the position of the sun in the sky.

2.6.1 Solar panel mounting

Solar panel mounts are used to attach PV onto any surfaces. Solar panel mounts come in three main varieties: pole mounts, roof ground mounts, and flush mounts. By using these mounts, it can be installed onto a vehicle, on roof, on top of or against the side of a pole, or even install them as a free standing unit (Mukund R.P. 2006).

2.6.2 Notice obstructions to sunlight

Remove all unnecessary items that may be blocking sunlight to solar panel units. Trace the path of the sun in the sky to determine if an object is casting a shadow over solar photovoltaic panels. If this is the case, then the operating efficiency of unit will be reduce (Zhimin Li 2011).

2.6.3 Position solar panel in direct sunlight

Solar panels perform at optimum capacity when placed in direct sunlight. The energy collection from the sun are mostly linearly proportional to the site latitude. By tracking the radiation axis, PV is directly placed under the noontime sun (Zhimin Li). 12

2.7 Power Produced by Solar Panels

The efficiency of solar panels and the resultant energy produced is dependent on climatic, geographic, and weather factors. Arid climates are ideal for solar panels and solar panel will produce more energy in areas where they are exposed to direct sunlight under clear skies (Ayu W.A. 2008). Even at optimal efficiency, solar panels only convert a small percentage of the energy that strikes it into usable energy.

Years of overheating and physical been using will reduce the operation efficiency of the photovoltaic unit. Solar cells become less efficient over time and excess energy is released into its thermally conductive substrate as infrared heat (Ryszard P. 2010). The amount of power solar panels produce is influenced by the quality of the solar panel types, the materials and technology used in making the solar panel and the amount of time the solar panel been use.

2.8 Solar Efficiency

Solar efficiency refers to the amount of ambient light can be converted into electrical energy can be used. Solar cell efficiency is the amount of light the individual solar cell converts to electricity. Solar cells are placed next to each other on the back sheet and covered by glass to make solar panels.

The efficiency of solar panels refers to the amount of light that converts the entire of solar cell surface. The efficiency of a solar panel is lower than that of a solar cell due to the spacing between cells and because the glass covering reflects away some of the sunlight (Mukund R.P. 2006).

Solar energy system is often described in terms of total power they can produce, measured in watts or kilowatts. However, more important factors to consider when comparing a solar energy system are the amount of the actual electricity generating system during its lifetime (Chia S.L. 2009). By using high efficiency of solar panels: 13

i. Generate more electricity with fewer panels ii. Require less space iii. Involve reduced installation time and fewer mounting materials iv. Offer more savings

2.9 General Climate of Malaysia

The characteristic features of the climate of Malaysia are uniform temperature, high humidity and copious rainfall (Ayu W.A. 2008). Winds are generally light. Situated in the equatorial doldrums area, it is extremely rare to have a full day with completely clear sky even during periods of severe drought. On the other hand, it is also rare to have a stretch of a few days with completely no sunshine except during the northeast monsoon seasons.

2.9.1 Sunray and solar radiation in Malaysia

Malaysia naturally has abundant sunshine and thus solar radiation. It is rare to have a full day with completely clear sky even in periods of severe drought. The cloud cover cuts off a substantial amount of sunshine and thus solar radiation. On the average, Malaysia receives about 6 hours of sunshine per day. Alor Setar and Kota Bharu receive about 7 hours per day of sunshine while Kuching receives only 5 hours on the average. On the extreme, Kuching receives only an average of 3.7 hours per day in the month of January. Alor Setar receives a maximum of 8.7 hours per day on the average in the same month. Solar radiation is closely related to the sunshine duration. Its seasonal and spatial variations are thus very much the same as in the case of sunshine. (http://www.met.gov.my)

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2.9.2 Evaporation

Cloudiness and temperature are two of the most important ones in this country. These two factors are however inter-related. A cloudy day will mean less sunshine and thus less solar radiation resulting in a lower temperature. The cloudy or rainy months are the months with lower evaporation rate while the dry months are the months with higher rate. It is noted that Senai has an average evaporation rate of 2.6mm/day in the month of November, the lowest for lowland stations. Kota Kinabalu has the highest average evaporation rate of 6.0 mm/day in the month of April. For highland areas such as Cameron Highlands where the air temperature is substantially lower, the evaporation rate is proportionally lower too. While lowland areas have an annual average evaporation rate of 4 to 5 mm per day, Cameron Highlands has a rate of only about 2.5 mm per day. (http://www.met.gov.my)

2.9.3 Seasonal rainfall variation in peninsular Malaysia

Over the east coast states, November, December and January are the months with maximum rainfall, while June and July are the driest months in most districts.

Over the rest of the Peninsula with the exception of the southwest coastal area, the monthly rainfall pattern shows two periods of maximum rainfall separated by two periods of minimum rainfall. The primary maximum generally occurs in October - November while the secondary maximum generally occurs in April - May. Over the north-western region, the primary minimum occurs in January - February with the secondary minimum in June - July while elsewhere the primary minimum occurs in June - July with the secondary minimum in February.

The rainfall pattern over the southwest coastal area is much affected by early morning from May to August with the result that the double maxima and minima pattern is no longer distinguishable. October and November are the months with maximum rainfalls and February the month with the minimum rainfall. The March - April - May maximum and the June - July minimum rainfalls are absent or indistinct. 15

2.9.4 Solar Radiation Mapping

Solar energy has been identified as one of the most potential alternative energy resources as Malaysia receives abundant sunshine all year long. But using the satellite, images covering the whole of Malaysia is obtain. This grey scale satellite images are hourly taken from 7:00 am until 7:00 pm for the period of one year starting from January until December 2006. Solar radiation data are collected from several ground measuring station of solar radiation available at Meteorological Department consist of solar radiation data from nine station which are Chuping, Alor Setar, Ipoh, Malacca, Senai, Kota Bharu, Kuala Terengganu, Kota Kinabalu and Kuching. (http://www.met.gov.my)

This solar radiation for purpose at month of May where the competition will conducted at this month. The venue of competition is pointed at Mont Kiara, Kuala Lumpur. From the figure below, the daily solar irradiation of Malaysia were shows:

Max = 6.84 kWh/m2 Min = 3.69 kWh/m2 Ave = 4.83 kWh/m2

Figure 2.3: Monthly average daily solar irradiations of Malaysia for the month of May (Source: Wazira A.A. (2008))

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2.10 Design Characteristic

Perfect car must have the basic components to be called as a car. For the simple context, well designed cars should be tested and be evaluating the cars efficiency that has been complete as finish good. There are several important parts that need to be taken to avoid difficulties during the competition period. There are five characteristic can be state:

2.10.1 Chassis

Outline of a car is a frame in which to support all the components installed on it. Various concepts that can be made are to consider its weight, size and stiffness of a frame. The design generate can be said there is no ideal design can be implemented. Consideration should be made clear to avoid the mini car is not too heavy (Douglas R.C. 2002). The ability of this mini cars run on electric motors. Load were applying on mini race car may influence of electric motors to generate movement. Efficiency is very important and large loads could waste energy. Beside, designs that are too light can affect the performance of these mini cars. The wind may come and could change the direction the car should move in a linear.

2.10.2 Power source

Solar energy has many uses either it be used to provide heat, light or to generate electricity. In general, solar energy systems can be categorized as two types: passive solar energy which refers to the collection of heat and light and active solar energy refers to storing and converting this energy for other uses, as photovoltaic electricity or thermal energy (Anne M. 2009). Where power can measure by following the equation below:

( ) = ( ) × ( ) …(Equation 2.1)

푃표푤푒푟 푃 푉표푙푡푎푔푒 푉 퐶푢푟푟푒푛푡 퐼 17

2.10.3 Transmission

A set of transmission has potential to produce rotation according the situation of the speed required. Gear is different from a pulley where gear has linkages that mesh with other gear teeth, by transferring the rotation without slipping. There a few methods can be used such as direct drive, friction drive, belt drive, chain drive, and gears ( Roslan A.R. 2001). Depending on construction and arrangement made, drive system can transmit power at different speeds, torques, or in a different direction.

= …(Equation 2.2)

푅푎푡푖표 푁푑푟푖푣푒푛⁄푁푑푟푖푣푒푟 Distance for revolution of wheel can be define as,

= 2 × × …(Equation 2.3)

퐷푖푠푡푎푛푐푒 휋푟 푁푚표푡표푟 푟푎푡푖표

2.10.4 Wheels

Wheels support the chassis and allow the car to roll forward. Wheels can be large, small, and wide. Selection of the wheel has to consider its diameter. The ability of the power source supplied to generate motor would influence the displacement per rotation of wheel. The bigger the wheel diameter, the more energy it takes to get the wheel turning (Cakir K. 2006).

2.10.5 Body shell

The body or shell of a real car has several purposes. It protects the passengers from wind and rain, it provides added safety in case of a crash, and it improves how the car looks. But it also changes how the car performs because a well-designed shell can reduce the force of air on the car as it moves (David H.K. 2005).

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2.11 Design Specification

In design specification, there are several factors to consider and concern. In each criteria to design a mini car, it is important to take detail precaution. Below are the specification that need to be considers in this project:

2.11.1 Tyre traction

There are two things to select which are wheel and tyre. Wheel rolling along the road, friction keeps them from slipping. This type of friction is also called traction. Rubber can grip onto the dirt and rocks and keep the tires from slipping on the ground. Since coefficient of friction for rubber is greater than any material to pavement. The thick tyres are more rugged where area of the surface is influence the pressure. The heavier the wheel, the more energy it takes to get the wheel turning.

Figure 2.4: Tyre traction (Source: http://www.nrel.gov)

2.11.2 Lubrication

Lubrication helps parts slide against each other, so it is used in bearings to reduce friction. Different lubricants work better with different materials. In the case of machines, one generally uses oil or grease to help the parts slide together easily. Some appropriate lubricants for the solar car bearings may be light oil, light grease, or graphite powder (Richard G.B. 2011). 19

2.11.3 Bearings

Bearings support the wheel while allowing them to rotate. To reduce two things rubbing against each other and let them to move freely, friction slows things down and wastes energy. Friction is undesirable is in the wheel axle (Richard G.B. 2011). Bearing is the solution to make the friction decreasing to the minimum level. Between each wheel and its centre axle is a type of bearing. The bearing holds the wheel on the axle, but reduces the friction between them, so the wheel can spin for a long time without slowing down.

2.11.4 Solar panel angle

By setting the solar panel position perpendicularly to the solar radiation during daylight hours, it can increase the collected energy by up to fifty percent (Sarker M.R.I.). To produce current, more electrons need to be forced to move inside the panel. If more sunlight hits the solar panel, more electrons are knocked away from atoms in the solar panel and more current is then produced. One way is to tilt the solar panel towards the sun. Mount the solar panel at different angles and choose the best angle according the sunray hit directly to solar panel.

Figure 2.5: Angle of panel solar (Source: http://www.nrel.gov)

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2.11.5 Weight distribution

Some of the force is transmitted through the driven wheels. Weight distribution is important, it can increase the load and influence the car speed. Traction is important for transmitting the forces from the wheels to the road. Friction force can be increased by adding a non-slip material around the wheels or by moving weight over the driven wheels.

2.11.6 Wheel alignment

Another problem that wastes energy is poor wheel alignment. When the wheels on vehicle are not lined up properly, some of the wheels must slide sideways. When the driven wheels try to pull the car one way, but the rest of the car wants to roll the other way, the friction force in the wheels wastes quite a bit of energy. This can be done by make sure that the axle goes through the centre of the wheel.

Figure 2.6: Alignment (Source: http://www.nrel.gov)

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2.11.7 Sunray reflector

There are a few ways how to increase solar cell production, one of them is by using a reflector to capture more sunlight with the solar panel (Levinson R. 2010). Reflector is position at certain angle such as five degrees. The disadvantage by this method would increase the car load with a reflector, and a heavier car will be harder to move. Also the reflectors might increases air drag or get caught in side winds.

Figure 2.7: Solar reflector (Source: http://www.nrel.gov)

2.11.8 Aerodynamic

Aerodynamic is regarding air drag exacted to body car. For example, it is estimated that about 15% of the total energy require to moving car, tyre rolling resistance represents about 25%, and air drag is about 60%. This is about high speed during the car runs, instead for slower speed, where air drag on car can be assume at minimum level.

Figure 2.8: Air drag (Source: http://www.nrel.gov)

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As car move along the track, the air exerts a force that increases with speed. The force is due to friction between the air and the exposed surfaces of car. During the car move forward, this drag force can be the most importance source of resistance, and with a wind blowing, it can also lead to significant side forces. This drag is overcome by the track pushing backwards on the wheel with the torque, with an equal and opposite forward force at the axle.

2.12 Advantages of Solar Energy

Solar technologies are widely characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight (John T. 2006). Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels to convert sunlight into useful outputs. The advantages of solar energy can be state as:

i. Solar energy is a renewable resource although it cannot be utilized at night or on cloudy days, its can use generally relied upon day after day. ii. Solar energy is non-polluting and clean without oil spill or stain like a fuel. iii. Solar cells are long-lasting and require low maintenance. iv. Although solar panels and component may be expensive to buy at initially, but for long run it save, this is because energy from the sun is widely available and free. v. It is easy to install with a few wiring issues and little need to ever dig supporting trenches.

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2.13 Principle of DC motor

Figure 2.9: Fundamental of electric motor. (Source: http://www.dhcservice.com)

Direct Current Motor is seen as a simple electric motor and the most fundamental. The basic building consists of stator and rotor contains permanent magnets that contain coils, shaft and carbon brushes. The basic principle of direct current motor is cutting the magnetic field flux by an electric current which flows in the coil. Effect of magnetic field cuts would produce the force. Theory of the fundamental principles of direct current motor such as Law of Fleming's left hand.

To move and control the direct current motor cycles is also easy. To operate a direct current motor is only supply the connection on both positive and negative polarity. While to change or reverse direction of motor rotation is only necessary to change the supply voltage applied at the two polarity

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The methodology is a process for implementation and developing the project. The goal and the successfulness of the project is depends on how the plans is conduct to achieve the result. Methodology is to describe the each step to accomplish the sequence of the flow work from the beginning until the result is obtained and success. All the results obtain were evaluated and improved till the best result came out and to be taken. This implementation would be and getting the worst result where try and error is happens here. Where any ideal decision may reconsider and repeating to satisfy the best result.

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3.2 Flow Chart

Start

Literature Review

Methodology

Concept Design

no

Concept Evaluation

yes

Selecting Design

Fabrication and Analysis

no Analyzing

yes

Final Result

End

Figure 3.1: Project Outline Flowchart

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3.3 Project Outline

Phase to process developing and fabricating. Discuss about the theories review, calculation, project specifications and etc. In order to achieve all this, the following methods are to be followed closely during the execution of the project to achieve the objective.

i. Understand the objective of the project and search for the best result to solve the problem statement. ii. Study the literature review and analyse what implementation can be made to this project. All information gathered together from the various sources such as common internet website sources, journals, books, written articles, paper, blogs, video site and any medium and resources. iii. Study and analyse all information and data gathered from various sources and related to with objective of the project. Classify and to understand the project requirement. iv. Experimentation and simulation where certain experiments are needed to be done in order to collect and to take note the data and record for improvement. v. Generate conceptual design and concept selection where meet the characteristic require and final conceptual design is obtain. vi. Phase to detail design process where concept will be enhanced and optimized if there is disability and problems to produce the final design. vii. Fabrication and implementations is happen here where it will be develop and brought to life from the detail design drawing that have chosen. viii. Next step is to test run whether the prototype can work properly and meet the objective. Thus, the problem found will be analyse and need to be rework. ix. The last process is product realization and verification where it will be send to presented and enter the competition whether the product achieve the goals of the project.

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3.4 Research

In research section, there are consist of three element input that can be used to conduct a the project research. Where method to conduct for each one of element is different.

3.4.1 Internet research

Research through the website is the best alternative in which much information can be found and collected. In addition, information regarding the competition date and venue last well-known also can be tell. There are a number of books where related with research objectives and can be used as a guide for completing the report and the fabrication process. Also for validity, the journals are related can also be downloaded and taken as a reference report. There are many websites that excess supply further information in respect of project problems and how to overcome some of the problems can be found.

3.4.2 Survey approach

The interview survey was done to assess knowledge, opinions and views of solar car that available. This survey can be done at market who sold electronics component, market value for solar panel, asking for opinion and searching solar car for ready-made sale. Some questions were related to the knowledge, satisfaction of existing solar system and main criteria of installation for car using solar system had been asked for these interviews.

This survey consists of market survey and simple interview to a set of people. The market survey is done by collecting brochures and visiting websites of suppliers. During the research the information collect regarding the technical specifications of their product. 28

3.4.3 Site visit

Did a trip and survey of the solar panels manufacturing company at AUO SunPower Sdn Bhd, Alor Gajah Melaka and Malaysian Green Technology Corporation, Bandar Baru Bangi Selangor in April 2012. Much information can be collected when carrying out the trips to self-motivate as well to know the situation how solar energy is working.

End of the year 2011, visits were also made at National Science Centre in Mont Kiara Kuala Lumpur. Information can be gathered through such as asking the associates, organizer of the event or information through observation and photographing.

3.5 Direct Current Motor

Direct current (DC) motor is commonly used in electronic components. However there are various size and proportion as a selection for motor. Voltan for motor is commonly used among 3V up to 24V. For the selection of suitable motor, several factors should be taken to ensure motor can move as required. An important factor to be considered among these are the torque and speed. The torque is proportional to the voltage.

Figure 3.2: 5.9 volt DC motor (Source: http://www.logingel.com.mk)

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3.6 Design

In the design process, there are several stages needs to be done before a design can be designed as design ultimate. This design proses consist the concept design, conceptual design, concept generation, configuration design, and concept evaluation. This process can be illustrated through the design process flow chart as shown below.

3.6.1 Concept Design

Concept design is a phase in the evolution of product when alternative design concepts are generated, evaluated, and selected for further development. Each concept design should different each other in term of physical, material and geometric.

Design Specification

Clarify • Conducting research through any convenient. Function • Function structure.

• Preparing more than one prototype to be compare and Generate compete. Alternatives • Review people surrounding opinion. Iteration • Conducting experiment due to speed. Analyze • Selection of proper component, drive ratio, material, etc.

No • To satisfy the requirement design which is consist of Feasible? physical, material, geometric, speed, low cost and etc. Yes • Using Weighted Decision Matrix method to rating Evaluate concept generation.

Best Concept (s)

Figure 3.4: Concept design process flow chart 30

A morphological chart is a table based on the function analysis. The idea generation is accomplished by creating single systems from different mechanisms illustrated in the morphological chart. Where to produced two types of model, the result will come out by generate several feasible designs using different mechanisms for each function for each concept.

Table 3.1: Morphology Chart

No. Chassis Transmission Bearing and Axle Wheel

1

Thin plate Gear drive Hinge Sponge type

2

Taper Direct drive Hole to body Toy wheel

3

Square box Belt drive Tube Thin

4 -

Cylinder Friction drive Small diameter 31

3.6.2 Concept Generation

There are two types of model in this project. Where each model is designed to include features that are distinctive in terms of weight, design, size and drive system. Each model is designed to be a different test according to the situation or where is easy for any tests is performed.

Figure 3.5: Model 1

This is the first conceptual design. From the morphological chart in Table 3.1, there are four features included in this conceptual design. For the selection of DC motor, there are two types where the selection of the DC motor use to installed will be discussed in chapter four. Thin plate is selected in this design where the transmission selection are belt drive type. The axle of this design were choose from tube type. According to the Richard G.B. (2011), friction is undesirable in the wheel axle. The inner diameter of tube selected must have clearance, which the shaft and tube required clearance less than 0.5 mm to reduce the friction between two surface. 32

Figure 3.6: Model 2

Figure 3.6 shows the second conceptual design. Same as the first conceptual design where there are four main features to be select. Different with first concept where on this conceptual design selection of the transmission are gear drive type. Wheel selected area is less than first conceptual design where the area is to be count. Wheel on second design is thin but not for first design. Type of axle selected are tube type, same as first conceptual design. Axle from tube is more reliable and easy to manage and fabricating. Thin plate is known as the best selection on less weight categories.

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3.6.3 Concept Evaluation and Selection

Concept selection is a process to evaluate the design concept to be evaluated in terms of strengths and weaknesses. After that, further investigation will conducted and follow to select the optimum concept for testing and development. The evaluation would be in terms of the categories can be seen in the conceptual design of product design will be. The concept selection activity is related to other activities that make up the concept stage of development of the product development process.

Concept selection is an alternative set of narrow concept of activity under consideration. This concept is the consolidation process, it will be repeated on a regular basis, it may not get the concept dominant. A large set of concepts are initially windowed down to smaller set, then, these concepts are then combined and can be improved. In this project, concept generation is worth the effort to determine which of the designs is final design. The selection of the best design will be discussed in chapter four by Weighted Decision Matrix method.

Table 3.2: Comparison of model features Model 1 Model 2 Mass 62g 53g Drive system Belt drive Gear drive Dimension 175x72x50 (mm) 180x92x47.3 (mm) Switch Available Available Roller Available N/A Spoiler N/A Available Tyre Wide Thin

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3.6.4 Concept Scoring Matrix

For this project, concept scoring matrix is used to determine which of the final designs are worth the effort to proceed onto the next phase. The criteria for the concept scoring are as follows:

Table 3.3: Criterion for Concept Scoring Matrix Criteria Description Weight factor (%) Cost The cheaper the better 10 To make the model easier and non- Ease to fabricate 10 completed User friendly features make it more Ease of use 10 appealing Weight Lighter make it easier to install 5 Safety Prevents injuries 10 Easy to install without modifying the Installation 10 origin Radiation collection Better collection capability 25 Durability Can withstand long running test 20 Total 100 %

Table 3.4: Concept Scoring Matrix Concept 1 Concept 2 Weight No Criteria Weighted Weighted (%) Rating Rating score score 1 Cost 10 5 0.50 3 0.30 2 Ease to fabricate 10 4 0.60 3 0.45 3 Ease of use 5 4 0.20 3 0.15 4 Weight 5 3 0.15 4 0.20 5 Safety 10 4 0.40 3 0.30 6 Installation 10 4 0.20 5 0.25 7 Radiation collection 25 3 0.75 4 1.00 8 Durability 20 3 0.60 5 1.00 9 Aesthetic 5 5 0.25 5 0.25 Total 100 35 3.65 35 2.90 Rank 1 2 Status Improve Improve

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3.7 Equipment and Material

There are various methods that can be used in performing the measurement of resistance and voltage values produced when the solar panels began to be exerted directly to sunlight. One of the method to conduct the measurement is by using multimeter.

3.7.1 Multimeter

Voltage (DC) and resistance measuring is capable to be measured by multimeter for this task. Where the output obtained from solar panel is required to meet the requirement to mobilise the electric motor. Suitable power output may matched with solar system installed onto the mini car. The selection of solar panel and electric motor are important in design evaluation.

Figure 3.7: Measuring to obtain voltage and current

Based on the Figure 3.7, voltage and current is found out and recorded. From the theoretical, power of solar panel produced is gain following the Equation 2.10.1. Multimeter is connected with solar panel where in this measurement the circuit connection is series. Red and black colour is to simply to identified negative and positif polarity of input and output current flowing.

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Figure 3.8: Measurement to conduct parallel and series circuit

According to the Figure 3.8, multimeter is used to measure current and voltage value. There are two types of circuit which is series and parallel connection. Measurement is conducting on 5.5V solar panel capacity. There are two of 5.5V solar panel to be measured to distinguish among series and parallel circuit power generated.

3.7.2 Tools

Table 3.5: list of tools

No. Material Quantity

1 Scissor 1 2 Cutter knife small 1 3 Quicker super glue 2 4 Ruler 1 5 Double sided tape foam 1 6 Screw driver 1 7 Hacksaw 1 8 Marker pen 1 9 Sandpaper 1

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3.7.3 Material

Table 3.6: List of material

- - - - - (thin film) Amorphous Solar Panel Solar Polycrystalline Monocrysstalline Monocrysstalline

- - foam Paper Frame Frame Cardboard Foam core (Optional) Plastic sheet Plastic Poster boardPoster Stiff insulation

- ring) drive - - - - (rubber) Belt drive Belt Gear drive Direct Friction drive drive Friction Transmission (plastic, metal) (plastic, (plastic, metal) (plastic, (rubber, O

- - - - - Axle Nails Brass Coat tubing Brass rod Brass hanger wire

- - - drilled - Screw Screw Bearing pre the chassis the with a hole a hole with screw holes holes screw directly into into directly Brass tubingBrass drilled into into it drilled drilled Holes eyes/eyebolts Hard material material Hard with Brackets

Thin tubes Wood Wheel wheels plywood Brass tube Brass Styrofoam Cardboard Toy/model Tape spool Plastic pipe Plastic

tube Rigid bottle Wood plastic Chassis Plywood Plywood Drinking cardboard Cardboard Foam core Corrugated . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 No 38

3.8 Fabrication

All the material can be obtained from the hardware store and electronic shop where many of shop supplying some of the material required. Some of the materials are obtain from the recycle materials and book and stationary store. Below is the procedure how model 1 is fabricated.

i. Chassis of the car selected are from thin plate where document case is choose. This type of material is known as light weight and easy to fabricate since this material is plastic. Figure 3.9(a) shows how the chassis is fabricated and been cutting following the dimension setup.

Figure 3.9 (a): Cutting process

ii. Graph paper is used to draw the dimension on thin plate and also to check and identified the dimension more precisely. Graph paper have line grid where the measuring unit provided is easy to draw.

Figure 3.9 (b): Dimension checking 39 iii. From figure below, axle from tube type is selected. Super glue quicker dry then is used to stick together on the chassis surface. Simple and easy to attached by using glue instead than hinge method and drill a few hole to tie the tube together.

Figure 3.9 (c): Axle iv. Then process is continue by installing the panel stand onto the chassis. Since the transmission selected from belt drive type, belt is more flexible and double adhesive tape is more suitable to use to stick panel stand to chassis. Switch is also installing on chassis and positioned near the centre chassis.

Figure 3.9 (d): Panel stand installation

v. Next process is installing the shaft and pulley. Pulley is a fixed size where the diameter of the pulley is 20mm, then the wheel following attached to the shaft. Wheel selection is come from toy wheel and the diameter of the wheel 22mm. Panel stand is capable to adjust the solar panel angle. 40

Figure 3.9 (e): Pulley vi. Following the next step where this step is all the component installed together to build the solar car. Roller is installing in front of the chassis to reduce the friction on the wall when the car getting contact.

Figure 3.9 (f): Complete model vii. Same as the model 2 where the procedure to fabricating the model 1 is required the same step. The different between both model is just the features which the comparison if the model will discussed in chapter four.

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3.9 Platform

Each completed of the model will be tested. As another test, where the capability of the model is tested in terms of speed, endurance, and alignment. The tests performed do is to test the time of the model reached at a distance of 10 meters. Every aspect in a of the model is different from the other of the model. the faster time recorded to reach a distance of 10 meters is the best. But the time taken alone will not achieve the objectives required, other aspects must also be taken into account in terms of weight, gear ratio, panel, model size, and the acceptance angle of radiation

Figure 3.10: Squash court at UTeM

From Figure 3.10, measuring tape used to set a range of 10 meters. Problem encounter by using this type of platform is such as small rock and unbalance ground where not every area is flat. Two models fabricated was run on this platform between 11 pm until 3 pm to evaluate the data required. Figure 3.11 shows the platform where the competition of solar car race is due by using cyclic material.

Figure 3.11: Competition field in Nasional Science Centre, Mont Kiara 42

3.10 Energy Utilisation

It is important to use as much as possible of the energy collected by solar panel to drive the car. Selection on the best gear ratio is ensured for start up the race. By knowing where the energy is used and be wasted, it must take by steps to use it effectively. Energy is used in the following areas. The factors influencing energy use are mention at table below to do the reduction on energy consumed.

Table 3.7: Energy losses

Component Problems encounter and solution • Good quality with properly formed teeth. • Adjusted for correct mesh. Gears • Correct ratio chosen for the car. • The use of lubrication on open gears holds dirt and consequently increases wear and power losses. • Clean and undamaged. Bearings / • Correctly installed with no preload. axle • Lubricated with light oil. • Voltage, power, torque and voltage must suit solar panel selected. Motor • Should be high efficiency and preferably lightweight. • Not worn or damaged. • The side forces acting on the guides when cornering at speed can Roller exceed the weight of the car. • Should be centred to the track as possible without touching. • To keep electrical losses within the wiring low ensure runs are as short as reasonably possible and in reasonably large diameter wire. Wiring • Colour code wiring to make trouble shooting easier. • Solder and insulate all joints if possible. • Must run freely and true especially radially. • Be in correct alignment particularly. Wheels • The number of wheels and their position has a significant effect on car stability. 43

3.11 Safety Precautions

Safety is one of the important things to do any job no matter whatever tasks and activities. Process of fabrication of completing each components part in the solar car is involved equipment and environment that can be dangerous and cause injury. The following steps are listed as below:

1. Properly to use and care of sharp utility knives and coping saws. If there are safety concerns, use something else, not utility knives. 2. Handling right for the use of electrical equipment such as glue guns and soldering irons. 3. Carefully not to touch the metal top of the cool-melt glue gun and keep the glue off from skin. 4. The voltage produced by the solar panel and batteries are entirely safe for use. 5. Never force the wheels and gears onto the axles. 44

CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

The amount of electrical power delivered by the solar cell depends on its size and efficiency. The electrical output of a photovoltaic panel or cell may be measured directly by using a voltmeter or milimeter. Voltage represents the potential or pressure of electricity being produced while amperes are a rate of flow for the electrical current.

Power or wattage can be determined from a combination of volts and amps. A multimeter works best for these experiments and can be connected directly to the positive and negative terminals of the solar cell. By trial and error, this measurement can determine conditions that provide for optimal performance of a model using this solar panel system.

There are several things that should be considered other than the amount of voltage and current of solar cells. Each component involved in completing a unit must be evaluated and considered. In this chapter, the theoretical and experimental through calculations is performed and the evaluation of each selection is made through an experimental component. This is to prove that the design created meet the design conceptual requirements. Below are the aspect that will be proved in this project.

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• Describe the factors which might be influencing a solar car power needs. • Calculate the gear ratio used in the drive system of solar powered car. • Describe the motion of solar car based upon its position, direction, and speed. • Explaining how the solar car design was optimized based upon gear ratio and materials used. • Utilize the design process to construct a solar powered car.

During the process in completing the project solar powered car, there are procedures need to follow as the sequence from the beginning till the end process. However, as the result, completing this project needs planning. Below is the procedure that need to be follow up.

• The design process. • Experiment with principles and prototypes. • Design review and solar powered car construction. • Design test on solar racing car. • Make connections and what other applications can the sun power.

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4.2 Theoretical Calculations for a Solar Car

A solar car takes electromagnetic radiation from the sun and converts it into electrical energy with its solar panel. It then converts that electrical energy into mechanical energy using a motor. Finally, the motor converts mechanical energy into kinetic energy and the car moves forward. Energy can easily be converted from one form to another although there is usually a loss of energy with each conversion.

Power takes into account how quickly a given amount of energy is released. For the solar cell panel, power output, , can be calculate from Equation 2.1.

푃 One of the most fundamental equations in physics, is that a force acting on an object is a function of the mass, , of the object and the acceleration, , that the object is experiencing. 푚 푎

= × …(Equation 4.1)

Acceleration is simply the rate 퐹at which푚 the푎 velocity changes. The equation can be expression as

= / …(Equation 4.2)

Next, the equation is an expression푎 푣 푡 relating distance travelled, , to acceleration and time. 푑

= 2 × …(Equation 4.3) 2 Which can be rewritten in terms of the acceleration.푑 푎⁄ 푡

= 2 / …(Equation 4.4) 2 The other equation is an expression푎 푑 that푡 relates power and acceleration. Where, power takes into account the speed with which energy is released.

= × …(Equation 4.5)

푃 퐹 푣 Where the equation expression to measure the time is write as

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(2 ) 4 4 = = ( ) × ( ) = = = = ( )2 2 2 2 푑 푡 푚 푑 푡 푚 푑 푃 퐹 푣 푚푎 푎푡 푚푎 푡 푚 2 4 3 푡 푡 …(Equation푡 4.6)

Rewrite the equation and solve for time, , as follows:

푡 4 = 3 2 푚푑 푡 � …(Equation 4.7) 푃

4.2.1 Wheel Size

Selection on suitable gear is important to running up the race. This calculation is to determine the gear ratio by following the wheel diameter selection being made.

The circumference of the wheel is measure as

= …(Equation 4.8)

The wheel speed then is found out according퐶 휋퐷 the equation below

= …(Equation 4.9)

푑 Speed of motor is obtained from휔 the푉 ⁄motor퐶 speed selected to compete to measure the gear ratio.

= / …(Equation 4.10)

푚 푑 Since the drive pulley or gear be푅 no휔 larger휔 than the drive wheel, pulley or gear is select accordingly. The drive diameter can be construct in variable size where the design transmission result would show퐷 diameter푑 of motor were smaller than drive motor. The diameter of the motor then is:

= / …(Equation 4.11)

퐷푚 퐷푑 푅 48

4.2.2 Gear Ratio

There are two choice in doing selection on transmission type which set of pulleys or a couple of mating gears. This is to find out a suitable diameter of wheel by measuring the gear ratio.

Where the variable is the diameter of the pulley, variable is the number of teeth on the gear, subscript퐷 d refers to the gear attached to the푁 drive axle, and subscript m is the gear attached to the motor. Gear ratio can be determine by the equation below.

For a pulley system the gear ratio is

= / …(Equation 4.12)

푑 푚 And for a gear system 푅 퐷 퐷

= / …(Equation 4.13)

푅 푁푑 푁푚 Evaluation on motor selection is take place to determine the exact speed, .

This can be found on motor specification where the speed is mention. Angular푁 velocity of motor, , is determined.

휔 = / …(Equation 4.14)

푑 To determine the wheel diameter the circumference휔 푁 푅 of the wheel, , is found out.

퐶 = / …(Equation 4.15)

푑 The wheel diameter, is determined퐶 from푣 the휔 calculated circumference.

퐷푤 = / …(Equation 4.16)

퐷푤 퐶 휋

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4.3 Measurement and Testing

4.3.1 Solar Panel Measurement

There are three different types of solar capacity selected in this project. Each solar panel is measured from the original specifications available in the market. Based on the table below, the specification of each solar panel stated. From the Table 4.1, each solar panel are produce a different amount of power when compared with the surface area of solar cells. Current and voltage values for each solar panel has its own characteristic.

Table 4.1: Solar panel specification No Dimension (mm) Voltage (V) Current (mA) Power (watt) Mass (gram) 1 110x56 5 170 0.85 22 2 38x90 5.5 90 0.495 13 3 150x85 9 185 1.67 50

To identify the ability of sunlight the solar panel that is effective, simple method is to use multimeter. This procedures is to determine the amount of current and voltage in actual condition, then the readings will be taken and recorded for comparison. Time taken is from 10 am to 3 pm at which time the sun is positioned following the objectives. Reading is taking on the solar panel is at 0°.

Table 4.2: Voltage measurement in actual condition Voltage, V (volt) Type of solar capacity 10a.m 11a.m 12p.m 1p.m 2p.m 3p.m 5 volt 5.41 5.47 5.49 5.38 5.06 5.26 5.5 volt 6.02 5.88 5.79 5.99 5.58 5.81 9 volt 9.39 10.06 9.55 10.20 9.27 9.77

Table 4.3: Current measurement in actual condition Current, I (mA) Type of solar capacity 10a.m 11a.m 12p.m 1p.m 2p.m 3p.m 5 volt 80.7 111.4 121.1 120.9 63.0 53.5 5.5 volt 46.7 61.6 77.1 69.4 27.6 29.7 9 volt 120.8 172.3 187.6 182.6 71.1 76.8

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Effect could the altitude of the sun have for the use of solar power - Based on the tabular data collected as shown in the Table 4.4, the value for each reading of the accumulated significantly different by the time the reading is taken. The solar panel were used for each reading that is conducting is the same as shown in the Table 4.1 solar panel specification. By this condition and result obtained, it proves that the sun altitude can significantly influence the amount of solar energy power production.

Modifications made in the solar panel placement in order to maximize the power at any time during the day - Axis orientation of the sun also affects the amount of solar energy power generated. If the position of the sun's rays directly exerted at the solar panel, the amount of energy produced are concentrated in sun and more amount of radiation that can be collected. But if the opposite orientation of solar panels or not centred on the sun, total solar energy generated not as much as right axis in the direction of solar radiation.

From the data collected shown in Table 4.4, power produced for each type of solar panel is obtained by following the Equation 2.1.

Table 4.4: Solar panel power produced Power (watts) Type of solar capacity 10a.m 11a.m 12p.m 1p.m 2p.m 3p.m 5 volt 0.437 0.609 0.665 0.650 0.319 0.281 5.5 volt 0.281 0.362 0.446 0.416 0.154 0.173 9 volt 1.134 1.733 1.792 1.863 0.659 0.750

At what time of the day is more power produced - According on the graph in Figure 4.1, three types of solar panel capacity that were tested showed that the power develop as sun are on the surface of solar panels. Each panel shows a different reading of the solar panel output capacity. Significant differences can be seen by following the time indicated in the tests performed are from 10 am to 3 pm. The appropriate time to generate solar energy is higher and more effective between the hours of 12 noon until 1 pm. According to records made, with a capacity of 9V solar panel are the best.

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3.50 3.00

1.863 9 volt 2.50 2.00 5.5 volt 1.50 0.446 5 volt 1.00 Power, (watt) P Power, 0.50 0.665 0.00 10p.m 11p.m 12p.m 1p.m 2p.m 3p.m Time Figure 4.1: Graph of Power versus Time period

Weather condition most advantageous to the production of power - Problems encountered when readings are taken is a factor of weather. This is due to the influence of the position of the cloud covering the total radiation that should be received by the solar panel. If the clouds gathering in large groups, the reading was taken is dramatically fall and solar power that are generated does not reach at maximum level. This situation could affect the ability of the solar car from generating power as hoped.

4.3.2 Power and Circuit Connection

There are two types of basic ways circuit which to connect more than two circuit components, and there are series and parallel. To identify the type of circuit that operates better to generate a solar car, solar panel conducted is at capacity 5.5 volts. In determine which circuit connection is much better, solar capacity 5.5 volts is most appropriate to used. If the series circuit is applied by twice of solar panel, the voltage will be 11 volts. Table 4.5 shows the difference between the two types of connection:

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Table 4.5: Comparison of series and parallel Series Circuit Parallel Circuit Voltage (V) = + = = Current (I) = = = + 푉 푉1 푉2 푉 푉1 푉2 퐼 퐼1 퐼2 퐼 퐼1 퐼2

5.5 volt 5.5 volt 5.5 volt 5.5 volt Circuit Switch Connection Switch M M

Experiment was made on the solar panel with a capacity of 5.5 volts can be seen in the table below. Value of voltage and current drop can be distinguished by refer to the Table 4.1 solar panel specification within the actual values obtain. Experiment was conducted by using model 1, and time executed is also recorded. Distance travelled for model 1 is taken as far as 10 meters. DC motors are used on both circuit connection was 5.9 volts.

Table 4.6: Circuit connection against time First attempt Second attempt Third attempt Circuit Connection Series Parallel Series Parallel Series Parallel Current, I (mA) 68.1 139.8 65.7 134.3 64.9 128.8 Voltage, (volt) 11.72 5.94 11.75 5.96 11.62 5.90 Power, P (watts) 0.798 0.830 0.748 0.800 0.754 0.60 Gear Ratio, R 2 2 2 2 2 2 Time Taken 1.12pm 1.23pm 2.32pm 2.25pm 2.33pm 2.41pm Duration, t (s) 5.33 4.49 5.60 4.41 5.89 5.14

Which circuit produced a higher voltage - Based on the theoretical, type of series circuit connection does not experience the reduction of voltage and the value will increase. While for parallel circuit, are more likely to tendency in higher currents. According to the Table 4.6, value of voltage produced through testing conducted over the parallel circuit type is constant for both solar panel.

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Which circuit produced the greatest power in watts - If the distinction is made based on theoretical, these two types of parallel and serial connections, the total power generated is the same. in which what distinguishes each of the circuit is the amount voltages and currents. This can be clearly seen that the current in a parallel circuit is higher than the series circuit, but the amount of voltage in a series circuit is much higher.

Which better selection to choose - Based on solar panel measurement conducting, weather conditions can significantly influence the amount of power generated. Specified time indicates as the record, shows the test performed is different for each reading. The obvious differences is duration of time car reaching the 10 meters, where what distinguishes each reading are time taken while at the same parameters.

4.3.3 DC Motor and Gear Ratio Measurement

There are two types of direct current (DC) motors to be perform, there are 3 volt and 5.9 volt. Implementation is made to determine the effectiveness of DC motor and most efficient to be select. Both characteristic of this motor is different according to specifications. Both DC motors are assembled and tested in model 1 and the time recorded is at a distance of 10 meters. Gear ratio is also measured and determined. Experiment was conducted to determine the transmission ratio and type of solar panel capacity against the time duration. Location of the implementation of this test is in Ayer Keroh, Melaka. During the test, solar panel was attached at 0°.

Table 4.7: DC motor against velocity Model Motor Time Gear Time (s) Distance Type Type Taken Ratio 5.0V 5.5V 9.0V 1 3.0V 12.55 pm 2 10 m 26.99s - 8.79s 1 5.9V 1.07 pm 2 10 m 7.59s 10.95s 4.51s

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According to Table 4.7 DC motor against velocity, the most effective of DC motor is at 5.9V. This can be state by distinguish the solar panel attached on top of the car. Each voltage capacity is evaluated following the categories against the DC motor installed. From the table DC motor against velocity, solar panel with 9.0V take place the time racing. Which this can be prove at what condition car should be perform. Solar panel with capacity 9.0V is known by its profile by judging from its current and voltage provided nor to area and weight.

Table 4.8: Gear ratio analyses by 5.0V capacity Motor Time Driver Driven Gear Duration Distance Type Taken Teeth Teeth Ratio of time 5.9v 10m 1.29pm 18 42 2.3 5.74s 5.9v 10m 1.45pm 21 42 2.0 5.79s 5.9v 10m 2.23pm 25 42 1.7 7.36s 5.9v 10m 2.45pm 30 42 1.4 10.83s

Compare which motor reach first against time and why - Based on the Table 4.7, it was found that both DC motor types tested the ability to move the model. Motor is tested with different solar panel installation and the time to move as far as 10 meters of the model was recorded. Found that by a test conducting on the 5.5V of solar panel and 3.0V DC motor, the reading cannot be obtained. Ability of solar panel and motor cannot move the model as far 10 meters. But in combination with 9V of solar panels and 5.9V DC motor, the best time recorded was at 4.51 seconds.

Which solar panel at this level are most effectiveness to be using - This proves that the 9V of solar panel capacity is the best choice among all the tested panels. Similarly, the 5.9V DC motor, with the assembly of this type, each recorded reading was better than 3V motor types.

Condition of the track influencing or not or alike as acrylic type – The track condition also influence the car from functioning properly. Factors such as type of track and surfaces seen affected the movement of the car glide well. Small rocks can change the direction of forward motion of the car and also an uneven surface.

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4.3.4 Tilt

Figure 4.2 (a): 0° tilt of the solar panel Figure 4.2 (b): 5° tilt of the solar panel

Table 4.9: Comparison of angle on panel installation against speed Angle of Type of Solar Distance of Time Duration Velocity Solar Panel Model Capacity Evaluation Taken of Time 0° 1 9.0 v 10 m 2.08 pm 3.92 s 2.55 m/s 5° 1 9.0 v 10 m 2.11 pm 3.97 s 2.52 m/s 10° 1 9.0 v 10 m 2.16 pm 4.08 s 2.45 m/s 15° 1 9.0 v 10 m 2.34 pm 4.26 s 2.35 m/s

Need to know as well, there are different between the area of tyre for both model. Also, each model is use different of transmission either by pulley and gear. There are some reason for both of model got a different data since the mass also need to be consider. From the table above, there are four set of angle where the increment of the angle is 5°.

Each result obtain is recorded as shown in Table 4.9, result obtained clearly can distinguish the duration of time to model 1 reaching the distance of 10 meters against angles. Every angle and parameters changing on the solar panel influencing the result. From the testing conducted, angle at 0° is better than other angles. This testing is conducting in two direction which is the sun axis is priority.

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4.3.5 Comparison Between Two Models

Based on the experiments that has been implement, data collecting is for the purpose of evaluate the efficiency of every aspect of the component. Experiments were carried out in order to make a right choice of compatibility motor, the best solar panel capacity, the appropriate time to use solar energy as well to determine the power differential by type of circuit connection.

Table 4.10: Comparison of model

Model 1 Model 2 Best time duration recorded by using 9.0V 3.92s 4.37s panel capacity Run with Proper physical condition during Good worst conducting test on track condition alignment Type of transmission Belt drive Gear drive Light weight categories (without panel) 62g 53g Easy to maintenance and troubleshooting Moderate Easy Low cost to build No Yes Tough and stiff Yes No

Experiment was made is to prove the objective of this project. Factors influencing a solar car are not only on acceleration, gear ratio, design, and solar capacity, but includes aspects of friction and aerodynamics. This can be seen on the velocity recorded in the Table 4.9 comparison of angle on panel installation against speed.

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4.3.6 Test Results Summary

Table 4.11: Test Results Summary

portability ensure lowest power

Results

in theoretical theoretical in calculated Gear ratio result. experimental with and match Testing voltages and for known data each by currents succeed torecorded see month the per is different. capabilities speed Evaluating through partand ication gear specif analysis. ratio way path car resistant the all Reduce by wall the hitting minimally and roller. Sizing area of the getting in Very high expectation good weather to consumption not happen.

• • • • • •

and compared using power system. power system. various size to reviews. reviews. to size various car ption of the system will be be will system the of ption multimeter to ensure accuracy multimeter Method of Verification of Method stopwatch stopwatch

cess is dependentcess is ability car of the upon Gear Ratio will be be will Ratio Gear through verified be will alignment Wheel and evaluation test resistance rolling be will Power and Amperage Voltage, be will Readings calculated. and/or measured verified using speedGround of the measured will vehicle be theusing a known travel to taken time as such analysis distance. analysis. through evaluated be will Portability Suc selected. consum Power minimal ensure to evaluated and calculated draw to the solar

Target Value 95% accuracy (minimum) 95% accuracy (minimum) 95% accuracy (minimum) Function properly within Solar Car and beyond power Minimal loss due to monitoring

Functional Functional Requirement Evaluate Gear Gear Evaluate Wheel Ratio and alignment electrical Monitor subsystems Monitor Solar Car speed Be portable various between platforms Will not degrade degrade not Will electrical performance of Solar Car

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4.5 Design Considerations For A Solar Car

A solar car project whether in full sized or a smaller model, it must perform with very little energy available from the solar panel. Since the energy is limited, this project must do possible to make the car efficient so that the maximum amount of energy is used to make the car mobilize. The motor for driving the wheels had to be very efficient.

Aerodynamic drag is very non-linear with speed. The magnitude of drag depends on the frontal area of the car. Make the openings for the wheels as small as possible. If the wheels are not enclosed in the body, consider wheel as part of the external component.

Rolling Resistance is another energy waster. It is the energy lost in the wheel bearings and in the tire deformation. The tires on the car are probably solid rubber so tire pressure is not a factor, but the rubber should not be very soft and the tires should be smooth and very narrow. The shafts should be straight and the bearings should be made from a low friction material. The lubrication should be very light.

The drive train can waste energy. Gears can be particularly wasteful if they are not precision made. Some form of belt drive may be best and does not slip, and that it is not overly tight. The drive ratio is important. It may be that different ratios are best for different strike of sun radiation.

The Weight of the car is a very important design consideration. Since the car is probably accelerating most of the run, the weight is more important that if the car was traveling at a constant speed. Also the weight is a direct multiplier on rolling resistance. Twice the weight means twice the rolling resistance for the same wheels, tires and bearings. So lightweight materials might be used, built-up construction, or other lightening techniques. Though, that there must be enough weight on the drive wheels so that they do not spin.

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4.6 Troubleshooting

If the car does not mobilize, the following should be checked is stated as below:

1. Are all electric connections solid and soldered? If not, reconnect or solder and try again. 2. Is the sun shining? If not, wait until the sun shines. 3. Are the gears meshing freely? If not, pry the motor and glue from the chassis and reposition. 4. If the car goes backward, reverse the positions of polarity on the panel. 5. If the wheels do not spin freely, reposition them on the axles to provide clearance between the wheel and sleeves. 6. If the gears or wheels spin without the axle moving, use a spot of cool melt glue at the joint to connect them. If the position is surely right, use super glue to permanently bond them. 7. If the car does not go fast enough, try different gear combinations, wheels, and chassis styles or try to make a car with front-wheel drive. 60

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.1 Conclusion

Solar technology is an alternative that can be commercialized in order to replace non-renewable fuel sources. Based on solar technology, many application have been produced like, solar car, solar heater and solar street light and many more. In order to develop the solar technology, many factors must be considered like weather, the environment factor, reliability of solar module, and also the load. So, this solar technology still needs improvement in order to achieve higher performance.

It is clear that this project was able to get acquainted with this new area of photovoltaic solar energy applications. Unfortunately, it was not possible to build a sample Solar Electric Vehicle because of the low budget and lack of mechanical engineering expertise. Equipment’s purchased for this project were also used in the solar car project and were very useful in building and testing in the solar car. In addition, if the power station generating the electricity to recharge batteries uses solar energy, air pollution is also reduced.

Based on the models that has been fabricated, every tests carried out has been done in detail in every aspect. It does not matter in terms of component best selection, but also in terms of design as well. The best model is built between the two models is the model 1. The best time recorded was 3.92 second with an angel of 0° 61 and 9.0V of solar panel capacity. Best DC motor in terms of capability is 5.9V instead than 3.0V.

As a conclusion, the designed in this project can contribute to the energy saving and meet the energy efficiency guideline. It operates efficiently and can be used in order to save the energy consumption just not only to solar car, but for another application. From this project, the knowledge is gaining about solar component in practical.

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APPENDIX

Detail drawing for model 1

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Detail drawing for model 2