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UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK IN PRAGUE

Department of Psychology

Psychological factors and its to practicing various dancing styles

Master Thesis

Supervisor: Submitted by:

PhDr. Iva Linda Maruscakova Paulina Arendasova

Prague, 2021 2

Declaration

I hereby declare that I wrote this thesis individually based on the literature and resources stated in the references section.

In Prague: 26.7.2021 :

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Acknowledgments

Regarding the creation of the Thesis I would like to thank to the following people that strongly supported me in its accomplishment: to my mentor PhDr. Iva Linda Maruscakova for supervising me throughout the whole process, Milena Ferencikova for the support in the statistical part of the work, and professor Vartan Agopian for providing me the directions.

Thank you Lojy Elsaie, my parents, my brother, family, professors, and friends that supported me in general. I am grateful to the University of New York in Prague for providing me the opportunity to conduct this research.

Special Thanks belongs to all respondents that participated in the current study. Some of them are listed in a random order as follows: IG accounts: @ tanecnascena , @paulaatem,

@thepeachbum, @torstirrup, @lolacat_x , @twerktechnicians, @vali_agnello,

@tamaranikolov, @lolacat_x , @_tazz_stallion, @tsvoila, @poleskola, @anet_masat,

@verticaljoes, @trendigo.studio, @balladinecz, and other amazing dancers!

Thank You!

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Abstract

Development of positive relationship between a woman and her body is a worldwide issue.

Striving for achievement of the perfect body, female individuals tend to experience issues related to a negative body image. The concept of self-body image among female dancers was examined in this study. Also, the research focused on the sexual self-esteem and the ways the construct relates to self-body image. Furthermore, the relationship between sexual self- esteem and the types was investigated. Moreover, the research explored the relationship between self-body image and sexual self-esteem. It was hypothesized that participants regularly engaging in pole and twerk will score higher than the ones exercising and . The results of the study bring new insights about the relationship between the dance type, self-body image and sexual self-esteem, that is quite limited nowadays. The findings showed the positive correlation between self-body image and sexual self-esteem; r=.55, p=.000. There was not found any statistically significant relationship between the dance types when tested for self-body image and sexual self-esteem.

However, some of the non-significant differences between the dance types may be substantially meaningful and thus contributing to , the importance of future research.

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Key words: self-body image, sexual self-esteem, body image, sexual esteem, dance, Twerk,

Pole dance, Street dance, Ballet, dancer

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT...... 4 Chapter 1: Introduction...... 7 Background and Importance of the Present Problem...... 7 The Purpose and the Goal of the Present Study...... 10 Assumptions...... 11 Definitions...... 12 Self-Body Image (SBI)...... 12 Sexual Self-Esteem (SSE)...... 12 Dance...... 13 Twerk...... ……………………………………………….....13 Pole Dance...... 13 Street Dance...... 14 Ballet...... ………………………………………….....14 Chapter 2: Literature Review...... 15 Self-Body Image ...... 15 The Tripartite Model of Self-Body Image…………………………………..………...15 The Evolutionary Perspective of Self-Body Image………………………………………..18 Measuring Self-Body Image………………………………………………………….19 The Body Appreciation Scale (BAS)………………………………………………….19 The Body Self-Image Questionnaire-Short Form (BSIQ-SF)……………..………….20 Sexual Self-Esteem...... 21 Sexual Self-Esteem in Women………………………………………………………...21 The Evolutionary Perspective of Sexual Self-Esteem……………………………………..22 Measuring Sexual Self-Esteem……………………………………………………….23 The Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women-Short Form (SSEI-SF)……….……….24 The Sexuality Scale (SS)………………………………………………………………..25 Dance……………………………………………………………………………..……..25 The Evolutionary Perspective of Dance……………………………………………………….26 Dance-Movement Therapy (DMT)……………………………………………………………..27 Associations between Self-Body Image and Dance …………………………………….27 Self-Body Image and Twerk……………………………………………………………………..28 Self-Body Image and Pole Dance……………………………………………………………….30 Self-Body Image and Street Dance…………………………………………….………………..31 Self-Body Image and Ballet………………………………………………………………32 Associations between Sexual Self-Esteem and Dance ……………………………….….32 Sexual Self-Esteem and Twerk…………………………………………………………………..33 Sexual Self-Esteem and Pole Dance……………………………………….…………………..34 Sexual Self-Esteem and Street Dance………………………………………………….……...35 Sexual Self-Esteem and Ballet………………………………………………………………....35 Associations between Self-Body Image and Sexual Self-Esteem……………………...36 Research Question...... 38 Hypotheses...... 38 Chapter 3: Methodology...... 40 6

Participants...... 40 Procedure...... 41 Instrumentation...... 41 Research Design...... 44 Data Analysis...... 44 Chapter 4: Results...... 46 Descriptive Statistics...... 46 Self-Body Image -Full Sample………………………………………………..……..…………46 Self-Body Image by Group……………………………………………………………..………46 Sexual Self-Esteem -Full Sample………………………………………………………….…..47 Sexual Self-Esteem by Group………………………………………….…………………..…..47 Hypotheses Testing...... 53 Hypothesis One………………………………………………………..………………………...53 Hypothesis Two…………………………………………………………………………………..56 Hypothesis Three…………………………………………………………….….……………….59 Chapter 5: Discussion...... 61 Summary of Findings...... 61 Interpretation of Findings...... ……….61 Limitations...... 73 Implications and Future Research...... 75 Conclusion...... 76 References...... 78 Appendix A: Informed Consent...... 88 Appendix B: Debriefing Form...... 89 Appendix C: Agreement and Dance-Related Information...... 91 Appendix D: The Body Appreciation Scale (BAS)...... 91 Appendix E: The Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women-Short Form (SSEI-SF) ... 93 Appendix F: Demographic Information ...... 99 Appendix G: Additional Information ...... 100

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Chapter 1

Introduction

Background and Importance of the Present Problem

The relationship between an individual and their body is a topic that has been discussed for centuries. Women have been reminded of the importance of matching their appearance with the body ideals that derive from socio-cultural perspectives (Wykes &

Gunter, 2004). Whether a body of a female individual looks similar to that of Kim

Kardashian with curves, or it reminds more of a thin body of a Victoria’s Secret model, it is never enough to keep on the track with body ideals. The media profits from creating an impression in its customers that it is important to strive for having a perfect body (Grogan,

2016). When trying to follow body ideals, one may develop unhealthy attitudes towards their own body (Lewis, 2016).

Based on previous studies on one’s relationship with their body, a negative self- body image is a common issue among young adult women. Research conducted by

Darlow et al. (2010), at least 80 % of 274 overweight young adult female participants have reported unhealthy levels of self-body image due to perception of a thin body as a body ideal (as cited in Pakki & Sathiyaseelan, 2018). When an individual has a positive self-body image, they accept and positively praise their own body. In addition, experiencing pleasant feelings and thoughts towards one's own body is involved in the positive self-body image (Lewis, 2016). If a person does not have a positive relationship with their own body, they are prone to the development of a negative self-body image. A 8 negative self-body image refers to an unrealistic self-perception of one’s body, that includes negative feelings and thoughts towards their own body appearance (Grogan,

2016). As a result, they are likely to experience health issues related to self-body image

(Killion & Culpepper, 2015). The idea of the negative self-body image is supported by the media, and often negatively affects women (Oliver, 2008). For example, women with negative body image may develop eating disorders, depression, isolation from others, low self-esteem, and obsessions with weight loss. On the other hand, individuals with a positive body image tend to feel secure and satisfied in terms of their body appearance

(Lewis, 2016), and have a positive self-perception of their (eg. physical competence) (Sani et al., 2016). Since having a positive self-body image is crucial for one’s mental health, it is important to develop an optimal relationship with one’s own body.

Based on the previous research, self-body image is associated with dance (Oliver,

2008). Moreover, various types of may differ in their impact on self-body image.

For example, the study done by Pellizzer et al. (2016) showed that women who do pole dance recreationally tend to have a positive self-body image compared to female individuals not engaged in Pole dance. Ballet dancers are prone to having a negative self- body image, if they are expected to have a certain weight (Swami & Harris, 2012). As a result, one’s self-body image may be negatively influenced by factors such as requirements on the dancer’s weight. On the other hand, factors that focus on the body appreciation during a dance practice such as proprioceptive awareness (self-perception of own body movement), tend to improve one’s self-body image (Oliver, 2008).

Furthermore, dance/movement therapy (DMT) suggests that dance improves one’s self- body image. Since DMT applies body movement to the treatment, it encourages one to develop a positive relationship with their body (Gleissner, 2017). Whereas each dance 9 style uses its unique aspects related to one’s body, various dance styles may differ in their associations with one’s self-body image.

Having a low sexual self-esteem can lead to disrupted sexual functioning (the response to sexual stimuli without the self-perceived difficulties) (Hannier et al., 2017).

For instance, one can find it difficult to perceive sexual pleasure during sexual intercourse. Since sexual functioning (the response to sexual stimuli without the self- perceived difficulties) contributes to one’s psychological health, it is important to have a healthy sexual self-esteem (Woertman & Brink, 2012).

Some studies have shown the dance styles that are focused on aspects of sexuality may improve sexual self-esteem in women (Dodson, 2019). Twerk is a dance type which emphasizes buttocks movements (Johnson, 2020). For instance, twerk improves self- perception of one’s sexuality through its focus on the body parts that are the center of sexual energy (bottom, pelvis, etc.) (Toth, 2017). While various dance styles differ in the use of sexual aspects, each dance style may differ in its relationship with one’s sexual self-esteem.

Furthermore, a relationship has been found between self-body image and sexual self-esteem. Individuals who like their body tend to be more comfortable with expressing their sexual needs and feel more confident in satisfying their partner sexually (Lordello et al., 2014). On the other hand, those who have a negative self-body image are likely to report issues linked with sexual relationships (Lordello et al., 2014). A positive self- body image is related to healthy sexual self-esteem, since individuals who like their body show high levels of positive appraisal of one’s own sexuality. Positive sexual praise is defined by having a healthy sexual self-esteem (Hensel et al., 2011). For instance, an optimal sexual self-esteem is expressed via healthy sexual behaviors such as allowing oneself to experience sexual pleasure (Zeanah & Schwarz, 1996). 10

Considering the previously stated studies, self-body image, sexual self-esteem, and dancing styles may be mutually connected. In addition, there are shown associations between self-body image and sexual self-esteem in adult women. The relationship between various styles of dance, self-body image, and sexual self-esteem is present in adult female dancers, while each dance style contributes to one’s self-perception of their body and sexuality.

The Purpose and the Goal of the Present Study

The thesis focuses on the associations between the area of dance and psychology.

Moreover, the research within the thesis is conducted to study the relationship between four different dancing styles and self-body image, as well as sexual self-esteem. The research explores the ways self-body image relates to sexual-self-esteem. The purpose of the study is to reveal important information about the potential differences between dancing, self-body image and sexual self-esteem among adult female dancers. More specifically, author aims to find out whether the dance type can determine the differences self-body image and sexual self-esteem in dancers. The studied dance types are Twerk,

Pole dance, Street dance, and Ballet. The study is expected to show the potential differences in self-body image and sexual self-esteem between Twerk dancers compared to Ballet dancers and Street dancers. Also, Pole dancers are compared to the same dance groups as Twerk.

The author assumes that the findings of the research would make adult women think about their own self-body image and sexual self-esteem. The outcomes of the research should suggest the ideas that can be applied to the clinical setting (e.g., when treating psychological issues related to self-body image and sexual self-esteem). The results of the study should help female readers of the study to evaluate the importance of their engagement in particular dance styles, and its connection to their self-body image 11 and sexual self-esteem. Furthermore, the findings about the ways self-body image connects with sexual self-esteem should bring the understanding of the relationship between the two constructs to the female population. This research aims to find whether there exist any impact/s of various dance styles on subjectively perceived self-body image and sexual-self-esteem, and if yes, what kind of impact dance styles have.

Assumptions

Author of the thesis assumes that the following factors are taken into consideration among the participants of the research: age, gender, dancing status, primary dancing style, english speaker, understanding of the studied constructs. Moreover, the use of interchangeable names for the studied constructs is assumed in terms of the literature review.

Since participants of the study are required to confirm the age of 18 and above in the beginning of the questionnaire set, it is assumed that all of them are adults (see the

Appendix C).

Whereas the questionnaire set is sent to women only, the assumption is that everyone joining the research is a female respondent. The question to determine gender is used in the questionnaire set to ensure that the participants are women (see the

Appendix F).

Furthermore, the participants are required to answer the questions related to their dancing status and primary style of dance (see the Appendix C). Therefore, it is assumed that all participants are regular dancers. If the participants engage in various dancing styles regularly, they perceive one of them as the primary one.

While the study within the questionnaire set is conducted in English, it is assumed that the participants have a basic knowledge of the language. The potential respondents are informed about the requirement of language skills when accessing Informed Consent 12 in the questionnaire set (see the Appendix A). Therefore, there is a high probability that the respondents reach at least a basic level of English language.

Whereas it is assumed that the participants may not be experts in the field of the research, the definitions of the studied constructs are provided within the qualitative part of the questionnaire set (see the Appendix G). Thus, it is assumed that the participants gain a satisfactory level of understanding of the concepts that they provide responses to.

The interchangeability in the names of the constructs used in the research is assumed, since various researchers name the same constructs in their unique way. For example, the term self-body image can be referred to the term body image (Grogan, 2016) or self-image in the context of study by Lordello and colleagues (2014), and sexual self- esteem is likely to be used with the same meaning as that of sexual-esteem (Woertman &

Brink, 2012). While the names of the stated terms are interchangeable, their application in this study is used within the same context and definition.

Definitions

Self-Body Image (SBI)

According to Grogan (2016), body image (self-body image) is defined as: “A person’s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings about his or her body” (p. 10).

Lewis (2016) defined self-body image as follows: “It’s the perception we have of our bodies as well as the attitudes and feelings we have towards our physical appearance”

(Lewis, 2016, p.7).

Sexual Self-Esteem (SSE)

According to Hensel et al. (2011), sexual-self-esteem is defined as “a positive appraisal of one’s own sexuality, including appraisals of sexual thoughts, feelings and 13 behaviors, as well as perceptions of one’s own body in a sexual context” (as cited in

Hannier et al., 2017).

Zeanah and Schwarz (1996) defined sexual self-esteem as follows: “one's affective reactions to the subjective appraisals of one's sexual thoughts, feelings, and behaviours” (p. 3).

Dance

According to Bodén (2013), “dance is a universal language, a basic form of expression,

whether it is for entertainment or communication. It is found in all corners of the world and

as far back in history as can be seen” (p. 5).

According to H’Doubler (1998), “dance is a form of affective and intellectual emotion in which various emotions and thoughts are projected through rhythmical movement (as cited in Kida, 2016).

Twerk

According to Toth (2017), “to twerk is to dance to popular music in a sexually provocative manner involving thrusting hip movements and a low, stance.”

Based on the definition by Urban Dictionary, Twerk is “the act of dancing with one’s buttocks moving in a circular up and down and side to side motion” (as cited in

Twerk Technician Training Handbook, Vertical Joe’s, 2019).

Pole Dance

According to the Global Association of International Sports Federation (2017),

Pole dance (Pole Sports) is defined as “Pole Sports is a performance sport combining dance and acrobatics on a vertical pole. Pole Sports requires great physical and mental exertion, strength and endurance are required to lift, hold and spin the body. A high 14 degree of flexibility is needed to contort, pose, demonstrate lines and execute techniques.”

“This activity is the relatively recent phenomenon of pole classes, also called, for instance, pole fitness, pole dancing, polenastic, vertical fitness, cardio pole, pole-da-cise, vertical dance, pole and pole-batics (new to Germany, Austria and

Switzerland),...” (Holland, 2010, p. 1).

Street Dance

According to Gogerly (2013), Street Dance is “one of the most dynamic and creative dance forms around. Street dance is energetic and thrilling to do or to watch.

Street dance gets its name from the New York streets where it began in the 1970s. Latin and African American gangs held dance-offs” (p. 8).

“The cultural significance of Street Dance is that it is derived from, and championed by, everyday people and communities ‘in the street’, as opposed to being crafted in a dance studio environment” (Dance College Ltd., 2002).

Ballet

Ballet is defined by the Italian term “ballare,” which means “to dance.” This dance style is “a combination of and art, scenic design, lighting, costume, graceful movements and usually solemn music. It is an artistic dance like no other, that can be used to express different emotions or to tell a story” (Wilcox, 2016).

“Ballet is a mode of physical expression, a creative artform loved by many artists from across social stratifications who are dedicated to the form but are perceived as unentitled to claim it as an inheritance or artistic identity” (Akinleye, 2021, p. 11).

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Chapter 2

Literature Review

Self-Body Image According to Avalos et al. (2005), the self-body image is a multidimensional construct made up of multiple dimensions. Despite that the dimensions are on the scale from the positive to negative value, the emphasis has been put on the negative aspects. For example, the negative self-body image has been previously researched in its connection with psychological disorders. Cash (2002) has stated that an individual with a negative self- perception of their body is prone to develop a psychological disorder related to self-body image (as cited in Avalos et al., 2005). Development of a negative self-body image can be influenced by low self-esteem (Pop, 2016).

There is not enough research done on causal effects of the positive SBI however, researchers suggest the following: one may increase their positive view on their body if they engage in the behaviours that are in opposition to those that strengthen negative SBI. For example, an individual who desires to develop a positive self-body image should work on improving their self-esteem; since the low self-esteem would contribute to the developing a negative SBI (Avalos et al., 2005). For instance, a study by Pop (2016) showed the more dissatisfied a woman is about their body, the lower self-esteem they have; r (158) = - 0.36, p<

.0005.

Lewis (2016) has stated that one should try to recognize the true self-perception of their body, since it tends to contradict with the real appearance of their body. A person can positively appraise someone’s physical appearance but would disagree when they receive 16 compliments. Having different views on one’s physical characteristics is evidence that a positive self-body image strongly depends on one’s own relationship with their body (p.7).

When one embraces a healthy relationship with their own body, their self-body image

may be rather positive than negative. According to Petrie et al. (2012a), individuals may

achieve positive body image when they associate themselves with body ideals in the field

of sport (as cited in Vani et al., 2021). For instance, exercising contributes to one’s healthy

approach towards their body. If one does physical exercise regularly, it positively impacts

their body functioning and improves body appearance. Therefore, a positive relationship

of an individual with their body develops. Therefore, a positive self-body image is

achieved (Vani et al., 2021).

Researchers conducted interviews with 3000 adult female participants to determine

their body image (Locket, 2002, as cited in Wykes & Gunter, 2004). Many of them

confirmed a negative self-perception of their body image; 46% desired to have less fat in

the area of the stomach, 20% would like to achieve a better-looking buttocks, and 14%

expressed dissatisfaction with the appearance of their legs. In addition, when asked to

choose the celebrity that they would like to be similar to by body shape, 23% chose Kylie

Minogue for her shape rather than thinness (as cited in Wykes & Gunter, 2004).

A negative self-body image is destructive, as it triggers one to engage in unhealthy

behaviours. For instance, a negative self-body image triggers one to be preoccupied with

their body and look. If one does not accept their body as it is, they are likely to try to

change their body appearance. However, making changes to one's own body as a result of

having a negative self-body image may bring only short-term joy. In other words, a

negative self-body image keeps reminding one that their body is never enough. Therefore,

it leads one to strive for perfection of their body look-the body ideal (Lewis, 2016).

The Tripartite Model of Self-Body Image

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Self-body image is a mental interpretation of one’s own body (Killion &

Culpepper, 2015). According to Marian Chace (1993), self-body image is based on the following three dimensions of Tripartite Model: image properties (self-perception of the body, including social and cultural approaches to body image), body self (emotional aspects associated with the self-body image), body memory (the events stored in the memory linked with the self-body image that one experienced, while applying them to the here-and-now situations (as cited in Pylvänäinen, 2003).

Furthermore, Cash (2002) created a multifaceted model of the self-body image

(as cited in Woertman & Brink, 2012). For instance, they relate SBI to one’s visible form of idea, and involvement of self-perceptions and approaches towards one's own body; with emphasis on the physical look. Similarly to Chace (1993), Cash (2002) suggested three following components of SBI: “evaluation, investment, and affect” (as cited in Woertman & Brink, 2012, p. 185). For example, the dimension of evaluation refers to body dissatisfaction including various components of appearance. Next, the dimension of investment determines the extent to which one considers it as important to achieve a certain physical look, including one’s attempts to reach a desired physical appearance. While female individuals tend to be obsessed with their physical form, a preoccupation with the physical features would create a feeling of gaining control over their self-care (eg. self-objectification) (Woertman & Brink, 2012). Lastly, affect is related to emotional responses one has based on the self-evaluation of their body

(Woertman & Brink, 2012).

Moreover, Cash and Smolak (2011) created the multidimensional model of body image referring to one’s perception, cognition, affect, and behaviour (as cited in

Vani et al., 2021). Regarding the dimension of self-perception, an individual interprets their own self-body image in a certain way. The dimension of cognition relates to one’s 18 self-evaluations in terms of physical appearance and functioning of the body. The dimension of affect is based on the emotional responses one has to the relationship with their own body. Lastly, the behavioural part of the model is associated with the ways one behaves in the relationship with their body, considering the thoughts, emotions and views they hold within (Vani et al., 2021).

The Evolutionary Perspective of Self-Body Image

Considering the self-body image from evolutionary perspective, the construct used to be perceived as one-dimensional. However, the current research presents SBI as a construct with multiple dimensions (Woertman & Brink, 2012). Moreover, Cash

(2002) claimed SBI to be a combination of a tangible form of an idea about body, and involvement of one’s approaches and views towards their own body with the emphasis on the physical look (as cited in Woertman & Brink, 2012).

Furthermore, the evolutionary experts Buss and Schmitt (2011) have stated that importance in body image increased due to the need to impress their sexual mates (as cited in

Woertman and Brink, 2012). For example, a healthy physical appearance would suggest to sexual partners that a woman is healthy and has a high probability for healthy reproduction. If a physical appearance of a woman suggests that they are healthy, it benefits them in searching for a partner.

Throughout the decades, the self-body image has been influenced by the idea of the beauty ideal. The beauty ideal was developed based on the content of the media and competitions focusing on the body appearance. Overtime, the body ideal became defined by a slender body appearance (Wykes & Gunter, 2004). One of the greatest influential factors of self-body image is media, while it determines the beauty standards and beauty ideals

(Grogan, 2016). While women strive to achieve the body ideal, they tend to develop a negative self-body image. Based on a previous study done by Kozar and Damhorst (2009), 19 there has been a strong positive association between social comparison and a negative self- body image related to body dissatisfaction. Regarding the findings, female participants that compare their body appearance with that of the female fashion representants tend to score lower on the positive levels of self-body image (as cited in Grogan, 2016). In the past twenty years young adult women showed the behaviour of striving for a thin body look, considering a thin body as body ideal (Killion & Culpepper, 2015). According to Dittmar (2007), some fashion models commonly report having more than 20% of the weight below the optimal level (as cited in Woertman and Brink, 2012). In addition, a negative self-body image is associated with eating disorders. If women try to achieve body ideals that are unrealistic, they are at a risk of developing an eating disorder (Grogan, 2016).

Measuring Self-Body Image

According to Thompson et al. (1999), most measuring tools for self-body image measure the extent to which one is satisfied with their body image and physical appearance.

Also, the inventories tend to focus on anxiety and stress-related feelings regarding one’s own body image and body esteem. Since a variety of measures for self-body image exist, researchers recommended to use the measuring tools in their own study depending on the specific aspects of self-body image they are interested in (as cited in Mendelson et al., 2001).

The Body Appreciation Scale (BAS)

One of the measuring tools that is used to measure self-body image is The Body

Appreciation Scale (BAS). The scale has 13 items made from statements connected with positive associations an individual has with their own body. Since BAS focuses on the self- perception a person has regarding their body, it is applied to studies that measure self-body image (Swami & Harris, 2012). Male and female participants are asked to fill the survey on a five-point Likert scale with the score 1 is equal to Never and the score 5 represents Always

(Avalos et al., 2005). 20

Furthermore, the statements on the BAS test one’s level of having positive opinions towards their body. Also, the items indicate one’s level of self-acceptance regarding their body imperfections, such as weight. Respondents determine by the answers on the BAS the extent to which they appreciate their own bodies via self-care and healthy attitudes. The scale can provide an insight on the extent to which participants filter the idea of the perfect body image; e.g. how strongly they are affected by the body-image ideals encouraged by social media. Since the previously stated characteristics of the BAS display an idea of a full appreciation of one’s body, a positive self-perception of body image is equal to body appreciation (Avalos et al., 2005).

For instance, the items “I do not focus a lot of energy being concerned with my body shape or weight.” “Despite its imperfections, I still like my body.” “My self-worth is independent of my body shape or weight,” are included in the BAS (Avalos et. al, 2005, p.

289).

The Body Self-Image Questionnaire-Short Form (BSIQ-SF)

Rowe (2005) has developed The Body Self-Image Questionnaire (BSIQ-SF) as a measuring tool for self-body image in young adults. The original version of the questionnaire consists of 51 items.

BSIQ-SF is a short form of BSIQ and has 27 items. The items were created in the form of statements, while respondents of the questionnaire are asked to answer the items on a

5-point Likert scale; “a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4, e=5” (Rowe, 2015, p. 3). The author of the questionnaire suggests not using the questionnaire for calculating the total score of the self- body image, while the range of every dimension is at least from the score of 3, and to the highest score of 15 (Rowe, 2015, p. 3).

The following dimensions are part of BSIQ-SF: overall appearance evaluation (OAE), health fitness influence (HFI), investment in ideals (II), health-fitness evaluation (HFE), 21 attention to grooming (AG), height dissatisfaction (HD), fatness evaluation (FE), negative affect (NA), social dependence (SD).

Some items are used in the BSIQ-ST: “I've often wanted to be taller.; (HD), “I think my body looks fat in clothes.”; (FE), “My naked body makes me feel sad”.; (NA) (Rowe, 2015, p. 3).

Sexual Self-Esteem

Considering the results of the research done by Hannier et al. (2017), sexual self- esteem is related to sexual functioning and sexual experience. In a sample of 596 female respondents, 134 reported low sexual self-esteem, 291 showed optimal levels of sexual self- esteem, and 171 scored high on SSE. Moreover, the higher the participants scored on the items of the SSEI-SF survey, the higher levels of sexual self-esteem they reported.

Individuals with high sexual self-esteem are sexually satisfied on the higher level

(Dupuy et al., 2015) and report better sexual functioning and sexual experience (Hannier et al., 2017) than those with low sexual self-esteem. Moreover, a functioning intimate communication related to the concept of sexuality has been found in the respondents with high sexual self-esteem (Oattes & Offman, 2007). Women in couples tend to show higher sexual self-esteem if they feel support from their partner compared to women without receiving a couple support; (F=52.410, p<0.001) (Torres et al., 2018).

Sexual Self-Esteem in Women

According to Zeanah and Schwarz (1996), sexual self-esteem consists of several components. The following components contribute to one’s positive appraisal of their own sexuality: “skill and experience, attractiveness, control, moral judgement, and adaptiveness”

(as cited in Hannier et al., 2017, p. 2). In addition, the stated components create the base of the Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women (SSEI-W). Since the survey has been made primarily for the purpose of testing sexual self-esteem in women, the previously mentioned components are mainly considered in women. However, SSEI-W can be used to test sexual 22 self-esteem in men too (Zeanah & Schwarz, 1996). Therefore, the difference in components of sexual self-esteem between men and women may not be strong.

One of the components is skill and experience, while determining the extent to which an individual is admired by a sexual mate/admires a sexual partner. The dimension stands for the range of one’s possibilities to have a sexual experience. Furthermore, a dimension of attractiveness covers one’s self-perception of their sexuality without consideration of the others’ views on one’s sexuality. The dimension of control, it is related to the extent to which one is able to have self-control over their thinking patterns and emotions linked to their sexual experience. Next, the dimension of moral judgement stands for behaving in line with one’s moral values. Lastly, the component of adaptiveness refers to one’s experience with sexuality being in harmony with their goals related to sexual events.

According to Galinsky and Sonenstein (2011) and Jannini et al. (2009), sexual self- esteem is based on the qualities of being competent, confident, determined and having a sense of self-control in sexuality-related situations (as cited in Murray et al., 2017). Moreover, sexual self-esteem is an important aspect in terms of romantic and sexual relationships. For example, Menard and Offman (2009) claim that individuals with high levels of sexual self- esteem report relationship satisfaction. High levels of sexual self-esteem contribute to sexual health (as cited in Murray et al., 2017). In addition, healthy SSE positively affects sexual attractiveness (Amos & McCabe, 2015). According to James (2007), the impact of the social group and one’s self-perception of their sexual experience determine the levels of sexual self- esteem (as cited in Hannier et al., 2017).

The Evolutionary Perspective of Sexual Self-Esteem According to Chaperon (2007), the concept of sexuality in women started to be considered as an area of study in the 19th Century within the ideology of 23 feminism. Sexuality became a target of debates, criticism, and transformation (as cited in Hannier et al., 2017).

An early definition of sexual self-esteem by Cyranowski (1994) is related to sexual characteristics of an individual that developed from past experiences and have an impact on their actual sexuality. Their characteristics affect the way one receives information linked to sexuality from the social setting and determine one’s behavioral aspects related to sexuality (as cited in Hannier et al., 2017).

Furthermore, Gaynor and Underwood (1995) defined sexual self-esteem as a likelihood to praise one’s features of sexuality (as cited in Hannier et al., 2017).

When praising one's own sexuality in a positive way, they are likely to undergo sexual events; sexual events with a sexual partner or with oneself. Later on, Zeanah and Schwarz (1996) developed the SSEI-W to measure sexual self-esteem in women as it was previously stated in the work. In addition, Mayers (2003) suggested that sexual self-esteem is constructed from multiple dimensions, such as those linked to feelings and behaviors (as cited in Hannier et al., 2017).

Measuring Sexual Self-Esteem

There is lack of research when it comes to sexual self-esteem however, the area of sexual self-esteem has been studied in its connection to the concepts such as traumatic experience related to the sexual experience, body esteem, psychology of the adolescents, femininity, psychological and physiological impairments (Hannier et al., 2017). According to

Zeanah and Schwarz (1996), the concept of sexuality has been studied for years. Sexuality has been studied in its association with sexual acts, values, and approaches however, the one’s self-view on their own sexuality lacks enough research (Zeanah & Schwarz, 1996).

Moreover, sexual self-esteem is a component of sexuality built upon the general models of self-esteem (Hannier et al., 2017). 24

The Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women-Short Form (SSEI-SF) The Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women-Short Form (SSEI-SF) was created by

Zeanah and Schwarz (1996) to provide a way to measure sexual self-esteem in women (as cited in Lloyd et al., 2020). However, the inventory can be used to measure sexual self- esteem in male participants too. The original version of the inventory consists of 81 items, while SSEI-SF has 35 items. Moreover, the following dimensions are included in SSEI-SF:

“skill and experience, attractiveness, control, moral judgement, and adaptiveness” (Lloyd et al., 2020, p. 4). Each dimension has 7 items, and respondents provide their answers based on the extent to which they agree or disagree with the items; the items are in the form of statements, and relate to the self-perception of one’s sexuality. The Likert scale ranges from

Strongly Disagree with the score 1 to Strongly Agree with the score 6.

For example, the following statement “I feel I am pretty good at sex,” is included in the dimension of skill and experience. Next, statements such as “I am pleased with the way my body has developed. I worry that some parts of my body would be disgusting to a sexual partner,” belong to the dimension of attractiveness. For instance, the statements “I feel I can usually judge how my partner will regard my wishes about how far to go sexually. I feel physically vulnerable in a sexual encounter,” are associated with dimension of control. The dimension of adaptiveness relates to items such as “In general, I feel my sexual experiences have given me a more positive view of myself.” Lastly, the dimension of moral judgement includes items, such as “I feel guilty about my sexual thoughts and feelings.” Some of the things I do in sexual situations are morally wrong. From a moral point of view, my sexual feelings are acceptable to me” (Zeanah & Schwarz, 1996, p. 4). 25

The total score is generated by calculating the average score of the subscales, and indicates the level of sexual self-esteem. According to Zeanah and Schwarz (1996), the participants should take into consideration their feelings related to their own sexual experience (as cited in Lloyd et al., 2020). Since sexual experience is connected with different kinds of sexual behaviors, it is not mandatory for the respondents of the SSEI-SF to have an experience with sexual intercourse. For example, one can answer the items relating to their feelings in terms of their experience with kissing or hugging (Zeanah &

Schwarz,1996).

The Sexuality Scale (SS) The Sexuality Scale (SS) was developed by Snell and Papini (1989), the measuring tool focuses on the following components of sexuality in men and women: sexual-esteem, sexual depression, and sexual preoccupation. Based on the definition in terms of SS, sexual- esteem is “a positive regard for and confidence in the capacity to experience one’s sexuality in a satisfying and enjoyable way” (p. 256).

The scale consists of 30 items, while sexual-esteem is measured on the 10 items. The items are built upon the statements related to sexual-esteem, such as: “I am a good sexual partner. I would rate my sexual skill quite highly. I am better at sex than most other people”

(Snell & Papini, 1989, Table 1). Moreover, participants are required to provide answers to the items in SS depending on the extent to which they agree or disagree with the statements. The respondents answer the items on a five-point Likert scale, where +2 equals to Agree, and -2 to

Disagree. To calculate the score of the sexual-esteem subscale, the items of the subscale are collected and summed. The more often respondents choose an answer on the Likert scale that is closer to the positive value, the higher level of sexual-esteem would be suggested as a result.

Dance 26

Dancing is a transformation of an individual to a different body within the same skin, while getting to know themselves (Wengrover & Chaiklin, 2020). When initiating the dance in oneself, there is a movement existing within one's body. The movement enables one to self-explore and creates the feeling of being alive. Furthermore, dance can range from a tiny and indistinct body motion to the great and expressive movements of the whole body. When one does dance, they create movements in the momentary manner. Use of motor skills is involved in one's reactions to the factors surrounding them, when creating dance movements.

Evolutionary Perspective of Dance

Miller (2000) claimed that human individuals have to engage in movement to survive and to choose a partner (as cited in Hanna, 2010). Dance can be perceived as a form of communication without verbal characteristics that shows a level of dancer’s physical well- being and health. Engagement in dance enables one to put their thoughts and body into motion, while constructively processing feelings of stress. For instance, one showing lack of stress and giving an impression of a healthy body helps them to become successful in mating

(Hanna, 2010).

According to Hanna (2010), the concept of dance can be explained via Laban’s theories of movement. Laban’s movement analysis refers to dance movement via the following dimension: body within the ways it creates a movement (eg. physiological characteristics), the effort a dancer puts to initiation of the movement (eg. control, time, flow of the movement), shape (eg. modification of body shapes throughout dancing), and space

(eg. one’s creation of movement considering the setting) (Payne, 2013).

Furthermore, theories connected with movement discourse derive from linguistic analysis and display dance as a form of components that are gathered to make dance vocabulary. Then dance phrases are developed, resulting in the creation of dance (Hanna,

2010). 27

Brown (1994) has stated that opinions of female individuals to the concept of dance are important. Moreover, dance is a tool for getting audience engaged in the issues addressed by feminists (eg. female empowerment, freedom, sexism, independence, gender equality, etc.) (as cited in Hanna, 2010).

Dance-Movement Therapy (DMT)

According to Wengrover and Chaiklin (2020), DMT is spread among multiple branches, and refers to involvement of motion and dance in psychotherapeutic practice. In addition, the therapeutic approach puts together knowledge gained in the psychological field and techniques of observation. Considering the treatment, DMT focuses on curing cognitive and emotional impairments via movement and dance. Moreover, patients are enabled to express their feelings and emotions, as well as communicate the issues by doing authentic body movements. In other words, patients acknowledge their psychological problem via non- verbal communication within the use of a creative mind and body movement.

Based on previous studies, DMT has been successfully used to treat issues related to self-body image (e.g., eating disorders) (Payne, 2013). Also, the concept of sexuality and problems linked to sexual self-esteem were effectively cured with the use of dance-movement techniques (Goodill, 2005).

Aspects of healing are involved in dancing, since DMT applies the techniques of dance to treatment of the patients. DMT aims to heal the patients in comparison to dance itself, that includes healing as rather an additional outcome than the goal (Gleissner, 2017).

Associations between Self-Body Image and Dance

Although a limited amount of research has been done to examine the associations between self-body image and dance, a couple of studies showed both positive and negative body image in dancers (Langdon & Petracca, 2010). According to Petrie and Greenlaf

(2010a), settings for performing exercise of the body determine the body ideals in the 28 particular physical activity. For example, the body ideals in the sport setting suggest the ideal body appearance in terms of the specific type of sport. Also, they indicate the ways one’s body should function in sport (e.g., physical competence).

When the sport body ideals are internalized, one tries to fulfil the conditions of the perfect body of a sportsman. One may develop either positive or negative SBI, depending on their attitude towards the internalized body ideals (as cited in Vani et al., 2021). In addition, dance is similar to sport by its character of physical movement (Dyck, 2020). Also, dancing is referred to doing a physical activity (Payne, 2013). Therefore, the internalization of body ideals in the sport setting may be applied to dance.

Oliver (2008) has stated that the following factors related to dance lead to the development of negative self-body image: high demands on the quality of performance, requirements on body proportions (e.g., weight), emphasis on competitiveness between dancers, negative feedback on performance. On the other hand, aspects such as proprioceptive awareness, social group, seeing oneself in the mirror when dancing in exchange with dancing without the use of mirrors, a comfortable dress-code (Oliver, 2008).

Self-Body Image and Twerk

Twerk is a dance built up on the words and jerk, emphasizing the style of Twerk movements. In addition, twerking is based on the movement of the buttocks. It developed in the 90’s on the bounce scene of New Orleans, while common aspects of Twerk are found in traditional dance Mapouka. The dance has its roots in black culture, originating in West

Africa. When dancing Mapouka, female dancers celebrate their female power, beauty, reproductivity and sexuality. Through embracement of the stated qualities, Twerk encourages women to accept their bodies regardless of size, weight, appearance and other properties of one’s body. Therefore, dancers of Twerk are likely to develop a positive self -body image.

For example, cellulite on a twerker's body is not an aspect to judge or focus on, when 29 watching Twerk performance. In Twerk, an impression of beauty is triggered by watching a dancer confidently moving their body. Also, the movements are initiated in body parts that may sexually provoke the audience. The typical dress code of Twerkers rather reveals their body than hides it (Toth, 2017), while leading them to seeing their body parts in a positive manner; creating a good-looking movement.

Considering the results of a study by Maryam and Ifdil (2019), there is a relationship between SBI and acceptance of the self. Based on the findings, women with a negative self- body image scored lower on self-acceptance and vice versa. If twerking improves one’s self- acceptance, it may lead to a development of their positive self-body image. Furthermore, self- confidence is a dimension encouraged in Twerkers (James, 2021). Historically, twerking being used for expression of female power triggers confidence in its performers (Vertical

Joe’s, 2019). Moreover, individuals with higher self-confidence show less negative SBI

(Mellor et al., 2010).

As it was previously stated, some factors related to dance have a negative influence on one’s body image (Oliver, 2008). By comparing oneself to other members of the dance group in terms of body appearance, an individual may feel insecure about their own body.

One may perceive their body being far from body ideal, while viewing others as fitting to the concept of the perfect body (Vani et al., 2021). For instance, the size of buttocks tends to determine the extent to which certain twerk movements look impressive (Vertical Joe’s,

2019). In general, bigger buttocks are associated with having a certain potential for being a

“good twerker” (Toth, 2017). If Twerk students perceive their buttocks as smaller in comparison to the rest of the group, they may feel discouraged by the size of their buttocks in a Twerk setting. Practicing Twerk could trigger insecurities related to one’s body, if twerker’s SBI is influenced by their comparison with body appearance in other twerkers.

30

Self-Body Image and Pole Dance According to Holland (2010), Pole dancers tend to show a positive approach to their body image. For example, Pole dance classes usually encourage students to express their confidence and to improve body strength. Although the field of research focusing on Pole dance is limited, few studies have been done on comparison of self-body image between Pole dancers and non-Pole dancers. A study by Ołpińska et al. (2020) aimed to find out whether there are any differences between female pole dancers and female respondents that don’t engage regularly in any kind of physical exercise. Among 195 participants in total, 61 pole dancers scored higher than 134 individuals without engagement in physical activity on the

BAS; pole dancers with Mdn=54, participants inactive in physical exercise Mdn=44. Based on the results of the study, practicing Pole dance may have a positive impact on the self-body image.

The research conducted by Pellizer et al. (2016), a group of 162 female respondents consisted of individuals doing Pole dance for recreational purposes, and women attending university and not engaging in Pole dance. Considering the findings, Pole dancers reported higher levels of positive self-body image, t(160)=4.53, p<.001, d=.72, compared to undergraduate female participants (Pellizer et al., 2016).

Physical strength (eg. strength in muscles) in terms of Pole dance is one of the important dimensions, since it determines the extent to which a Pole dancer can perform physically demanding dance techniques. Moreover, Pole dance classes focus by its content

(eg. the style of movement) on the development of physical power and a healthy approach to one’s body appearance (Holland, 2010).

For example, dancing with use of the pole requires physical strength (Ruscello et al.,

2016). 31

A study done by Sani et al. (2016) focused on the relationship between perceived physical fitness and body image in 264 adult individuals. A direct effect was detected from perceived physical fitness (including dimension of muscle strength) towards body image, while a statistically significant relationship between the two constructs was found; β =0.11

(P<0.05). Based on the results, researchers have stated that the way one perceives their physical fitness can influence their perception of self-body image (Sani et al., 2016). Physical fitness in Pole dancers may have an impact on their SBI, since the two constructs are related.

If a Pole dancer perceives their physical fitness such as muscle strength as weak, they may experience negative feelings towards their body.

Self-Body Image and Street Dance

Considering the research in the field of dance, it lacks a sufficient amount of studies focusing on self-body image in relationship with Street dance. According to Bodén (2013), there has not been enough research done on this type of dance due to its “street” character; as it was previously stated in the work, the Street dance has not been originally connected much with performing on stage or being a part of a culture with aesthetic value (Bodén, 2013).

Based on the findings of a qualitative study done by Bodén (2013), the interviewed female participants claimed that they do Street dance for the following reasons: it helps them to distance themselves from the idea of a perfect body, it enables them to accept a feminine side of their body (eg. in Hip-Hop with feminine movements), it gives them an opportunity to experience sense of freedom (Bodén, 2013).

Street dance includes dance techniques that improve physical fitness such as physical strength in dancers. Also, physical competence is improved in Street dancers when feeling capable of performing certain moves. Self-body image is improved if one feels physically fit

(Sani et al., 2016). As a result, physical fitness contributes to healthy body image in Street dancers (Bodén, 2013). 32

Eighty three Street dancers participating in the study by Swami and Tovée (2009) displayed better self-body image compared to the 84 respondents not engaged in Street dance; F(6, 82) = 5.76, p < .001. The researchers claimed that individuals practicing Street dance appreciate their body because the dance style enables them to perceive their body as physically competent (Swami & Tovée, 2009)

If an individual practicing Street dance does not feel physically competent to perform some moves, they may feel discouraged (Bodén, 2013). Low physical competence of a dancer can negatively affect their body image.

Self-Body Image and Ballet

Regarding the research conducted by Swami and Harris (2012), the aim was to identify the potential differences between female Ballet dancers based on the level of advancement in practicing the dance. Considering the findings, dancers in the beginner level scored higher on a positive view towards their body in comparison to the advanced female individuals doing Ballet; t(35) = 2.73, p = .010, d = 0.92. Also, issues with weight have been recognized in the more experienced dancers (Swami & Harris, 2012). Advanced ballerinas may show a negative SBI, since they tend to be more under pressure of expectations on Ballet body ideals than less experienced counterparts. Dancers in the beginners group tend to perceive their body as capable of doing the dance style, since they recognize self- improvements in dancing skills compared to the time they did not engage in dancing.

Associations between Sexual Self-Esteem and Dance

The field of research related to the connections between dance and sexual self-esteem is weak. For instance, the findings collected from a couple of studies in the area are limited in its representative sample, and mainly are derived from qualitative tools for testing (Hanna,

2010). According to some researchers, human individuals are evolutionarily attracted to 33 people with functioning reproductivity and good-looking faces that come from socially higher classes and these aspects are well-expressed via dance (Hanna, 2010).

Moreover, similarities can be found between dance and the concept of sexuality. Both dance and sexual intercourse include the action of the body with the aim to experience pleasant feelings. This idea suggests that the two concepts are united despite the fact that sometimes one’s intentions are far away from displaying their sexual self via dance. At some point, dance may be perceived as one of the most sexually expressive kinds of art (Hanna,

2010).

Sexual Self-Esteem and Twerk

The dance technique involved in twerking encourages a dancer to express themselves sexually via dance (James, 2021). For example, the technique called “Filthy Dawg” is built upon standing on one’s hands and legs at the same time and moving the buttocks with the emphasis downward (Vertical Joe’s, 2019). Since some twerk movements remind those used during sexual intercourse, they can serve as an inspiration for the sex positions. Moreover, sexual expression (Johnson, 2020) strengthens one’s healthy perception of their sexuality

(Holland, 2010). Practicing dance that allows one to express their sexual self without any judgements can positively impact their sexual self-esteem. Busta Rhymes (2013) has commented on twerking movements, saying that twerkers dance in the way as if they were feeling sexual pleasure (as cited in Toth, 2017).

Individuals scoring low on SBI report low scores on SSE too; (p=0.005) (Afshari et al., 2016). A level of sexual esteem in Twerk dancers can be low, if they have a negative

SBI.

34

Sexual Self-Esteem and Pole Dance

According to McNair (2002), Pole dance is a type of dance that has announced freedom in terms of sexual expression and concept of sexuality in the Western socio-cultural environment (as cited in Whitehead & Kurz, 2009). Moreover, freedom in sexual expression is initiated via the concept of Pole dance class. For example, Pole dance students are encouraged to feel sexually appealing via the dance technique, dress-code, and the choice of music (Holland, 2010).

One of the Pole dance types is Exotic pole dance. Exotic pole dance is a dance style that includes sensual, seductive, and sexy movements. Also, the movements tend to be combined using floorwork and pole (Pole škola, 2016). Moreover, a common dress-code for Exotic pole dance involves high heels. Wearing high heels may increase self-perceived sexual attractiveness in a female individual, since it enhances their body look (eg. via length of legs). Women rated the look of their legs more positively when wearing high heels. Based on the findings, the longer length of one’s legs was self- perceived, the more sexually attractive they felt; (Spearman r = 0.37, p ˂ 0.001, n

= 199) (Prokop, 2020). If high heels included in the dress-code have a positive effect on self-perceived sexual attractiveness in women. Female Pole dancers might feel sexually attractive due to the dress-code consisting of high heels. According to Amos and

McCabe. (2015), individuals who perceive themselves as sexually attractive tend to positively praise their sexuality. Therefore, the dress-code used in Pole dance is one of the aspects that may contribute to healthy sexuality in Pole dancers.

The study by Ołpińska et al. (2020) suggests that self-perceived sexual attractiveness may not be a key characteristic present in Pole dancers. Based on the results, female individuals engaged in Pole dance varied only a bit in the self-perceived sexual attractiveness compared to the non-Pole dancers with a university degree; p 35

>0.05. However, there was a difference between individuals in the Pole dance group scoring a bit higher in self-perceived sexual attractiveness than the other group.

Barnett et al. (2018) suggests that finding joy in sexual self-expressions can lead to positive attitudes towards one’s sexuality (Barnett et al., 2018). Although enjoyment of sexualization is involved in practicing Pole dance, the statistically significant difference between the female Pole dancers and women not involved in Pole dance was not confirmed; t(160)=0.24, p=.81, d=0.03 (Pellizer et al., 2016). Therefore, a joy found in being sexualized may not play an important role in SSE of Pole dancers.

Sexual Self-Esteem and Street Dance

According to Bodén (2013), Street dance is a type of dance that does not focus much on sexual self-expression. It is rather viewed as an additional aspect involved in the dance performance if Street dancer gives the impression of sexuality. Furthermore, Street dancers tend to engage in exploration of their body. By exploring their own body for its movements, the dancers are able to create various dance variations that can be used e.g., in freestyle circles (Gogerly, 2013). Therefore, they become more physically competent. At this point, physical competence encourages one’s positive relationship with their sexuality (Jiannine,

2018).

Furthermore, the aspects of sexual expression are sometimes used in Street dance. For instance, the movements accompanying dress code such as heels, music evoking sexual atmosphere, etc. (Bodén, 2013).

Sexual Self-Esteem and Ballet Regarding the findings by Swami and Harris (2012), Ballet dancers that are less reminded of Ballet body ideals can develop positive SBI. For example, self-perceived physical fitness triggers development of a healthy relationship with one’s body. Dancers with positive SBI are likely to praise their sexuality in a positive manner (Hanna, 2010). 36

Therefore, Ballet dancers with healthy views on their body have a potential for healthy sexual self-esteem. According to Price (1998), Ballet dancers used to be open to sexual expression via Ballet when performing in music ballrooms in 20s’ (as cited in Hanna, 2010). Also, sexual expression is positively related to sexual self-esteem (Heinrichs, 2007).

As it was previously stated, high demands on the body ideals such as those of weight negatively affect SBI in dancers (Swami & Harris, 2012). Considering eating disorders, female Ballet dancers are more prone to its development than individuals not practicing

Ballet; (RR = 1.78, z = 2.70, p = 0.007) (Arcelus et al., 2013). Moreover, the presence of an eating disorder is related to issues with self-perceived sexuality (Pinheiro et al., 2010).

Therefore, Ballet dancers with eating disorders have the potential of developing a low sexual esteem.

Associations between Self-Body Image and Sexual Self-Esteem

A positive body image is developed based on the way an individual perceives their body. Also, the self-perception of the body triggers in one the feelings related to it. Therefore, the feelings related to one’s body are influenced rather by the subjective perception of their body than the actual body proportions

(eg. weight, height) they have (Hannier et al., 2017).

The field of research focusing on sexuality and body image suggests that the way one perceives their body affects how they feel towards their sexuality. The way a woman views her body influences the feelings she develops during sexual experiences. The study by Hannier et al. (2017) focused on the relationship between self-body image and sexual self-esteem. There were 542 adult female respondents of age between 18 to 79 participating in the study; an average age of 39.08, SD=12.56.

Based on the results of the study authors concluded that female participants reporting lower levels of self-body image also show lower levels of sexual self- 37 esteem. This finding has been indicated mainly considering the low mean score

M=1.90 in the 13th item of the Body Image Questionnaire (BIQ), which has suggested that women rating their bodies as masculine tend to have a lower sexual self-esteem than those rating their bodies as feminine.

The research by Peplau et al. (2008) was conducted to study the relationship between body image and satisfaction during sexual intercourse. Based on the findings, quarter out of 1736 female participants think their body has a negative impact on their enjoyment of sexual intercourse (as cited in Woertman & Brink,

2012). For example, feeling insecure about one's own body appearance may result in self-perceived dissatisfaction in sexual experience. If a woman is cognitively distracted by self-doubts about her body, she does not feel comfortable with engaging in sexual intercourse (Dove et al., 2000, as cited in Woertman & Brink,

2012). As a result, she develops negative feelings towards her sexuailty.

Half of the respondents believed a positive self-perception of their body increases self-perceived joy during sex (Peplau et al., 2008, as cited in Woertman &

Brink, 2012). Women that positively praise their body tend to experience orgasms with a sexual mate more often compared to their female counterparts who do not

(Ackard et al., 2000, as cited in Woertman & Brink, 2012).

Weaver and Byers (2006) studied the relationship between sexual functioning and body image in 214 adult female students. Participants with higher scores of positive subjective body image reported better sexual functioning including the dimension of sexual esteem; F (30, 746) = 2.24, p < .001.

When self-evaluating one's body negatively, it can demotivate them from engaging in sexual activity. In a study by La Rocque and Cioe (2011), women with a negative body image were likely to avoid sexual events. Individuals reporting low 38 levels of self-body image were sexually avoidant, while sexual self-esteem was one of the factors that affected this relationship. Female participants with positive SBI were active in their sex life and were more sexually satisfied than their counterparts.

The previously stated studies showed the importance of having a positive relationship with one’s own body to develop a healthy sexual self-esteem. A woman who accepts and positively praises her sexuality is likely to have a positive view on her body (Woertman & Brink, 2012).

Research Question

The goal of the study was to gain important information regarding the connections between self-body image and sexual self-esteem and the relationship of each construct with four dancing styles independently. In addition, the research might encourage other researchers to study the same constructs. Also, the outcomes of the study should highlight the importance to the general population as well as individuals working in the field of dance about the relationship between the researched constructs. The author of the thesis would like to answer the following research question: Do various dance types differ in the effects they have on self- body image and sexual self-esteem in adult female dancers? To gain information that would bring the author closer to the answer, the following 3 hypotheses were created:

Hypotheses:

Self-body image

1. Independently, Twerk and Pole dance dancers will have a higher self-body

image scores compared to Street dance and Ballet dancers. 39

Sexual-self-esteem

2. Independently, Twerk and Pole dancers will have higher sexual self-esteem

scores compared to Street dance and Ballet dancers.

Self-body image and sexual self-esteem

3. Self-body image and sexual self-esteem will be positively and significantly

correlated.

40

Chapter 3

Methodology

Participants

The participants of the study were adult women of 18 and above years of age, who regularly attend dance classes for more than 1 year; other studies focused on dancers doing dance actively for more than 1 year (Wanner, 2014). There were not any male individuals participating in the research due to the potential gender bias in terms of sexual self-esteem (Woertman & Brink, 2012) and self-body image (Oliver,

2008).

Before the actual sampling, we estimated the minimum sample size necessary for achieving 80% power to detect medium effect size (d=0.5 for t-tests and r=0.2 for r according to Cohen’s et al., 1988; Rosental., 1996) in a two-tailed test. For the omnibus fixed effects of dance groups on body self-image and then sexual self-esteem, the a priori calculation returned at least 180 participants/45 participants per group. Similarly, for achieving a reasonable power to detect f=.25, for post-hoc pairwise comparisons with allocation ratio N2:N1, we needed to sample at least 64 participants per group. Lastly, a priori power analysis to address hypothesis three suggested that the medium effect size achieved at 80% power at

0.05 required at least 64 data entries per variable.

Final sample included 108 female participants filling the surveys; 31(28,7%)

Twerk dancers, 38 (35,2%) Pole dancers, 19 (17,6%) Ballet dancers, 20 (18,5%)

Street dancers. The respondents were of multiple cultures: 8 (7,4%) USA, 0 (0%)

Canada, 0 (0%) Northern Europe, 7 (6,5%) Western Europe, 1 (0,9%) Southern

Europe, 62 (57,4%) Central Europe, 6 (5,6%) Eastern Europe, 0 (0%) West Asia, 1 41

(0,9%) Middle East, 0 (0%) East Asia, 0 (0%) South Asia, 12 (11,1%) Oceania and

Australia, 0 (0%) North Africa, 1 (0,9%) Sub-Saharan Africa, 10 (9,3%) Other. The respondents were asked to fill the surveys in an online setting via social media

(Instagram, Facebook), and email. Participants of this study gained the following benefits for their participation: a right to join one of the online Twerk classes led by the principal investigator of the work free of charge, a reference of the respondent’s dance community/a group/a brand used in the section Acknowledgements in the work, a contribution to the worldwide-based research related to dance and psychology.

Procedure

In this study, all questionnaires and other materials were administered to the participants in English language, and in an online version. All surveys were created in Google Forms. Regarding the procedure, the main parts of the material provided to the participants were the following: informed consent, questionnaire set, and debriefing form. Moreover, both quantitative and qualitative forms of items were used in the questionnaire set.

Furthermore, potential participants were given an explanation related to the research and were enabled to ask the author for additional information in an online environment. Respondents were able to fill the surveys after confirming agreement in informed consent.

Instrumentation

In the first part of the questionnaire set, participants were asked to answer the questions related to the type of dance; for example, “Which type of dance do you do? (please, choose one primary type, in case you do more than one type of dance,” 42 inspired by the survey of Springbank Dancers Inc. (2021). The following dance types were tested in the study: Ballet, Twerk, Pole dance, Street dance.

In the second part of the set, the Body Appreciation Scale (the BAS) by

Avalos et al. (2005) was administered to measure self-body image (as cited in

Pellizzer et al., 2016). Moreover, the BAS consists of 13 positively worded items that focus on a positive relationship between one and their body. Therefore, this survey is used for measuring self-body image (Swami & Harris, 2012). The responses are formed using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from Never (r1) -

Rarely (receiving a score 2)- Sometimes (receiving a score 3) -Often (receiving a score 4) to Always (receiving a score 5). The items measure one’s self-body image.

For example, the following items are included in the BAS: 1. I respect my body. 7. I am attentive to my body’s needs.12. I do not allow unrealistically thin images of women presented in the media to affect my attitudes toward my body (Avalos, et al.,

2005). Evidence of scale’s reliability? Is it unidimensional? In the current study, the scale was highly consistent (Cronbach’s Alpha of .90).

In the third part of the set, the Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women

(SSEI-W) by Zeanah and Schwarz (1996) was used to measure sexual self-esteem

(as cited in Lloyd et. al, 2020). In this study, the shorter version of the survey was used-the Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory-Short Form (SSEI-SF). The participants were asked about the extent to which they agree/disagree with 35 items on a 6-point

Likert-type scale ranging from Strongly Disagree (r 1) - Moderately Disagree

(receiving a score 2)-Mildly Disagree (receiving a score 3)- Mildly Agree (receiving a score 4) -Moderately Agree (receiving a score 5) to Strongly Agree (6). Each item belongs to one of the following subscales related to sexual self-esteem: “skill and experience, attractiveness, control, moral judgement, and adaptiveness” (Zeanah & 43

Schwarz, 1996). For instance, the following items are included in the SSEI-SF: “1. I wish I were better at sex;” a subscale skill and experience. “2. I am pleased with my physical appearance;” a subscale moral attractiveness. “10. I don’t think there’s anything wrong with my sexual feelings;” a subscale moral judgement. Although the scale is multidimensional, for the purposes of this study, only overall levels of sexual self-esteem were measured. In the current study, the 35-item scales achieved a high reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha=.92).

Moreover, demographic information was a part of the questionnaire set in the fourth section. The questions about gender, nationality, and place of birth were provided.

The fifth section of the research consisted of additional information in qualitative form. The qualitative part of the research has been used in order to gather detailed information about respondents’ self-perceptions of their self-body image and sexual self-esteem in its connection with the dancing style they practice. The purpose of the qualitative questions was to support and challenge the findings of the quantitative part of the study. Respondents were asked to answer two open-ended questions in the form of a short answer. One of the questions was focused on self- perception of self-body image in the period before becoming a regular dancer and the times of one doing dance regularly. The second question aimed to determine the self-perception of sexual self-esteem before practicing the particular dance style regularly and the times of one doing dance regularly. The definitions of the constructs were provided within the questions to ensure the correct understanding of the concepts by the participants.

The last part of the set consisted of the debriefing form, providing a brief information and literature review regarding the study. 44

Research Design

The design of the study is a quasi-experimental, and a quantitative method is applied to the research. In addition, two qualitative questions are provided within the quantitative study that requires a short answer; these are used only for the additional information to the results of the quantitative research. The study is cross-sectional with the snowball sampling method used for data collection. The goal of the study is to explore the relationship between two dependent variables, self-body image and sexual self-esteem, as well as associations between self-body image (dependent variable) and sexual self-esteem (dependent variable) independently from each other in terms of four different dance types (independent variable) among adult female dancers. Also, the research should show whether there are any differences among the studied types of dance in terms of self-body image and sexual self-esteem. The previously stated constructs are studied via processing the data from the set of standardized surveys, while the information is obtained from the respondents in the self-report form.

Data Analysis

The data gathered from the respondents were processed in Jamovi v.1.6. (The

Jamovi Project, 2021). First of all, descriptive statistics was applied to the analysis of all main constructs. In the following section, descriptive statistics (including measures of central tendency and normality assessment) will be reported for each dependent variable separately and by group followed by inferential statistics.

Specifically, two One-way ANOVAs for unrelated scores and Correlation Matrix were used to address the study hypotheses. Furthermore, to cross-validate the level of confidence one can have in results of separate ANOVAs and further examine possible effects of dance styles on joint dependent variable (self-body image and 45 sexual self-esteem together), we run one-way multivariate analysis of variance

(MANOVA). Although, in the current study, the main research goal examined the differences in two constructs separately, multivariate analysis could reveal differences that are left hidden if one overestimates results of separate between- subjects comparisons. Furthermore, according to Tabachnick and Fidell (2013), in case of substantive covariation of dependent variables, MANOVA shall always be employed as an additional tool to prevent inflated Type 1 error. For the last hypothesis, the biserial correlation was computed in order to examine if the direction and strength of the association was consistent in hypothesis three.

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46

Chapter 4

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Self-Body Image -Full Sample

One-hundred eight data points were included in descriptive statistics for the Self-body image variable. Initial visual inspection of data distribution revealed one lower limit outlier

(case 37 with value of 1.770). As a result, the score was replaced by the value of the 25th percentile of the overall score distribution that equaled to 3.46. Consequently, the score distribution has improved in terms of normality, specifically the initially negative skewness of -.596 has changed to -.363. In terms of average score, the change was minimal (increase of

.03 with no change in median score). In addition, Shapiro Wilk’s test of normality (W=.97, p=.02 has changed to non-significant value of .98 (p=.05). The final indices of central tendency were as follows: On average, the female dancers’ self-body image score was 3.93

(SD=.59). The scores ranged from 2.46 to 5 (possible range from 1-6). Univariate normality was further confirmed by indices of skewness and kurtosis, which both did not exceed absolute value of 1 (See Table 1).

Furthermore, visual inspection of histogram and respective boxplots did not reveal any extreme points (See Figure 3 and Figure 4).

Self-Body Image by Group

Based on the group-split descriptive statistics, on average the participants in twerk group (n=31) had the highest levels of positive body image (M=4.06, SD=0.53, followed by the ballet, (n=20, M=3.92, SD=0.71) street dance (n=20, M=3.89, SD=0.50) and pole dancers

(n=37, M=3.84, SD=0.64), respectively. Overall, the scores ranged the most in pole dance group, while the least in group with twerk dancers. Regarding the symmetry of score 47 distribution, the scores in all dance groups were negatively skewed except the street dance group, in which the distribution was positively skewed. Furthermore, we observed a platykurtic distribution in each group. The visual inspection of respective boxplots per group revealed one extreme score. However, it did not lay more than 1.5 box- lengths from the lower edge of the boxplot and thus kept in an analysis. For full details see Table 1 and Figure

5 and 7.

Sexual Self-Esteem -Full Sample

One-hundred eight data points were included in descriptive statistics for the Sexual

Self-Esteem variable. Similar to raw data for Self-body image, full sample data for sexual self-esteem were screened for outliers and unusual points. This analysis revealed four outliers lying below 1.96 cutoff z-score of sexual self-esteem (2.54, 2.91 and two cases with values of

2.94). In order to save the data, the scores were replaced by the 25th percentile of score distribution 4.31 (the value corresponds to original scale value). Consequently, the score distribution has improved in terms of normality; γ1= -.145. In addition, Shapiro Wilk’s test of normality (W=.988, p=.432) has changed to non-significant value of .988 (p=.05). The final indices of central tendency were as follows: On average, the female dancers’ sexual self- esteem score was 4.72 (SD=.59). The scores ranged from 3.31 to 5.97 (possible range from 1-

6). Univariate normality was further confirmed by indices of skewness and kurtosis, which both did not exceed absolute value of 1 (See Table 1).

Furthermore, visual inspection of histogram and respective boxplots did not reveal any extreme points (See Figure 1 and Figure 2).

Sexual Self-Esteem by Group

The average score of Sexual Self-esteem was the highest for participants of the dance type Pole dance (M =4.81, SD=0.65), followed by Twerk (M=4.70, SD=0.64) and Ballet

(M=4.71, SD=0.53), Street dance (M=4.61, SD=0.51). In all dance groups, the average scores 48 were similar to mode and median. Consequently, the data were normally distributed in each dance group as assessed by Shapiro’s Wilk test of normality. Similar to the distributions observed for Self-body image, the scores in each group were negatively skewed with a flatter distribution shape except for the ballet dance group. The indices of skewness and kurtosis were within an acceptable limit of absolute 1. For the full details of descriptive statistics for sexual self-esteem by dance group see Table 1, Figure 6 and Figure 8.

49

Figure 1

A histogram of Sexual Self-Esteem Scores, n=108

Figure 3

Self-Body Image Score Distribution

50

Figure 2

Boxplot of Sexual Self-Esteem Distribution Without Outliers

Figure 4

Boxplot of Self-Body Image Scores Without Outliers

51

Figure 5

Score Density of Self-Body Image by Dance Group

Figure 6

A Histogram of Sexual Self-Esteem Scores by Dance Group

52

Figure 7

Self-Body-Image Score Distribution

Figure 8

Sexual Self-Esteem Score Distribution by Group

52 Table 1

Full and Split- Sample Descriptive Statistics for Body Self-Image and Sexual Self-EsteemNote:, γ1= skewness; SE γ1 = standard error of

Variable Group n M±SD Mode Median Range W/p γ1 SE γ1 β2 SE β2 Possible Actual Self-Body image 108 3.93±0.59 3.92 4.00 1-6 2.46 –5.00 .98/.049 -.36 .23 -.54 .46 Ballet 20 3.92± 0.71 3.92* 4.00 1-6 2.54– 5.00 .94/.234 -.56 .51 -.33 .99 Pole Dance 37 3.84±0.64 3.54 3.85 1-6 2.46-5.00 .98/.696 -.15 .39 -.72 .76 Street Dance 20 3.89±0.50 4.38 3.92 1-6 3.08-4.92 .96/.444 .28 .51 -.75 .99 Twerk 31 4.06±0.53 3.31* 4.15 1-6 2.77-4.92 .94/.089 -.67 .42 -.32 .82 Sexual Self-esteem 108 4.72±0.59 4.43* 4.69 1-6 3.31-5.97 .99/.432 -.14 .23 -.43 .46 Ballet 20 4.70±0.53 4.54* 4.61 1-6 3.66-5.89 .98/.970 .18 .51 .13 .99 Pole Dance 37 4.81±0.65 4.31* 4.83 1-6 3.31-5.97 .98/.732 -.13 .39 -.46 .76 Street Dance 20 4.61±0.51 4.69 4.67 1-6 3.77-5.51 .97/.781 -.06 .51 -.88 .99 Twerk 31 4.70±0.64 4.43* 4.69 1-6 3.31-5.71 .95/.159 -.49 .42 -.48 .82

skewness; β2 = kurtosis; SE β2 = standard error of kurtosis, W/p = Shapiro’s Wilk value, p-value sign at .05, two-tailed

a more than one Mode exists

53

Hypotheses Testing

Hypothesis One

Hypothesis one assumes that twerk and pole dancers will score higher on self-body image compared to street and ballet dancers. In order to address this hypothesis, one way

ANOVA for unrelated scores was carried out on the data to examine if there are mean level differences in self-body image based on the dance group. The assumption of homogeneity of variances was met as assessed by Levene’s test of equality of variances, F (3, 104) = 0.805, p

>.05. Furthermore, the data per group were drawn from normally distributed population

(W==.981, p >.05). On average, 31 twerk dancers had the highest positive body image

(M=4.06, SD=0.53) followed by the group with 20 ballet dancers (M=3.92, SD=.71), 20 street dancers (M=3.89, SD=0.499) and 37 pole dancers (M=3.84, SD=0.64). An analysis of variance found that the dance groups did not statistically significantly differ on self-body image, F (3, 104) =0.792, p=.501, η.2=0.02. Consequently, all the post-hoc pairwise comparisons with the Tukey post hoc criterion for significance exceeded a critical Alpha value of .05. In other words, given the data, there is no credible evidence that the differences in self-body image exist, however it does not mean that they are substantively meaningless.

Thus, hypothesis one was not confirmed, and the null hypothesis could not be rejected. For the full details of the post-hoc contrast results see Table 2. For descriptive plots of self-body image scores per group see Figure 9.

54

Figure 9 Descriptive Plots for Body Self-Image Based on Dance Group

Note: Confidence intervals shown as error bars

55

55

Table 2

Post-Hoc Multiple Comparison of the Fixed Effects of Dance Group on Self-Body Image

Comparison 95% CI

Mean

Group (I) Group (J) Difference SE df t ptukey Hedge’s g Lower Upper (I-J)

Ballet - Pole dance 0.08 0.17 104.00 0.45 .969 0.12 -0.43 0.68

- Street dance 0.03 0.19 104.00 0.14 .999 0.04* -0.58 0.67

- Twerk -0.14 0.17 104.00 -0.84 .837 -0.31 -0.81 0.33

Pole dance - Street dance -0.05 0.17 104.00 -0.29 .991 -0.08 -0.63 0.47

- Twerk -0.22 0.15 104.00 -1.50 .440 -0.46 -0.85 0.12

Street dance - Twerk -0.17 0.17 104.00 -0.99 .754 -0.53 -0.85 0.29

Note. Comparisons are based on estimated marginal means. Fixed effects ANOVA using dance group as a criterion, F (3, 104)=0.792, p=.501, η.2=0.02. Dance groups: Ballet (n1=20), Pole dancers (n2=37), Twerk (n3=31), Street dancers (n4=20). Hedge’s g correction (pooled SD) in group comparisons with unequal sample size as a measure of effect size, * Cohen’s d

56

Hypothesis Two

Similarly, to the prediction made for hypothesis one, the author expected that twerk and pole dancers will on average score higher on sexual self-esteem compared to ballet and pole dancers. The assumption of normality was met as assessed by Shapiro’s Wilk (W=.99, p

>.05). Similarly, there was an equal scores variance in each of the four dance groups

(Levene’s test, F (3, 104) =.773, p >.05). The results of the between-subjects analysis revealed that there was not a statistically significant difference in sexual self-esteem based on the dance group, F(3, 104)=0.51, p=.674, η.2 =.02. Pole dancers (n1=20) scored the highest

(M=4.81, SD=0.51) followed by equally scoring Twerk (n2=31, M=4.70, SD=).64) and ballet dancers (n3=20, M=4.70, SD=0.53) and the street dancers were the group with the lowest sexual self-esteem average score (n4=20, M=4.61, SD=0.51). For the full details of the results of the post-hoc pairwise comparisons (See Table 3). As a result, hypothesis two was not confirmed.

As an additional analysis, we decided to run multivariate analysis of variance to explore if any of the dance style groups show a unique pattern on two dependent variables combined - one composite dependent variable (Tabachnick & Fidel, 2013). Because one-way

MANOVA requires data to be multivariate normal, both dependent variables were screened for multivariate outliers. We identified five outliers (case 11, 34, 64, 74 and 90 respectively) with Mahalanobis distance value above the upper-tail critical value of chi-square distribution

(5.99) with 2 degrees of freedom at p <.05. As such, the final dataset included 103 cases: 19 for ballet dance group, 35 for pole dancers, 20 for street dance and 29 for twerk dance group. There was homogeneity of covariance matrices of the dependent variables as assessed by Box’s M test, F (9,52230.5) = 8.15, p >.05 and the data were multivariate normal as assessed by Shapiro Wilk Multivariate Normality test (W=0.99, p >.05). Furthermore, the error variance of the dependent variable was equal across dance groups (Levene’s Test, 57

Sexual Self-esteem, F(3, 99)=.563, p >.05; Self-body image, F(3, 99)= .44, p >.05 The results showed that dance groups did not significantly differ on their self-perceptions as assessed by the scores on measures of self-body image and sexual self-esteem, Pillal’s F (6, 198)=1.37, p=.229, η2=.04, observed power .53. For the measure of the difference in positive self- image, no differences were found between the groups, F (3, 99) =0.67, p =.575, partial

η2=.03, achieved power of .19 at p=.05. To achieve convenient power or .80 and given effect size, 308 cases would be needed. Similarly, for the measure of the sexual self-esteem, no statistically significant differences were found based on dance group, F (3, 99) =0.96, p=.417, partial η2=.02, f=.14, achieved power 0.19 at Alpha level prob=.05. For power of .80, 540 cases were required. For the full details of the post-hoc contrast results see Table 3. For descriptive plots of sexual self-esteem scores per group see Figure 10.

Figure 10 Descriptive Plots for Sexual Self-Esteem Based on Dance Group

Note: Confidence intervals for marginal means depicted as error bars

58 Table 3

Post-Hoc Multiple Comparison of the Fixed Effects of Dance Group on Sexual Self-esteem

Comparison 95% CI

Mean

Group (I) Group (J) Difference (I- SE df t ptukey Hedge’s g Lower Upper J)

Ballet - Pole dance -0.11 0.17 104.00 -0.64 0.920 -0.18 -0.73 0.37 - Street dance 0.09 0.19 104.00 0.49 0.961 0.15* -0.47 0.78 - Twerk 0.00 0.17 104.00 0.02 1.000 0.01 -0.56 0.58 Pole dance - Street dance 0.20 0.17 104.00 1.19 0.632 0.33 -0.22 0.88 - Twerk 0.11 0.15 104.00 0.76 0.874 0.18 -0.30 0.67 Street dance - Twerk -0.09 0.17 104.00 -0.51 0.955 -0.15 -0.72 0.42

Note. Comparisons are based on estimated marginal means. Fixed effects ANOVA using dance group as a criterion, F (3, 104)=0.51, 2 p=.674, η. =0.01. Dance groups: Ballet (n1=20), Pole dancers (n2=37), Twerk (n3=31), Street dancers (n4=20). Hedge’s g-bias corrected measure of effect size, * Cohen’s d

59

Hypothesis Three

To examine if there is a positive and significant relationship between the sexual self-esteem and self-body image the bivariate correlation was run on a dataset with 108 cases. The data were normally distributed per each variable as assessed by Shapiro’s Wilk (p >.05). There was a statistically significant positive correlation between the body self-image and sexual self-esteem, r =.55, 95 % CI[.43, 1.00], p=.000, one-tailed. Therefore Hypothesis 3 was confirmed. Additionally, we assessed the strength and direction of the linear relationship between the main variables for each group separately. The strongest positive correlation was found in the street dance group, r(18)=.684, p=.000 (one-tailed). followed by pole dance group, r(35)=.631, p=.000 (one-tailed); twerk group, r(29)=.436, p=.007(one-tailed) and the weakest but still moderate positive correlation between sexual self-esteem and self-body image was found in ballet group, r(18)=.399, p=.040 (one-tailed) (See Figure 11 and Figure

12).

60

Figure 11

Scatterplot Depicting Linear Relationship between Sexual Self-Esteem and Self-Body Image

Note: n=108

Figure 12

Scatterplot of Linear Relationship between Self-Body Image and Sexual Self-Esteem by Group

2 Note: Pole dance (n1=37), Ballet (n2=20), Twerk (n3=31), Street dance (n4=20). R depicts proportion of the variation in Self-body image that can be attributed to Sexual self-esteem 61

Chapter 5

Discussion

Summary of Findings

In total, the 108 regular adult female dancers across cultures participated in the study on the differences in self-body image and then sexual self-esteem based on the four distinct dance styles (twerk, pole dance, street dance and ballet). The first hypothesis “Independently,

Twerk and Pole dance dancers will have a higher self-body image scores compared to Street dance and Ballet dancers” was not confirmed. Similarly, the second hypothesis

“Independently, Twerk and Pole dance dancers will have a higher sexual self-esteem scores compared to Street dance and Ballet dancers” was not confirmed. The third hypothesis “Self- body image and Sexual Self-esteem will be positively and significantly correlated” has been confirmed.

The non-significant differences have been identified as follows: Twerkers reported higher self-body image compared to each of the dance types. Regarding the dimension of sexual self-esteem, Pole dancers showed higher scores than Ballet dancers, and lower scores than Street dancers. The findings of the current study contribute to the literature in the area of dance, self-body image, sexual self-esteem, and the relationship between the constructs.

Interpretation of Findings

In the current study, the first hypothesis expecting higher levels of self-body image in twerk and pole dancers compared to the females regularly practicing ballet and street dance was not confirmed. The results of between-subjects variance analysis did not reach statistical significance.

Author expected Twerk dancers to report better self-body image scores compared to

Ballet dancers. This hypothesis was partially built up on the author’s belief that the development of positive SBI in Twerkers is encouraged via promoting the idea of body 62 acceptance in the Twerk class. The body acceptance is one of the main characteristics of

Twerk (Toth, 2017; Vertical Joe’s, 2019). Ballet dancers tend to be controlled for their body proportions to fit the Ballet body ideals. Fitting body ideals in Ballet is important for matching the socio-cultural expectations of a proper Ballet performance (Swami et al., 2012).

Therefore, the body acceptance might not be a necessary aspect of Ballet. The statistically significant difference has not been confirmed between the two dance groups in terms of self- body image. One of the reasons this hypothesis was not confirmed can be the influence of other factors on the levels of SBI in the participants The study by Swami et al. (2012) has found that Ballet dancers can develop a negative SBI if they receive a negative feedback on their weight and body proportions in Ballet class. For instance, the body evaluations are provided to dancers by their dance teachers (Oliver, 2008). Since the participants were not tested for their perception of body evaluations in the dance class, the potential effects of this factor on SBI are unknown. Some Ballet dancers that participated in this study might receive a positive feedback on their body in Ballet setting, if their body proportions match the expectations of Ballet body ideals. As a result, their SBI would not be affected negatively by body evaluations. Twerk is known for supporting body acceptance (Toth, 2017; Vertical

Joe’s, 2019). If both dance groups of Twerkers and Ballet dancers receive positive evaluations on their body, they may not differ much in the extent to which they perceive their body in a positive manner. Also, ballet beginners in the study by Swami et al. (2012) have reported better body image than advanced ballet dancers. If most of the respondents in the author’s study are Ballet beginners, there may not be a strong difference between Ballet and

Twerk respondents in their self-body image.

Also, it was assumed that Twerk dancers would report more positive body image compared to Street dancers. Author partially believed this hypothesis to be true based on the knowledge that Twerk teachers encourage their female Twerk students in body acceptance 63 and a positive appraisal of one’s body (Toth, 2017; Vertical Joe’s, 2019). The proportions of one’s body are praised when twerking regardless the extent to which they match the body ideals. At this point, the Twerker’s body is literally praised during dancing. For instance, a

Twerk teacher would verbally express how well one’s buttocks look like when involved in twerking. In other words, praising body during Twerk class is one of the intentions. Also, the choice of dress code supports Twerk students to accept their body. The typical dress code for

Twerking rather reveals one’s body parts than hides them (Toth, 2017). Twerkers see and feel their body movements initiated by the body parts, that they may not feel confident about, e.g., having a cellulite on the buttocks may trigger insecurities about one’s body. When creating well-looking body movements, one may develop a healthier perspective towards their body parts (Vertical Joe’s, 2019). Although Street dancers praise their body via creating and sensing the movements (Swami et al., 2009), they don’t seem to focus on exposing the socially judged and shamed body parts to the dance technique (e.g., buttocks) with the aim to improve one’s body acceptance. In addition, the dress code used in Street dance does not necessarily reveal these body parts (Bodén, 2013). The author created the first hypothesis based on the idea, that the extent to which the dance style focuses on improvement of body image with the emphasis on body appearance differs between Twerkers and Street dancers.

The hypothesis might not be confirmed, while other factors may impact one’s self- body image. One of the reasons for the unconfirmed hypothesis could be that Street dancers use similar aspects to those of Twerk to encourage one’s body acceptance (e.g., the technique focused on the shamed body parts used in feminine style of Hip-Hop) (Bodén, 2013).

Furthermore, other factors have impact on one’s self-body image. Physical fitness within physical strength and physical competence are positively related to self-body image (Sani et al., 2016). For example, physical fitness including body strength is an important aspect of

Street dance (eg. Break Dancers must have enough physical strength to perform the technique 64 of Break Dance) (Dance College Ltd., 2002). Street dancers tend to be physically competent, since they can perform Street dance technique (Swami et al., 2009). While multiple factors can contribute to the positive self-perception of one’s body, Street dancers and Twerkers may not differ much in terms of their self-body image.

Although the statistically significant relationship in the first hypothesis has not been confirmed, the small effect size of the differences may be of interest. Actual achieved power, given the resulting effect size, sample size and group numbers reached only .10, which is way below the recommended .80 level. For the result reaching a statistical significance, 180 participants/45 participants per group were needed to achieve a recommended .80 power (For details see Participants section).

Specifically, from all post-hoc pairwise comparisons, two deserves attention- the predicted trend for the twerk to ballet and street dance groups. Twerk dancers had more positive body self-image compared to ballet dancers, t (104)=0.84, p=.837, Hedge’s g=.31,

95%CI [-.81, .33] Similarly, twerk dancers had higher levels of body image than street dancers, t(104)= 0.99, p=.754, Hedge’s g=.53 , 95%CI -.29, .85].

The 1st qualitative question revealed that some Twerkers perceive positive effects of

Twerk on their self-body image (see Appendix G, a question no. 2). One of the Twerk dancers responded: “Dance helped me feel into my whole body. I'm not great expressing myself through words so dance has always been a way to express. Twerk helped me confront all the things society tells us is not desirable and move those thought patterns to a healthier more accepting space. It built my confidence and when you’re not worrying about how you appear on the outside it opens up space in the mind for other thought's.” The respondent of

Twerk explained that the dance type helped them to express themselves via body movement.

Also, it increased the self-confidence and self-acceptance of their body and themselves in a general sense. 65

One of the Ballet dancers responded: “When I was child and do dance for myself as a fun and for my own dream goals, I never have negative thoughts about my body. But after that when I start dancing professionally it really changed my view on my body (in negative way). I can say that now I'm on in it much better than that time, but you still carry that thoughts about your body with you.” Since the respondent stated that their body was negatively influenced by Ballet, the response suggested less perceived positive influence of the dance type on respondent’s SBI compared to the respondent of Twerk.

One of the Street dancers answered the question as follows: “I think I am more flexible.” The response by Twerk dancer displays a stronger impact via the way they feel about the effects of the dance type on their SBI compared to the response of Street dancer.

Although non-significant, the substantial standardized differences (Cohen et al., 1988) confirm the predicted trend of the difference between the dance groups. Most probably, lower than initially planned sample sizes per each group (low power to detect an effect) were the reason why we could not reject the null hypothesis to conclude with 95% confidence on real existence of differences in self-body image between these dance groups. The actual achieved power, given the resulting effect size, sample size and unequal group design reached only .24

(twerk vs. ballet groups) and .16 (twerk vs. street dance groups), which is a way below the recommended .80 level. For this study, 64 cases per group were needed to achieve a recommended .80 power (For details see Participants section).

For the prediction of the differences in self-body image between pole dance and ballet and then street dancers, the resulting standardized mean differences were rather trivial and again non-statistically significant. Thus. for these results, the substantive meaning of observed trivial mean level differences is most likely meaningless and the result of natural sample variation. 66

Alike to Twerk, author assumes that Pole dance is a type of dance that puts more emphasis on body appreciation via the dress code (Holland, 2010) and body movements

(Dodson, 2019) compared to Ballet (Akinleye, 2021). There might not be found a statistically significant difference between Pole dancers and Ballet dancers, since physical fitness can be a factor influencing self-body image in both dance types. For example, Pole dancers have physical strength to perform techniques with the pole (Holland, 2010). Also, Ballet dancers have physical strength to initiate Ballet movements (e.g., a physical strength is important for keeping balance in Ballet positions) (Swami et al. 2012). Therefore, the two dance groups may not differ in levels of their self-body image.

Furthermore, study by Ołpińska et al. (2020) suggested that Pole dancers can score high on self-body image because of the dance type. Similarly, study by Swami et al. (2009) showed that Street dancers may be more satisfied with their body than individuals not doing

Street dance. The statistically significant differences between Pole dance and Street dance might not be recognized if each of the dance types has a potential for its relationship with self-body image.

Still, with respect to differences found regarding self-body image, we found a meaningful middle sized standardized difference of .53 between twerk and pole dance groups. In other words, having achieved a convenient power of .80 (the actual achieved power was .57), in 100 randomly chosen females from the same population, twerk dancers would score between 0.12 to 0.85 standard units higher on self-body image scale compared to pole dancers. In other words, there is 33% nonoverlap in the two distributions.

Moreover, the 1st qualitative question revealed that some Twerkers perceive positive effects of Twerk on their self-body image (see Appendix G, a question no. 2). One of the

Twerk dancers responded: “Allowing myself to let go of the insecurities I have around my body, showing that it's perfectly okay to show my body and not have to be sexualised for it.” 67

One of the Pole dancers did not answer the question as follows: “Positively.” The responses suggest that Twerk dancer felt stronger effects of the dance type on her SBI compared to the

Pole dancer.

Secondly, the current study could not reject the null hypothesis with respect to dance group differences in sexual self-esteem. Similarly, to the results for hypothesis one, post hoc power analysis revealed that our design was underpowered (.08). For detection of achieved effect size, 2232 cases would be needed to achieve convenient .80 power at Alpha level probability of 0.05.

Regarding the second hypothesis, author expected Pole dancers to report higher levels of sexual self-esteem than Street dancers. Pole dance encourages dancers to sexually express themselves via dance (Holland, 2010). When allowing oneself for sexual expression, it may contribute to the development of healthy sexuality (Heinrichs, 2007). The sexual expression during Pole dance is emphasized via the dress code (Holland, 2010) and the Pole dance technique (Pellizer et al., 2016). Street dancers may not be necessarily focused on the sexual expression during dance, while the aspect of sexuality in Street dance would be rather additional (Bodén, 2013). The relationship between Pole dance and Street dance tested for sexual self-esteem might not be statistically significant, while both dance types use aspects of sexual expression. For example, Street dancers incorporate sexual expression in some Street dance styles such as Female Hip-Hop (Bodén, 2013).

The two dance groups may not differ in levels of sexual self-esteem, if the dance type is not a key factor in the development of sexual self-esteem. For instance, enjoyment of sexualization is a contributing factor for sexual self-esteem (Barnett et al., 2018) and it was not strongly determined by practicing Pole dance in study by Pellizer et al. (2016). Also, sexual attractiveness (as a contributing factor for sexual self-esteem) did not differ much between Pole dancers and non-Pole dancers (Ołpińska,2020). 68

Closer examination of post-hoc pairwise comparisons revealed only the mean level difference in sexual self-esteem between street and pole dancers as substantially meaningful.

Specifically, there was a 33% nonoverlap in score distribution between these two groups, with street dancers having higher mean than the pole dancers. The 2nd qualitative question revealed that some Street dancers perceive positive effects of Street dance on their sexual self-esteem (see Appendix G, a question no. 4). One of the Street dancers responded: “body movement became more natural for me, so I perceive myself and movement regarding to sex as more organic.” The respondent of Street dance claimed that dance helped them to develop natural self-perception of sex. One of the Pole dancers answered the question as follows: “No change :),” suggesting less perceived positive effect of the dance type on respondent’s SSE compared to the Street dance respondent.

Considering sexual self-esteem in Pole dance and Ballet dancers, a strong difference has not been identified. Participants in Pole dance group were expected to report higher levels of sexual self-esteem than those in Ballet group, since Pole dancers intentionally incorporate aspects of sexuality to dance (Holland, 2010). Ballet dancers also use aspects of sexuality such as sexual expression however not as one of the main features of the dance (Akinleye,

2021). Moreover, author assumed that sexuality is likely to be negatively affected based on doing Ballet. Since some Ballet dancers develop eating disorders, they may experience disrupted body image (Arcelus et al., 2013). Individuals with a negative self-body image tend to experience issues related to their sexuality (Hannier et al., 2017). The hypothesis might not be confirmed since sexual self-esteem might not be influenced by the dance type. Study by

Pellizzer et al. (2016) and Ołpińska et al. (2020) suggested that doing Pole dance does not determine some aspects of sexuality.

The prediction favoring pole dancers with respect to ballet dancers was confirmed, however the difference did not reach a statistical significance and the found difference was 69 very small. The 2nd qualitative question revealed that some Pole dancers perceive positive effects of Pole dance on their sexual self-esteem (see Appendix G, a question no. 4). One of the Pole dancers responded: “For over 20 years, when I wasn’t dancing I wouldn’t even have a full length mirror in my house, I varied from a size 0 up to a size 12 (4 years ago) but it wasn’t about my weight or size I just couldn’t look at myself. Even after getting back down to a size 2/4 I still couldn’t look. My desire to dance grew though and I got brave enough to go to a heels workshop. I loved it and after just 2 lessons got a full size mirror for my home. I progressed to pole choreo, exotic pole and exotic flow floorwork and have never felt more confident about myself or my body. That was almost 3 years ago. I have now done an instructor course and am teaching exotic floorwork to women over 40 to help them fall in love with their bodies again. After abusive marriage and a very long period of being single (abstinent) I have the healthiest relationship I have ever had both sexually and emotionally through the confidence dance has given me. I have just turned 50 but have never felt more confident, beautiful and sexy. It is all attributable to dance and the incredible women who have taught me.” The pole dancer explained how doing Pole dance positively shaped their SSE throughout the years. One of the Ballet dancers responded to the same question: “None.” Therefore, the responses suggested that the respondent of pole dance perceives a stronger positive effect of the dance type on their SSE compared to the respondent of ballet.

Twerkers were expected to score higher on sexual self-esteem than ballet dancers, since twerk similarly to pole dance emphasizes the sexuality-related aspects such as sexual expression. One of the reasons for the hypothesis to be unconfirmed could be, that dancers practicing Twerk and Ballet have developed optimal sexual self-esteem beyond the dance class. Therefore, the factor influencing their sexual self-esteem would not be their dance type.

For instance, individuals with healthy global self-esteem tend to have positive self-body 70 image (Pop, 2016). Consequently, one with positive self-body image is likely to develop healthy sexual self-esteem (La Rocque et al., 2011). If both groups of Twerkers and Ballet dancers have optimal global self-esteem, the dance type would not be decisive factor for their sexual self-esteem. Participants of this research were not screened for global self-esteem, therefore the potential effects of this factor on their sexual self-esteem are unknown.

It was expected that Twerkers would have higher scores on sexual self-esteem than

Street dancers, while twerk is more sexuality-focused type of dance than Street dance

(Bodén, 2013).

While dance type may not be a strong indicator of sexual self-esteem, the statistically significant difference might not be reported between the two dance types. As it was previously stated, a healthy global self-esteem developed beyond practicing the dance could lead to healthy sexual self-esteem in dancers of both dance types. Moreover, couple support is related to optimal sexual self-esteem (Torres et al., 2018). Individuals that feel supported by their partner in relationship tend) to have better sexual self-esteem than their counterparts.

Respondents involved in this study were not tested for their relationship status and the self- perceived support they receive from their partner. Therefore, the results of the study don’t provide information about the impact of couple support on sexual self-esteem of the participants.

When it comes to hypothesized direction of the differences between twerk and ballet and street dancers, the twerk dancers scored higher than street dancers (a small, standardized difference of 0.15) and no difference in sexual self-esteem was found with respect to ballet dancers. The 2nd qualitative question revealed that some Twerk dancers perceive positive effects of Twerk on their sexual self-esteem (see Appendix G, a question no. 4). One of the

Twerk dancers responded: “Dance and twerk allow me to feel more ownership over my own body. In the past I've been sexually assaulted and the relationship I've had with my sexual 71 behavior hasn't always been easy or guilt free. Dance and twerk in particular has helped me embrace and celebrate my sensual, sexy self, instead of feeling shame for it.” The respondent of Twerk believes Twerk helped her to develop healthy approach to her sexuality that was disrupted at the times when they experienced sexual assault.

One of the Street dancers responded: “I feel sexier.” This response suggests that a respondent perceives some positive impact on their SSE based on doing Street dance. More specifically, it helps them to feel sexy. However, a Twerk dancer mentioned stronger impact the dance type had on her SSE compared to the respondent of Street dance. Therefore, responses suggest higher self-perceived positive effect of the dance type on SSE of the Twerk dancer compared to the respondent doing Street dance.

Some factors could contribute to statistically non-significant relationships in both hypotheses. Individuals with high scores on global self-esteem may develop a positive SBI

(Pop, 2016) and healthy SSE resulting from a positive SBI (Hannier et al., 2017) regardless the dance style they practice. For example, participants in the study were not tested for global self-esteem. Since the respondents did not provide answers related to their global self-esteem, it is not possible to prove the impact of global self-esteem on SBI and SSE in this study. If the participants of the study have healthy general self-esteem, they may not differ much in their SBI and SSE based on the dance type.

According to Torres et al. (2018), female individuals that feel supported by their partner score high on sexual self-esteem. However, the surveys used in author’s study did not include the items related to relationship status of the respondents. Therefore, a potential effect of the dimension couple support on SSE cannot be proven in this research. If the respondents have a healthy sexual self-esteem because of the self-perceived couple support, the dance type may not be a key influential factor in SSE. 72

The ways in which the respondents of this study are influenced by the factors such as an appropriate use of mirrors in the dance class or specific features of the dance class are unknown. An appropriate use of mirrors in the dance class may contribute to one’s positive self-perception of the body. When the dancers use mirrors in the dance class appropriately, they have a balance between observing their body movements in the mirror and sensing them without focusing on the way they look (Oliver, 2008). If the use of mirrors in the dance class similarly affects the respondents’ SBI in all dance groups, they may not show strong differences when compared for the dance type.

Regarding the hypotheses 1 and 2, respondents were asked to answer two qualitative questions. Some responses revealed the information that support the results determined by post-hoc pairwise comparisons. Although the first and the second hypothesis was not confirmed, the differences were identified between dance types and their relationship with

SBI and SSE. Therefore, the qualitative items challenge the results of non-significant relationships in the two hypotheses.

Lastly, the third hypothesis “self-body image and sexual self-esteem will be positively and significantly correlated” was fully confirmed. These findings were consistent with few studies that focused on the relationship between SBI and SSE. Hannier et al. (2017) has stated that a woman’s self-perception of her body can determine the extent to which her sexual experience will be pleasurable. If a woman has negative self-body image, she feels insecure about her body appearance. As a result, she may not be able to relax during sexual intercourse and experience sexual pleasure (Peplau et al., 2008, as cited in Woertman, et al.,

2012). Destructive thinking about one’s body discourages them to perceive their sexual experience in an enjoyable manner. Therefore, a negative self-body image can contribute to one’s low sexual self-esteem (Dove et al., 2000, as cited in Woertman et al., 2012). Weaver et al. (2006) found a positive relationship between sexual functioning and self-body image. The 73 better self-perception of body image one has, the better their body functions in a response to sexual stimuli. Optimal sexual functioning is related to healthy sexual self-esteem (Hannier et al., 2017). According to Ackard et al. (2000), women with a positive SBI tend to experience more orgasms compared to those with a negative SBI (as cited in Woertman & Brink, 2012).

Female individuals having a positive relationship with their body tend to be more sexually satisfied and sexually active than those with low levels of positive body image. Also, women with a positive SBI are more likely to actively seek sexual events than those with a negative

SBI (La Rocque et al., 2011).

Limitations

One of the main limitations of this study was limited research on the associations between tested dance types, self-body image, and sexual self-esteem.

Therefore, it was challenging for the author to properly support the hypotheses and the findings of the study.

Moreover, a limited sample size might influence the potentially biased results of the study. For example, the Pole dance group was the strongest by its number of 38 participants, contrasting the number of just 19 respondents in the category of Ballet.

Following on, the regularity in engagement of the dance type that the participants chose in the questionnaire set was not clear. Thus, differences in regularity

(e.g., how often in one month a dancer practices the dance) could impact the results

(Kaluza & Guszkowska, 2015).

Also, a potential limitation of this study might be the unknown level of professionalism in practicing the dance style. Professional dancers may differ from amateur dancers by self-perception in terms of dance, even if they are similar in regularity of the dance practice. (Kaluza & Guszkowska, 2015). 74

Similarly, the level of advancement in practicing the dance style can differ in impact it has on the dancers’ SBI (Swami & Harris, 2012). The impact of this factor was unknown in this study.

Age was a limitation in this study, as it was not specified by the participants.

For instance, self-body image can be influenced by the age. Therefore, age could have an impact on the self-body image in dancers too (Kilpela et al., 2015).

Furthermore, biased answers due to other factors beyond doing some of the chosen dance types influencing self-body image/sexual self-esteem (e.g., eating disorder) (Oliver, 2008) could have influenced the findings.

Moreover, a debatable ethicality was since some participants in the study were students of the dance classes led by the author of the work (a possibility of response bias).

Next, the respondents might provide biased, or untrue answers in the survey on sexual self-esteem; for example, some participants may find the topic of sexuality too personal and try to fill the survey in the most socially acceptable way.

The study has been conducted during the time range when the Covid-19 restrictions were set up. The restrictions limited dancers in attending dance classes regularly, and this change might have an effect on their responses.

Since cultural differences have not been studied in this work, the responses might be culturally biased.

Some respondents may practice more than one type of dance beyond the primary one they chose in the survey. This aspect might bring biases to the results, since only the effects of the primary type of dance were considered in the research. 75

While the age of participants was not fully determined, the differences in dancers’ SBI and SSE impacted by age were not indicated. However, the age differences could potentially impact the results of the study too.

There might be differences between the dancers of the same dance type, which were not considered in the study (e.g., beginners vs. advanced dancers, dance professionals vs. dance students). Such differences might have an impact on the levels of SBI and SSE in dancers that answered the surveys.

Implications and Future Research

Each dance type has its unique characteristics, that could contribute to healthy self- body image and sexual self-esteem in dancers. Future studies are recommended to investigate the differences in self-body image and sexual self-esteem among the different types of dance, since there is a lack of research done on this topic. Most of the research exploring the associations between the dance and self-body image, or dance and sexual self-esteem, focuses on the differences between dancers and non-dancers. However, the field of research does not provide sufficient information about the differences between dancers that vary in the dance type. The current study is suggested to be replicated, while author did not find any previous study that would compare different dance types in terms of self-body image and sexual self- esteem.

Author recommends conducting studies that examine the relationship between the self-body image and sexual self-esteem dependently in terms of different dance types. The additional results of current study showed that self-body image and sexual self-esteem are correlated in terms of different dance types.

The future research should consider a large sample of dancers, since the unsatisfactory sample size was one of the strongest limitations in this study. 76

The qualitative study on the topic is recommended for the future research. Although a couple of qualitative items were included in this study, they provided only a limited information. Based on the responses gathered from the qualitative part, a researcher gained information to support/challenge the results of the quantitative part.

Moreover, the qualitative part of the research provided information suggesting that the relationship between self-body image and sexual self-esteem exists among dancers.

Therefore, it would be meaningful to use qualitative methods to research relationship between self-body image, sexual self-esteem, and dance types.

The theories of Dance Movement Therapy suggest that aspects of dance have healing effects on psychological health. Author recommends for future research to conduct studies that explore the effects of different dance types on self-body image and sexual self-esteem when being applied to the Dance Movement Therapy.

Lastly, in the future studies it is recommended to consider the variety of factors that can influence self-body image and sexual self-esteem in dancers.

Conclusion

The current research has been conducted to screen for the potential differences between the dance types Twerk, Pole dance, Ballet, and Street dance in terms of self-body image and sexual self-esteem. The statistically significant relationship has not been confirmed for the group of Twerk dancers and Pole dancers when compared to the group of

Ballet and Street dancers. However, the non-significant differences have been identified as follows: Twerkers reported higher self-body image compared to each of the dance types.

Regarding the dimension of sexual self-esteem, Pole dancers showed higher scores than

Ballet dancers, and lower scores than Street dancers. The findings of the current study contribute to the literature in the area of dance, self-body image, sexual self-esteem, and the 77 relationship between the constructs. To sum up, the results of the study could motivate researchers to explore the topic of the research in the future studies,

78

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Appendix A

Informed Consent

1. Summary: This research study will examine the relationship between chosen types of dance and various psychological factors in adult female dancers. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to answer several survey questions linked to the dance, in English language. Please note that the survey is anonymous.

2. Your right to withdraw/discontinue: You are free to ask questions or to discontinue your participation at any time without penalty.

3. Benefits: By participating in this research, you have a right to join one of the online Twerk classes organized by the principal investigator, or to provide this opportunity to one of your non-participating peers/friends. The class would be free- of-charge and would last for one-hour. Also, possible benefits include the fact that you may learn something about how research studies are conducted, and you may learn something about this area of research.

4. Additional information: You will be given additional information about the study after your participation is complete.

5. Time commitment: If you agree to participate in the study, it may take up to 10 minutes to complete the survey.

6. Guarantee of Confidentiality: All data from this study will be kept from inappropriate disclosure and will be accessible only to the researchers. The researchers are not interested in anyone’s individual responses, only the average responses of everyone in the study. Risks: The present research is designed to reduce the possibility of any negative experiences as a result of participation. Risks to participants are kept to a minimum. However, if your participation in this study 89 causes you any concerns, anxiety, or distress, please contact the author of this work regarding the action that should be taken.

7. Researcher Contact Information: This research study is being conducted by

Paulina Arendasova for the master thesis. The supervisor of the work is PhDr. Iva

Linda Maruscakova. If you have questions or concerns about your participation in this study, you may contact the researcher at [email protected].

8. Results of the Study: You may obtain information about the outcome of the study at the end of the Summer 2021 by contacting the researcher listed above.

9. Verification of Adult Age: By clicking “I Agree” below, you attest that you are 18 years old or older.

10. Verification of Informed Consent: By clicking “I Agree” below, you are indicating that you have freely consented to participate in this research study.

Appendix B

Debriefing Form

Title of Research: Psychological factors and its connection to practicing various dancing styles.

Thank you for supporting the research in psychology by filling the survey. Please find more information regarding the research below.

This research study examines the relationship between chosen types of dance, self-body image and sexual self-esteem in adult female dancers. Based on the previous research, various types of dance may differ in their impact on self-body image (Oliver, 2008).

For example, the study done by Pellizzer et al. (2016) showed that women doing pole dance recreationally tend to have a positive self-body image. 90

Previous studies have shown that the types of dance that are focused on aspects of sexuality may improve sexual self-esteem in women (Dodson, 2019). For instance,

Twerk improves self-perception of one’s sexuality via its focus on the body parts that are the center of sexual energy (bottom, pelvis, etc.) (Vertical Joe’s, 2019).

Furthermore, there has been found a relationship between self-body image and sexual self-esteem (Lordello et al., 2014). For example, individuals that like their body tend to be more comfortable with expressing their sexual needs and feel more confident in satisfying their partner sexually.

In order to run the research on the previously stated topic, respondents were asked to fill out the following: information regarding your role in the area of dance, the

Body Appreciation Scale (BAS) to test self-body image (Avalos et al., 2005), the

Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women-Short Form (SSEI-SF) to test sexual self- esteem (Zeanah & Schwarz,1996), demographic information, and two additional open- ended questions focusing on your experience regarding the topic in more details. To sum up, it is expected that the results from this study will bring findings that will enrich the area of research related to self-body image, sexual self-esteem, and dance, where type of dance is expected to influence self-body image and sexual self-esteem in women.

91

Appendix C

Agreement and Dance-Related Information

Section 1

I Agree

Yes

1. I do one or more of the following types of dance regularly for a period of more than 1 year: Twerk, Pole dance (e.g. Exotic pole dance), Ballet, Street dance.

Yes

2. Which type of dance do you do? (please choose one primary type, in case you do more than one type of dance)

Twerk

Pole dance (e.g. Exotic pole dance)

Ballet

Street dance

Appendix D

The Body Appreciation Scale (the BAS)

Section 2 of 5

In this section you will be asked to answer how often you feel like you relate to the following items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from Never (receiving a score 1) -Rarely(receiving a 92 score 2)- Sometimes (receiving a score 3) -Often (receiving a score 4) to Always (receiving a score 5). The items are related to self-body image.

1. I respect my body.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

2. I feel good about my body.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

3. On the whole, I am satisfied with my body.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

4. Despite its flaws, I accept my body for what it is.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

5. I feel that my body has at least some good qualities.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

6. I take a positive attitude toward my body.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

7. I am attentive to my body’s needs.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

8. My self-worth is independent of my body shape or weight.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

9. I do not focus a lot of energy being concerned with my body shape or weight.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5 93

10. My feelings toward my body are positive, for the most part.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

11. I engage in healthy behaviors to take care of my body.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

12. I do not allow unrealistically thin images of women presented in the media to affect

my attitudes toward my body.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

13. Despite its imperfections, I still like my body.

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5

Appendix E

The Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women (SSEI-W)

Section 3 of 5

In this section you will be asked to answer to what extent you agree with the following items on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from Strongly Disagree (receiving a score 1) -

Moderately Disagree (receiving a score 2)-Mildly Disagree (receiving a score 3)- Mildly

Agree (receiving a score 4) -Moderately Agree (receiving a score 5) to Strongly Agree

(receiving a score 6). The items are related to sexual self-esteem.

1. I feel I am pretty good at sex.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

2. I feel that “sexual techniques” come easily to me.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly 94

Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

3. Sexually, I feel like a failure.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

4. I pretty well do at expressing myself sexually.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

5. I feel embarrassed about my lack of sexual experience.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

6. I feel good about my ability to satisfy my sexual partner.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

7. I wish I could relax in sexual situations.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

8. I am pleased with my physical appearance.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

9. I hate my body.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 95

1 2 3 4 5 6

10. I am pleased with the way my body has developed.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

11. I would like to trade bodies with someone else.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

12. I worry that some parts of my body would be disgusting to a sexual partner.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

13. I would be happier if I looked better.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

14. I am proud of my body.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

15. I feel emotionally vulnerable in a sexual encounter.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

16. I am afraid of losing control sexually. 96

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

17. I feel I can usually judge how my partner will regard my wishes about how far to go

sexually.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

18. I feel physically vulnerable in a sexual encounter.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

19. I worry that I won’t be able to stop something I don’t want to do in a sexual situation.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

20. I worry that things will get out of hand because I can’t always tell what my partner

wants in a sexual situation.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

21. I worry that I will be taken advantage of sexually.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

22. I feel good about the place of sex in my life.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 97

23. I like what I have learned about myself from my sexual experiences.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

24. I don’t feel ready for some of the things I am doing sexually.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

25. Sometimes I wish I could forget about sex.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

26. I wish sex were less a part of my life.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

27. I am glad that feelings about sex have become a part of my life now.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

28. In general, I feel my sexual experiences have given me a more positive view of

myself.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

29. I feel guilty about my sexual thoughts and feelings.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 98

30. My sexual behaviors are in line with my moral values.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

31. Some of the things I do in sexual situations are morally wrong.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

32. I have punished myself for my sexual thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

33. I never feel bad about my sexual behaviors.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

34. I never feel guilty about my sexual feelings.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

35. From a moral point of view, my sexual feelings are acceptable to me.

Strongly Moderately Mildly Mildly Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6

99

Appendix F

Demographic Information

Section 4 of 5

Demographic information

In this section you will be asked to answer the questions related to demographic

information.

1. What is your gender?

Female

Male

Prefer not to say

Other

2. Where were you born?

USA

Canada

Northern Europe

Western Europe

Southern Europe

Central Europe 100

Eastern Europe

West Asia

Middle East

East Asia

South Asia

Oceania and Australia

North Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa

Other

3.What is your nationality?

Appendix G

Additional Information

Section 5 of 5

Additional information

1. Did regular dance influence your relationship with your body? (by self-body

image we mean "a mental interpretation of one’s own body, considering the

extent to which one has positive or negative feelings towards their own body."

Yes 101

No

2. If yes, how did regular dance influence your relationship with your body?

Please, consider the differences between the time before you started to dance

and the time you became an active/regular dancer.

3. Did regular dance have any impact on your sexual self-esteem? (by sexual self-

esteem we mean “a positive appraisal of one’s own sexuality, including

appraisals of sexual thoughts, feelings and behaviors, as well as perceptions of

one’s own body in a sexual con-text.”

Yes

No

4. If yes, what impact did regular dance have on your sexual self-esteem? Please,

consider the differences between the time before you started to dance and the

time you became an active/regular dancer.