• Vol. 23, No.1 nternatlona January 1999 etln• Never-Changing Message, Ever-Changing Mission

"liS there anything of which one can say, 'Look, this is Gospel are the same yesterday, today, and forever. But if we new'?" (Eccles. 1:9-10, New English Bible). The Old are to be faithful and effective in mission, we must respond Testament Preacher expected a categorical "No" to his question, appropriately to an ever-changing world. and in a previous issue of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN Stanley H. Skresletagreed. His article in July 1995emphasizedtheGospelof Jesus Christ as the unchanging focus of authentic mission. How­ ever,in the leadarticle of thecurrentissue, "ImpendingTransfor­ mation: Mission Structures for a New Century," Skreslet, a On Page former Presbyterian missionary in Egypt, identifies global con­ 2 Impending Transformation: Mission textual trends that call for substantial changes in the churches' Structures for a New Century approach to mission if the Gospel is to be effectively communi­ Stanley H. Skreslet cated in the coming century. 8 Christian Understandings of Proselytism Contributing Editor David A. Kerr follows with the most David A. Kerr comprehensive and clearly presented treatment of the issue of proselytism we have seen. Proselytism is certainly one of the 15 You Can Help the Persecuted Church: Lessons from Chiapas, Mexico persistent sores in the history of Christian mission. But there are developments in the Christian movement in the non-Western Vernon J. Sterk world that will require fresh efforts of understanding between 18 My Pilgrimage in Mission the variouschurchtraditions. In his conclusion, Kerr points to the James K. Mathews phenomenon of indigenous churches now sweeping through 20 Noteworthy many areas that were first evangelized by Western missions. Many, says Kerr, "are proving hugely attractive to peoples who 24 Annual Statistical Table on Global Mission: 1999 are estranged by the alien culture of most historic mission David B. Barrett and ToddM. Johnson churches." They may thereby appear to be guilty, in Western 26 The Legacy of David J.Bosch eyes, ofproselytism.Nevertheless,Westernmissionsandchurches J. Kevin Livingston must come to terms with the fact that these new indigenous Christian communities are growing at astounding rates and are 29 Reader's Response not going to go away. Therefore, Kerr concludes, "To require 33 The Legacy of Vincent Lebbe non-Western Christians to conform to Western criteria ... is to Jean-Paul Wiest imitate the ancient Danish king of England, Canute, who vainly 36 U.S. Catholic Overseas Mission: A Statistical tried to set his throne against a rising tide." Record of Personnel, 1960-1996 The mission vocations of James K. Mathews, David J. Bosch, and Vincent Lebbe, covered in this issue, bear abundant witness 38 Book Reviews to the reality of change as it affects Christian mission. Mathews 39 Fifteen Outstanding Books of 1998 for Mission saw the impact of independence in India; Bosch experienced the Studies radical reshaping of his racial assumptions in South Africa; and Lebbe, after long and costly efforts, saw the Roman Catholic 46 Dissertation Notices Church in China become more indigenous. Jesus Christ and his 48 Book Notes of issionary Research Impending Transfonnation: Mission Structures for a New Century Stanley H. Skreslet

he relationship between mission structures and theol­ That is, they should be able to express institutionally genuine T ogy is complex. Mission structures are a kind of "theol­ insights that theology has discovered in the abstract. Long expe­ ogy on four wheels," enfleshed demonstrations of a theoretical rience of the church in mission warns us, however, that validity orientation to the world. As such, they are contingent and sec­ in a purely theological sense is never the only issue. To be truly ondary, depending upon theology to suggest their proximate suitable, mission structures must also be culturally appropriate uses and ultimate purposes. They are also vulnerable to critique and right for their age. in a way that theology is not, because they are concrete. Mission Thanks to David Bosch, it is nowcommonplacein missiology structures necessarily entail the application of human institu­ to speak of this generation as the beginning in earnest of a new tional forms. Structures devised for mission will thus always be age in the history of humankind. Intellectually, this is a time of susceptible to the same faults and distortions that beset their transition, in which the West seems to be passing from the secular counterparts. certainties of Enlightenment thinking into an extended period of Though limited in these ways, mission structures are never­ cultural crisis. Geopolitically, the customary ways by which the theless crucial. They are windows that allow one to peer closely world's nation-states have related to one another have been at the underpinnings of a given theology of mission. They make knocked hard by a realignment of the superpowers. Economi­ manifest the actual direction one's missiological thinking is cally, new patterns of global capitalism have emerged with the likely to run in practice. In fact, mission structures can lay bare power to affect for good or ill (or both) the life of virtually every assumptions about human nature and one's understanding of person on the planet. God's purposes with such clarity that words may no longer be Perhaps the most fundamental shift to have occurred in the able to cover them up. Mission structures are critical tools, late twentieth century revolves around the issue of cultural therefore, not least because without them no theory of mission identity. Conventional boundaries of language and distance are has a chanceofeverbecomingmorethanunincarnatedmutterings, rapidly collapsing, throwing traditional notions of social reality words without effect in a world that expects action. into disarray. It is not only that a globalized economy is reaching Andrew Walls has shrewdly observed that the structural into and tying together the fates of far-flung communities. Noris mainstay of modern Protestant missions, the voluntary associa­ it just a matter of one particular language, English, positioning tion or mission society, gotits startjustas missiology entered into itselfto become the next millennium's lingua franca. Thereis also an entirely new theological phase. From the beginning, it seems, a Widespread diminishing of confidence in local wisdom, as William Carey recognized that new instruments would be re­ quired to accomplish the ambitious agenda he laid before the Christianpublic in his 1792 Enquiry. Thus, in acknowledgmentof the close connection between theology and mission structures, Structures devised for Carey addressed not only the world's need and the church's call mission are subject to the in his proposal but also the "means" by which the heathen might be converted and the "practicalities" of future missionary en­ same faults as their secular deavors.' A similar awareness may be detected at work behind counterparts. the theological ferment of the early 1960s. Hans Kung, for one, understood all too clearly that a thoroughgoing theological aggiornamento in the Roman Catholic Church would demand invasive new sources of authoritative information (like CNN) that familiar institutional assumptions and forms be reexam­ become available throughout the world. One may also perceive ined. An early contribution of Kung to this effort was Strukturen in our time a loosening of the ties that used to bind extended derKirke, published on the eve of Vatican 11.2 Coincidentally, and families and specific places closely together, as increasing num­ in precisely the same theological atmosphere, ecumenically in­ bers of people migrate in search of opportunity or to flee some clined Protestant theologians embarked on a major three-year danger. There is also a kind of reconfiguration of priorities taking study entitled "Missionary Structure of the Congregation." This place in countless households and communities worldwide in too was an attempt to reflect on the need for institutional change the face of overwhelming economic pressures introduced from in light of a shift in theology, represented in the integration of without by the logic of a market-driven global economy that the World Missionary Council and the World Council of relentlessly sweeps everything before it. Churches at the New Delhi WCC Assembly in 1961. Not surprisingly, these and other changes have affected the ways in which late twentieth-century people have taken to Mission Structures and Historical Contexts organize themselves socially. New patterns of institutional life have moved to the forefront, while other previously vital struc­ If the preceding comments are well founded, then one should tures have faded in importance. It is not possible here to describe expect effective mission structures to have theological integrity. these adjustments in any depth, but a few observations may be offered to suggest what the church's present context seems to be Stanley H. Skreslet is Associate Professor of Christian Mission at Union saying about effective organizational structures. Theological Seminary and Presbyterian School of Christian Education, Rich­ Numerous social commentators have pointed to the phe­ mond,Virginia. He formerly taughtat the Evangelical Theological Seminary, nomenon of decentralization as a distinctive mark of economic Abbasiya, Cairo, Egypt,asa Presbyterian Church (USA) missionary. and political activity today. This trend may be seen, for instance,

2 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH in the push to privatize many of the functions that used to be International Bulletin performed by governments. In like fashion, huge corporations, many of them multinational attempts to straddle whole indus­ of Missionary Research tries or sectors of the economy, are spinning off parts of their Established 1950 by R. Pierce Beaver as Occasional Bulletin from the businesses in an effort to focus on core interests. Missionary Research Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary Newbusinesses, too, are likely to be conceived as small, agile Research 1977. Renamed INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH units that can respond quickly to changes in taste or economic 1981. Published quarterly in January, April, July, and October by conditions. Mobile and nimble, they need not be anchored to one Overseas Ministries Study Center physical location or bound to produce forever the same goods or 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, U.S.A. services with which they were first identified. The most success­ Tel: (203) 624-6672 • Fax: (203) 865-2857 ful of these tend to rely on technological adroitness rather thanon E-mail: [email protected]. Web: http://www.OMSC.org the sheer weight of massed labor or material resources to domi­ Editor: Associate Editor: Assistant Editor: nate markets. For these companies, careful market research is Gerald H. Anderson Jonathan J. Bonk Robert T. Coote necessary in order to identify ever-larger groups of potential customers. Rigid command hierarchies and inflexible workrules ContributingEditors: are givingwayto modelsofteamwork,evenin the old, downsized Catalino G. Arevalo, S.J. David A. Kerr Lamin Sanneh entities that are left following corporate restructuring. Wilbert R. Shenk David B. Barrett Graham Kings What mightan ideal corporate structure look like today? For Stephen B. Bevans, S.V.D. Anne-Marie Kool Charles R. Taber Samuel Escobar Gary B. McGee Tite Tienou some very good reasons (not least among them a ledger showing Barbara Hendricks, M.M. Mary Motte, F.M.M. Ruth A. Tucker some $36 billion worth of business annually), Robert Kaplan, Paul G. Hiebert C. Rene Padilla Desmond Tutu writing in the Atlantic Monthly, has recently lifted up the engi­ J. A. B.Jongeneel James M. Phillips Andrew F. Walls neering firm of Asea Brown Boveri (ABB) as an example of Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B. Dana L. Robert Anastasios Yannoulatos organizational approach that closely fits the demands of our age. All of the characteristics highlighted above-teamwork, atten­ Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters should be tion to market forces, technological acumen, and so forth-are addressed to the editors. Manuscripts unaccompanied by a self-addressed, there, butit is the loosely knit webof tightly focused subunitsthat stamped envelope (or international postal coupons) will not be returned. Kaplan highlights. ABB encompasses some 1,300 independent Subscriptions: $21 for one year, $39 for two years, and $55 for three years, companies, spread out over 140 countries, which are linked postpaid worldwide. Airmail delivery is $16 per year extra. Foreign sub­ together in an "umbrella" corporate structure. "Decentraliza­ scribers must pay in U.S. funds only. Use check drawn on a U.S. bank, tion," says CEO PercyBarnevikof ABB,"goes hand in hand with Visa, MasterCard, or International Money Order in U.S. funds. Individual central monitoring.":' In Kaplan's view, this kind of industrial copies are $7.00; bulk rates upon request. Correspondence regarding sub­ enterprise aptly illustrates the shape of a successfully globalized scriptions and address changes should be sent to: INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF corporation that is likely to survive and thrive well into the third MISSIONARY RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834, U.S.A. millennium. Advertising: Ruth E. Taylor Tried and Still(?) True Structures 11 Graffam Road, South Portland, Maine 04106, U.S.A. Telephone: (207) 799-4387 The potential universe of structures for mission is already vast. For centuries, and without apology, the parish was the church's Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: basic unit of evangelism and mission. On a larger scale, but in a Bibliografia Missionaria IBZ (International Bibliography of similar manner, the diocese was used to extend the geographic Christian Periodical Index Periodical Literature) reachof the institutionalchurch. As bold newventures in plantatio Guideto People in Periodical Literature Missionalia ecclesiae were initiated in the Age of Discovery, variations on a Guideto Social Science and Religion in Religious andTheological Abstracts theme were introduced for Catholic missions, such as the apos­ Periodical Literature Religion Index One:Periodicals IBR (International Bibliography of tolic vicariate. In time, these would be emulated by Protestant Book Reviews) denominations that devised overseas equivalents of domestic judicatories. What all these structures have in common is that Index, abstracts, and full text of this journal are available on databases they are decidedly ecclesiocentric. provided byEBSCO, H. W. Wilson Company, Information Access Company, The bishops and clerics of the earlyand medieval church did andUniversityMicrofilms. Also consultInfoTracdatabaseatmanyacademic not do their missionary work alone. Equally important, and in and public libraries. For more information, contact your online service. certain situations far more effective than the regular clergy, were the great missionary monks. In the West, at least from the time of Opinions expressed in the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN are those of the authors St. Columbanus and his fellow Irish itinerants, examples abound and not necessarily of the Overseas Ministries Study Center. of monastic outreach to village communities that lay outside the Copyright©1999byOverseas Ministries StudyCenter. Allrights reserved. urban areas where the church first took root. Eventually, monas­ tic orders devoted to missionary witness would spearhead the Second-class postage paid at New Haven, Connecticut. church's expansion into many new areas outside of Europe. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF Again, well-known Protestant equivalents lie at hand, in the MISSIONARY RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834, U.S.A. nineteenth-century's ubiquitous private volunteer organization, ISSN 0272-6122 for instance, and the more recent founding of sodalities through which mainline Protestant energies for mission might be focused. A wide variety of other key mission structures also rose to prominence in the course of the modern missionary movement,

January 1999 3 some of which continue to be of great use for Christian witness. make this information available to international organizations, These would include the thousands of schools, hospitals, and governments, the churches, and other nongovernmental actors. institutions of higher learning that were founded around the In some places, base ecclesial communities fulfill many of the world in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by mission same functions undertaken by NGOs. agencies and non-Western national churches. Standing next to these were countless attempts to foster cultural advance in a Incipient Outlines of the New broader fashion, not a few of which were sponsored by institu­ tions like the local YMCA chapter. The crucial mark of all these One should expect that all, or nearly all, of the structures men­ structures at their inception was a desire to engenderand sustain tioned in the previous section will continue to be part of the a movement in non-Western cultures toward "civilization" and church's mission in the next century. Based on what was pre­ "uplift." sented earlier with respect to historical contexts, however, these In the wake of the Second World War, a different set of organizations will not likely stay fixed in just these configura­ emphases took hold in Western mission circles, and the leading tions or remain bound to the precise terms of their current institutions of the day illustrate the shift welL Ministries of mission statements. Rapid change in institutional life is a syn1p­ charity, supported by theologies of "disinterested benevolence," tom of our age. Therefore, the conditions of late twentieth­ were pushed aside by efforts to foster self-help. This approach century life, some of which were described above, are sure to did not preclude churches from participatingin the huge tasks of shape these institutions as they continue to evolve, just as they relief and disaster assistance that war and periodic catastrophes will influence the creation of new structures for mission. In this still made necessary, but another kind of mission objective section, an attemptwillbe made to characterize these institutions emerged as primary: development. Mission organizations re­ of the future, both the newly created and remodeled, based on structured themselves in order to respond accordingly, seeking what is now known about the context in which they will emerge. Three attributes in particular suggest themselves to me as likely characteristics of the next millennium's mission organiza­ tions. The secular ideology of Niche oriented. As the world's complexity continues to in­ modernization greatly crease, mission organizations, like businesses, are becoming influenced the new mission more specialized. Few new organizations will attempt to mount the kind of comprehensive enterprises that defined earlier Prot­ emphasis: Development. estant denominational approaches to mission. Instead, a particu­ lar service or form of mission tends to predominate, and the structure devised to present this good work will often be tightly new ways to make material aid, technical expertise, and encour­ focused as well. It also seems that some older institutions, which agement available to church partners and new nations. For these at one time did try to field sweeping programs of mission, are ventures, human need was the presenting problem, but the form being pressed by circumstances to restrict their primary empha­ of the response was influenced to a great degree by a secular ses to just a few areas." In this respect, moves to narrow the reach ideology of modernization that had insinuated itself within the of some existing mission organizations may be a symptom of a Western churches. largeradjustmenttakingplaceat the denominationallevel, among Within this context short-term mission programs began to Protestants at least, away from a centrally managed, hierarchi­ take on a new importance as structures for mission. Technicians, cally arranged corporate model and toward a more flexible, it was recognized, did not need to commit to a lifetime of mission decentralized approach to organizational structure. service. A more efficient use of their knowledge might see them Any attempt to survey the current field of mission work brought in temporarily, say at the planning and training stages around the world is sure to turn up an astonishing variety of of a development project, after which national workers would organizations that have mobilized in response to an equally assume responsibility. The same could be true for teachers of diverse collection of needs and objectives. Many groups special­ English and other European languages, who came to be thought ize in mission outreach to particular countries. Others concen­ of as another kind of specialist with skills that could help Third trate on whole regions, language families, and/or specific non­ World people take advantage of all the West's technical re­ Christian populations. Some aim to facilitate interfaith encoun­ sources. ter and dialogue, while others restrict themselves to activities A final category of structures already in place, which never­ that correspond more closely to traditional notions of evange­ theless promises to continue as a vital part of Christian mission lism. In this latter case, some novel ways have been developed to in the future, consists of those associations and groups through address a familiar objective, as with the growing frontier mission which many Christians around the world are now working to movement and the concern many groups have for "unreached" effect social change and to influence political policies. Here one peoples. would include the burgeoning number of church-related, non­ A newer category of mission organization that seems to be governmental organizations (NGOs) that have sprung up in expanding rapidly in the 1990s is what might be called an ever-greater numbers in the 1990s.4 In the West especially, NGOs outsourcing instrument for congregational mission. The model often take the form of political action committees that advocate and, perhaps, the originator of this approach on a large scale was in the halls of power on behalf of the marginalized. These might Habitat for Humanity, on whose building projects thousands of be closely defined groups (political refugees from a particular churchmission teams have worked over the pastdecade or more. area, for instance) or broader classes of people (like the homeless Manyother organizations have sprungup recentlywitha similar or persecuted Christians). For many NGOs, their chief goal is to role in mind, hoping to make available to congregations ongoing gather comprehensive amounts of information on a select num­ ministries of service or proclamation in which visiting groups ber of topics (like the environment or human rights) and then to can participate for a week at a time. The advantages of this

4 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH approach for youth directors and pastors with a desire to involve ary service depend heavily on technology to conduct research their young people and adults in mission outreach are obvious: and to communicate with nascent groups of believers among remote sites are offered for Christian service that have their own whom they cannot live. infrastructure already in place. Advertisements and promo­ Other benefits of advanced technology may not be so obvi­ tional materials for these ministries often highlight their exotic ous. If the example of the land-mines campaign is an indicator of locale." what is to come, perhaps computers and other telecommunica­ The "information agent" is yet another type of niche­ tion devices will also render superfluous or much less important oriented mission structure that has flourished at the end of the theidea of a fixed headquarters location, at whichall key staffare twentieth century. Here might be included organizations de­ required to work together. This could make it much easier to voted to the task of gathering and analyzing mission informa­ assemble multinational teams of mission coworkers, a goal that tion, an activity that David Barrett has dubbed the science of has often been voiced in the postcolonial period but seldom "missiometrics."?Others might try to combine information gath­ realized because of the expense and disruption to family lives ering with a desire to influence public behavior, especially with that long-term relocation requires. Technological aids to com­ respect to issues of justice,in the mannerof anNGOlike Amnesty munication may also make it possible for highly specialized International or Greenpeace. Yet other organizations within this agencies offering unique services to a worldwide community of category, if one may be allowed to stretch the limits of the type mission organizations to achieve the economies of scale that somewhat, might specialize in recruiting (of teachers, for in­ might be required for their viability. stance), facilitating communication between missionaries and supporting constituencies (as the Mission Aviation Fellowship Congregational Missionary Structurets) does), or performing fund-raising services on behalf of other mission organizations. All of the mission structures discussed up to this point have been Networked. Nomorepowerfuldemonstration of the powerof extracongregational. This reflects the persistent inclination of networking need be cited than that offered by the International many mission practitioners to favor parachurch structures over Campaign to Ban Landmines, headed until recently by peace the local church as frameworks for their labor, a trend that seems activist[odyWilliams. In just over fourteen months, an informal certain to continue. An orientation in this direction could be a coalition of some 250 organizations scattered around the world cause for concern, especially if it obscures the fact that groups of but linked by computer managed to persuade a majority of the believers, whether assembled as formal congregations or more world's countries to initial a formal treaty that commits them not simply gathered together, are, in truth, the most basic means of to use, produce, or export antipersonnel land mines. For their mission at the disposal of the Gospel. This, in my view, was effort, the coalition and its chief organizer were jointly awarded among the most profound insights of the Second Vatican Coun­ the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997. The land mines campaign was cil, which reclaimed for the twentieth century a vision of the local remarkable not only for its outcome but also because it was church as the fundamental expression of the church universal." conducted without a formal organizational structure, an office, In the coming century this perspective may become even or even a staff. The key element that made its success possible more vital thanit is now. A future markedby increasing numbers was the concept of networking. of technologically linked but narrowly conceived mission struc­ Networking is a virtuewhose stockhas risen considerablyin tures will need healthy congregations that can reach out to near the postmodern era. It is very likely to be an element assumed by neighbors with the fullest possible witness to the Gospel. As many mission structures in the near term. An obvious reason for useful as they may be, mission structures that concentrate on the this is the degree of specialization that seems to characterize so delivery of ancillary services to the church cannot replace wit- many mission organizations already. In many cases, networking will make it possible for highly specialized mission structures to coordinate their work and to complement each other. This, then, No matter how useful, may turn out to be a way to recapture in the next century a measure of the comprehensiveness that tends to be sacrificed mission structures cannot when mission is pursued by thousands of niche-oriented organi­ replace local communities as zations. Technologically adept. Since mission is essentially a matter of the primary means by which witnessing to the Gospel of Jesus Christ, it only makes sense that Jesus Christ is made known. faithful Christians and their organizations will want to make full use of all the tools of communication that God's providence has placed at their disposal. In the next century, as now, many of nessing communities that worship together and, in fact, must these tools will be technologically based. assume them as the primary means by which the Good News of It is possible to see already how technological devices like Jesus Christ is made known to the world. the computer have begun to alter the way many mission organi­ There is at least one more reason why the congregation zations function. Electronic mail now links all but the most ought not to surrender its primacy in mission to parachurch isolated places to everywhere else, providing assistance to mis­ structures. It is that these organizations are inherently entrepre­ sionaries far from home and timely information abouttheir work neurial in a way not true of congregations. To be sure, local to supporting constituencies. Satellite broadcasts of Christian churches also have bottom lines to respect, overhead expenses to programming are able to reach into the heart of non-Christian meet, and membership concerns, butstill they find their essential populations, whose governments may have blocked access pre­ identity in language that identifies them as "signs" and "sacra­ viously. Desktop publishing is lowering dramatically the cost of ments" of the Gospel, as the "body of Christ" and the "people of producing high-quality materials that are attractive and infor­ God." Extracongregational organizations, in contrast, are more mative. Those involved in what is called nonresidential mission­ naturally viewed as an instrument or tool. As such, they must

January 1999 5 swim more directly in the hazardous waters of the marketplace, the greater part of the church's budget? An important assump­ in competition with each other, and in the delivery of some tion about the nature of mission could be at stake here. By services (like the brokering of intercultural living experiences to restricting the work of the mission committee in this way, local short-term mission participants), they must contend with a vig­ churches may be saying that mission is a peripheral undertaking, orous assortment of secular alternatives. a mere adjunct to other, more consequential functions of the Having underlined the importance of local congregations to church. the world mission of the church, oneis reluctant to leave it at that, An alternative approach might attempt to reposition the without having said anything specific about how this particular mission committee (or its equivalent) nearer to the center of the structure might be helped to become a more effective agent of local church's life. Reconceived in this way, the mission commit­ missionary service and outreach in the coming century. A final tee would be expected to reflect on all the activities and major point of the present discussion will take up this concern. decisions of the congregation, asking how each contributes to the Most local churches (among Protestants, at least) have in great ends for which this community has come into being. This their organizational framework a committee within whose brief is not unlike what strategic planning committees do, but the is lodged the task of "mission." Itis not unusual for the profile of work would be joined on a continuing basis. this committee to be quite modest. More prominent, as a rule, are The mission committee is also a natural point of contact those parts of the local church's governing structure that have between the congregation and what is happening around it in charge over Christian education, worship, and pastoral care . In mission. Neighboring communities of faith, specialized mission most congregations, the mission committee is given each year a organizations, civil society groups whose objectives comple­ rather small portion of the church's total budget, which the ment those of the local church, other parts of the world church­ members are free to allocate as they wish. This money is essen­ all these just begin to indicate the complex web of relationships tially a fund for grant making, and the mission committee is that might be constructed in support of the local church's mis­ expected to administer it on behalf of the congregation in a sionary outreach. A mission committee that seriously probes responsible manner. Typically, they will decide to use it in existing relationships and creatively explores new forms of support of persons serving in mission outside the local commu­ missionary partnership could be transformed into a kind of nity or give it to one or more service projects that might be local, missiological gyroscope for the congregation, a means of theo­ national, or international. logical navigation that tries to take into account what may lie One has to wonder if this is really the only, or best, way for over the immediate horizon. With constant change and rapidly a structure nominally assigned responsibility for mission in the shifting circumstances likely to define every local church's set­ local church to carry out its work. What does it mean when the ting in the twenty-first century, this kind of structural help could mission committee is effectively denied meaningful contact with be critical.

Notes ------­ 1. Andrew Walls, "Missionary Societies and the Fortunate Subversion objectives (like direct evangelism and medical work). In a textbook of the Church," Evangelical Quarterly88 (1988): 141-55; reprinted in illustration of the phenomenon described here, other institutions Andrew Walls, TheMissionary Movementin ChristianHistory:Studies related to the PCUSA butoutsidethe officialdenominationalstructure in the Transmission of the Faith (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1996), have gained increased prominence by specializing in these pp.241-54. "neglected" areas (e.g., the Outreach Foundation and the Medical 2. Published in English as Structuresof theChurch (New York: Nelson, Benevolence Fund). 1964). 6. This impression is formed on the basis of a small mountain of 3. Robert Kaplan, "Was Democracy Just a Moment?" AtlanticMonthly materials that have come my way from these ministries over the past 280 (December 1997): 72. year through the mail, visits to the web sites of many of these same 4. In two recent articles, I have explored this kind of mission structure organizations, and a look at the way they present themselves in in moredetail than will be possible here .See my "Networking, Civil publications like the Great Commission Opportunities Guide, an annual Society, and the NGO: A New Model for Ecumenical Mission," compendium of mission opportunities published by the Real Media Missiology 25(July 1997):307-19, and "Emerging Trends in a Shifting Group (whose own web site is denominated www.GoYe.com). GlobalContext: Mission in the New World Order," Theology Today54 "Exotic" may meananythingin this context from Coloradomountains (July 1997): 150-64. to the tropics. 5. Such would seem to be the case in my own denomination, the 7. See David B. Barrett, '''Count the Worshipers!' The New Science of Presbyterian Church (USA) , which used to be a model of Missiometrics," International BulletinofMissionaryResearch 19(1995): comprehensiveness in its approach to mission. The impossibility of 154-60. maintaining such a broad design in the late twentieth century has 8. As in Lumengentium26:"This Church of Christ is really presentin all contributed, in my opinion, to a new strategy that emphasizes legitimately organized local groups of the faithful, which, in so far as certain activities within the larger agenda (like short-term missions, they are united to their pastors, are also quite appropriately called development, and education), while letting go of others as primary Churches in the New Testament."

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Growth. • •

Summer School Fellowship May 24 - June 11 Foundations of New Testament Exposition: Synoptic Gospels Mission and Mary H. Schertz, Ph.D., AMBS Evangelism Institute June 1-11 July 6-15 Celebrating the Christian Year Evangelism in Early Marlene Kropf, D.Min., Christianity and June Alliman Alan Kreider, Ph.D., Yoder, D.Min., AMBS AMBS adjunct International Politics: Gospel of John Christian Perspectives Willard M. Swartley, John A. Lapp, Ph.D., Ph.D.,AMBS guest instructor Spirituality, Pastoral Care July 16-23 and Healing Worship and Mission Marcus G. Smucker, Eleanor Kreider, Ph.D., AMBS adjunct M. Mus., and Alan Kreider, Ph.D., June 11-18 AMBS adjunct Church Administration Includes weekend and Leadership Continuing Education Del Glick, D.Min., guest instructor ....­__ event, July 16-18 Evangelism and Includes weekend r Continuing Education Anabaptism Stuart Murray, Ph.D., event, July 11-12 teacher and consult­ Pastoral Care for People ant in England with Addictions Brice Balmer, D.Min., Includes weekend guest instructor Continuing Education Includes weekend event, July 16-18 Continuing Education event, July 11-12 July 30 - August 6 June 14-25 Communicating the Gospel in our Culture Wilbert Shenk, Ph.D., AMBS adjunct Apocalyptic and the New Millenium Includes weekend Continuing Education event, William Klaassen, Ph.D., guest instructor Liberation and Contextual Theologies July 31 Leadership for Church Growth Daniel Schipani, Dr.Psy., Ph.D., AMBS Art McPhee, Ph.D. candidate, AMBS June 25 - July 2 Includes weekend Continuing Education event, Creation and Spiritual Renewal July 31 Perry Yoder, Ph.D., AMBS Conflict, Communication and Conciliation Includes canoetrip in boundary waters. Richard Blackburn, M.A., guest instructor June 28-July 22 Global Urbanization and Mission Associated 3003 Benham Avenue Art McPhee, Ph.D. candicate, AMBS Mennonite Elkhart, Indiana 46517-1999 Includes study tour to Chicago, Hong Kong, Biblical 1 + 800 964-AMBS (2627) and severalcities in India Seminary www.abms.edu • [email protected] Christian Understandings of Proselytism David A. Kerr

ike the chameleon, proselytism displays itself in many who had themselves been strangers (gerim) in Egypt (Deut. L shades of color. The word has different nuances in 10:19). The bulk of Talmudic literature welcomes the proselyte individual languages and among languages. Importantly from into the full fellowship of Israel, subject to the requirements of the point of view of this article, it is used variously among circumcision, baptism, and the offering of sacrifice. Jesus criti­ different sectors of the Christian church. It refers both to the cized what he deemed the Pharisaic tendency of making the transfer of allegiance from one religion to another and to the proselyte a slave to the law (Matt. 23:15). From this it may be transfer of allegiancebetweenchurches. Attitudes to proselytism inferred that the matter of how a proselyte should be incorpo­ are conditioned by political, social, and cultural considerations, rated into Israel was a matter of controversy in Jesus' time. New and responses vary from one church to another, from one culture Testament references to Jewish proselytes among the first Chris­ to another. I attempt here to clarify some of the issues, particu­ tians indicate that they were welcome members of the early larly as they have emerged in Christian thinking through the church (Acts 2:10; 6:5; 13:43).6 The postbiblical histories of both second half of the twentieth century. I argue tha t the hard-sought Judaism and Christianity continued to honor the proselyte until consensus that has emerged within the ecumenical movement more recent times, when, roughly speaking from the eighteenth needs to extend itself further to include new global realities of century, the term came to have the negative connotations we Christianity.1 have noted in English literary usage. The present writer would To begin with English linguistic definitions, the Shorter speculate that the roots of the negative interpretation of Oxford English Dictionary considers "proselytism" simply as a proselytism as the overzealous or coercive expression of religion synonym of "conversion." Derived from the Latin proselytus and lie contextually both in post-Enlightenment ideas of freedom of the Greek proselytos, the proselyte is "one who has come to a conscience and in secular reactions to the rise of the modern place"-thatis, a newcomer or convert. Use of the termin English Western Christian missionary movement in the colonial era. The literature displays both positive and negative characteristics. For Bible, however, shows that the proselyte was not viewed nega­ Shakespeare, the proselyte's power of attraction was an evoca­ tively in Scripture and thatJesus defended the proselytefrom the tive metaphor of female beauty; thus, of Perdita, he wrote: legalistic tendency of institutional religion. This is a creature, Would she begin a sect, might quench the zeal Current Definitions: Roman Catholic Of all professors else; make proselytes The Second Vatican Council's "Constitution on the Sacred Lit­ Of who she but bid follow.' urgy" (1963) affirms that the call to conversion is one of the By the eighteenth century, however, Enlightenment literature fundamental tasks of the church. To this end "the Church an­ identified proselytism withintolerance. The leading philosopher nounces the good news of salvation to those who do not believe, of the Enlightenment in Scotland, David Hume, criticized an so that all men may know the true God and Jesus Christ whom opponent for "his zeal for proselytism that he stopped not at He has sent, and may repent and mend their ways." Equally, "to toleration or equality."? Edmund Burke vented his dislike of the believers also the Church must ever preach faith and repen­ French Revolution in the carping criticism that "the spirit of tance."" Conversion is therefore understood as a process: it proselytism attends this spirit of fana ticism.":' begins with an initial turning in faith to God in Christ and Reflecting this negative nuancing of meaning, Webster's continues throughout a believer's Christian life. Conversion in Dictionary ofSynonymsdraws a plain distinctionbetweenconver­ this sense is "a spiritual journey.:" In relation to this journey, "the sion and proselytism: the former denotes "a sincere and volun­ Church strictly forbids forcing anyone to embrace the faith, or tary change of belief," whereas the latter implies "an act or alluring or enticing people by unworthy techniques.?" process of inducing someone to convert to another faith." In With sensitivity to the ambiguities of the word, the Second current ecumenical usage, this American English meaning pre­ Vatican Council's documents do not use the term "proselytism." vails, coercive inducementbeing the attribute of proselytism that But the distinction between conversion as a sincere act of faith differentiates it from conversion," and as a result of coercive manipulation is clearly maintained. Moreover, it is given substantial theological and philosophical Biblical Perspectives exposition in the "Declaration on Religious Freedom" (1965), which propounds the case for religious freedom on grounds of The proselyte is a familiar figure in both the Hebrew Scriptures divine intent, human right, and civic duty. The case against and the New Testament. The Greek proselytos was used in the coercive proselytism is equally clear: "the human person has the Septuagint to translate the Hebrew ger, the "stranger" who right to religious freedom. This freedom means that all men are sojourned in the land of Israel. The Deuteronomist taught that to be immune from coercion on the partof individuals or of social the proselyte-stranger (ger) was to be honored among the Jews, groups or of any human power, in such wise as in matters of religion no one is to be forced to act in a manner contrary to his own beliefs, whether privately or publicly, whether alone or in DavidA. Kerr, a contributingeditor, is Professor of Christianity in the Non­association with others/"? Western World at theUniversityof Edinburgh andDirector ofthecenterofthe In affirming sincere conversion as a right of religious free­ samename. He was formerly a proiessor in Hartford Seminary, Connecticut, dom, and in rejecting proselytism as the infringement of such where hedirected theMacdonald Center forthe Study ofIslamand Christian­freedom, the Second Vatican Council mainly addresses the Muslim Relations. church's relations with other religions. These are addressed in

8 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH the "Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non­ missions, led initially by the Franciscans and later by the Jesuits, Christian Religions," more commonly referred to by its Latin persuaded groups within these churches to declare their union title, Nostra aetate. In this document the church states that "[it] withRome as EasternCatholicChurches. The persuasivepowers rejects nothingwhichis trueand holyin these religions" and calls of these Catholic missions was backed by the educational and for "dialogue and co-operation" with them "to acknowledge, economic opportunities they offered and by the diplomatic preserve and promote the spiritual and moral goods found patronage of the emerging European states. As a result, to each among these men, as well as the values of their society and Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Church a Catholic equivalent culture."11 was created." They are known collectively as Eastern Catholic Conversion and dialogue are thus placed side by side. If the Churches, their rites of origin (liturgy and canon law) being inherent tension is not resolved theologically, a modus vivendi formally upheld within their obedience to the Holy See, albeit is at least implied: conversion as an inalienable expression of historically with a heavy dose of Latinization-a trend that has religious freedom should be understood as ongoing spiritual been reversed since the Second Vatican Council. Rome claimed journey; interreligious dialogue is an important part of this them as the firstfruits of a reunited church and referred to them journey in which partners affirm their common spiritual and in the Second Vatican Council as part of "the divinely revealed human values. In both respects proselytism is rejected. and undivided heritage of the universal Church."? What Rome celebrated as reunion by way of conversion, the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches view disparagingly as "Uniatism," which for them was coterminous with Catholic Among the Eastern12 and Oriental" Orthodox Churches, proselytizing incursions into their canonical territories. Rome proselytism refers primarily to interchurch relations-that is, relations between non-Orthodox and Orthodox churches. This view is based on their self-understanding as churches that exer­ The early Franciscan and cise their ecclesiastical authority within the geographic domain of the people, or nation, whoseevangelizationwas and continues Jesuit missions were backed to be the responsibility of the national church. Each Orthodox by education and economic Church is autocephalous, or self-governing, within its own ca­ nonical territory. Recalling the earliest mode of Christian evan­ opportunities and diplomatic gelization, whereby an apostle-missionary preached the Gospel patronageofEuropeanstates. among his own people and initiated a process by which the whole nation was Christianized through its leaders, its people, and its culture, the concept of canonical territory denotes the stood accused of treating Orthodox landsas terra missionis-Iand inseparable identity of people, culture, land, and church. This is open for mission. what it means for the church to be local, or indigenized, in the Only in the present decade has this problem beeneffectively national life of a people. addressed." In 1990 a joint Catholic-Orthodox commission on Within this strongly ethnic identity of people and church, theologicaldialoguepublished Statement ontheSubject ofUniatism, the Orthodoxregardas illegitimateanyattemptby otherchurches which agrees that Uniatism no longer provides a model or or religious groups to convert members of an Orthodox church method for Catholic-Orthodox rapprochement. Further delib­ awayfromOrthodoxy. This is tantamountto proselytism,whether erations resulted in the Balamand Statement (Lebanon) of 1993, the means are foul or fair. The Russian Orthodox Church thus "Uniatism, Method of Union of the Past, and the Present Search defines proselytism as the active or passive encouraging of for Full Communion."19 members of a given ethnic or national group to join a religion, Accepting that the Eastern Catholic Churches may remain denomination, or sect that is not historically rooted in that ethnic part of the Catholic communion, with "the right to exist and act group or nationality. in response to the spiritual needs of their faithful," the Balamand Orthodox sensitivities regarding this understanding of Statement sets out ecclesiological principles for a new relation­ proselytism arise from their historical experience of being the ship between the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Henceforth object of Catholic and Protestant strategies of conversion. A they commit themselves to recognizing each other as "sister statement by the Armenian catholicos Karekin" in respect of the churches." They agree that neither church can claim exclusively Oriental Orthodox applies equally to the Eastern Orthodox: to profess the full apostolic faith and therefore join in shared "they underwent the hard experience of being exposed to the responsibility, as sisters, "for maintaining the Church of God in proselytising policies of the Roman Church and, later, the Prot­ fidelity to the divine purpose, most especially in what concerns estant Missionary Societies of various kinds.v" unity." Rome agrees to end its "missionary apostolate" toward the Orthodoxchurchesanddeclaresthatits "pastoralactivity ...no Catholic-Orthodox Relations longer aims at having the faithful of one Church pass over to the other; that is to say, it no longer aims at proselytising anlong the In order to understand Orthodox sensitivity to proselytism, it is Orthodox." While recognizing that the EasternCatholics havean necessary to introduce a brief historical excursus in explanation integral role to playin preparingfor eventualCatholic-Orthodox of problems to which Catholicos Karekin refers. The historical reunion, it was agreed that such reunion would not be modeled problem goes back to the rift between Rome and Constantinople on the institution of Uniatism. in 1054 and the subsequent failure of the fifteenth-century Coun­ The Eastern Catholic Churches will continue to exist under cil of Ferrara-Florence (1437-39) to reunite the church. Rome the canonical jurisdictions of their respective patriarchs, while thereafter developed an alternative strategy for reunion that accepting the spiritual primacy of the patriarch of Rome; at the aimed at the conversion of both the Eastern and the Oriental same time, they will continue to follow the liturgical, theological, Orthodox to Roman doctrine and allegiance. Medieval Catholic and spiritual traditions of their Orthodox "sister" churches.

January 1999 9 But-to quote a recent Orthodox-Catholic consultation in the have integrated themselves culturally and to a degree politically United States-"in the negative sense of the term, 'Uniatism,' in the Middle East. This has facilitated far-reaching discussion which in the spiritof the Orthodoxis identified withproselytism, about ways of resolving the historical legacy of proselytism is rejected by the Balamand Statement ... as a method for the within the Middle East Council of Churches (MECC)-the most conversion of Orthodox Christians and making them members inclusive regional ecumenical council in the world, with Ortho­ of the Catholic Church.r?" dox (Eastern and Oriental), Catholic (Latin and Eastern), and Protestant members. In an MECC study document entitled Protestant-Orthodox Relations Proselytism, Sects, and Pastoral Challenges (1989), representatives of these churches agreed in defining proselytism as "a practice Nineteenth-century Protestant encounter with Orthodoxy that involves attempts aimed at attracting Christians from a largely replicated the medieval Catholic pattern, although with particular church or religious group, leading to their alienation a very different understanding of the nature of Christian faith from their church of origin." Criticized for being at variance with and the church. With their emphases on the authority of the biblical teaching and human rights, proselytism is seen to be Bible over ecclesiastical institution, on direct personal faith in rooted psychologically in "individual and group egotism," so­ Jesus Christ mediated through Scripture, and on the priesthood cially in "feelings of cultural, political and economic superior­ of all believers replacing the clerical authority of a centralized ity," and institutionally in "an overtrust in one's own methods church, Protestant missions inevitably clashed with the Ortho­ and programmes."24 The document is particularly insightful in dox churches." From the perspective of their evangelical faith, identifying "unconscious" forms of proselytism: for example, Protestants tended to regard Orthodox as "nominal" Christians withinmixed marriages and in religious education. In its conclu­ whom they wished to convert into "Christians of the heart." sion it calls for "a pastoral agreement" among MECC members Taking the example of the American Board of Commission­ for the resolution of historical and contemporary problems of ers for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), which began sending evan­ proselytism, the way to such agreement being through "a dia­ gelical missionaries from New England to the Middle East in the logue of love." 1820s, a clear transition of policy is evident. The initial aim was The then MECC general secretary, Gabriel Habib (Eastern to inject a biblically based evangelical spirit into the Orthodox Orthodox), wrote an open letter to North American evangelicals churches: "not to subvert them; not to pull them down and build in which he argued that it is only through such dialogue of love anew. It is to reform them; to revive among them ... the that Christians of different traditions can learn to listen to one knowledge and spirit of the Gospel. ... It is not part of our object another in mutual openness to mutual correction and mutual to introduceCongregationalismor Presbyterianismamongthem. enrichment."Themostconstructiveresponse to this letteris to be ... We are content that their present ecclesiastical organization seen in the development of a group known as Evangelicals for should remain, provided the knowledge and spirit of the Gospel Middle East Understanding (EMEU), which provided a forum can be revived under it." In the face of strong resistance from the for renewed discussion between Western evangelical missions indigenous churches (Orthodox and Eastern Catholic) and at the and the MECC member churches. The EMEU director, Donald urging of its own missionaries and their early converts, ABCFM Wagner, has called this "a new day in mission ... [in which] we revised its policy. There was no alternative, it argued, but "the [North American evangelicals] must strive to become authentic partners with the churches in the Middle East."?" Protestant mission to the The Ecumenical Consensus Orthodox in the nineteenth These specific examples of bilateral agreements to end intra­ centurylargelyreplicatedthe Christian proselytism need to be seen withina wider framework of discussions that have taken place between the World Council medieval Catholic pattern. of Churches (WCC) and the Vatican. As a result of intra-Protes­ tant tensions in the early years of the WCC, a working party was established after the Evanston General Assembly (1954), which restoration of pre-Constantinian and primitive (Pauline) Chris­ wrote "ChristianWitness, Proselytism, and Religious Liberty.'?" tianity ... [by] the formation not only of exemplary individuals This was perhaps the first document to draw the distinction in their midst [i.e., among Orthodox/Eastern Catholics] but of between authentic Christian witness and proselytism. The New exemplary communities as well." Rufus Anderson acknowl­ Delhi General Assembly (1961) affirmed the distinction, in so edged that "this admission of converts into a church, without doing, paving the way for Orthodox participation in the WCC. regard to their previous ecclesiastical relations, was a practical The 1960s saw a further widening of the discussion to include ignoring of the old church organizations in that region. It was so Roman Catholics, and a definitive agreement was reached by the understood, and the spirit of opposition and persecution was Joint Working Group between the Roman Catholic Church and roused to the utmost.r" the WCC in 1970, entitled "CommonWitness and Proselytism­ This is but a particular instance of the general practice of a Study Document.v" Anglican, Lutheran, and Reformed churches in nineteenth­ Its discussion of proselytism includes both interreligious century Turkey, Syria-Palestine, and Egypt. Evangelical attitudes and intra-Christian dimensions. "Christian witness, to those to the Orthodox churches varied from Anglican appreciation of who have not yet received or responded to the announcement of episcopal succession to Reformed impatience with perceived the Gospel or to those who are already Christians, should have liturgical atrophy. But the result of their missions was the same: certain qualities, in orderto avoid being corrupted in its exercise, the creation of new evangelical churches throughout the Middle thus becoming proselytism." The document outlines the New East." Testament qualities that mark genuinely Christian witness: love Western implants as they originally were, these churches of one's neighbor; seeking the glory of God rather than the

10 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH prestige of one's own community; empowerment by the Holy and the free exercise of missionary activity was permitted, sub­ Spirit; respect for the free will and dignity of all, including the ject only to basic principles of constitutional order. This whole­ right to refuse the Gospel; freedom from any form of coercion sale removal of former barriers against religious activity opened that impedes people from witnessing to their own convictions. the door to an avalanche of foreign missionary activity, predomi­ Specific forms of coercion to be avoided include physical coer­ nantly by North American evangelical (nonconciliar) groups cion, moral constraint, or psychological pressure; temporal or and new religious movements." material benefits offered in exchange for religious adherence; The ensuing confrontation between these groups and the exploitationof theweakand uneducated; legal, social, economic, Russian Orthodox Church exposed the clash of values that the or political pressure, especially when aimed to prevent members ecumenical consensus had sought to reconcile." the individual of a religious minority from exercising their right of religious right to propagate one's faith, and a church's collective right to freedom; and unjust and uncharitable characterization of the preserve and extend the faith among its people, within its cul­ beliefs and practices of another religion. ture. The Moscow Patriarchate's perception of the problem was On the issue of specifically intra-Christian relations, the candidlyexpressed in the following terms: "ManyProtestantsdo document urges that missionary action should always be carried notevenconsider the OrthodoxChurchto be a properchurchbut out in an ecumenical spirit of cooperation between churches. regard it as a dangerous phenomenon in religious life."33 While affirming that one church has legitimate freedom to exer­ In consort with Communist and nationalist groupings, the cise its missionary effort where another church is already estab­ lished, it encourages cooperation, common witness, and frater­ nal assistance and rejects the competitive spirit that seeks to Russia's 1997 law represents enhance the power and privilege of one church over another. In terms of missionary encounter with other religions, the the most restrictive legal WCC has repeatedly affirmed that the Church has a mission, and response to intra-Christian it cannot be otherwise. At the same time, it accepts self-critically that Christian witness has often been distorted by coercive proselytizing activity. proselytism-conscious and unconscious, overt and subtle. Two later WCC documents deal with this aspect in greater detail. The first, dealing with Christian-Jewish relations, states: "Such rejec­ church pressed for a new law on religion." Amid much internal tionof proselytism, and suchadvocacy of respectfor theintegrity controversyandinternationalcriticism, theRussian Dumapassed and the identity of all persons and all communities of faith are the Law of Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations urgent in relation to the Jews, especially those who live as in September 1997. The preamble acknowledges "the special minorities among Christians. Steps toward assuring non-coer­ contribution of Orthodoxy to the history of Russia and the cive practicesare of highestimportance. In dialogueways should development of Russia's spirituality and culture," thereby dis­ be found for the exchange of concerns, perceptions, and safe­ tinguishing Orthodoxy's status in relation to the Russian state guards in these matters.t?? The second, dealing with Christian­ from that of other religions-e-Christianity." Islam, Buddhism, Muslim relations, affirms that "missionary activity is integral to and Judaism-which are associated with Russian peoples. The Christian discipleship" but recommends that "Christians ex­ law requires the legal registration of all religious organizations. plore new ways of witnessing to Christ in words and deeds, for To qualify as Russian, a religious organization must have been instance, through living Christ-like lives and by demonstrating established in Russia for more than fifty years at the time of that Christianity is, like Islam, concerned with the whole of registration; all others are by definition foreign and subject to a life." 30 gradation of restrictions depending on whether they have been in Russia for less than fifty or less than fifteen years at the time of Political Dimensions registration. While the law makes no reference to proselytism, its catalog of forbidden activities effectively proscribes any form of The ecumenical consensus treats proselytism as a religious ques­ religious propaganda that would impinge on the Orthodox tion that needs to be addressed through dialogue-(l) between Church. churches and other religions in terms of interreligious aspects of The 1997 Russian law represents the most restrictive legal/ proselytism,and (2)betweenchurchesin termsof intra-Christian politicalresponse to whatis perceived as intra-Christianprosely­ dimensionsof the problem.Significantas theecumenicalachieve­ tizing missionary activity. In terms of interreligious proselytism, ment has been, the consensus is limited to the conciliar groups it is well known that several Islamic states have taken legal that give it consent. It cannot and does not bind nonconciliar measures to prohibit or severely restrict foreign (specifically groups, Christian or other, who continue to exercise their own Christian) missionary activity within their borders. As early as understanding of missionary activity, irrespective of potential 1977 Israel also introduced what is commonly known as an proselytizing consequences. The right freely to propagate one's antimission law that makes any inducement to change religion religion is given priority over all else. an offense punishable by five years' imprisonment. This law has The missionary activity of such nonconciliar groups has never yet been enforced, but pressure has recently increased for been nowhere more evident than in the Russian Federation and legislation to prohibit any form of preaching or writing that other post-Communist eastern European states during much of could be deemed to solicit a person to change his or her religion. the 1990s. As part of the perestroika reform of the former Soviet A private member's bill to this effect was brought before the Union, the 1990 Law on Freedom of Worship marked a radical Knesset in 1996 by two members, Gafni and Zvili. Faced with departure from traditional Soviet restrictions on religion: free­ domestic and international criticism, the bill's promoters report­ dom of religion and belief was guaranteed; all religious commu­ edlymetwithrepresentatives of Christian organizationsin Israel nities in the USSR were placed on an equal footing; foreign and agreed to drop the bill in return for a cessation of missionary religious groups were accorded equal protection under the law; activities in Israel."

January 1999 11 International Law enon of African Independent Churches, which he likewise con­ demned at the opening of the Conference of African Bishops for The examples given in the previous section illustrate that where being "unyieldingfundamentalist or aggressive proselytizing."43 the ecumenical consensus on proselytism is disregarded, states These examples are not merely incidental to the concluding are resorting to national law to stem the tide of what they argument of this study. They represent regions where, in many perceive as illegitimate missionary activity. The Russian law and respects, Christianity is showing its greatest vitality at the close similar legislation invite criticism that they contravene the 1948 of the twentieth century. Research into both African Indepen­ UniversalDeclarationof HumanRights, which affirms "theright dent Churches and Latin American neo-Pentecostalism illus­ to freedom of thought, conscience and religion," adding that trates their significance as indigenizing movements that are "this right includes freedom to change [one's] religion or be­ lief"? Those who support legal constraints onmissionary activ­ ity, however, appeal to the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which reaffirms the right of religious free­ Today's radically indigenized dom but significantly reinterprets the 1948 declaration's right to transformations of the change religion by stating that "this right shall include freedom Christian faith predict new to have or to adopt a religion or belief of [one's] choice." At the same time, the covenant specifically prohibits coercion: "No one global trends that historic shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to churches cannotdismisswith have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice.?" A third instrument of international law, the 1981 Declaration on the the charge of "proselytism." Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, makes no reference to the right to change or adopt a religion, simply stating that one has the right sowing the seeds of the Gospel in new cultural soils. The new "to have a religion or whateverbeliefof one's choice," reiterating plants are proving hugely attractive to peoples who are es­ that this choice must not be impaired by any form of coercion." tranged by the alien culture of most historic mission churches in The force of these statements seems to indicate that "the non-Western societies. As Shakespearesaid of Perdita, the indig­ focus of international law has shifted from an emphasis on the enous movements have the power to "quench the zeal of all freedom to change a religion to an emphasis on the freedom to professorselse." If,as seems probable, these radicallyindigenized retain a religion.v" Freedom to change a religion remains a right transformations of the Christian faith predict important new in international law but needs to be set in balance with the trends in global Christianity of the twenty-first century, historic freedom to maintaina religion-a principle thathasbeenstrongly churches cannot simply dismiss them with the charge of argued by Muslim member states of the United Nations." "proselytism." The understandings of proselytism discussed in this article Conclusion amount to the assault by one religious group against the territo­ rial, ecclesiological, or faith integrity of another-an unethical The value of the ecumenical consensus that has been outlined in way of engaging in interreligious relations, and particularly this article is precisely that it seeks to mediate between the two hurtfulin terms of intra-Christian relations. But progress toward competing freedoms guaranteed in international law. Its com­ resolving this problem so far reflects a status quo, the product of mitment to the right of witness/mission entails, as a corollary, centuries of Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant hegemony over the right to changeone's religion. In rejectingunethical (coercive) Christianity in its historic forms. The challenge for the future is forms of witness as proselytism, it calls for discernment regard­ for the current ecumenical consensus to open itself to the possi­ ing the integrity of other churches, and indeed other religions, bility that the Spirit of God, which Christians believe brings within God's purposes for humankind and human society. It human communities into ever-new understandings of the pres­ appeals to dialogue rather than legislation as the way of discern­ ence and action of God in Christ, is moving in transformative ment and encourages partners from different traditions to be ways among Christians who have little or no stake in traditional willing to listen to one another in mutual openness, ready to forms of Westernecclesiology. "Newcomers" they maybe, butin accept mutual correction as well as receive mutual enrichment. giving honor to the proselyte, the early church showed its capac­ To continue to be effective, however, this dialogue must ity to embrace new experience. To require non-Western Chris­ extend to include as partners those movements of Christian tians to conform to Western criteria of what it is to be "church," growth that established churches are inclined to rebuke as pros­ and to condemn as proselytism what may be faith-renewing elytizers. This must embrace, for example, the charismatic and workings of the Holy Spirit, is to imitate the ancient Danish king neo-Pentecostal churches in Latin America, which the pope of England, Canute, who vainly tried to set his throne against a caricatured as "rapacious wolves" in his opening address to the rising tide. 1992 Conference of Latin American Bishops," and the phenom­ Notes------­ 1. This articleis adapted from a lecture givenat the TanturInternational 4. From Reflections on the Revolution in France, ibid. Conferenceon ReligionandCulture(May 31-]une4,1998),]erusalem. 5. This is not to suggestthatinternationalEnglishalways uses the word The conference theme was "Religious Freedom and Proselytism." negatively. International lawyers at the Tantur Conference used 2. The Winter's Tale, act 5, scene 1. "proselytism" as a neutral term meaning "conversion." A study of 3. From History of England, quoted in Murray's English Dictionary the use of the term in other languages would be instructive. (Oxford, 1909), p. 1490. 6. For fuller discussion of the biblical material, see Eugene Heideman,

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800.992.4652 Schoolof l tuercultural Studies Fax: 310.903.4851 E-Mail: [email protected] 13800 BiolaAven ue LaMirada, California 90639-0001 "Proselytism, Mission, and the Bible," International Bulletin of Lutheran) bishopric of Jerusalem (1841), the Union of Armenian Missionary Research 20, no. 1 (January 1996): 10-12. EvangelicalChurchesin the NearEast (1846),the CopticEvangelical 7. From "Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy"/ Sacrosanctum concilium, Church(1853),the EvangelicalChurchof Iran(1855),the Evangelical in The Documents of the Second Vatican Council, ed. Walter Abbott Church of Sudan (1900), and the Presbyterian Church in the Sudan (New York: Guild Press, 1966), p. 142. (1902). 8. From "Decree of the Missionary Activity of the Church"/ Ad gentes, 24. Middle East Council of Churches, Proselytism, Sects, and Pastoral in Documents, p. 600. Challenges: A Study Document, paragraphs 6-11. For further 9. Ibid. elaboration, see George Sabra, "Proselytism, Evangelism, and 10. From "Declaration on Religious Freedom" / Dignitatis humanae Ecumenism," Theological Review: NearEastSchool of Theology 9, no. 2 personae, in Documents, pp. 678-79. (1988): 23-36. 11. From "Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non­ 25. Evangelical Missions Quarterly26 (July 1990): 256-62. Christian Religions" / Nostraaetate, in Documents, pp. 662-63. 26. Donald Wagner, Anxious for Armageddon: A Call to Partnership for 12. That is, the autocephalous, "national" Orthodox Churches that Middle Eastern and Western Christians (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, acceptthe credaldefinitionsof the sevenecumenicalcouncils (Nicaea 1994), pp. 181-82. I [325]to Nicaea II [787])and recognize the Ecumenical Patriarchate 27. World Council of Churches, Ecumenical Review 9, no. 1 (October of Constantinople as their primus inter pares. 1956): 48-56. 13. That is, the churches that accept the credal definitions of the first 28. Ibid. 23,no. 1 (1971):15-19. See also Kinnamon andCope, Ecumenical three ecumenical councils (Nicaea I to Ephesus [431]) but that Movement, pp. 351-53. developed separatelyfrom the Councilof Chalcedon (451).Theyare 29. From Ecumenical Considerations onJewish-Christian Dialogue (Geneva: the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church, the WCC Publications, 1982), sec. 4, "Authentic Christian Witness." Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Syrian Orthodox Church, and the 30. FromEcumenical Considerations onChristian-Muslim Relations (Geneva: Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India). WCC Publications, 1991), sec. 2, "On Understanding Islam and 14. SupremePatriarch-Catholicosof All Armenians, and spiritualleader Muslims." of the Armenian Apostolic Church. 31. For the latter, the author is indebted to Vladimir Federov, "New 15. Karekin Sarkissian, The Witness of the Oriental Orthodox Churches Religious Movements: An Orthodox Perspective" (paper presented (Beirut: Mesrob Press, 1968), p. 41. to the Tantur Conference on Religious Freedom and Proselytism). 16. From the Assyrian Church of the East was created the Chaldean 32. Harold Berman, "ReligiousRights in Russia at a Time of Tumultuous (Assyrian) Catholic Church (1553) and the Syro-Malabar Catholic Change," in Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective, ed. Johan Church (1599); from the Oriental Orthodox Church-the Syrian van der Vyver and John Witte (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1996),pp. 301-3. Catholic Church (1663), the Coptic Catholic Church (1741), the 33. Metropolitan Kirill of Kaliningrad and Smolensk, head of foreign ArmenianCatholicChurch(1742),andthe EthiopianCatholicChurch affairs, Moscow Patriarchate, quoted in Nezavisimaya Gazeta, (1839);from the EasternOrthodoxChurches-theRuthenian (Polish) November 28, 1996. For reference and translation the author is and Hungarian Catholic Churches (1595), the Romanian Catholic indebted to Otto Luchterhandt, "Religous Freedomand Proselytism Church (1701), the Melkite (Greek) Catholic Church (1724), the in Russia and Eastern Europe" (paper presented to the Tantur Greek Catholic Church (1860), and the Ukrainian Catholic Church Conference on Religious Freedom and Proselytism). (1596). 34. See Jane Ellis, The Russian Orthodox Church (Oxford: Oxford Univ. 17. From "Decree on Eastern Catholic Churches" /Orientalium Press, 1996), p. 157ff. ecclesiarum, in Documents, p. 373. 35. Here "Christianity" refers to non-Orthodox churches. 18. Rapprochement between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox 36. Ha'aretz,March31, 1998.The authoris indebted for the reference and Churches began at the Second VaticanCouncil and was symbolized translation to Moshe Hirsch, "The Freedom of Proselytism under by the historic meeting of Pope Paul VI and Ecumenical Patriarch International and Israeli Law" (paper presented to the Tantur Athenagoras (Constantinople) in Jerusalem (1965), where they Conference on Religious Freedom and Proselytism). committed themselves in mutual forgiveness to search for 37. Article 18. For the full text, see American Journal ofInternational Law, reconciliation between their two churches. See "The Common Supplement 127 (1949). Professor [ohan van der Vyver, for example, Declaration of Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras, 1965," in makes the following criticism: "Values that are upheld by virtue of The Ecumenical Movement: An Anthologyof Key Texts and Voices, ed. state-imposed coercion instead of personal conviction or individual MichaelKinnamonand Brian Cope (Grand Rapids,Mich.: Eerdmans, persuasion forfeit their ethical quality" ("Religious Freedom and 1997), pp. 145-46. Proselytism: Ethical, Political, and Legal Aspects" [paper presented 19. Eastern Churches Journal 1, no. 1 (1994): 17-27. to the Tantur Conference on Religious Freedom and Proselytism]). 20. "Rapport de Balamand: Questions and Responses," Le Courrier 38. Brian Dickson, "The United Nations and the Freedom of Religion," Oecumenique du Moyen Orient 33, no. 3 (1997): 5-12. International and Comparative LawQuarterly, 1995. 21. The same was trueof the Protestant-EasternCatholicencounter.The 39. Natan Lerner, "The Final Text of the UN Declaration Against nineteenth-century conflict was most intense between Protestant Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief," Israel missionaries and the Maronite Church (the largest Eastern Catholic Yearbook on Human Rights, 1982. Church, for which there is no Orthodox equivalent) in Lebanon. The 40. Quoted from Hirsch, "Freedom of Proselytism." first Maronite convert to Protestantism, As'ad Shidyaq, was 41. Ann Mayer, Islam and Human Rights (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, imprisoned by the Maronite patriarch and died in jail (ca. 1823). 1995). For differing Muslim views, see the contributions of Roger 22. Rufus Anderson, History of the Missions of the American Board of Garaudy and Abdallahi Ahmed An-Na'im in The Ethics of World Commissioners for Foreign Missions to the Oriental Churches 2 vols. Religions and Human Rights, ed. Hans Kiing and Jiirgen Moltmann (Boston: Congregational Publishing Society, 1872), 1:47. For a full (London: SCM Press, 1990), pp. 46-69. accountof the ABCFM missionin Lebanon,see HabibBadr, "Mission 42. John Paul II, "Opening Address to the Fourth General Conference of to INominal Christians': The Policy and Practice of the American the Latin American Episcopate," Origins 22, no. 19 (October 1992): Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and Its Missionaries" 326. (Ph.D. diss., Princeton Univ., 1992; UMI #9229015). 43. "Evangelizing Mission of the Church in Africa," Origins 22, no. 39 23. These churches included the National Evangelical Synod of Syria (March 1993): 665-84. and Lebanon (from 1823), the Anglican (originally Anglican-

14 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH You Can Help the Persecuted Church: Lessons from Chiapas, Mexico Vernon J. Sterk

he painand tragedyof persecutioncanbe described best Nabenchauc had been forced onto a truck and were on their way T by those who have personally suffered the trauma and to be executed by order of the tribal president. threat of persecution. Only out of their experiences can we hope My response was to jump into a vehicle and try to meet the to understand and analyze what is happening in various situa­ leaders from Nabenchauc, with whom I had worked for years. tions and help Christians survive. We are all one in the body of With the Zinacanteco brother that had come to notify me, I Christ; "if one part suffers, every part suffers with it" (1 Cor. headed out to the road where the assassins would reportedly be 12:26). In keeping with this biblical principle, the underlying passing. As the truck carrying the condemned believers ap­ assumption of this essay is that believers can and must be proached, I recognized it as belonging to the man from involved when fellow believers face persecution. In our era, Nabenchauc with whom my family had lived for two years. however, part of the tragedy of persecution is that the church Considering him my friend, I flagged down the truck. Before I worldwide has not really identified with or suffered with the was able to negotiate anything, however, five other large trucks persecuted church. loaded with about 250 enraged and drunken Zinacanteco men As a missionary who has been involved in evangelism, surrounded us. A man named Antun, who had been the captain discipleship, and Bible translation for about thirty years in an of the village basketball team that I had organized and coached environment hostile to the Gospel, I have found the limited involvementof the worldwidechurchin supportingand encour­ aging persecuted Christians to be very frustrating. A complicat­ It became obvious that it was ing factor is the widespread assumption that persecution is, in itself, a positive element in causing the growth of the church. not persecution that led to the Many contemporary authors and church leaders continue to growth of the church but assume that where there is persecution, the growth of the church will inevitably follow, reflecting Tertullian's well-known state­ rather the growth of the ment "The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church." churchthatledto persecution. The result of such a stereotype is a lack of awareness of and concern for the increasing persecution of Christians around the world. My experience with the evangelical church in Chiapas, a few years earlier, shouted, "Let's kill Rene (my name in the Mexico, leads me to question the validity of Tertullian's state­ tribe) and put an end to all of the evangelicals!" ment in relation to the growth of the church. My field research in Before I knew what was happening, I was struck in the face, the Tzotzil Mayan tribes of Chiapas led to a Ph.D. dissertation at sending my glasses flying. Because I am half-blind without my FullerTheologicalSeminary,School ofWorldMission. My theme, glasses, I moved to retrieve them. As I picked them up in one "TheDynamics of Persecution," was drivenby the pain, destruc­ hand, someoneshouted: "Hehasa gun!" Evidentlythe wayI was tion, and tragedy that I witnessed in the lives and churches of holding my glasses gave the appearance of having a pistol, and persecuted Christians. It became obvious thatit was notpersecu­ through a miracle of the Lord, the mob suddenly split, opening tionand sufferingthatcaused the growthof thechurchbutrather a clear path for my escape on foot. When the crowd saw me the growth of the church that led to persecution. running full speed, they threw rocks that zipped past my head. The conclusion of my study and experience is that (1) the I didn't stop running until I reached the outskirts of the city, over acceptance of the gospel message leads to persecution and (2) a mile away. persecution negatively affects the growth of the church. How­ The Zinacanteco Christians, including the man who had ever, the damaging effects can be minimized through an ad­ brought the news to our house, were immediately taken back to equate preparation for, and proper response to, persecution. An the tribal center and were beaten severely on the way. But since essential part of that response must be the prayers and involve­ the tribal president feared that I would have reported him to the ment of the worldwide church. city police, he canceled the death sentence and expelled them from their tribal homes. They appeared at our door late that Personal Involvement with Persecuted Christians night, badly beaten but thankful to be alive. I relate this story to illustrate a kind of personal involvement My personal involvement in persecution arose out of living with that can be helpful to persecuted Christians. To this day, the first-generation Christians in an indigenous tribe in Chiapas. believers affirm that they surely would have been killed if After a long period of warnings, we knew that the situation had someone had not been willing to risk getting involved. This reached a volatile phase when expulsion threats were issued to involvement formed a foundation upon which I could identify the Protestant evangelicals. One Sunday morning a Christian with and encourage others who would face persecution. leader from the Zinacanteco tribe arrived breathlessly at our door. He reported that several of the believers from the village of History of Persecution in Chiapas

VernonJ. Sterkhaslivedwith theTzotzilMaya people ofChiapas I Mexico I for While the attention of the world has beendrawn to Chiapas since thirty years asamissionary oftheReformed Church in America. Hehasworked the 1994Zapatista Rebellion and the December 1997 massacre in in the areas of indigenous forms of evangelism, the clash of cultures,and the Acteal, the oppression of the Indian population of this southern­ persecuted church. Hehashelped toproduce an interconfessional translation of most state in Mexico is not new. The Indian tribes have suffered thefirst complete Bible in the Tzotzillanguage.

January 1999 15 injustice from the time of the SpanishConquest until the present. that thecommunicationof the Gospelwasineffectivebecausethe However, with the emergence of the Protestant evangelical Jesuit missionaries "never translated even a major portion of the movement in the indigenous areas of Chiapas, the dynamics of Bible into Japanese.'? oppression changed. Since the first contacts with the Gospel Bible translation is essential for preparation to face persecu­ through lay missionaries from Guatemala in 1901,1 opposition to tion because it facilitates the penetration of the Gospel at the Protestant Christians has been constant. Instead of the oppres­ worldview level. In the past ten years I have been involved in an sion coming from foreign invaders, it is now the tribal leaders interconfessional Bible translation project with Tzotzilleaders. I and Indian caciques (tribal political leaders) who are persecuting am encouraged to know that in doing the translation work I am their own people. involved in a priority task for meeting persecution. Eventually persecution abated in the Spanish-speaking ar­ Another essential use of indigenous translations is Scripture eas of Chiapas, but the growth of the church in the Indian tribes memorization. The missionary can play an important role in brought on a new wave of persecution. Each of the indigenous teaching the importance of the memorization of Scripture in the tribalareas-e-Ch'01, Tzeltal,Tojolabal, andTzotzil-hasstruggled indigenous languages. When persecution denies access to the withthe problemsof persecutionfrom the1940suntilthepresent. written Word of God, the most valuable preparation that will Persecution follows as a counterreaction to the changes that are have been done is the memorization of major passages from the caused by new freedom in Christ. Powerful tribal mafias deny Bible. This has been the testimony of Christians who have suf­ freedom and justice to their own people. In this setting, the fered repressive persecution under Communism and Islam. ProtestantIndians voice a cry for freedom from the oppression of Indigenization. Another significant contribution that the mis­ spiritual, social, economic, and political powers. sionary can make is to work toward a truly indigenous church My wife and I have witnessed almost continuous persecu­ with its own leadership, financial responsibility, and mission tion of evangelicalChristians sinceourarrival in Chiapasin 1969. outreach. A church can survive and even grow under persecu­ While all conceivable forms of persecution have been employed, tion, but only if it has become indigenous. the principal method of pressuring evangelical Christians has Foreign control is the main roadblock in the path to beenexpulsionfrom tribal landand homes. Since 1969morethan indigeneity, and it is usually the foreign missionary and faulty 25,000 indigenous Christians have been forcibly expelled, creat­ principles of mission that cause dependencies to continue. Mis­ ing the need for more than fifty refugee communities, many of sionary control not only contributes to the weakness of the which have now become permanent relocation villages. indigenous church itself but also invites persecution. In many In the communication of the Gospel we are involved in cases, Christians suffer persecution because of antiforeign feel­ spiritualwarfare, and the threat to Satan's poweris therootcause ings stirred upby nationalism, whichis a powerful issue in many of persecution. On a sociological level, the general cause of countries of the world today. Unless the church is visibly persecutionin Chiapasis the perceived threat to traditional tribal indigenized, it risks being identified as a pernicious foreign leaders and power structures, We can enumerate several factors religion. that help explain what has happened in Chiapas in areas where The dislike of foreignness is often a factor in persecution as the indigenous population has responded to the Gospel. There is a reaction to the Gospel. We sawthis played outin the tribal areas (1)a change of religious allegiance, which in animistic cultures is of Chiapas. Local leaders call for the persecution of evangelicals perceived as a threat to ethnic cohesion and the welfare of the as a supposed way of preserving tribal customs and traditions. entiresociety; (2)a threatto thepositionandpowerof the shaman The Indian Protestants are accused of being the puppets of or priest; (3) an increase of social and economic problems related foreign imperialists. Persecution and human rights abuses thus to shortages of land and the unequal distribution of wealth; and are justified and excused in the eyes of government and justice (4) the challenge to tribal political leaders and structures. departmentofficials who claim to be defending national interests against imperialism. Preparing the Church to Cope with Persecution Missionariesmustconstantlybe preparingbelieversin Christ to defeat this persecution threat by in-depth indigenization, by If the church is to survive when persecution strikes, it must not emphasizing the importance of tribal dress and patterns, by only identify the causes but also be made acutely aware of the encouraging the use of indigenous hymns and worship patterns, need to prepare. and by insisting on indigenous leadership and financial respon­ Personal response ofChristian leaders. The personal response of sibility. the missionary or pastor in facing persecution will often set the pattern for how indigenous Christians will react. We must re­ Negative Effects of Persecution member that it is not the presence of persecution that causes the growth of the church. Rather, it is the effective response of I am convinced that unless we are ready to prepare and support prepared believers in Christ and the courageous witness of the suffering church, persecution will be detrimental to the indigenous Christians who are willing to risk their lives by growth of the church. I do realize that there are some positive returning to tribal villages, by maintaining cultural contact, and results of persecution. The refining fire of persecutiondoes result by witnessingto thepowerof God. This response canresultin the in some Christians becoming mature and genuine in their faith. growth of the church in spite of persecution. Also, when the miraculous power of God is revealed in the midst Scripture translation and memorization. The clearest example of violent persecution, some may learn to deepen their reliance of an established church that completely disappeared when on God alone. And there is the possibility that persecution of assaulted by persistent persecution is that of the church in North believers will entail increased exposure to the Gospel for the Africa. Historians record that a principal factor in the demise of wider community. this church was that the Bible was never translated into the Human suffering. Our experience in Chiapas shows that indigenous languages. Gordon Laman, in his examination of the while a few individuals may benefit from the refining fire of persecution of Christians in Japan in the early 1600s, maintains persecution, the negative effects-beginningwithhumansuffer­

16 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH ing-are devastating. Descriptions and accounts of those who village and church leaders from more than thirty Chamula house have suffered violent repression and persecution make our churches and villages invited inescapable clashes of personal, hearts ache and cause us to wonder what good can come out of political, and cultural interests. The leadership positions had to such suffering. As Herbert B.Workmannoted in Persecution in the be reestablished after the persecution and dislocation. This led to Early Church, "Persecution may be a sign of strength. It is hardly debilitating and demoralizing divisions that had a negative a cause of strength when it is cruel and persistent. ... Persecution effect not only on evangelical witness and growth butalso on the maykill a religion and destroy it utterly, if that religion's strength entire range of communal life. lies only in its numbers, by a simple process of exhaustion. The Reversion ofweakChristians. Probably the most common and opinion that no belief, no moral conviction, can be eradicated widely recognized negative result of persecution is that of the from a country by persecution is a grave fallacy.":' reversion of Christians. The unmistakable goal of persecutors is Inoculation and immunity. One of the negative results of to cause potential and new believers in Christ to turn away from persecution that we have seen in Chiapas is inoculation against Christianity under threats of physical violence, ostracism, and the gospel message. Not only in Chiapas but also in entire expulsions. Throughout history every method of torture and countries like Japan, severe persecution can produce this effect, abuse has been used to prompt people to revert to traditional with the result of halting the growth of the church for genera­ practices and beliefs. History also documents that many Chris­ tions. If there is insufficient provision for and an ineffective tians were not able to stand up to the trials of persecution, and response to persecution, people may fear and reject any future they either temporarily or permanently rejected their faith in contact and communication with Protestant evangelicals or the Christ. Bible, creating a people or group that is literally closed. In such Although the severity of persecution and the response of churches vary, the fact is that persecution does result in a signifi­ cant loss in the growth of the church. Simply stated, a consider­ Persecution may result, not in able number of individuals and families deny their new faith in Christ because of the pain and pressure of persecution. growth, but in reinforcing a Halting the growth of the church. The negative results of population'sresistance to the persecution affect both the pre-Christian and the Christian com­ munities, but the principal concern for missiology is the inhibit­ communication of the Gospel ing effect that persecution has on the growth of the church. This in the future. is most notable when persecution causes the loss of momentum in a people movement in a specific tribe or area. This loss of momentum leads to the suspension of Christian ministry on the instances, persecution results not in the growth of the church but part of evangelists, pastors, and workers who have suffered in reinforcing the population's resistance to the communication violence while involved in such work. Persecution can also slow of the Gospel in the future. the growth of the church through discouragement. When there Disruption and dislocation. Another negative result of perse­ seems to be no relief or justice in the face of persecution, it is easy cution is the unmistakable disruption that it causes in the lives of for Christians to give up the battle. individuals and in the structures of families and society. When family members use the weapons of ostracism and expulsion Response of the Worldwide Church against one another, this can become a powerful factor in causing a negative effect on the growth of the church. Many who would Because the negative effects of persecution are so overwhelming, otherwise choose to accept the Gospel find that the threat of it is imperative for the worldwide church to respond in a unified family disruption pushes them either to reject Christianity com­ and practical way. By implementing a unified and organized pletely or to delay indefinitely making a decision. If the world­ response, we can hope to minimize the damaging effects of wide church does not help with the restoration of the losses persecution. At the onsetof persecution, I would urge the follow­ caused by disruption in family and society, especially in helping ing ten-step action by the worldwide church. with the formation of new relocation communities for expelled 1. Notify church leaders and pastors by all available means of Christians, there are many who will reject the offer of Christian­ communication-letters, telephone, e-mail, Internet. An or­ ity. Various anthropologists in Chiapas have noted, however, ganized system of communication should be established on that when the persecuted church receives help in reestablishing both national and international levels. In this way, prayer family and community, and when there is an intentional and chains and circles of fasting can be organized around the public stand for justice and human rights, these actions are world. The battle is a spiritual one, so we must start there. powerful factors in encouraging the growth of the church. Also, offerings for financial assistance can be initiated in Divided andweakened church. An even more disturbing nega­ order to be ready to meet the inevitable needs of the suffering tive result of persecutionis thatit tends to spawna weakened and church. division-prone church. People who have had their family and 2. Counsel persecuted Christians to negotiate for acceptable cultural identity disrupted will in turn produce a new commu­ options so that violence will be avoided or delayed; encour­ nity of believers in Christ that is weak and impoverished. The age them to trust the Lord for protection by not abandoning result consistently shows itself in the formation of unstable and their homes and tribal lands on the basis of only threats and divisive community and church structures that may persist for warnings. Theyshould avoid signingdocuments thatrequire years. withdrawal from the community. When, as we witnessed in Chiapas, persecution results in 3. Facilitate the translation and distribution of Bibles and study expulsion and the necessity of forming a worshiping community materials in indigenous languages, especially where perse­ outside of tribal areas, the potential for division and internal cution threatens the survival of the church. conflict in the relocated church is especially high. The merging of 4. Encourage Christian leaders to identify and battle the spiri­

January 1999 17 tual forces that are behind the persecution. In this way, they communities when all other options have been exhausted. can follow the biblical directive to love their persecutors, 9. Respond in Christian love toward persecutors. Remind per­ while waging spiritual warfare against Satan and his emis­ secuted Christians that a forgiving and reconciling outreach saries. are basic keys to the growthof the church. Encouragecultural 5. Make official protests to national legal authorities when respect and maintenance of cultural forms and patterns. people have suffered from physical abuse or imprisonment, 10. When persecution becomes increasingly violent and persis­ whenhomes or churches have beenvandalized or destroyed, tent, use local and state-level newspapers to publish as much whenexpulsions have taken place, and whenthere havebeen of the actual events as possible. Ask the national church to any deaths related to persecution. pressure federal and state governmentauthorities. Appeal to 6. When reports or protests must be made to legal and govern­ the international church for solidarity, support, and possible ment authorities, refer Christians to a church-sponsored or political denouncements and political action. Facilitate inter­ Christian legal defense committee (the latter should be in nationalpublicitythroughChristiannewssourcesandchurch place before severe persecution breaks out). publications along with as many secular publications as 7. Whenviolent persecutionor expulsions occur, organizelocal possible. Where international pressure is not effective, we churches to meet emergency needs of persecuted Christians, must organize and provide for the presence of Christian encourage expelled Christians to seek the possibility of a international observers to provide a human shield of protec­ calculated return, and stress the importance of maintaining tion and security for Christians who would otherwise be contact with ethnic or family groups still living in the tribal severely abused for their faith. We need to be willing to risk area. personal involvement in real situations of suffering and 8. Assist the persecuted church in establishing house churches persecutionifwe aregoingto act outthewordsof 1Corinthians and congregations. Don't betray or reject hidden Christians 12:26. (provide prayer and teaching for them). Establish relocation Notes------­ 1. Hugo Esponda, Historia delaIglesia Presbiteriana deChiapas (Mexico Christian Mission in Japan," Northeast AsiaJournal ofTheology 21, no. City: Publicaciones El Faro, 1986), p. 26. 1 (March/September 1982): 108. 2. Gordon D. Laman, "Our Nagasaki Legacy: An Examination of the 3. Herbert B. Workman, Persecution in the Early Church (London: Will­ Period of Persecution of Christianity and Its Impact on Subsequent iam Clower & Sons, 1906), p. 350.

My Pilgrimage in Mission James K. Mathews

hough my life has demanded a great variety of work, it and India, as well as from Africa and Latin America. There were T has increasingly become clear to me-now in my ninth also nationals from various parts of the world. Among them I decade-that I am and have for a long time been essentially a particularly recall Eleanor Woo. (Her Chinese name means "a missionary. Having said that, I must confess that mine has not preciousstonehiddenamongthehills";shewascertainlya gem!) been a very conventional missionary career. Her ardentwitness during the Communistregime led to herlong Not very much in my upbringing and training would sug­ imprisonment under the harshest conditions. She was a true gest that this was the direction in which I would be headed. I was confessor of the faith and, I believe, finally a martyr. Whenever born in Breezewood, Pennsylvania, in 1913. My family was I recall her, I experience something like awe. certainly not opposed to missions; rather, we were at least While in seminary I came to know very well the great nominally in support of the venture. Some distant relatives were German missiologist Dr. Julius Richter. His lectures were stimu­ missionaries to India, and from time to time we would hear of lating and wide ranging. To this day I possess extensive notes of their work. Oneof them, while onfurlough, gave mysiblingsand the period when he was a visiting professor. But none of these me a black stone figure of a reclining bull. Long afterward I influences ever led me to conclude that I should become a understood that this was Nandi, thebeastof burdenof the Hindu missionary. Nevertheless, Richter was a major influence in my deity Shiva. It was, I suppose, an idol, but we used it as a life. plaything. I did my theological training at the BiblicalSeminary in New Unsuspected Turning Point York (now New York Theological Seminary), where there was considerable emphasis on missionary work. Among my close All that changed while I was doing graduate theological studyin friends were furloughed missionaries from Japan, China, Korea, Boston University School of Theology. One evening-October 31, 1937-1 went willingly but unsuspectingly to a meeting at James K.Mathewsisa Bishop oftheUnitedMethodist Church, nowretired. He Trinity Episcopal Church in Boston. That night my life direction hasbeen a missionary to India; a missionexecutive; and bishop of the Boston, was drastically altered. Washington, Harare (Zimbabwe), and Albany areas. Trinity Church was a masterwork of the famous architect

18 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Sanford White. Together with the lovely Boston Public Library, volcano Stromboli-quite a sight! I remember that I preached it graces Boston's Copley Square. Outside the edifice is a notable from Acts 27, St. Paul's stormy trip on the Mediterranean Sea. sculpture by St. Gaudens of Phillips Brooks-prince of preach­ While I was preaching, we were bucking the same kind of ers, rector of Trinity, and later bishop of the Protestant Episcopal northeaster called Euroclydon that had blown Paul toward the Church. At first glance the observer of the sculpture does not shipwreck on Malta. The same fate did not await us, and three senseits trueforce. Thensuddenlyit becomesapparentthatthere weeks after we had left Tilbury docks near London we arrived in is anotherfigure in thebackground witha hand onthepreacher's Bombay (now Mumbai), shoulder. It is the Galilean, the source of Brooks's power. That evening the church was crowded, for the preacher was Learning to Be at Home in India Bishop Azariah of Dornakal Diocese in South India. He was a stalwart person, a fervent evangelist, and the first Indian to be Hardly had we reached Bombay when I was whisked off to a elected bishop of the Anglican Communion in his homeland. He small hill station, Mahableshwar, to studythe Marathi language, had also been a delegate to the World Missionary Conference in a Sanskrit derivative. I regret exceedingly that I did not really Edinburgh in 1910. On that evening in October 1937 he spoke of master the tongue. Nevertheless, after sixty years I can still India and the workof Christ there. I donot knowhowit was with converse a little in Marathi and am understood. Along the way others present that night, but I know how it was with me. It I picked up a working knowledge of Hindi, the lingua franca of India. At language school the missionary gets to know his contemporariesas well; someof thembecamemylifelongfriends. Even more, we became acquainted with India, its customs and It seemed that once again religions, from the teachers-pundits or munshis, as they are Jesus stood behind the called. Then too one meets, for the first time, sturdy missionaries preacher. I knew I must such as Dr. John MacKenzie, principal of Wilson College, Bombay-a very erudite Scotsman; Bishop J. Waskom Pickett, become a missionary to India. authority on Christian mass movements and a mentor to me; Dr. J. F. Edwards, editor of a Christian periodical, who dubbed himself a booming Englishman; or the Reverend Gabriel seemed to me that once again Jesus stood behind that preacher, Sundaram, later a bishop. Then I met K. M. Munshi and Sorojini his hand on the preacher's shoulder and the source of Azariah's Naidu, renowned nationalist leaders. Very quickly one became power. Though not ordinarily much given to this sort of thing, I at home in new surroundings. knew then and there that I must become a missionary to India. After a few weeks at language school I was appointed pastor The very next day the speaker at the chapel service in the of an English-speaking congregation in Bombay. This church Boston University School of Theology was Dr. Thomas S. was named after George Bowen, an outstanding missionary of Donohugh, a secretary of the Board of Foreign Missions of the the previous century. Robert E. Speer's biographical account of Methodist Episcopal Church. He was not renowned for his Bowen illuminates one of the greatest missionaries in history. eloquence as a speaker; he simply remarked that there was an After this pastorate of three years I finished my short term but immediate need for a pastor for an English-speaking church in extended it for a further year as Methodist district superinten­ Bombay. I knew, of course, who was elected! I spoke to Dr. dent in rural Maharashtra. Donohugh after the service, applied for missionary service, and In a singular way I made the acquaintance of Dr. B. R. was interviewed and appointed. Three months later I was on my Ambedkar, leader of the untouchables, now called Dalits-the way to India. I may say that it was painful for me to leave Boston, rejected. I think I may say that Ambedkar and I were friends. particularly since I was greatly helped in my intellectual devel­ While he was a member of the viceroy's cabinetand whenhe was opmentbytwo professors, EdgarS.Brightmanand EdwinPrince member in Nehru's cabinet, I always had access to him. I tried to Booth. witness faithfully to him, but in the end he became a Buddhist. The last time I was to preach before sailing was on January My experienceandeffectivenessas a missionaryweregreatly 16, 1938, at Newburyport, Massachusetts, where another mis­ enhanced when I married EuniceJones, daughter of Dr. and Mrs. sionary, George Whitefield, preached his last sermon and where E. Stanley Jones. Born in India, she knew the culture and lan­ he is buried. There I spoke on Paul's letter to the Philippians, the guage (Urdu) well. So it was that my own grasp of the Indian "epistle of joy." My text was "Let your manner of life be worthy scene enlarged, and we have remained colleagues for nearly six of the Gospel of Christ." I earnestly trusted thatthis mightbe true decades. I learned much about missionary service from both of of me. her parents. Of course, Stanley Jones's book The Christ of the In most ways I was ill prepared: no special training for India Indian Road tremendously awakened me when first I read it, just or for the mssionary task, no language orientation, no anthropol­ as it does wheneverI return to it. For thirtyyears I knew himwell, ogy, "no nothing!" Sometimes I have said that I was given a and he proved to be in private what he seemed to be in public. passport and a ticket and was told India was "thataway." So it Though he influenced me greatly, while he was still living, I was. To mymind it is a great tribute to the Indianpeople thatthey never quoted from him, lestI shouldbe seenas exploiting this tie. were prepared to receive a greenhorn like me, to love me, to I traveled widely, including village India, and met Ma­ overlook my many shortcomings, and then to help mold me into hatma Gandhi and other national leaders. Moreover, the 1938 a servant of the Lord. Every untried pastor knows the feeling. International Missionary Conference (IMC) convened at I kept a fragmentary journal of the voyage. It tells of seasick­ Tambaram, near Madras. To my deep regret I did not get to visit ness, anxiety, eager expectation, and longing to be faithful. On the conference, butthe"greats" passed through Bombay: John R. Sundays there were church services both morning and evening, Mott, Bishop James C. Baker, Georgia Harkness, Toyohiko at which ministers on board were asked to lead. My turn came on Kagawa,BishopAzariah,HendrikKraemer,HenryP. VanDusen, Sunday, February 27, 1938, soon after we had passed along the ConstancePadwick, a numberof Germantheologians, and many

January 1999 19 others. The whole world, for a time, seemed to be at one's door. two of his grandsons and on to the fifth generation. Most of all I found that I had arrived in India at an exciting The spring of 1942 was a period of turmoil in India and time. For one thing, I was a part of the last wave of missionaries everywhere else. War had come, and the United States was who served at one of the great missionary-sending periods in finally a part of it. We had completed our term and were pre­ Christian history. Of that I am proud. Then, I went to India pared to return home to study in Princeton University. Instead I during the last decade of British rule. I could observe that rule in entered the U.S. Army. Though I had never been an absolute full-flower and then watch it begin to fade away. The fact is that pacifist, I could have been described as leaning that way. For one I had a "grandstand seat" from which to observe the greatest trained during the 1930s, it could scarcely have been otherwise. struggle for freedom in history. I would not exchange this Under the reality of Hitler's oppression, however, my mind privilege for anything. As already suggested, I came to know changed. So I volunteered for any role to which I might be Gandhi personally and two of his sons, and we are intimate with assigned. Major General Raymond Wheeler, head of the ad- Noteworthy

Personalia Illinois. The theme is "The New Millennium and the Emerging We are pleased to announce the appointment of Anne-Marie Religious Encounters." The keynote address will be given by Kool as a contributing editor of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF Archbishop Marcello Zago, O.M.I., Secretary of the Vatican MISSIONARY RESEARCH. A missionary of the Reformed Mission Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, and formerly League in the Dutch Reformed Church, she has been on loan Secretary of the Secretariat for Non-Christian Religions (now to the Reformed Church of Hungary since 1993 where she is the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue). J. Dudley Director of the Protestant Institute for Mission Studies in Woodberry, Dean of the School of World Mission at Fuller Budapest. She is also a visiting lecturer at the Lutheran Theo­ Theological Seminary, is the ASM president. The Association logical Academy and the Faculty of Divinity of the Gaspar of Professors of Missions will meet June 17-18 at the same Karoli Reformed University in Budapest, and is head of the place. Brian Stelck of Carey Theological College, Vancouver, department of practical theology and missiology at the Re­ British Columbia, Canada, is president of the APM. For fur­ formed Theological Academy in Papa (West Hungary). Her ther information and registration for both meetings, contact Ph.D. dissertation from the University of Utrecht was pub­ Darrell R. Guder, Columbia Theological Seminary, P.O. Box lished in 1993 under the title GodMoves in a Mysterious Way: 520, Decatur, Georgia 30031-0520 (Fax: 404-377-9696). TheHungarianProtestantForeign MissionMovement 1756-1951, The next conference of the International Association for and is now being published in Hungarian in three volumes. Mission Studies will be held in South Africa, January 21-28, We welcome her and look forward to her contributions in our 2000. The theme of the conference is "Reflecting Christ: Cruci­ pages. fied and Living in a Broken World." The e-mail address of On August 19, 1998, Josef Neuner, S.J. celebrated his Klaus Schaefer, general secretary of lAMS in Hamburg, Ger­ ninetiethbirthday and his sixtieth year of service to the church many, is: [email protected] in India. A special issue of Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological We recommend two new journals. Third Millennium: Reflection (Delhi) for August1998is dedicated to Fr. Neuneron Indian Journal of Evangelization is a quarterly published at the theme "Theology in Dialogue," to honor his contribution Bishop's House, P.B. No.1, Kalavad Road, Rajkot 360 005, as a missionary and theologian. It includes a partial bibliogra­ Gujarat, India. The Catholic Bishop of Rajkot, Gregory phy of his writings that lists 274 items. We send him our Karotemprel, C.M.I., is President of the Board of Directors for congratulations and best wishes. the journal. Guillermo Steckling was elected the twelfth Superior Journal ofAfrican Christian Thought is published twice General of the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate on yearlyby the Akrofi-ChristallerMemorialCentre, P.O. Box 76, September 16, 1998. Born in Germany, he studied philosophy Akropong-Akuapem, Ghana. Gillian M. Bediako is Editor. and theology at the University of Mainz and went as a mission­ Gospel Communications Network www.gospelcom.net ary to Paraguay in 1974. He has served both as Provincial is the only Christian Web site on the noted "Media Metrix Superior and since 1992 as Assistant Superior General. 500." This recognition places Gospel Communications along­ Died. Richard S. Pittman, 83, former director of transla­ side such sites as Yahoo!, Netscape, Microsoft, NBC and USA tion and language research efforts for Wycliffe Bible Transla­ Today. In one month recently, the Gospelcom Web site was hit tors in Asia and the Pacific, August 21, 1998, in Waxhaw, 35,492,081 times. Gospel Communications Network is an alli­ North Carolina. A graduate of Asbury College in 1935, he ance of more than 130 ministries, including Overseas Minis­ began his Wycliffe service in Mexico in 1941. In 1951 he was tries Study Center www.omsc.org, providing thousands of asked by Wycliffe founder Cameron Townsend to pioneer the online resources for Christian missions and ministries. work of Wycliffe in the Philippines. In 1955 he became area In August 1998, the Church Mission Society-USA (CMS­ director for Asia and the South Pacific. He received the Ramon USA) opened headquarters in New Haven, Connecticut. Magsaysay Award for International Understanding in 1973 Geoffrey A. Little is the first director of this new agencywhich on behalf of Wycliffe and Summer Institute of Linguistics. is a sister organization of the Church Mission Society, Britain, the largest missionary sending agency in the Anglican Com­ Announcing munion. eMS-USA offers its services to churches of any The annual meeting of the American Society of Missiology denomination. For further information contact CMS-USA, 62 will be held June 18-20, 1999, at Techny (near Chicago), East Grand Avenue, New Haven, CT 06513.

20 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH vanced party of the U.S. Army, gave me a direct commission as sit. She watched the Gospel's light and leaven at work among a lieutenant and supply officer. He needed persons who knew them. She now has penned a bookthat those who run may read the India and something of the language. Thus I served for four story of mission. How well she has succeeded may be judged by years, emerging from the army with the rank of major. During those who read the current novel, House of Earth, by Dorothy that period I was frequently called upon to render service also as Clarke Wilson. But what of those in under-privileged lands who bend their a chaplain. This ventureafforded me an extended exposure to the sweatingbacks in mine and factory and farm? Is there no word for real world, and the administrative experience gained has served them? For them a man went forth in Christian mission-in labor me well in the church responsibilities that followed. relations. Graduate of a great theological seminary, he had found his vocation for a dozen years in organized labor. As General Transfer to Administration Hodges's labor advisor in Korea he saw the oft-exploited toil of Asian brothers and sisters. He was later assistant to the president At war'send,quite to my surpriseand justwhenI neededit most, of one of our most progressive labor unions. Two years ago he I was invited to be an associate or corresponding secretary of the wrote: "It is time to bring the two halves of my life together-the Board of Missions of the Methodist Church to administer south­ ministry half and the labor half. Where better can I do it than in ern Asia. This included India, a major Methodist field, and India?" So there today with his wife, a sculptress, their skills are available to the whole of Christ's church that people who are Burma; laterstill, Pakistanand Nepal. (Bythe way, I have always heavy-laden may perhaps find rest. felt that the partitioning of India and the creation of Pakistan was But what of those who dwell in villages condemned to a tragic mistake.) I continued in this role for eight years in New needless disease and death? To them a man went forth in Chris­ York City. Then for six more years I was associate general tian mission-a sanitary engineer, a Nisei who knew what it was secretary, coordinating work in nearly fifty countries where to be despised. Today he serves an interdenominational rural Methodist missionary endeavor was carried on. During that center in the Punjab. He is interested not only in villages made period I was chief program officer. healthy but in lives made whole. He says: "I am not afraid to This fourteen-year period was a tremendous experience. I declare the Gospel and invite non-Christians to be converted to hadthe goodfortuneofbeingtrainedby Dr. RalphE.Diffendorfer, Jesus Christ, for I too am a convert, born in a Buddhist home." my mentor and the dean of missionary secretaries at the time. It The sumof the mattercomesfrom oneof the hundreds of new was my privilege to be associated with a really able staff of preaching missionaries who have lately gone to the nations. He devoted women and men of broad missionary experience and told me he was writing a book entitled Hamlet of God. I asked if it great wisdom. Then one came to know one's counterparts in was a "play" on St. Augustine's City ofGod. He said, "Yes, in part. other denominations and other parts of the world. But do you know what the word 'hamlet' means? In Old English The administrative load was heavy, and the responsibility it refers to a village in which there is no church." Then I thought very great indeed. There was extensive travel abroad, especially of a million hamlets in Asia and how many more in other lands! in southern Asia, where over a period of ten years I made four Those of us who earnestly believe: That "every area is a mission major trips of from two to six months' duration, during which field"; that "every church is a mission"; that "every Christian is a time Ivisitednearlyall the widespreadworkofIndianMethodism. missionary" shall not rest until the hamlets of this world become My little family paid a great price to enable this. Later I extended a part of the City of God! my range to Africa, to other parts of Asia, to Latin America, for I had responsibilities in all these regions. I came to know most of Sharpening the Mind our large family of missionaries, as well as national leaders. I am The demands of speaking helped sharpen my theology of mis­ indebted to hosts of these people. There was also almost constant travel in the United States in what was called lithe interest of sion. Although a mission executive must be involved in large part with programmatic matters, it is at his or her peril if the missions." Pursuing this, I spoke in nearly every state, giving development of mind and spirit is neglected. literallyhundreds of addresses, lectures, and sermons, interpret­ Though I deeply regret that I did not find more time for ing the world mission of the church. For severalyears I joined the writing at that time, I did manage to pen a number of articles and Florida Chain of Missions, an outstanding tour of missionaries wrote three books. One was an interpretation of Methodism in and mission executives, giving addresses on the mission of the southern Asia entitled South of the Himalayas. Another was on church all over that state. Martin Niemoeller and Dr. Helen Kim global ethics, a slender volume, Eternal Values in a World of were a part of this venture, together with a multitude of others. Change. During that period I did a great deal of Bible teaching, Similarly, I often spoke at the great missionary conferences that particularly at missionary conferences. This resulted in a little were held in Silver Bay, New York. study-book on missions, To the End of the Earth, an interpretive At this point I make bold to include a sample of a very short guide to Luke and Acts. address I gave in Denver at an interdenominational meeting in Hardly had I launched mywork for ourBoard of Missions in the mid-1950s: New York City when I was visited by a revered missiologist, Dr. As a board secretary I speak. Several scores of us are here. GeorgeW. Briggs of DrewUniversity. He urged me to undertake You spell it: B-O-A-R-D. Though we are often baffled, befuddled, doctoral study at Columbia University. This I did, somehow and beset with difficulties, we are never bored, nor indeed can be carrying out the endeavor while working full-time at the board! in this present world. Finally, I earned the Ph.D. in the field of the history of religion. Among our treasures are things new and old:­ Columbia's faculty was outstanding. My dissertation was on For example, we have an abundance of good missionary MahatmaGandhi,entitled "TheMatchlessWeapon:Satyagraha." literature. But whatof those who never read it? One missionboard Much later this was published in India, and I received a Gandhi decided that perhaps they wouldread the storyin another form. So Peace Prize for it from Vice President K. R. Narayanan, now a woman went forth in Christian mission-one of America's president of India. leading novelists. For months on end she sat where India's people These academic credentials led to teaching offers at several

January 1999 21 colleges and seminaries. All of these I declined, choosing to hold launched a series of consultations on the theology of mission. to the missionary vocation. I did, however, on two occasions These were held at a delightful spot near the summer home of (1952and 1956)teachmissionsfor a semesterat DrewUniversity. Bishop Richard C. Raines near Glen Lake, Michigan. These Years later I did the same at Wesley Seminary in Washington, included suchtheologiansas WalterG. Muelder, Carl Michalson, D.C., and later still at Asbury Theological Seminary. J. Robert Nelson, John Godsey, Richey Hogg, and others. Later Then Iwas greatlyreinforcedby associationwiththe country's we reached out to British Methodists: among them, Rupert leading missiologists in a group called Lux Mundi. I felt a little Davies, A. Raymond George, and John Foster of Glasgow Uni­ out of place in this eminent company, which proved invaluable versity, author of the little missionary gem After the Apostles, a in lifting my sights and broadening my horizons. I can scarcely book I highly commend. imagine not being a part of such a support group. A group of younger mission executives also met periodically under the And Then Full Circle tutelageofCharlesW. Ranson. This was of immenseworthto me. Being a mission executive meant also that one was a kind of Then in June 1960the direction of my life seemed again abruptly adjunct to all kinds of related activities. Thus I was chairman for to change: I was elected a bishop of the Methodist Church. (In years of our church's greatCrusadeScholarship Program, which 1956 I had been chosen for this office in India but declined.) To afforded graduate training to a great array of future church some this suggested that my involvement in mission had ended. leaders all over the world. Then there was our church's relief In my view this was not so. I was assigned to Boston, and my program, which involved being a part of ecumenical relief pro­ office was on CopleySquare just opposite Trinity Church, where grams at the national and world levels. For a long period I was it had all begun twenty-two years before. I had come full circle. chairman of Agricultural Missions, Inc. and enjoyed close asso­ Only my mission field had changed. It was now New England ciation with leaders in the rural field, such as Dr. Sam instead of India. Higgenbottom, John F. Reisner, and Ira W. Moomaw. Moreover, I continued to write and speak on missions. I was The 1940s and 1950s saw immense ecumenical develop­ for eight years a voting member (not a staff member) of the ment. I was a delegate among those who were "present at Methodist Board of Missions. I continued to travel in so-called creation" of the National Council of Churches in Cleveland in mission lands and was a part of conceiving the whole workof the 1950.Though, muchto my regret, Ididnotattendthe Amsterdam church to be mission. My involvement continued in southern meeting of the World Council of Churches in 1948, I did get my Asia, Korea, Chile, and Africa. My ecumenical involvement first great worldwide exposure at the 1952session of the Interna­ grew-as a member of the Central Committee of the wec for tional Missionary Council in Willingen, Germany. The theme twenty-threeyears, a shortstintat VaticanII,and increasinglinks was "The Missionary Obligation of the Church." I wrote a with Orthodoxy. Another book emerged: A Church Truly Catho­ preparatory paper for this session, "Patterns of Missionary Ac­ lic,which dealt with both missions and ecumenism. tivity and the Necessity for Their Reshaping." To participate in After retirement as bishop in 1980,this commitment contin­ the conference was a stimulating experience. There one rubbed ued. I was recalled to active duty to be bishop in Zimbabwe for shoulders with John Mackay, W. A. Visser 't Hooft, Christian a wonderful period in 1985-86. Relation to the Christian ashram Baeta of Africa, Manchester bishop W. D. L. Greer, Hendrik movement has taken me back to India repeatedly. My wife and Kraemer, David Moses, Rajah B. Manikam, Charles W. Ranson, I have raised considerable money for missions all around the John W. Decker, Gloria M. Wysner, E. J. Bingle, Walter Freytag, globe. My participation in the newly established Africa Univer­ J. C. Hoekendijk, Lesslie Newbigin, Kenneth Grubb, M. A. C. sity in Zimbabwe has been constant. So although others may Warren, O. Fredrich Nolde, Bishop Hans Lilje, and a long list of have seen me as a hierarch and social activist, I have seen myself other notables. I was to meet with such persons through many as evangelist and missionary. years to come. Among the younger participants were counter­ Without attempting to exhaust the subject, I hazard a few parts who were to become lifelong friends. observations: Nearly every summer following Willingen there were fol­ 1. While I have welcomed the broadening of the definition low-up meetings of IMC committees. Travel, food, and lodging of missionduringthe pastfifty years, Iregretthe blurringof focus were available at moderate costs in those days, so we could meet that has taken place with respect to the missionary task. at such places as Herrenalb, Davos, Spittal, Thessaloniki, Lon­ 2. It is my opinion that during recent years the church has don, Oxford, and so on. Along the way I worked closely with not kept faith with the classic commitment to worldwide mis­ Charles Ranson, Yorke Allen, and others in the launching of the sion. For example, many have too readily accepted the Marxist Theological Education Fund. These meetings climaxed in the critique that missions and imperialism were closely linked. great meeting at Accra, where it was finally decided by the IMC 3. We find ourselves ill prepared for the meeting and dia­ to merge with the World Council of Churches. At that time I was logue among the faiths. Too many would yield the challenge invited to succeed Charles Ranson as general secretary of the beforeit has reallybegun. Ifwe say thatall religions are the same, IMC. It was fortunate for all parties concerned that I declined, for there is nothing to talk about. If we conclude that only our view leaders were finally able to persuade Bishop Lesslie Newbigin to has merit, there is no need to talk. This matter demands our best, assume this role. Under his guidance the merger was consum­ and we must give it earnest attention. mated at New Delhi in 1961. 4. At the same time, I feel that the missionary task is still the Though it has by no means been unique with me, I have churches' greatestchallenge. As whenJesus preachedat Nazareth, certainly found that mission and unity have been linked to­ so it is today-the poor, the physically, socially, politically, gether: "... thattheyall maybe one-thatthe worldmaybelieve." morally, and spiritually disinherited need to hear the Good So it has been with me: when we go forth in missionary obedi­ News and see it demonstrated to them throughout the earth. ence, we meet others walking that road in obedience to the same They await the possibility of a new beginning. Therefore, we Lord: "Why not then walk together?" "Why not be together?" need ever to be alert to discern the new modes of mission into After Willingen, we executives of the Methodist Board which God will lead us in the days that lie ahead!

22 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH E . S TAN LE Y J O NE S SC HOO L OF W O R L D M ISS ION AND EVANGE L ISM

Is This Effective

GELISM?

We Don't Think So. After All, Sharing the Gospel Shouldn't Endanger Your Neighbor's Dental Work.

e live in an instant society. Microwaves, remo te words, images and forms of "churc h" that make sense to controls and the Interne t give us what we want in people. Whether it's overseas, overlooking Times Square or Wseconds. So it's not surprising that many Christians over a picket fence, ESJ students are prepared to demonstrate long for instant conversions, too. But this instant mentality and communicate the life-changing power of Jesus Christ. can lead to insensitive encounters that may look more like So if you are interested in Christ -centered, incamational drive-by shoo tings tha n heavenly appointments. evange lism (and keeping your neighbor's teeth intact) call In our post-Christia n, post-modem age, sharing the gospel the admissions office today at 1-800-2-ASBURYor e-ma il us takes time, ingenuity and incam ational love. at "admissions_office@a ts.wiImore .kyus" . Asbury Seminary: This means living the way Jesus lived, forging authentic where sharing the gospel means shari ng your life. relationships and speaking the lan­ Degree Programs: M.A. and guage of the culture. Students in the Th.M. in World Mission and E. Stanley Jones School of World Evangelism; Doctor of Missiology, Mission and Evangelism are Doctor of Ministry and Doctor of equipped to do just that. They learn Philoso phy in Intercultu ral Studies , to not only exegete the text, but exegete the context. By understand­ ASBURY ing the original message and the THEOLOGICAL contemporary situation, ESJ students SEMINARY translate the unchanging gospel into 204 N. Lexington Ave. • Wi lmore, KY 40390 web site: hrrp: llwww.ars.wilmore.ky.us

WHE RE SHAR I NG THE GOSPEL MEANS SHA RING Y O U R L IFE Annual Statistical Table on Global Mission: 1999 David B. Barrett and Todd M. Johnson

he table opposite is the fifteenth in an annual series the past, we measured the extent of evangelization at the level T describing statistics and trends in world mission. Chris­ of each of the world's 240 sovereign and nonsovereign coun­ tians in the twentieth century have had at their disposal a rich tries. We are now measuring the evangelism that takes place resource base of technology to proclaim the Good News to all of within each of the world's 13,000ethnolinguistic peoples. The the earth's inhabitants. Across the world today, for every 1,000 number of individuals evangelized in a country is the sum of people there are, on average, 342 radios, 220 televisions, 118 the number evangelized within each of its peoples. This new telephones, 10 fax machines, and 81 computers. In 1900 no one method reveals even greater imbalance in Christian resource could have dreamed of such a development. In the century since distribution. For example, whereas a country might be receiv­ then, Christians have established 3,770 radio and TV stations ing twice as much evangelism as it needs to evangelize its with 584 million monthly listeners/viewers (lines 60, 62). As a population, when this effort is measured at the level of a result of the Christian use of technology, the number of evange­ hundred smaller units (peoples), one finds that the majority of lism-hours per year is nearly 50 times greater today than in 1900, the effort is going primarily to already Christian or heavily and annual disciple-opportunities per capita have increased evangelized peoples. The result: far more individuals within a from 6 in 1900 to 77 today (line 68). country remain unevangelized than would be the case with a demonstrably strategic distribution of evangelization. Unfair Distribution of Resources Christian Use of Technology This remarkable increase in evangelization has only served to accentuate an ongoing problem in Christian mission: grossly un­ What about the future? Technological advances continue to fair distributionof resources (lines 68,69).The numberofindividu­ offer astounding opportunities for Christians to evangelize. als who have not heard the Gospel has increased over the century This year the first global satellite system for cell phone use has from 813million to 1,530million. This must be considered in light been set in place. Although initially expensive, in the near of the fact that today the world's population is receiving enough future it will be possible for one to telephone no matter where evangelism to be evangelized 77 times over. Multitudes of people one is on the planet. Another development is the growth of the are getting far too much evangelism they do not need or want, Internet. It is already dominatedby Christians, who number80 while the rest of the world gets nothing at all. percent of its users: this means 40 million have computers today, and 400 million Christians will be on-line by A.D. 2001. A New Look at the Unevangelized The question remains unanswered: how much use will Chris­ tians makeof the Internetfor world evangelization?Today, the Our analysis of the plight of the unevangelized has been sharp­ vast majority of Christian web pages are visited only by ened by a significantadjustment to our methodology this year. In Christians. Additionally, only 2 percent of the world's 4 billion non-Christians have any chance of ever accessing the Internet. Consequently, though opportunities for new evangelism DavidB.Barrett, acontributingeditor, isHon.Research Advisor,UnitedBible Societies, and Research Professor of Missiometrics at Regent University, abound, ourprojectionfor the total of unevangelized in 2025is Virginia Beach. ToddM. Johnson, a YWAM missionary and Director of the still more than 20 percent of the world's population, or 1.6 World Evangelization Research Centerin Richmond, Virginia,is an Adjunct billion individuals. Only a painstakingly crafted placement of Professor at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois, for the Christian resources among the unevangelized will change that Perspectives on the World Christian Movementcourse. most-likely scenario.

Notes ------­ Methodological Notes on Table (referring to num­ York: United Nations, 1992). Journal of Frontier Missions UJFM) 9, no. 1 (January bered lines on opposite page). Indented categories 11. Widest definition: professing Christians plus se­ 1992): 35-41. form part of, and are included in, unindented catego­ cret believers, which equals affiliated (church mem­ 46-52. Defined as in article "Silver and Gold Have I ries above them. Definitions of categories are as given bers) plusunaffiliated Christians. World C is the world None," International Bulletin of Missionary Research 7 and explained in World Christian Encyclopedia (WCE, of all who individually are Christians. (October 1983): 150. 1982)with additional data and explanations as below. 21. Total of all non-Christians (sum of rows 12-20 51. Amounts embezzled «r.s. dollar equivalents, per The analytic trichotomy of Worlds A, B, C was intro­ above, plusadherentsof otherminorreligions). This is year). duced in this column in the January 1991 issue. It is also the same as World A (the unevangelized) plus 53. Total general-purpose computers and word pro­ expounded in further detail in a handbook of global World B (evangelized non-Christians). cessors owned by churches, agencies, groups, and statistics, Our Globe and How to Reach It: Seeing the 25. Church members involved in the Pentecostal/ individual Christians. World Evangelized by A.D. 2000 and Beyond,ed. D. B. Charismatic Renewal. Totals on lines 24-26 overlap 67-68. These measures are defined, derived, and ana­ Barrett and T. M. Johnson (Birmingham, Ala.: New with those on lines 28-34. lyzedin "Quantifyingthe GlobalDistribution of Evan­ Hope, 1990). The global diagram series found in Our 26. Active church members who take Christ's Great gelism and Evangelization," IJFM9, no. 2 (April 1992}: Globe is continued in a further series of global dia­ Commission seriously. 71-76. grams in the monthly A.D. 2000 Global Monitor, re­ 27. World totals of current long-term trend for all 69-70. Defined as in WCE, parts 3, 5, 6, and 9. named A.D. 2025 Global Monitor (in 1995). confessions. (See Our Globe andHow to Reach It, Global 71. Grand total of all distinct plans and proposals for Diagram 5). The 1999 figure reflects the collapse of accomplishing world evangelization made by Chris­ Lines 1-4. Demographic totals are as shown in World Communism but also the expansion of terrorism. tians since A.D. 30. (See SevenHundredPlansto Evange­ Population Prospects, 1996 (New York: United Nations, 43. Monolithic organizations are described and ana­ lize the World: The Riseofa Global Evangelization Move­ 1998), and Long-Range World Population Projections: lyzed in "The Fragmentation of Mission into 4,000 ment [Birmingham, Ala.: New Hope, 1988].) Two Centuries of Population Growth, 1950-2150 (New Freestanding, Standalone Monoliths," International

24 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Status of Global Mission, 1999, in Context of 20th and 21st Centuries

Year: 1900 1970 mid-1999 2000 2025 WORLD POPULATION 1. Total pOEulation 1,619,886,800 3,701,909,000 6,010,779,000 6,091,351,000 8,039,130,000 2. Urban wellers (urbanites) 232,694,900 1,349,293,000 2,823,795,000 2,889,855,000 4,736,200,000 3. Rural dwellers 1,387,191,900 2,352,616,000 3,186,984,000 3,201,496,000 3,302,930,000 4. Adult population (over 15) 1,025,938,000 2,323,466,000 4,140,883,000 4,203,032,000 6,085,620,000 5. Literates 286,705,000 1,487,863,000 2,873,132,000 2,975,747,000 4,976,211,000 6. Nonliterates 739,233,000 835,603,000 1,267,751,000 1,227,285,000 1,109,409,000 WORLDWIDE EXPANSION OF CITIES 7. Metropolises (over 100,000 population) 300 2,400 4,040 4,100 6,500 8. Megacities (over 1 million population) 20 161 405 410 650 9. Urban poor 100 million 650 million 1,925 million 2,000 million 3,050 million 10. Urban slum dwellers 20 million 260 million 1,208 million 1,300 million 2,100 million WORLD POPULATION BY RELIGION 11. Christians (total all kinds) (=World C) 558,056,300 1,222,585,000 1,990,018,000 2,015,743,000 2,710,800,000 12. Muslims 200,102,200 558,272,000 1,189,359,000 1,215,693,000 1,894,436,000 13. Nonreligious 2,923,300 542,976,000 767,865,000 774,693,000 878,669,000 14. Hindus 203,033,300 473,823,000 774,080,000 786,532,000 1,020,666,000 15. Buddhists 127,159,000 234,096,000 358,527,000 362,245,000 423,046,000 16. Atheists 225,600 172,744,000 150,979,000 151,430,000 160,193,000 17. New-Religionists 5,910,000 77,872,000 101,236,000 102,174,000 118,049,000 18. Tribal religionists 106,339,600 166,525,000 252,207,000 255,950,000 324,068,000 19. Sikhs 2,960,600 10,618,000 22,714,000 23,102,000 31,381,000 20. Jews 12,269,800 14,767,000 14,214,000 14,307,000 15,864,000 21. Non-Christians (=Worlds A and B) 1,061,830,500 2,479,324,000 4,020,761,000 4,075,608,000 5,328,330,000 GLOBAL CHRISTIANITY 22. Total Christians as % of world (=World C) 34.4 33.0 33.1 33.1 33.7 23. Affiliated church members 521,576,500 1,135,913,000 1,873,096,000 1,898,182,000 2,576,904,000 24. Church attenders 469,303,000 886,195,000 1,348,947,000 1,360,260,000 1,761,623,000 25. Pentecostals/ Charismatics 3,700,000 74,448,000 449,002,000 482,000,000 740,000,000 26. Great Commission Christians 50 million 285 million 669,391,000 680,230,000 1,091,538,000 27. Average Christian martyrs per year 35,600 230,000 164,000 165,000 210,000 MEMBERSHIP BY ECCLESIASTICAL BLOC 28. An~icans 30,573,700 47,520,000 74,500,000 77,000,000 110,000,000 29. Cat olics (non-Roman) 276,000 3,214,000 6,585,000 6,688,000 9,635,000 30. Marginal Christians 927,600 10,838,000 25,703,000 26,173,000 47,210,000 31. Nonwhite indigenous Christians 7,743,100 59,784,000 354,331,000 362,647,000 585,071,000 32. Orthodox 115,897,700 147,369,000 222,120,000 223,513,000 271,755,000 33. Protestants 103,056,700 233,800,000 321,358,000 325,508,000 461,808,000 34. Roman Catholics 266,419,400 671,441,000 1,040,018,000 1,053,104,000 1,376,282,000 MEMBERSHIP BY CONTINENT 35. Africa 8,756,400 120,251,000 333,368,000 343,263,000 668,142,000 36. Asia (new UN definition) 20,770,300 94,515,000 295,371,000 301,068,000 453,211,000 37. Europe (new UN definition) 368,131,200 475,387,000 536,403,000 536,954,000 536,144,000 38. Latin America 60,026,800 261,949,000 463,550,000 470,679,000 627,052,000 39. Northern America 59,569,700 169,183,000 224,140,000 225,730,000 264,419,000 40. Oceania 4,322,100 14,628,000 20,264,000 20,488,000 27,936,000 CHRISTIAN ORGANIZATIONS 41. Service agencies 1,500 14,100 24,000 24,000 40,000 42. Foreign-mission sendin~ agencies 600 2,200 4,700 4,800 8,500 43. Stand-alone global mono iths 35 62 115 120 5,000 CHRISTIAN WORKERS 44. Nationals (all denominations) 1,050,000 2,350,000 4,910,000 5,104,000 6,500,000 45. Aliens (foreign missionaries) 62,000 240,000 415,000 420,000 550,000 CHRISTIAN FINANCE (in U.S. $, ~er year) 46. Personal income of church mem ers, $ 270 billion 4,100 billion 12,286 billion 12,700 billion 26,000 billion 47. Personal income of Pentecostals/Charismatics, $ 250,000,000 157 billion 1,489 billion 1,550 billion 9,500 billion 48. Givin~to Christian causes, $ 8 billion 70 billion 213 billion 220 billion 870 billion 49. Churc es' income, $ 7 billion 50 billion 98 billion 100 billion 300 billion 50. Parachurch and institutional income, $ 1 billion 20 billion 115 billion 120 billion 570 billion 51. Ecclesiastical crime, $ 300,000 5,000,000 12.2 billion 13.2 billion 65 billion 52. Income of global foreign missions, $ 200,000,000 3.0 billion 11.6 billion 12 billion 60 billion 53. Computers in Christian use (numbers) 0 1,000 365,000,000 400,000,000 2,500,000,000 CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 54. New commercial book titles per year 2,200 17,100 24,800 25,000 70,000 55. Christian periodicals 3,500 23,000 33,700 35,000 100,000 56. New books/articles on evangelization per year 500 3,100 15,400 16,000 80,000 SCRIPTURE DISTRIBUTION (all sources) 57. Bible~er year 5,452,600 25,000,000 68,000,000 70,000,000 180,000,000 58. New estaments~eryear 7,300,000 45,000,000 106,341,000 110,000,000 250,000,000 59. Scriptures, inclu Ing gospels, selections per year 20 million 281 million 1,975 million 2,050 million 4,000 million CHRISTIAN BROADCASTING 60. Christian radio/TV stations 0 1,230 3,770 4,000 10,000 61. Total monthly listeners/viewers 0 750,000,000 2,061,825,000 2,150,000,000 3,800,000,000 62. for Christian stations 0 150,000,000 583,954,000 600,000,000 1,300,000,000 63. for secular stations 0 650,000,000 1,736,099,000 1,810,000,000 2,800,000,000 CHRISTIAN URBAN MISSION 64. Non-Christian megacities 5 65 196 202 280 65. New non-Christian urban dwellers per day 5,200 51,100 136,000 140,000 360,000 66. Urban Christians 159,600,000 660,800,000 1,361,677,000 1,393,700,000 2,448,800,000 CHRISTIAN EVANGELISM 67. Evangelism-hours per year 10 billion 99 billion 463 billion 480 billion 4,250 billion 68. Disciple-opportunities per capita per year 6 27 77 79 529 WORLD EVANGELIZATION 69. Unevangelized po~ulation(=World A) 813,232,000 1,634,812,000 1,529,698,000 1,543,010,000 1,655,000,000 70. Unevangelized as 0 of world 50.2 44.2 25.4 25.3 20.6 71. World evangelization plans since A.D. 30 250 510 1,340 1,400 3,000

January 1999 25 The Legacy of David J. Bosch J. Kevin Livingston

avid JacobusBosch wasbornintoan Afrikanerhomeon Returning to the university, Bosch changed to the predivinity D December 13, 1929, near the town of Kuruman in the course and received two degrees: the M.A. in languages (Afri­ Cape Province of South Africa.' His parents were poorbutproud kaans, Dutch, German) and the B.D. in theological studies. farmers, "simple rural folk," and loyal members of the Dutch Duringthattime Bosch sensed a further callingto be a missionary Reformed Church (DRC). From his earliest childhood, he re­ and began to have doubts about the adequacy of the apartheid ceived a "ChristianNationalist" education. Bosch stated how "at system. "In the early fifties, there were already signs that upset a very early stage already ourminds were influenced by teachers some of us, particularly ... the removal of the Coloureds from the and other cultural and political leaders to see the English as commonvoters roll. It wasone of thefirst shocks; the honeymoon perpetrators of all kindsof evil and as oppressorsof the Afrikaner. was over with the new National Party government." By his final We read poems of Totius and Jan Celliers, we read Een eeuwvan year in the B.D. program, when Bosch was chair of the SCA onrecht-a century of injustice-and we were convinced beyond branch at Pretoria, he was asked to go to the University of a shadow of doubt that no people were a patch on the English Witwatersrand to discuss the moral legitimacy of apartheid. when it comes to arrogance, self-righteousness and brutal op­ When pressed, Bosch realized he could no longer defend apart­ pression of others. After all, my own mother could tell stories heid. about the concentration camp to which she was taken at the age At Pretoria, Bosch was particularly affected by E. P. of eight."? Groenewald, the professor of New Testament." Groenewald If the English were the enemy to the young Bosch, blacks introduced Bosch to the writings of Oscar Cullmann, whose were essentially nonpersons. Blacks were hewers of wood and work would have profound influence on Bosch's theological drawers of water, "a part of the scenery but hardly a part of the perspective. Upon graduation, Bosch undertook doctoral stud­ human community.... They belonged to the category of 'farm ies at the University of Basel under Cullmann. His thesis, "Die implements' rather thanto thecategory 'fellow-humanbeings."? Heidenmission in der Zukunftsschau [esu," probed the link In 1948, the same year that Bosch entered the University of between mission and eschatology in the ministry of Jesus. Bosch Pretoria's Teacher's College, the pro-apartheid National Party also cameunderthe influence of Karl Barth, whoseimpactwould was swept into power. For Afrikaners like Bosch, "it was to us emerge only later, in Bosch's systematic attempts at a theological like a dream come true when the Nationalist Party won that foundation for mission. victory. We had no reservations whatsoever." At the university, While at Basel, Bosch distanced himself further from apart­ Bosch became involved with the Student Christian Association heid, although as yet he had no alternative paradigm to substi- (SCA). While participating in an SCA-sponsored evangelistic outreach at a lakeside camp, he became convinced that God was calling him into the Christian ministry. Upon returning to his parents' farm that summer, Bosch Bosch described his work of organized a Sunday service for the black laborers. A large crowd villageevangelismina large, of black workers gathered. What happened there can only be remote area as IIour best described as a conversion of sorts. years, absolutely wonderful." As I arrived, trembling, at the place of meeting, everybody came forward to shake hands with me! It was one of the most difficult moments in my life. When they saw my hesitation, they assured me that it was quite alright, that, in fact, it was normal for tute in its place. He began to feel isolated from the Afrikaner Christians to shake hands with one another! Only then did I mainstream. "By the time I arrived [in Switzerland], I had little discover that many of them were Christians: Methodists, Angli­ doubt about the fact that apartheid was immoral and unaccept­ cans, members of the African Independent Churches, and so on. able. If I say I had by that time broken with the paradigm, one Previously I only thought of them as pagans and, at best, semi­ must take that with a grain of salt, because I had not replaced it savages. with another paradigm. It was still very haltingly true of myself. Looking back now to that day, thirty years ago, I guess I can In myearly days as a student, my viewpoint was inarticulate, but say that that was the beginning of a turning-point in my life. Not it was a shift out of the laager." that, from then on, I accepted Blacks fully as human beings. Far In 1957 Bosch returned to South Africa to begin work as a from it. But somethingbeganto stirin me that day, and all Ican say DRC missionary among the Xhosa people in the Transkei. For is that, by the grace of God, it has been growing ever since. Gradually, year by year, my horizons widened and I began to see nine years Bosch labored as a missionary pastor in Madwaleni. people who were different from me with new eyes, always more His work consisted of village evangelism and church planting in and more clearly. I began to discover the simple, self-evident fact, a large, remote area. The country was rugged and accessible only thatthe things we have in commonare more than the things which by horse. Although those years had theirdisappointments, Bosch divide us.' recalled that "these were our best years, absolutely wonderful." Bosch's cross-cultural ministry experience was deeply sig­ J. KevinLivingstonisministerofSt. Andrew's Hespeler Presbyterian Church, nificant in two ways. First, while acknowledging that he contin­ Cambridge, Ontario, Canada. Hisdoctoral thesis onDavidBosch, A Missiology ued to hold deeply paternalistic attitudes toward black people, of the Road, is appearing as part of the American Society of Missiology he believed that his missionary years taught him to trust people, Dissertation Series. particularly his African Christian coworkers. The appraisal by

26 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Frans Verstraelen is helpful here. He comments that "the mis­ however, discerned non-theological factors at work among some sionary experience of David Bosch among and with the Xhosa in of the proponents. Numerous DRC missiologists and politicians Transkei gave him precious insight into mission as service and linked the evangelization of blacks to the unfolding government partnership, as well as attitudes of empathy, humility, and policies of separate development and Afrikaner solidarity. Mis­ modesty vis-a-vis people of cultural and religious backgrounds sionary workwas therefore coupled to the defense of the volkand different from his own.... [W]hat is convincingly shown is his the preservation of a white-dominated South Africa. Bosch integrity as a human being and as a Christian, as a missionary, warned against suchmixed motives in strong terms. "Whatis the and as a missiologist."? end goal of mission with such a motivation? Is it to maintain the Second, Bosch's missionary service helped him integrate white people in South Africa-or is it the foundation of the theory and practice. By day he would be out among the people, church of Christ. .. ? Is it to serve South Africa-or to serve God? visiting with them. By night he studied, trying to integrate his Is it to hear together the sentimental voice of our own blood-or experience in the Transkei with the scholarly insights of various to hear together the last command of Christ? Have we, by this anthropologists, theologians, and missiologists. Through that missionary motive, created a sheep in wolf's clothes-or is it study, his early theological convictions began to change consid­ perhaps a wolf in sheep's clothes?"?Any missionary enthusiasm erably. Bosch identified this period of missionary activity as the must be tempered with the realization that mission in Christ's decisive decade in his theological development. "I started with a wayis the wayof the cross, the wayof costly servanthood toward very conservative theological framework and only moved to a wider approach towards the end of the 1960s."7 Although Bosch did not feel his missionary work at Madwaleni was finished, a back injury rendered him incapable HWhat is thegoal ofmission? of continuing with the rugged lifestyle that the job required. In Tohearthe sentimentalvoice 1967 he was asked to serve as senior lecturer in church history of our own blood-orto hear and missiology at the DRC's Theological School in Decoligny, Transkei, training black pastors and evangelists. Bosch enjoyed the last command ofChrist?" teaching, butthe limited scope of the work (four teachers, twenty students) impelled Bosch to seek other avenues of ministry beyond the little theological college. others. Anything less was simply religious propaganda and First, he helped form the Transkei Council of Churches, prone to ideological manipulation. serving as its first president. This council provided contact with With writings like these, Bosch gave evidence of a departure a variety of church traditions, particularly Roman Catholics and from traditional Afrikaner sociopolitical perspectives and the Anglicans. Bosch's growingecumenical openness stood in sharp DRC's support of apartheid. Inevitably, these departures from contrast to the ethos of the DRC, which was marked by a strict Afrikaner "orthodoxy" began to isolate Bosch from the main­ separation from other Christian bodies. As Bosch himself noted: stream of the DRC.lO No longer a ware Afrikaner (true Afrikaner), "In the sixties, the Transkei was the only place in the Dutch Bosch was denied a position on the DRC theological faculty in Reformed Church setup where there were practical, structural, Pretoria. Instead,in 1972Bosch accepted the invitationto become working relationships with people from other denominations. professorof missiologyat the UniversityofSouthAfrica (UNISA) There was no other place whereyouhad any practicalexpression in Pretoria. Bosch and his wife, Annemie, did so, however, with of ecumenical contact." sometrepidation. As he described it, "We movedback to Pretoria, A second avenue for self-expression that Bosch developed very afraid of Afrikaners. Very afraid of white people. We were during his Decoligny years was writing. During that period returning home, in a sense, butreturning verydifferent from what Bosch published his doctoral thesis and wrote three short books we were when we had left in the early 1950s." and numerous articles. He also edited five books for the fledgling UNISA was unique among academic institutions in apart­ South African Missiological Society. Bosch's written work from heid South Africa. It was an interracial university with staff and the period, nearly all in Afrikaans, reflects two dominantthemes: students from all ethnic groups within southern Africa. This was the missionary practice of the DRC and the biblical theology of made possible because coursework at UNISA is done primarily mission. by extension. UNISA was also unique because of its theology Of special note was his Jesus, Die lydende Messias, en ons faculty, described as a "faculty-in-exile for anti-apartheid, anti­ sendingmotief (Jesus, the suffering Messiah, and our missionary Broederbond DRC theologians."11 Bosch'smove to UNISA placed motive), in which Bosch applied his doctoral studies to the South him, officially at least, on the periphery of the DRC. Bosch served African situation, arguing that the mission of Jesus can be under­ there as professor of mission and chair of the Department of stood only in terms of the suffering servant of the Lord, who, like Missiology from 1972 until his untimely death in an automobile a grain of wheat, mustdiein order to bearfruit. Jesus' encounters accident in 1992. He supervised students at all academic levels with the Gentiles exemplified this ethos of servanthood, as did from South Africa and beyond. the experiences of the early church. It is with the same mind-set of costly servanthood that the modern church must understand Bosch the Scholar of Mission its motive for mission as well," The significance of his argument becomes apparent only One dimension of Bosch's legacy is his contribution to the when we consider the historical context in which it was written. academic study of Christian mission. Bosch was a theologian The booklet appeared at a crossroads in DRC missions policy. trained in the classic, European tradition. His facility in lan­ The 1955 Tomlinson Commission report had uncovered statisti­ guages(he wasconversantin Afrikaans, English,German,Dutch, cal evidence of a large number of unevangelized blacks within French, and Xhosa) enabled him to act as a bridge builder South Africa. That news prompted DRC mission enthusiasts to between various theological and cultural constituencies. promotean expanded evangelistic outreach among them. Bosch, As a "systematic missiologist," Bosch was a prodigious

January 1999 27 writer. Over the course of thirty-two years, Bosch wrote six breadth of the biblical witness. "Mission," Bosch wrote, is "more books, four book-length UNISA study guides, seven major pam­ than and different from recruitment to our brand of religion; it is phlets, and over 160 journal articles and contributions to books alerting people to the universal reign of God."19 "Mission takes covering almost every aspect of mission theory and practice. He place where the church, in its total involvement with the world, also edited seven books in English and Afrikaans." bears its testimony in the form of a servant, with reference to Hismostsignificantcontributionwas his massive1992work unbelief, exploitation, discrimination and violence, butalso with Transforming Mission. Bosch adopted the useof "paradigmtheory" reference to salvation, healing, liberation, reconciliation and (as developed in science by Thomas Kuhn and in theology by righteousness.?" Evangelism, Bosch held, is one essential di­ Hans Kung) in an attempt "to demonstrate the extent to which mension of that broad mission. Evangelism is the narrower the understanding and practice of mission have changed during concern to cross the frontier of unbelief with the announcement almosttwentycenturiesof Christianmissionaryhistory."13 Trans­ of the Good News of Jesus Christ. forming Mission is a storehouse of historical and theological How, then, do the two concepts relate? Although evange­ knowledge, described by Lesslie Newbigin as "a kind of Summa lism and mission are distinct entities, they are inseparably linked Missiologica" that "will surely be the indispensable foundation in creative tension; together they embody the church's life in for the teaching of missiology for many years to come."!' Not­ relation to the world. What is needed, Bosch urged, are "pan­ withstanding the valid criticisms that Bosch failed to give ad­ Christians" who can "embrace both the depth and breadthof the equate attention to the emerging theologians and perspectives of Church's mission and mandate, people who know that there is, the church in the Two-Thirds World," Transforming Missionwill by definition, no clash between our calling people to personal surely remain his chief theological legacy. faith and commitment to Christ in the fellowship of the Church Bosch was also active as an administrator and editor. He (evangelism) and our calling those thus committed to cross all helped found theSouthernAfricanMissiologicalSociety (SAMS), kinds of frontiers in communicating salvation to the world a multiracial and ecumenical fraternity of mission scholars, and (mission)."21 he served as its general secretary from its formation in 1968 until Finally (and less well-known), Bosch sought to reflect on the his death. A major aspect of the work of the SAMS is the meaningand communication of the Gospel in Africa. 22 As early as production of Missionalia, the society's journal. From its incep­ 1972 Bosch showed an awareness and critical appreciation of the tion in 1973 until 1992, Bosch served as its editor and contributed black theology movement, interacting with such leaders as Steve Biko, Manas Buthelezi, and James Cone. Through such publica­ tions as Het Evangelie in Afrikaans gewaad (The Gospel in African robes)," "MissionaryTheology in Africa,'?" and "The Problem of Boschsoughtto bringgreater Evil in Africa: A Survey of African Views of Witchcraft and the theological clarity to the Response of the Christian Church,"?" Bosch revealed a surpris­ meaning and relationship of ingly comprehensive familiarity with African theologians and movements. mission and evangelism. Yet his contextual orientation remained firmly Western, and northern European in particular. Frans Verstraelen has noted that Bosch had difficulty in giving "context" a central place in his scores of editorials and book reviews. During his service as dean theologizing because he remained in the category of "idealist" of the Faculty of Theology at UNISA, Bosch served as editor of its theologians who theologize from above rather than from be­ journal Theologia Evangelica. low." Three other theological contributions deserve special men­ tion. First, Bosch labored extensively for a deeper biblical founda­ Bosch the Ecumenical Personality tionformission," Helamented thatthe missionarymovementhad yet to develop a common understanding of how the Bible func­ It would be inadequate, however, to understand Bosch only in tions as the authority, basis, and frame of reference for the terms of his academic accomplishments.Fl-Ie was a person of the church's missionary thought and practice. Bosch was critical of church. The church was central to his thought. A genuine con­ traditional approaches that sought to justify certain precon­ cern for its unity and witness, as well as a frank acknowledg­ ceived understandings of mission by "mining" for textual "nug­ ment of its vulnerability and failures, was never far from Bosch's gets," proof texts, in the raw data of Scripture. Instead, Bosch mind. advocated a rediscovery of the intrinsically missionary nature of At the international level, this churchly concern led Bosch to the church, based on the witness of the Bible. The issue is not so devote considerable energy to overcoming the so-called evan­ much whetheran adequate justificationfor mission canbe found gelical-ecumenical debate in mission. His 1980 book Witness to in the Bible but how the Bible can assist the church in living out the World was, in large part, an attempt to describe this debilitat­ its essentially missionary calling in the world." The Bible func­ ing fracture in modern Protestantism and its missionary out­ tions as a foundational source and standard by which the church reach and to propose a way forward." understands its identity in Christ, as well as a source of para­ Bosch was an active participant in both the ecumenical and digms and models for current missionary engagement with the evangelical communities and attended most of their interna­ world. tional gatherings-from evangelical conferences in Lausanne Second, Bosch sought to bring greater theological clarityto the and Pattaya to WCC-related gatherings in Melbourne and San meaningandrelationship ofmissionandevangelism. Throughoutthe Antonio (where he served as a section leader). Bosch was a main 1980s, Bosch's involvement with conciliar and evangelical mis­ speaker at the 1982 Grand Rapids Consultation on the Relation­ sionary conferences and consultations pushed him to deeper ship Between Evangelism and Social Responsibility, cospon­ reflection." Any genuinely Christian understanding of mission sored by the Lausanne Committee and the World Evangelical must reflect the wholeness of the Gospel of Christ and the Fellowship." He helped draft the influential "Transformation"

28 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH statementat the WEF-sponsored Wheaton conference in 1983on Bosch the South African the nature and mission of the church." He participated in the WCC's 1987 Consultation on Evangelism in Stuttgart, where he Bosch's concern for the reign of God and the credibility of the substantiallywrotetheconsultation's statementon evangelism." church was lived out most fully, however, in his own homeland Both in print and in practice, Bosch labored to clarify the of South Africa. He agonized over the South African situation fundamental issues of theological conflict between the evangeli­ and the challenge the apartheid system represented to the integ­ cal and the ecumenical streams of the world missionary move­ rity of the Gospel and the mission of the church. Telling evidence ment. He deeply believed thatboth sides had beenimpoverished of Bosch's concern was his refusal to leave. Bosch was twice by ignoring the concerns of the other. As a result, both had failed offeredthe prestigiouschair ofmissionandecumenicsat Princeton to develop a genuinely integral theology of mission for our era. TheologicalSeminary, and twice he madethe difficult decision to Although the evangelical-ecumenical tension is not the only lens refuse the offer, believing that he could not leave South Africa by which to analyze the dynamics of mission today, and al­ during such a dangerous and historic time in its history.? He also though Bosch was increasingly conscious of the missiological remained a faithful member of the DRC, despite his own contribution of non-Western theologians, it remains true that the marginalization within that community for many years. evangelical-ecumenical tension insidiously hinders the life and Over the years Bosch's criticism of apartheid and his own health of the church-in both the First and the Two-Thirds church's justification of it became more strident. His critique Worlds!-and he sought to address this conflict. tried to expose the ideological nature of apartheid and the

Readers'Response

To the Editor: Reviewer's Reply:

I have read the review by James Grayson of my book Christand I have three points to make about Prof. Kang's comments on Caesar in Modern Korea: A History of Christianity and Politics my review. First, as his bibliography makes quite clear, the (October 1998). The reviewer writes that the book does not material introduced in this book is not original. The sources introduce "facts not already known and readily available which he uses are readily available to the reader. As I said in elsewhere." I would like to ask him what books and resources the review, this is not a major problem as many works use the are "readily available" that deal with the history of Christian same raw material. Second, what is a serious problem is that mission and the church with political development of modern the book lacks any critical analysis of the material presented. Korea? He also says the book "lacks any critical analysis," and Interpretation is the most important aspect of any historical there is no "criticalinterpretation of the events offered." These work. Rather than simply recording a sequence of historical statements are not only erroneous but irresponsible. The book events, a writer should provide an interpretative analysis of usually devotes the first and last paragraphs of each chapter to the events described. I read this work wondering what under­ historicalanalysis and interpretations. My interpretations and lying themes the author discerned in the Korean Christian analysis may not be to his liking, but he cannot say that the response to the events which he outlined. Unfortunately there book does not have historical analysis and critical interpreta­ is very little interpretation or critical analysis. I should like to tions. In fact, the four scholars who reviewed the manuscript point out that the author seems to confuse "opinions" with for the press commented that it contained too strong critical "critical analysis." His opinions on the military regimes of the interpretations and analysis, especially against the military last three decades, I suspect, are very little different from my regimes of Generals Park Chung Hee, Chun 000 Hwan and own. But opinions are not substitutes for analysis. Third, and Roh Tae Woo, and I had to make extensive revisions. finally, statements such as those Prof. Kang has made about Finally, the reviewer quotes my statement on page one of the Choson period and the use of Confucian philosophy as the the book that says, "Yi family adopted Neo-Confucianism as basis of state policy are simply too sweeping. The royal family a political ideology and system of rule that kept Korea in total did not make Confucianism the state philosophy, the oligar­ isolation," and in sweeping generalizationwithout any expla­ chic government did. Confucianism was adopted to reform nation he says this statement is "inaccurate." Anyone who has what was perceived to be the corruption of the late Koryo some elementary knowledge of Korean history knows that the period and for the purpose of creating an ideal-Confucian­ Yi dynasty that took over the Koryo dynasty of strong Bud­ society. Korea was not in total isolation-ever. From the dhist culture adopted Neo-Confucianism and allied only with middle of the dynasty, following the seventeenth century the Confucian "Big BrotherCountry" of China and kept Korea invasions of the Manchus, a policy of seclusion was pursued. in isolation except for limited contacts with Japan, from 1392 Even then there continued to be regular and frequent contacts to the latter part of the nineteenth century, shortly before the with neighboring states. demise of the Yi dynasty. Here again I ask the reviewer to explain why the above-quoted statement is "inaccurate." James H. Grayson Centrefor Korean Studies WiJo Kang University of Sheffield Wartburg Theological Seminary Sheffield, England Dubuque,Iowa

January 1999 29 Afrikaner civil religion in which it was embedded." The heart of government, Bosch became involved in the National Initiative the matter, according to Bosch, was that the Afrikaner people for Reconciliation, a movement begun by Michael Cassidy of were prisoners of their own history, afraid of the future. The Africa Enterprise to continue the SACLA spirit in the midst of ideological nature of apartheid seemingly blinded most rising tension and bloodshed. For a time Bosch served as its Afrikaners to any future besides the one held outby the National national chairman. Party. Yet in this desperate situation, Christians must remain For Bosch the AC concept served as a distinctly Christian hopeful, for it is not fate that controls the destiny of South Africa socioethical response to the struggle for social justice in South but the Lord of history." Africa. The concrete political implications of the church as alter­ In his critique of apartheid, Bosch also emphasized the native community remained vague, however-a point on which crucialityofecclesiology. Drawingfrom ReformedandAnabaptist Bosch has beencriticized most notably by Anthony Balcomb and sources, he urged the church in South Africa to become an ChristopherSugden."Likewise, Bosch wascriticizedfor remain­ "alternative community.?" The church is set apart from the ing a part of the DRC and for emphasizing reconciliation instead world and called to be a church without privileges, a servant of liberation in the struggle for justice in South Africa. Although community that must embody the radical lifestyle of Christ's not aimed at Bosch in particular, the famous Kairos Document of new community. Yet the Christian community'scalled-out exist­ 1985 criticized "Church Theology" because of its superficial talk ence is for the sake of the world. As Bosch put it: "The church has about reconciliation and nonviolence. In the interests of social tremendous significance for society precisely because it [exists] liberation, Kairos rejected the call for the church to be a reconcil­ as a uniquely separate community.... We have to work consis­ ing "alternative community/?" tently for the renewal of the church-the alternative commu­ With the privilege of hindsight, however, one could argue nity-and precisely in thatway at the renewal of society.":"Only that the relatively nonviolent transformation we have witnessed when they worked for the renewal and unity of the church, and in South Africa during the last decade has come precisely be­ lived out the implications of their faith in the world, Bosch cause of people like David Bosch. He remained within the DRC maintained, could South AfricanChristianseffectivelychallenge out of a prophetic desire to speak the truth of the Gospel to the the values and standards of the apartheid society around them. Afrikaner people from a position of solidarity with them---even The church must furnish an alternative vision of reality, of life in in their sin! the kingdom of God. Fellow South African theologian John de Gruchy has af­ The concept of the church as alternative community (AC) is firmed that in the service of social transformation, the symbols of grounded in the reconciling work of Christ. On the cross, Jesus "reconciliation" and "liberation" did not necessarily have to reconciled the world to God, breaking down all barriers that collide. They had the power to be complementary helpmates in divide humankind. Thus all differences among persons (racial, the quest for justice in South Africa. After comparing and con­ economic, linguistic, cultural, religious), while still real, have trasting the Kairos Declaration and the National Initiative for been relativized in Christ. It is thus wrong, even heretical, to Reconciliation Statement, de Gruchy summarized his conclu­ divide the one church of Jesus Christ by ascribing "an unduly sions as follows: highvalue to racial and cultural distinctiveness,"37for this would 1. In the struggle for a just society, the church cannot be neutral, raise the value of one's national identity above one's identity in but there are different, complementary strategies. Christ. Yet this is exactly what the white Reformed churches of 2. The church must be the church, but this does not mean that it South Africa had done and, as such, were perpetrating "nothing has its ownpolitical programalongside thatof the strugglefor but a heresy."38Instead of polarizing society by highlighting its liberation. It must participate in critical solidarity. racial, ethnic, social, or economic distinctions, the mission of the 3. The gospel of reconciliation and liberation, as well as the church is to be an agent of reconciliation and a witness to the political strategies of negotiation and confrontation, are not unity won for the world in Christ. antithetical but two sides of the same coin. Bosch helped create numerous forums to live out this vision. 4. The suffering witness of the cross, and therefore non-violent The 1979SouthAfricanChristianLeadershipAssembly(SACLA), redemptive action, remains the paradigm for the Christian, gathering together over 5,000 Christians from every ecclesiasti­ even though there is an honored Christian tradition which cal and political perspective, provided a concrete embodimentof supports the idea of a just revolution." the AC concept. Bosch was a major impetus behind the event, From this perspective, Bosch's approach-focusing as he serving as chair of the executive committee and delivering four did on the church as the alternative community, costly reconcili­ plenary addresses." He was a leading proponent of the 1982 Ope ation, and the role of suffering witness in Christian disciple­ brief(Open letter) to the Dutch Reformed Church, signed by 123 ship-can be affirmed as an essential contribution to South DRC pastors and theologians, which publicly condemned apart­ Africa as it strugglesto be a societyof justiceandpeace. In life and heid and urged the DRC to pursue visible unity across the racial in death, David Bosch provided an authentic martyria-a witness divide with its black sister churches." In 1985, following the to the world that was profoundly evangelistic. declaration of the state of emergency by the South African

Notes------­ 1. The biographicaldatathatfollows, includingunattributedquotations, 5. In 1947Groenewaldbecamethe first personto workouta "scriptural is taken from a personal interview of Bosch by the author on foundation" for apartheid. He was also a championof the ecumenical September 8, 1986. movement and a staunch defender of ORe participation in the 2. David Bosch, "Prisoners of History or Prisoners of Hope?" The fledgling World Council of Churches. Hiltonian, no. 114 (March 1979): 14-15. 6. Frans Verstraelen, "Africa in David Bosch's Missiology: Survey and 3. Ibid., p. 15. Appraisal," in Mission in Bold Humility, ed. W. Saayman and K. 4. Ibid. Kritzinger (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1996), pp. 9-10.

30 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH 7. Personalletterto theauthor, December12, 1985.Cf. his "Missionand verkondiging" (God in Africa: Implications for the kerygma), later the Alternative Community: How My Mind Has Changed," Journal published in English in Missionalia 1, no. 1 (January 1973):3-21; "Een of Theology for SouthernAfrica 41 (December 1982): 6. missionair dilemma in Afrika: Het probleem van het kwaad" (A 8. Bosch, Jesus, DielydendeMessias, en onssendingmotief(Bloemfontein: missionary problem in Africa: The problem of evil), published in N.G. Sendingpers, 1961), pp. 34-35. Afrikaans in Theologia Evangelica 6, no. 3 (September 1973): 173-98; 9. Ibid., pp. 36-37 (my translation). and "Stromingen in de Zuidafrikaanse zwarte theologie" (Currents 10. See [oha Louw-Potgeiter, "The Social Identity of Dissident and crosscurrents in South African black theology), later published Afrikaners" (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Bristol, 1986). in English in Journal of Religion in Africa 6, no. 1 (1974): 1-22. 11. J. H. P. Serfontein, Apartheid,Change, and the NG Kerk(Emmarentia: 24. In Indian Missiological Review 6, no. 2 (April 1984): 161-91; and Taurus, 1982), p. 193. reprinted in Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 49 (December 12. For a complete bibliography of Bosch's published and unpublished 1984): 14-37. work, see my A Missiology of the Road: The Theology of Mission and 25. Published in Likea RoaringLion: Essayson the Bible, the Church,and Evangelism in theWritingsofDavidJ. Bosch (Lanham,Md.: Univ. Press Demonic Powers, ed. Pieter G. R. de Villiers (Pretoria: UNISA, 1987), of America, forthcoming). pp.38-62. 13. Ibid., cf. pp. 181-89. For an excellent critique of Bosch's use of 26. Verstraelen, "Africa in David Bosch's Missiology," p. 14. For similar paradigm theory, see Gerald Pillay, "Text, Paradigms, and Context: criticisms from two of Bosch's UNISA colleagues, see Takatso An Examination of David Bosch's Use of Paradigms in the Reading Mofokeng, "Mission Theology from an African Perspective: A of Christian History," in Mission in Creative Tension, ed. J. N. J. Dialogue with David Bosch," in Mission in Creative Tension,pp. 168­ Kritzinger and W. A. Saayman (Pretoria: Southern African 80; and Willem Saayman, "A South African Perspective on Missiological Society, 1990), pp. 109-23. Transforming Mission," in Mission in BoldHumility, pp. 40-52. 14. This endorsement is found on the back cover of the paperback 27. EmilioCastro highlights Bosch as an "ecumenicalpersonality" in his version of Transforming Mission. essay in Mission in BoldHumility, pp. 162-66. 15. See the essays by Christopher Sugden and Frans Verstraelen in 28. Bosch has commented: "In 1978, when I was writing Witness to the Mission in Bold Humility, and the foreword to Norman Thomas, World,the evangelical-ecumenicalissuewasuppermostin my mind. Classic Texts in Mission and WorldChristianity: A Reader's Companion ... In my case, it was existential. I had this struggle going on in my to DavidBosch's TransformingMission (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, own theological mind and myownexistentialheart. It wasn't simply 1995). an attempt to balance the two. I was looking for a way forward, 16. Besides Bosch's doctoral thesis and the major sections on Scripture beyond both of them." in Witness to the Worldand Transforming Mission, see also "The Why 29. Bosch delivered the paper "Perspectives on Evangelism and Social and How of a True Biblical Foundation for Mission," in Zending op Responsibility," which was later published as "In Search of a New weg naar de toekomst: Feestbundel aangeboden aan Prof. Dr. Johannes Evangelical Understanding," in In Word and Deed: Evangelism and Verkuyl, ed. T. J. Baarda (Kampen: Kok, 1978), pp. 33-45; "The Social Responsibility, ed. Bruce Nicholls (Exeter: Paternoster, 1985), Structure of Mission: An Exposition of Matthew 28:16-20," in pp. 63-83. See also his and Chris Sugden's article "From Partnership Exploring Church Growth, ed. W. R. Shenk (Grand Rapids, Mich.: to Marriage," Themelios 8, no. 2 (January 1983): 26-27. Eerdmans, 1983), pp. 218-48; "Mission in Biblical Perspective," 30. Bosch also delivered the paper "Evangelism and Social International Review of Mission 74, no. 296 (October 1985): 531-38; Transformation," which was published in TheChurchin Response to "Towardsa Hermeneuticfor 'BiblicalStudiesandMission,'" Mission Human Need,ed. TomSine (Monrovia: MARC, 1983), pp. 271-92, and Studies 3, no. 2 (October 1986): 65-79; and "Reflections on Biblical reprinted in Theologia Evangelica 16, no. 2 (June 1983): 43-55. For the Models of Mission," in Toward the Twenty-First Century in Christian final text of the statement "Transformation: The Church in Response Mission, ed. James Phillips and Robert Coote (Grand Rapids, Mich.: to Human Need," see Transformation 1, no. 1 (January 1984): 23-28. Eerdmans, 1993), pp. 175-92. 31. See the "Statement of the Stuttgart Consultation on Evangelism," in 17. "Vision for Mission," International Review of Mission 76, no. 301 the WCC/CWME's A Monthly Letter on Evangelism, no. 10-11 (January 1987): 9-10. Cf. his "Reflections on Biblical Models of (October-November 1987). Mission," pp. 177ff. 32. Personal correspondence with the author, February 24, 1986. 18. See his "In Search of Mission: Reflections on 'Melbourne' and 33. See his "Prisoners of History or Prisoners of Hope?" pp. 14-18; 'Pattaya,'" Missionalia 9, no. 1 (April 1981): 3-18; "Evangelism: An "Racismand Revolution: Responseof the Churches in SouthAfrica," Holistic Approach," Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 36 Occasional BulletinofMissionaryResearch 3, no. 1 (January 1979): 13­ (September 1981): 43-63; "Evangelism," Mission Focus 9, no. 4 20; "The Roots and Fruits of Afrikaner Civil Religion," in New Faces (December1981):65-74; "TheScopeof Mission," International Review of Africa, ed. J. W. Hofmeyr and W. S. Vorster (Pretoria: UNISA, ofMission73,no. 289(January1984):17-32; "MissionandEvangelism: 1984), pp. 14-35; "The Fragmentation of Afrikanerdom and the Clarifying the Concepts," Zeitschrift fUr Missionswissenschaft und Afrikaner Churches," in Resistance and Hope, ed. J. de Gruchy and C. Religionswissenschaft 68, no. 3 (July 1984): 161-91; "Evangelisation, Villa-Vicencio (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1985), pp. 61-73; Evangelisierung," in Lexikon Missions-Theologischer Grundbegriffe, and "The Afrikaner and South Africa," Theology Today43, no. 2 (July ed. Karl Miiller and Theo Sundermeir (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer 1986): 203-16. Verlag, 1987) pp. 102-5; and "Evangelism: TheologicalCurrents and 34. "Afrikaner Civil Religion and the Current South African Crisis," Cross-currents Today," International Bulletin of Missionary Research Transformation 3, no. 2 (April 1986): 29-30. 11, no. 3 (July 1987): 98-103. 35. See especially"TheChurchin SouthAfrica-Tomorrow," ProVeritate 19. Believing in the Future (Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity Press, 1995), p. 33. 14, no. 4 (August 1975): 4-6; no. 5 (September 1975): 11-13; "The 20. "Mission-an Attempt at a Definition," ChurchScene, April 25, 1986, Church as the 'Alternative Community,'" Journal of Theology for p.11. SouthernAfrica13 (December 1975):3-11; "TheRenewal of Christian 21. "Mission and Evangelism," p. 187. Bosch is citing Willem Visser 't Community in Africa," in Facing the New Challenges: The Message of Hooft's "Pan-Christians Yesterday and Today," Ecumenical Review PACLA, ed. Michael Cassidy and Luc Verlinden (Kisumu, Kenya: 32, no. 4 (October 1980): 387-95. Evangel Publishing House, 1978), pp. 92-102; The Church as the 22. For an excellent summary and critique of Bosch's missiological Alternative Community (Potchefstroom: Instituut vir Reformatoriese involvement with Africa, see Verstraelen, "Africa in David Bosch's Studie, 1982); and "Mission and the Alternative Community." Missiology," pp. 8-39. 36. "Mission and the Alternative Community," pp. 8-9. 23. The chapters in Het Evangelie in Afrikaans gewaad (Kampen: Kok, 37. Ibid., p. 9. 1974) were "Op weg naar een theologia Africana" (Towards an 38. "Nothing but a Heresy," in ApartheidIs aHeresy,ed. John de Gruchy African theology); "God in Afrika: Gevolgtrekkingen voor de and Charles Villa-Vicencio (Cape Town: David Phillip; Guildford:

January 1999 31 Lutterworth, 1983), pp. 24-38. Bosch originally used these words to Taurus, 1990); and Christopher Sugden, "Placing Critical Issues in describe his own church, the DRC, at the 1982 Pretoria Theological Relief: A Response to David Bosch," in Missionin Bold Humility, pp. Conference. Cf. Serfontein, Apartheid, Change, and the NG Kerk, pp. 139-50. 176-81. 42. See John de Gruchy, "TheChurchand the Strugglefor South Africa," 39. See the moving portrayal of Bosch at SACLA in Willem Saayman's Theology Today43, no. 2 (July 1986):239. Cf. D. Smit, "The Symbol of "David Bosch, the South African," in Mission in Bold Humility,pp. 1-2. Reconciliation and Ideological Conflict in South Africa," in 40. See David Bosch, Adrio Konig, and Willem Nicol, Perspektief opdie Reconciliation andConstruction: Creative OptionsforaRapidlyChanging ope brief(Kaapstad: Human & Rousseau, 1982). SouthAfrica,ed. W. S.Vortser (Pretoria: Univ. of South Africa, 1986), 41. See Anthony Balcomb's unpublished Ph.D. thesis at the University pp.79-112. of Natal, "Third Way Theology: A Critical Analysis of the South 43. De Gruchy, "The Church and the Struggle for South Africa," pp. African Church's Struggle for Significance During the Decade 1980­ 240-43. De Gruchy's approach is similar to that taken by Jan Milic 1990";his "ThirdWay Theologiesin the ContemporarySouthAfrican Lochman in his Reconciliation and Liberation: Challenging a One­ Situation," in "Wit Afrikane?" 'n Gesprek met Nico Smith, ed. M. Dimensional View of Salvation (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980). Hofmeyer, K. Kritzinger, and Willem Saayman (Johannesburg:

Bibliography Selected Works by Bosch 20." In Exploring Church Growth, ed. W. R. Shenk, pp. 218-48. 1959 Die Heidenmission in der Zukunftsschau [esu. Ziirich: Zwingli Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans. Verlag. 1984 "MissionandEvangelism:Clarifyingthe Concepts." Zeitschrift 1974 Het Evangelie in Afrikaans gewaad. Kampen: Kok. fUr Missionswissenschaft undReligionswissenschaft 68,no. 3 (July): 1977 Theology of Religions. Missiology and Science of Religion MSR 161-91. 303 Guide 1. Pretoria: Univ. of South Africa. 1985 "The Fragmentation of Afrikanerdom and the Afrikaner 1979 A Spiritualityof the Road. Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press. Churches." In Resistance and Hope: South African Essays in 1980 WitnesstotheWorld: TheChristian Missionin Theological Perspec­ HonourofBeyers Naude,ed. Charles Villa-Vicencio and John W. tive. Atlanta: John Knox Press; London: Marshall, Morgan & de Gruchy, pp. 61-73. Cape Town: David Philip; Grand Rap­ Scott. ids, Mich.: Eerdmans. 1982 The Church as the Alternative Community. Potchefstroom: 1986 "Processes of Reconciliation and Demands of Obedience­ Instituut vir Reformatoriese Studie. TwelveTheses." In Hammering Swords intoPlowshares: Essays in 1985 The Lord's Prayer: Paradigm for a Christian Lifestyle. Pretoria: HonourofArchbishop Desmond Tutu, ed. Itumeleng Mosala and Christian Medical Fellowship. Buti Tlhagale, pp. 159-71. Johannesburg: Skotaville Publish­ 1991 Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission. ers; Grand Rapids,Mich.: Eerdmans; and Basingstoke: Marshall Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. Pickering, 1987. 1995 Believing in the Future: Toward a Missiology of Western Culture. 1987 "Vision for Mission." International ReviewofMission76, no. 301 Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity Press International; Leominster: (January): 8-15. Gracewing. 1987 "Evangelism: Theological Currents and Cross-currents To­ day." International Bulletin of Missionary Research 11, no. 3 20 "Classic" Bosch Essays (July): 98-103. 1973 "God in Africa: Implications for the Kerygma." Missionalia 1, 1990 "Mission in the 1990s." International Bulletin of Missionary no. 1 (April): 3-21. Research 14 (October): 149-52. 1976 "Crosscurrents in Modern Mission." Missionalia 4, no. 2 (Au­ 1993 "God's Reign and the Rulers of This World: Missiological gust): 54-84. Reflections on Church-State Relationships." In TheGood News 1977 "The Church and the Liberation of Peoples?" Missionalia 5, no. of the Kingdom: Mission Theology for the Third Millennium, ed. 2 (August): 8-47. Charles Van Engen, Dean Gilliland, and Paul Piersonn, pp. 89­ 1978 "Renewal of Christian Community in Africa Today." In Facing 95. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. the New Challenges, ed. M. Cassidy and L. Verlinden, pp. 92­ 102. Nairobi: Evangel Publishing House. Selected Works on Bosch 1978 "Towards True Mutuality: Exchanging the Same Commodi­ Konig, Adrio. "DavidJ.Bosch:Witnessto the World." Theologia Evangelica ties or Supplementing Each Others' Needs?" Missiology 6, no. 13 (July-September 1980): 11-19. 3 (July): 284-96. Kritzinger, J. N. J., and W. A. Saayman, eds. Missionin Creative Tension: 1979 "Racism and Revolution: Response of the Churches in South A Dialogue with DavidBosch. Pretoria: South African Missiological Africa." Occasional BulletinofMissionary Research 3, no. 1 (Janu­ Society, 1990. (Nineteen essays on all aspects of Bosch's thought.) ary): 13-20. Livingston, Kevin. "David Bosch: An Interpretation of Some Main 1979 "The Kingdom of God and the Kingdoms of This World." Themes in His MissiologicalThought." Missionalia 18,no. 1 (1990): Journal of Theology for Southern Africa29 (December): 3-13. 3-19. 1981 "In Search of Mission: Reflections on 'Melbourne' and ---.A Missiology oftheRoad: TheTheology ofMissionandEvangelism in 'Pattaya.'" Missionalia 9, no. 1 (April): 3-18. theWritingsofDavidJ. Bosch. Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press of America, 1981 "Evangelism: An Holistic Approach." Journal of Theology for forthcoming. Southern Africa36 (September): 43-63. Louw-Potgeiter, [oha, "The Social Identity of Dissident Afrikaners." 1982 "Church Unity Amidst Cultural Diversity: A Protestant Prob­ Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Bristol, 1986. lem." Missionalia 10, no. 1 (April): 16-28. Saayman, Willem. "David J. Bosch: A Tribute to the Man." Theologia 1983 "Evangelism and Social Transformation." In The Church in Evangelica 13 (July-September 1980): 6-10. Response toHuman Need, ed. Tom Sine, pp. 271-92. Monrovia: Saayman, Willem, and Klippies Kritzinger, eds. Missionin Bold Humility: MARC. David Bosch's Work Considered. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1983 "Nothing but a Heresy." In Apartheid Is a Heresy, ed. John de 1996.(Thirteenessays; the contributionsby VerstraelenandSugden Gruchy and Charles Villa-Vicencio, pp. 24-38. Cape Town: are especially noteworthy.) David Philip; Guildford: Lutterworth; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Verkuyl, Johannes. "Ter gedachtenis aan prof. dr. David Bosch (1929­ Eerdmans. 1992)." Wereld en Zending 21, no. 3 (1992):3-6. 1983 "The Structure of Mission: An Exposition of Matthew 28:16­

32 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH The Legacy of Vincent Lebbe Jean-Paul Wiest

(. (.I will go to China and die a martyr's death," declared the Vincent de Paul, and decided to emulate him. From his name­ eleven-year-old Belgian boy upon finishing reading sake, who used to say that charity that does not express itself in the biography of the missionary martyr Jean Gabriel Perboyre. action is a sham/ Lebbe learned to stay in tune with his time, to When he passed away in Chongqing in 1940, Vincent Lebbe identify problems, and to come up with solutions and remedies. fulfilled the promise he had made to himself some fifty years While still in the seminary he wrote: "To be effective, we have to earlier.He dedicated his entireadulthood to thepeopleand to the stay in tune with our time, adapt to its customs, ideas and Catholic Church of China, becoming Chinese in dress, language, manners of expression.. .. We must enterin its movement not as and loyalty and embracing their struggles, joys, and pains. He counterforce, butrather to guide this world according to the light became a perfect example of what Bishop Fulton Sheen called a of faith and sound reason.POn Chinese soil, Vincent Lebbe was "dry martyr." His martyrdom at the hands of persecutors was to pay dearly for translating thosebrave wordsintodeeds, which not quick and violent but lasted almost forty years as he suffered turned his superiorsand many foreign missionaries against him. many blows from friends and foes for courageously denouncing At St. Lazare, Lebbe found in Anthony Cotta, an Egyptian injustice in the church and the civil society of China. seminariana few years his senior, a kindred spirit who shared his Today Vincent Lebbe (pronounced with the final e silent) is ideals.Cotta, who possessed a deep appreciation for thewritings far from being a household name-even in Roman Catholic of St. Paul, greatly contributed to the laying of a scriptural circles-and yet he is one of the foremost figures of modern underpinning to Lebbe's missionary spirituality. The apostolic Catholicism. Of all the things that could be said about Vincent interests, which Perboyre had been the first to arouse, combined Lebbe, his spirituality, his total identification with the Chinese with the fire and zeal of St. Paul and the calm and deliberate people, his stand for justice, and his creativity in fostering new dedication of St. Vincent de Paul to shape Lebbe's approach to forms of apostolate constitute the most significant facets of his missionary life. The bonds of friendship between Cotta and legacy. Lebbe grew even stronger over the years and sustained them through the many tribulations they brought on themselves by Spirituality their staunch advocacy of the Chinese against the elitist mental­ ity prevailing in the missionary community. The future missionary to China wa s born on August 19, 1877, in In the spring of 1898 Lebbe, 'then a first-year philosophy Ghent, Belgium, and was baptized under the name of Frederic. student, beganhis first seriousand prolonged encounterwith the Freddy, as he was known to his family, was the firstborn of seven mystery of the cross when his health started to deteriorate. children. His mother, an English convert of French descent, was Within two years, he became almost an invalid, suffering from a deeply spiritual woman who had considered a religious voca­ terrible bouts of headaches and afflicted with an eye illness that tion . His father, a lawyer, possessed a keen sense of justice and rendered him at times unable to read. The following September, integrity. Their generosity to the poor, their stand for justice, his hopes of going to China seemed crushed when his superiors their kindness and concern for each other and for their children, informed him that his sickly condition disqualified him for the and their steady practice of prayer reflected the strength of their missions. Instead, he had been slated to become a professor in inner convictions. Lebbe learned from his parents to live by the one of their seminaries of Europe and North America. Disap­ Beatitudes, and he never relented. In fact, his dedication to the pointed but abiding by what he considered to be the will of God, poor and the oppressed, his unflinching stand for justice, his Lebbe let go of his original resolve. "Clinging to nothing, noth- abnegation and submission to God's will, and his constant and serene joy that so impressed those who met him, were strongly anchored in the spirit of the Beatitudes. Five months after being told As already alluded to, the young Lebbe was so impressed by the biography of Jean Gabriel Perboyre that, on the day of his to renouncehis dream, Lebbe confirmation, he took the name of Vincent to signify his resolu­ left Marseilles for China. tion to emulate the Vincentian missionary. It is therefore not surprising to see him, in November 1895, journeying to Paris to enterSt. Lazare, the seminaryof theCongregationof theMission, ing, nothing exceptGod," he traveled to the Vincentian college in whose priests are commonly called Vincentians, or Lazarists.' Rome to further his theological studies."This was just a rehearsal Upon arriving at the seminary, Lebbe identified himself by his for the many times in his life when he would again be forced to confirmation name and thenceforth, except to his immediate put aside plans or abandon promising apostolates, for as sincere family, became known to Westerners as Vincent Lebbe. as they might have been, they were still too much his choice and During his first two years of formation, the young novice could not become God's work until he had renounced them. gained a deep appreciation for the founder of the Lazarists, St. Then God never failed to take over. In this first instance,God took charge when Bishop Alphonse Jean-Paul Wiest is Research Directorof the Centerfor Mission Research and Favier, vicar apostolic of Beijing, came to Rome to report on the Study at Maryknoll, New York. His primary field of research is the Roman recent tragic events of the Boxer uprising. Lebbe informed the Catholic Church in China, with an emphasis on Sino-Western cultural and bishop of his desire to be a missioner in China, despite his poor religious interactions. His earlier article in this series was "The Legacy of health. Favier was so moved by Lebbe's fiery enthusiasm that he Francis X. Ford, M.M." (July 1988). convinced the Vincentian authorities in Paris to let the ailing

January 1999 33

------seminarian accompany him back to Beijing. In February 1901, He moved among the ordinary people just like one of them, only five months after he had been told to renounce his dream, refusing to travel on horseback, in sedan chair, or in rickshaw as Lebbe sailed out of Marseilles for China. most other missionaries did. And yet Lebbe was not one to let go When summer arrived, the sickly newcomer had managed a practical means of transportation when he saw one that would to complete his theological studies at the Vincentian seminary in greatly facilitate his ministry without appearing ostentatious. Beijing. But he knew that his superiors would not ordain him if Whether it was just for a few minutes' ride in town or a long his health did not show signs of improvement. Lebbe then made journey in the countryside, he and his bicycle became a familiar a novena to Jean Gabriel Perboyre, asking to be cured. By the end sight at a time when this mode of locomotion was still very rare of the nine days of prayer and fasting, his request had been in China. granted. Coincidence or not, he was ordained priest on October Endowed with good memory and musical sense, he ac­ 28, 1901,onthefeast ofSt. Jude, the patronsaintof lost causes. For quired a good command of the spoken language and eventually the rest of his life, Lebbe suffered occasional headaches, but his became one of thebestforeign-born Chinese speakers of his time. eyes never bothered him again. With his sight restored, he developed the habit of setting time Thirtyyearslater, a friend asked himwha t spiritualprogram aside to read Chinese classics and to practice writing with a he would recommend for missioners. Lebbe replied that there was only one program, the same for all Christians, and that it consisted in "actualizing the Gospel in one's own life without delay." Drawing on a spiritual experience that had begun long Lebbe's spiritual program before he set foot on Chinese soil, he then explained that this for missioners was "total programcould be achieved only through total renunciation, true renunciation, true charity, charity, and constant joy: "Complete Renunciation, Caritas non ficta, Gaudete semper. . . . Note well that all the power of the and constant joy." program resides in the three words italicized.... You will tell me that this is nothing very original, but I believe it is enough to enable you to become a saint. Try sincerely and you will soon see paintbrush. He soon used his mastery of the language not only to that the whole Gospel is there."? perform traditional ministries of instructing catechumens and visiting the poor and the sick but also to launch new ways of Chinese Among the Chinese reaching Christians and non-Christians. In 1911, for instance, in Tianjin, Lebbe thought of opening public lecture halls as a wayof For the most part, the Catholic missionaries who were in China getting into the life of the city and bringing the church before the at the turn of the twentieth century preached the Gospel with public. Talks on religion were given every evening by Lebbe, great zeal, loved their converts, and contributed to their welfare Chinese priests, and educated laypersons. These halls, soon to without much thought of self. Yet their psychological attitude number eight, also provided a forum for discussing contempo­ toward the Chinese was radically different from the one dis­ rary social and moral questions in the light of the Gospel, and played a few centuries earlier by Matteo Ricci and his compan­ thereby for introducing Christ to the Chinese people. Conver­ ions. The industrial age had given Europe a sense of superiority sions, especiallyamongintellectuals, multiplied at the rate of one and arrogance that most missionaries carried with them uncon­ hundred a month in some halls. Lebbe's popularity was such sciously. They looked down on the Chinese civilization and its that, by 1914, he was invited to speak in the largest non-Catholic people as inferior, odious, and full of corruption; they treated the public halls in front of several thousand Chinese, including high Christiansas childrenand kepttheChineseclergyin subordinate officials of thecity. The following yearwhenJapanhandedChina positions. They also relied heavily on the protection and inter­ a note containing twenty-one demands, compliance with which ventions of the Western powers, France in particular, to preach would have effectively turned the country into a vassal state, their Christian faith. Some realized the harm being done but Lebbe delivered several addresses on the love of one's own could not see a way out, taking refuge in the belief that God country. One lecture in particular, entitled "Save the Country," someday would take care of it. Lebbe was among the very few which described both what China needed as a country and the who, by their lifestyles, words, and deeds, dared to call for and Christian teaching about salvation, was so well received that bring about changes. some thirty thousand copies were sold on the streets.' Just before his ordination, Lebbe made it clear in a letter to Lebbe also utilized his command of the language in pioneer­ one of his brothers that he had cast all his life on the side of the ing the use of news media by the Catholic Church. In 1912, with Chinese so as to become one of them: "I am Chinese with all my thehelpof his friend andwell-knownliteraryfigure Ying Lianzhi, heart, with all my soul, and with all my strength. China is my lot he began publishing Guang Yi Lu (The royal way), the first and my country, and the Chinese are my brothers.:" To signify Chinese Catholic weekly. The paper, which soon sold in most this transformation, he signed his letter with his Chinese name, Catholic vicariates, contained not only news about Christian Lei Ming-yuan, "The Thunder Rolling in the Distance"-athun­ activities all over China but also articles by Lebbe meant to der he would indeed be to the foreign missionary community of enlighten Catholics about their duties and responsibilities as China. citizens of the new Chinese republic. Three years later, encour­ Lebbe went on to be "all things to all men," becoming a aged by the success of Guang Yi Lu, Lebbe chose October 10, the Chinese among Chinese (Chinais aveclesChinois). From the time Chinese national day, to launch the first Chinese Catholic daily, he arrived in China, he set himself apart from most missionaries entitled Yi Sih Pao (The social welfare). The newspaper was an by donning the cotton dress worn by Chinese priests and semi­ instant success among the Chinese, Christians and non-Chris­ narians instead of the Western-style cassock. He even shaved his tians alike, because of the accuracy of its news and its indepen­ head and wore a long Chinese pigtail until the Chinese republic dentoutlook. Within three months, it became the leading dailyin of 1912 abolished this custom imposed by the Manchu dynasty. northern China.

34 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH The public hall lectures and the Catholic newspapers were ciallytoday, not onlylovethembutloveChina too, justas anyone onlytwoamongthemanywaysLebbeencouragedlayapostolate. loves his or her country-as a Frenchman loves France.... What In 1909 he and a small group of missionaries in Tianjin estab­ they find even less forgivable is my belief that the protectorate is lished the Association for the Propagation of the Faith, which harmful to China and the church and to have said so.... And became the nucleus that eventually led to the formation of a whatperhaps they find most difficult of all to forgive is mybelief nationwide Catholic Action movement. that the establishment of a completely indigenous clergy is our In 1928Lebbewas granted one of his dearestwishes whenhe first duty ... and my saying that I would die happy if I could kiss received Chinese citizenship. Five years later, taking one more the ring of the second bishop of China."!" step toward his total assimilation with the Chinese, he left the The Lao-Si-Kai affair of 1916 was the event that made the Vincentians to join the Little Brothers of St. John the Baptist, a tension between Lebbe and his superiors boil over. Briefly said, native congregation he had recently founded. When the war the French bishop of Tianjin had constructed his cathedral on a againstthe Japaneseinvadersintensified,LebbeembracedChina's piece of land purchased in a newly developing district of the city cause unreservedly and did not hesitate to demonstrate in deeds known as Lao-Si-Kai (Lao Xikai) thatwasadjacentto, butnot part his patriotism as a Catholic Chinese citizen. He and the Little of, the French Concession. Trouble began when the French Brothersorganized trained teams of nurses and stretcherbearers consul, who had built a road linking the concession to the who were sent out on the battlefields to rescue the wounded. cathedral, attempted, with the collusion of church authorities, to Within a few years, the organization was twenty thousand men annex the land that lay along that road and to levy taxes on strong. Chinese shops and residences. The Beijing government, together In March 1940 Lebbe fell victim to renewed tensions be­ with the Chinese municipal authorities and the local population, tween the Chinese Nationalists and Communists. By then, hard­ protested vehemently. Lebbe and his Catholic newspaper, Yi Sih ships had taken their toll onhim. Hisbodywas thatof anold man Pao, sided with the Chinese and published an open letter asking full of arthritis and feverish with "malaria. During a six-week the consul to renounce his claims. But the bishop, pressured by detention by the Communists, his health deteriorated rapidly. the consul, asked the clergy and the Catholic press to maintain a As his internal organs began to fail, his face turned yellow and strict neutralityin the affair. Meanwhile, ChineseChristianskept waxy, and he would joke, "Look, I'm finally yellow, I'm abso­ asking Lebbe what to do, and he could not honestly say that the lutely Chinesel'" Two months after his release, on June 24, 1940, French consul was in the right. Finally, Lebbe decided to appeal thefeasts ofSt. Johnthe BaptistandBlessedJeanGabrielPerboyre, directly to the French Legation in Beijing through a personal he died surrounded by Chinese friends. Much more than his letter in which he begged the French minister to intervene for the mastery of the Chinese language and the way he dressed, it was sake of the honor of France and the church. Unfortunately, the his spirituality that enabled him to empty himself of his foreign­ letterbackfired. The minister's response was an angrynote to the ness and identify until his last breath with everything Chinese. bishop, whomhe blamed for allowing suchan "insolentand near traitorous" letter to be written by one of his priests.11 Rather than Passion for Justice disobeying his bishop's directive to remain neutral in the ques­ tion, Lebbe then requested a new assignment. Sent to a mission From childhood, Lebbe strove to live up to the words of the nine hundred miles away from Tianjin, he eventually opted, in Sermon on the Mount. Among all the Beatitudes, "Blessed are 1920, to return to Europe. those who are persecuted for upholding justice" (Matt. 5:10) is Lebbe seemed to have lost, but in the long run, his position the one thatfirst comes to mind whenconsidering his missionary received the endorsement of the Holy See. It began with a small career. "I would be ready to die rather than go on living simply group of Chinese priests and foreign missionaries writing to neutral, not daring to call good and evil what they are, not being Propaganda Fide to support him. Then in 1917 his friend An­ able to be wholeheartedly on the side of the oppressed, even if I thony Cotta forwarded to the prefect of Propaganda Fide a long were the only person of my kind in the world, simply to give an memorandum composed by both of them urging Rome to put an example of Christian indignation."? end to the status of "spiritual colony," in which the church in For denouncing all sorts of injustices, Lebbe endured the China was kept by foreign missionaries. It also profiled Chinese pains of isolation and misunderstanding, ostracism and exile. In priests of great zeal and ability who could assume the new fact, the word "justice" and its synonyms are the terms appearing leadership. The document caught the attention of the cardinal most frequently in his correspondence. He was especially relent­ prefect of the Propaganda and of Pope Benedict xv. The apos­ less in saying that as long as foreigners remained in control, the tolic letter Maximum illud released in November 1919 was preg­ Catholic Church in China would never prosper. To become nant with the ideas and, at times, the exact words of Cotta and Chinese, the church had to have its own Chinese leadership. Lebbe's memorandum. In addressing missionaries and mission "China to the Chinese, and the Chinese to Christ" was one of his heads, the pope condemned the doings of those who seemed favorite slogans. more intent in "increasing the power of their own country rather What made Lebbe's stand for justice especially painful for than the kingdom of God" and deplored the absence of native him was that, for the most part, it contradicted the prevalent priests in positions of leadership. Although never mentioned by attitudes of the missionary community concerning Chinese pa­ name, the missionary church in China was the intended primary triotism, the protectorate, and the native clergy. During his first target of the letter. sixteen years in China, Lebbe was often reprimanded by his The next pope, Pius XI, further disengaged the Catholic superiors for treating the Chinese clergyas equals and was urged Church in China from France's control by creating, in 1922, a to give up whatthey called his "utopicideas" of a newChina and permanent apostolic legation in Beijing and sending Bishop a Chinese church. They did not like his support of Chinese Celso Costantini to fill the position. Four years later, Pius XI patriotism, which they considered a dangerous and disruptive decided the time had come for some local churches in mission movement. "What my superiors cannot forgive me is my belief territories to have their ownleadership. This was the main thrust that if we are to bring salvation to the Chinese, we must, espe- of his February encyclical Rerum ecclesiae, and the June letter Ad

January 1999 35 ipsis pontificatus primordiis made it clear that China was his the call of Rerum ecclesiae to consider the advantage of founding primarytarget. OnOctober28, 1926,thepopetookthemajorstep new congregations that would correspond better to the genius, of ordaining six Chinese bishops, three of whom had been character, and needs of different countries, he started two Chi­ recommended by Lebbe. Lebbe was present at the ceremony, nese religious orders in 1928-one for men, called the Little which took place in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, on the twenty­ Brothers of St. John the Baptist, the other for women, called the fifth anniversary of his own ordination. A few months later, Little Sisters of St. Theresa of the Child Jesus. These men and Lebbe was on his way back to China to serve under newly women, once trained according to the strictest rules of the ordained Bishop Sun Dezhen. Although the decolonization of Trappist and Carmelite traditions, were sent in small groups to the Chinese church was to remain a slow and difficult process, it preach the Gospel while at the same time earning a living from had reached the point of no return. the fruit of their hands. Their task and challenge was to contrib­ ute to the social renovation of China. Founder of Societies Lebbe was also committed to the training of lay Christians who would put faith and education to the service of the nation. For Lebbe, the establishment of a native hierarchy was justone of With this in mind, he opened lecture halls and helped found the the many steps that needed to be taken to bring about a Catholic Catholic Action in China; he worked closely with prominent Church rooted in the culture and societyof China. Responding to Catholic laymen such as Ying Lianzhi and Ma Xiangpo and

u.s. Catholic Overseas Mission: A Statistical Record of Personnel, 1960-1996

Year Africa Near Far Oceania Europe North Carib- Central South TOTAL East East America bean America America 1960 781 111 1959 986 203 337 991 433 981 6782 19621 901 75 2110 992 93 224 967 537 1274 7146 1964 1025 122 2332 846 69 220 1056 660 1796 8126 1966 1184 142 2453 953 38 211 1079 857 2386 9303 1968 1157 128 2470 1027 33 251 1198 936 2455 9655 1970 1141 39 2137 900 38 233 1067 738 2080 8373 1972 1107 59 1955 826 39 234 819 728 1889 7656 1973 1229 54 1962 811 40 253 796 763 1783 7691 1974 1121 60 1845 883 43 241 757 752 1716 7418 1975 1065 71 1814 808 37 252 698 734 1669 7148 1976 1042 68 1757 795 34 313 671 712 1618 7010 1977 1003 62 1659 784 34 296 629 702 1591 6760 1978 966 57 1601 769 34 339 593 705 1537 6601 1979 923 65 1562 743 37 332 562 686 1545 6455 1980 909 65 1576 711 35 294 548 699 1556 6393 1981 946 70 1529 696 36 315 511 686 1535 6324 1982 956 62 1501 673 32 319 522 669 1511 6245 19831 990 68 1468 640 34 346 517 650 1533 6246 1984 967 84 1420 644 29 329 513 650 1498 6134 1985 986 78 1366 650 31 312 500 692 1441 6056 1986 944 73 1356 631 28 306 495 743 1461 6037 1987 971 76 1335 635 27 283 499 762 1485 6073 1988 984 72 1332 584 27 289 466 818 1491 6063 1989 968 65 1299 595 28 267 472 832 1475 6001 1990 945 64 1253 560 - 264 449 796 1413 5744 1991 933 65 1198 546 - 265 453 785 1350 5595 19921 949 59 1163 512 - 105 431 810 1286 5467 1994 ...... (Survey results inconclusive for exact distribution by area.) ...... 4875 19962 799 965 213 172 82 360 1573 4164

1. Total number of missionaries for these years is accurate. Due to Reprintedbypermission fromU.S. Catholic Mission Handbook: Mission errors in accounting by region, however, figures do not add up to Inventory, 1996-1997 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Catholic Mission the total indicated. Association, 1997). 2. Figures for Near East and Far East are combined; figures for Central and South America are combined.

36 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH supported their efforts to open a Catholic university; and during tion of lay missionary groups among men and women in the his 1920-27 European exile, he organized the Chinese Catholic Catholic Church some two decades later." Youth Association for Chinese studying abroad. In 1927, just before returning to China, Lebbe also inspired Conclusion thefoundation of twouniquegroupsof foreign missionaries. The Society of the Auxiliaries of the Missions offered an avenue for The legacy of Vincent Lebbe is that of a life uncompromisingly dedicated to the growthof the local churchof China. Long before the word "inculturation" was coined, his whole missionary life was a testimony to the spirit and the meaning encompassed by TheSocietyoftheAuxiliaries that word. His distinct spirituality of "total renunciation, true charity, oftheMissionsbecamea sign and constant joy"14 gave him the freedom of being bold and of equality, sharing, and challenging to others while nonetheless remaining humble and service between churches. obedient. He thereby achieved a high degree of effectiveness and persuasion. His sensitivity to Chinese culture at least equaled if not surpassed that of Matteo Ricci. He completelyidentified with his secular priests from Europe who, like Lebbe, desired to put chosenpeople, becoming one of them, a Chinese amongChinese. themselves totally at the service of native bishops in newly His stand against injustice and his actions to bring about established ecclesiastical jurisdictions. They became living signs change were like claps of thunder that trigger the life-giving rain: of a relationship between sister churches based on equality, they shook the foreign missionary community in China and sharing, and service to one another and were the forerunners of began a process of renewal within the entire Catholic Church. the Fideidonumpriests." The Lay Auxiliaries of the Missions was In the very long run, Lebbe paved the way for the 1939 the feminine counterpart to the priests of the Society of the revocation of the condemnation of the Chinese rites, the full Auxiliaries of the Missions. They too were a sign of things to recognition of a ChineselocalCatholic Churchin 1946, and much come because they were established as a lay missionary group at more. Truly enough, Cardinal Leon-Joseph Suenens, one of the a time when religious life was still the norm for most women major figures of the Vatican II council, described Lebbe as "the organizations sanctioned by the Catholic Church. These Lay precursor of what were to become the major orientations of the Auxiliaries opened thewayfor the development and diversifica­ council."15 Notes------­ 1. This Catholic religious community, founded in 1625 by St.Vincent the only Chinese bishop had been Lo Wenzao, ordained in 1685. de Paul, had as its first objective the home mission in the French 11. Ibid., June 1916, pp. 101-3. countryside. Later, however, overseas missionary work became 12. On April 21, 1957, Pope Pius XII issued the encyclical Fidei donum increasingly important, until by the nineteenth century it was the (Gift of faith), in which he called for all bishops to become personally congregation's chief activity. involvedin the globalmissionaryactivityof the church. He specifically 2. Paul Goffart and Albert Sohier, eds., Lettresdu PereLebbe (Tournai: encouraged Western bishops to share the "gift of faith" by making Casterman, 1960), February 7, 1900, p. 26. some of their diocesan priests available for a period of time to 3. Ibid., May 1, 1900, p. 30. African bishops. This sharing of priests between dioceses occurs 4. Ibid., December 25, 1899, p. 23; the sentiment is restated August 26, now on a worldwide scale. 1931, p. 276. 13. The Holy See's early calls for the development of a lay mission 5. Ibid., August 26, 1931, pp. 278, 280. apostolate can be traced back to Pope Pius XII's encyclicals Evangelii 6. Ibid., July 13, 1901, p. 39. praecones (June 1951) and Fidei donum (April 1957). Pope John XXIII 7. Jacques Leclercq, trans. George Lamb, Thunder in the Distance: The followed suit with his encyclical Princeps pastorum(November 1959) Lifeof PereLebbe (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1958), p. 141. and his call for papal lay volunteers to Latin America in June 1960. 8. Ibid., p. 318. 14. Lettresdu PereLebbe, February 11, 1932, p. 280. 9. Lettresdu Pere Lebbe, September 20, 1939, p. 307. 15. Vincent Thoreau, Le tonnerre qui chante au loin (Brussels: Didier 10. Ibid., September 18, 1917, pp. 153-54. When Lebbe wrote this letter, Hatier, 1990), p. 161. Selected Bibliography Material Written by Vincent Lebbe Major Material Written About Vincent Lebbe 1930 En Chine, il y a du nouveau. Liege: La Pensee Catholique. Cheza, Maurice. "Le chanoine Joly inspirateur du Pere Lebbe." Revue 1960 Lettres du Pere Lebbe, ed. PaulGoffartand AlbertSohier. Tournai: theologique de Louvain 14 (1983): 302-27. Casterman. Hanley, Boniface. "Thunderin the Distance." TheAnthonian 53 (January­ 1982 Inventaire desarchives VincentLebbe, ed. ClaudeSoetens.Louvain: March 1979): 1-32. Publications de la Faculte de Theologie. Jaegher, Raymond de. Father Lebbe: A ModernApostle.New York: Paulist 1982-86 Recueildes archives Vincent Lebbe, ed. Claude Soetens. 5 vols. Press, 1950. Louvain: Publications de la Faculte de Theologie, Vol. 1, Pour Leclercq,Jacques. Yie du Perel.ebbe. Tournai:Casterman,1955.Translated l'eglisechinoise: Lavisite apostolique des missionsde Chine,1919­ into English by George Lamb as Thunderin the Distance: TheLifeof 20 (1982). Vol. 2, Pourl'eglisechinoise: Une nonciatureaPekinen PercLebbe. New York: Sheed & Ward, 1958. 1918? (1983).Vol. 3, Pourl'eglisechinoise: L'encycliqueMaximum Levaux, Leopold. Le Pere Lebbe: Ap6tre de la Chine moderne, 1877-1940. illud (1983). Vol. 4, Un an d'aciioitedu PereLebbe: 1926 (1986). Brussels: Editions Universitaires, 1948. Vol. 5, La regle des Petits Freres de Saint-lean-Baptiste (1986). Maheu, Betty Ann. "Lei Ming-yuan: Apostle to the Chinese, 1877-1940." Tripod13 (November-December 1993): 29-33,40-46. Thoreau, Vincent. Le tonnerrequi chanteau loin. Brussels: Didier Hatier, 1990.

January 1999 37 Book Reviews

The Kingdom of Character:The Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions (1886-1926).

By Michael Parker. Lanham, Maryland: American Society ofMissiology andUniversity Press of America, 1998. Pp. 250. $57.00; paperback $32.50. The End of a Crusade: The Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions and the Great War.

ByNathan D. Showalter. Lanham,Maryland: Scarecrow Press,1998. Pp. x, 241. $48.00.

In the summerof1886,one hundredcollege friendlier to the movement itself, perhaps global peace and justice. The most men at a Bible conference pledged becausehe also examinesthe earlierperiod interesting aspect of Showalter's book is themselves to foreign missionary service. before changing global realities undercut its depiction of how the different SVM The "Mount Herman 100" became the its effectiveness. leadersdealtwith the changesof the 1920s, nucleus of the Student Volunteer Parker uses the notion of "character" ranging from Eddy's attempt to integrate Movement for Foreign Missions (SVM), as an organizing concept for the SVM, the social with the personal gospel, to which by 1906 had produced about one­ illustrating how it promoted middle-class Wilder's quiet support of the more third of the European and American virtues, manliness, and a balancebetween conservativeInter-VarsityFellowship.The Protestant missionaries then serving. Led pietyandpracticalefficiency. His thematic bookis repetitive andinterpretsthe SVM's by missionary giants John Mott, Robert coverage is thorough and insightful, with breakdown narrowly as a combination of Speer, Robert Wilder,andSherwoodEddy, balanced attention paid to the spiritual internal failures plus World War I. But the SVM dominated young people's grounding of the movement, women and Showalter deals more thoroughly with organizations for missions until the 1920s minorities, the ephemeral records the ecumenical, theological and social when it began to decline in influence. (including applications and pamphlets), agendas of the 1920s than does Parker. The Student Volunteer Movement and analysis of the SVM quadrennial These two fine books add a lot to our ranks with the Halle pietists and Loyola's conventions. A few weaknesses mar this understanding of the SVM. Parker's book early Jesuits as one of the great student otherwise well-written and argued might be fruitfully used in the classroom, missionarymovementsin history. Scholars dissertation, e.g., spelling errors (Halle while Showalter's will appeal to the and general missions enthusiasts will not Hale, Vadstena not Valstena, Kyoto specialist. therefore welcome two recent books on not Kyto). Most scholars would disagree -Dana L. Robert the SVM by Michael Parker and Nathan with Parker's interpretation that holiness Showalter. Both books began as doctoral piety was male-dominated and sub­ dissertations and are published in ordinated women (p. 36).He assumes that DanaL.Robert, acontributingeditor, isProfessor of scholarly series: Showalter's in the ATLA the SVM should have had little appeal for International Mission at the Boston University Monograph Series, and Parker's in the womensince therewas alreadya women's School of Theology. new ASM dissertation series. Parker's is missionary movement (p. 50). In fact, the the broader of the two because it gives the women's missionary movement both fed general history of the movement from its the SVM (look at Wilder's and Mott's foundinguntilthe beginningofthe decline. mothers and sisters, for example) and The Missionary Movement in Showalter's monograph treats in depth provided opportunities for female American Catholic History. the impact of World War I on the SVM. volunteers to serve in all-women mission The booksoffer compatibleinterpretations societies. After all, the SVM did not send By Angelyn Dries, O.S.F. Maryknoll, N.Y.: of the movement, as they both perceive a its own missionaries; rather, it organized Orbis Books, 1998. Pp. xviii, 398. Paperback change from belief in the importance of missionary interest and then connected $20. individual conversion and leadership to volunteers to pre-existing missionary the promotion of social Christianity by societies. Also, mission leader and future In the life cycle of every major topic of student volunteers after World War I. president of the American Baptist historical inquiry there is a point when a Parker situates the changes in the context Convention Helen B. Montgomery was comprehensive overview of the subject of a general decline in Victorian values, in not a "one-time missionary to India" (p. matter is necessary. The time has arrived particular the notion of "character," that 57). for U.S. Catholic missionary activity, and began in the 1910s. Showalter paints a Showalter's study relies on a close so has a capable and thorough author in darker picture of the impact of war, reading of SVM conference records and the person of Dr. Angelyn Dries. Given attributing the splintering of the articles in student and missions the scope of U.S. Catholic involvement in movement to student cynicism and periodicals. He judges the "crusading" the missions, the size of the American disillusionment. He also portrays the aspect of the SVM and finds it wanting­ Catholic population, and the diversity of leadership of theSVM as out-of-touchand judged both by the war and by the its missionary endeavors, Dries had her ineffectualproponentsofa naiveAmerican inability of the movement to provide an work cut out for her. The result, however, optimism. Of the two studies, Parker's is organizational basis for its later focus on is splendid. The organization of the

38 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH chapters by chronological epochs has renderedthis vastbodyof dataintelligible Fifteen Outstanding Books of 1998 for to the average reader, and just as important,her masterfulgraspofthe wider Mission Studies themes of American Catholic history and theology provides a rich backdrop for The editors of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH have selected the Catholic missionary endeavors. Dries has following books published in 1998for specialrecognition of theircontributionto mission successfully written the history of studies. We have limited our selection to books in English, since it would be impossible missionary activity into the wider story of to consider fairly the books in many other languages that are not readily available to us. American Catholic life. We commend the authors, editors,and publishers represented here for their contribution Dries, an associate professor of to the advancementof scholarshipin studiesof Christianmissionand world Christianity. religious studies at Cardinal Stritch University in Milwaukee, begins her Blincoe, Robert. narrative by recasting the familiar terrain Ethnic Realities and the Church: Lessons from Kurdistan. A History of Mission of early U.S. Catholic history from the Work, 1668-1990. perspective of missionary endeavor. The Pasadena, Calif.: Presbyterian Centerfor Mission Studies. Paperback $12.95. heyday of American Catholic missionary Dries,Angelyn. endeavor begins in the twentieth century, The Missionary Movement in American Catholic History. and especially after World War I, when Maryknoll,N.Y.: Orbis Books. Paperback $20. the interlocking forces of papal directive, Guder,Darrell L., ed. organizational maturation, and a shifting Missional Church: A Vision for the Sending of the Church in North America. configuration of geopolitics provided the GrandRapids,Mich.: Eerdmans. Paperback $26. moment for a decisive U.S. emergence Hege, Nathan B. into the mission field. Although the Beyond Our Prayers: Anabaptist Church Growth in Ethiopia, 1948-1998. formation of Maryknoll in 1911signals an Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press. Paperback $14.99. important watershed in U.S. Catholic Hunsberger, George R. organizational interest in the missions, Bearing the Witness of the Spirit: Lesslie Newbigin's Theology of Cultural Dries notes equally significant contribu­ Plurality. tions from a variety of sources that not GrandRapids,Mich.: Eerdmans. Paperback $28. only propagated mission awareness but Jenkins, Paul,ed. raised critical funds to sustainthese costly The Recovery of the West African Past. African Pastors anad African History in endeavors. For example, she sketches for the Nineteenth Century: C.C. Reindorf and Samuel Johnson. us the role of the Society for the Basel: Basler Afrika Bibliographien. Paperback. No price given. Propagation of the Faith, which set up an Karotemprel, Sebastian, ed. effective presence in each diocese of the Heralds of the Gospel in Asia: A Study of the History and Contribution of country, the work of the Catholic Student Missionary Societies to the Local Churches of Asia. Mission Crusade, and the significance of Shillong,India: FABCOffice ofEvangelization, Sacred HeartTheological College. Rs.295/$20. devotion to the tubercular Carmelite Klaiber, Jeffrey. Therese of Lisieux (d. 1897), whose cult The Church, Dictatorships, and Democracy in Latin America. and writings were strongly connected to Maryknoll,N.Y.: Orbis Books. Paperback $22. the work of missions by Pope Pius XI. Kostenberger, Andreas American missionary consciousness J. The Missions of Jesus and the Disciples According to the Fourth Gospel: With and strength abroad grew with the rise in Implications for the Fourth Gospel's Purpose and the Mission of the Contempo­ national wealth and the looming promi­ rary Church. nence of the UnitedStates in world affairs. GrandRapids,Mich.: Eerdmans. Paperback $30. In the period after World War II another major burstof Americanmissionaryactiv­ Larkin, William[; and Joel F. Williams, eds. ity took place. Here the names of Ma­ Mission in the New Testament: An Evangelical Approach. ryknoller John Considine and the more Maryknoll,N.Y.: Orbis Books. Paperback $20. familiar Bishop FultonJ.Sheenloomlarge Larson, Warren Fredrick. in the narrative. During this epoch Islamic Ideology and Fundamentalism in Pakistan: Climate for Conversion to American Catholic awareness of the Christianity? missions reached a high-water mark Lanham, Md.: University Press of America. $42. because of the effective use of the mission Lutz, Jessie G., and RollandRay Lutz. press, mission magazines, diocesan Hakka Chinese Confront Protestant Christianity, 1850-1900: With the Autobiog­ newspapers, and mission appeals in raphies of Eight Hakka Christians, and Commentary. parishes. Dries even mentions the oft­ Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharp. $69.95; paperback $29.95. derided, but apparently very effective, Phan,PeterC. practice of collecting the pennies of Mission and Catechesis: Alexandre de Rhodes and Inculturation in Seventeenth­ Ca tholic schoolchildren in order to Century Vietnam. purchase "paganbabies." Moreover, hun­ Maryknoll,N.Y.: Orbis Books. $50. dreds of young Americans entered mis­ Pobee, John S., and Gabriel Ositelu II. sionary orders. African Initiatives in Christianity: The Growth, Gifts and Diversities of Indig­ An important shift in the role and enous African Churches. status of American Catholic missions Geneva, Switzerland: WorldCouncil of Churches. Paperback $6.25/Sfr8.90/£3.95. came in the wake of the general re­ Wilson, EverettA. appraisal of missiology after Vatican II Strategy of the Spirit: J. Philip Hogan and the Growth of the Assemblies of God and simultaneous cultural and social Worldwide, 1960-1990. upheavals, precipitated in part by the Carlisle, Cumbria, U.K.: Paternoster/Regnum. Paperback $19.95.

January 1999 39 Vietnam War, questioning the role and resource not only for historians and Religion in the Megacity: Catholic function of American interests abroad. theologians but for all U.S. citizens and Protestant Portraits from Latin Shiftingecclesiologicalemphases stressed preparing for work in mission fields. America. the role of missionaries in social and -Steven M. Avella economic development and the incultur­ By Philip Berryman. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis ation of local expressions of worship and Books, 1996. Pp. vi, 210. Paperback $18. governance. StevenM. Avella is Associate Professor of History This book will be an important at Marquette University,Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Philip Berryman hardly needs an intro­ ductionto peopleconcerned withthe Latin American religious map. This book, however, has some specific traits: it works on the basis of a "qualitative" metho­ dology. It concentrates on the urban areas, 1999 Kenneth B. Mulholland selecting two typical "megacities" (Sao Charles C. West Paulo and Caracas). It pays attention to Protestant developments as well as to the David A. Kerr Catholic scene. It devotes a significant J. Dudley Woodberry section to a comparative evaluation of Honors its Graham Kings Catholic and Protestant conditions and 1998 perspectives and to the author's own F. Dale Bruner questions and suggestions. Dean S. Gilliland Berryman's basic focus is the new Senior situation in Latin America, which is Paul E. Pierson characterized by several factors: (1) the Mission 1997 Tom Houston new social and political conditions deter­ mined by a majority urban population; (2) Stephen Bevans, S.V.D. the crisis of the project that mobilized the Scholars in 1996 C. David Harley church in the 1960s and 1970s-on the way to "a new kind of society ... free to Residence J. A. B. Jongeneel develop economically in terms of its own Ben and Carol Weir needs, and where ordinary people had Senior Mission full rights and participated fully" (p. 1); 1995 Mary Motte, F.M.M. and (3) the growth of charismatic and Scholars share in James A. Cogswell Pentecostal Protestantism, which appeals leadership of to the new condition of the poor. In this 1994 Andrew Ross situation, as a Brazilian Catholic priest OMSC's Ted Ward puts it, while "five years ago there were study program, as lots of answers and few questions, today Marc Spindler it's the other way around: we've got few well as offering 1993 Guillermo Cook answers and a lot of questions." personal Lois McKinney The last section deserves careful discussion. Berryman is probably right­ consultation and Phil Parshall contra David Martin-in rejecting a sort tutorial assistance. 1992 Harvie M. Conn of "messianic" view of Protestantism as the cradle of a new Latin America. While Gary B. McGee it is quite likely that the phenomenal 1991 Ralph R. Covell growth of Pentecostalism is slowly reach­ Overseas Ministries ing its peak, Berryman is also correct in Study Center Eric J. Sharpe seeing a new and pluralistic religious James A. Scherer landscape and feeling that the Catholic 490 Prospect Street Church is not yet adequately reflecting on New Haven, CT 06511 1990 Tite Tienou its new role in this scenario. I miss, Alan Neely however, a deeper discussion of the Tel (203) 624-6672 theological implications of the social and G. Linwood Barney economic problems of globalization, soc­ Fax (203) 865-2857 1989 C. Rene Padilla ial exclusion, and the growing conflicts of society. [email protected] Eugene L. Stockwell -Jose Miguez Bonino http://\v\vw.OMSC.org 1988 Andrew F. Walls Adrian Hastings Jose Miguez Bonino is Professor of Systematic Theology at the Instituto Superior Euangelico de Estudios Teol6gicos, Buenos Aires,andanordained ministerof theMethodistChurch in Argentina.

40 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Earthen Vessels and Transcendent Biblio graphia Missionaria 61, 1997. Power: American Presbyterians in China, 1837-1952. Editedby Willi Henkel, O.M.I. VaticanCity: Pontifical Urban University Press, 1998. Pp. By G. Thompson Brown. Maryknoll, N.Y.: 405. Paperback $45. Orbis Books, 1997. Pp. xxiv, 428. $40.00. Volume 61 marks the tw enti eth yea r that Father He nkel on a remarkable achieve­ This is a very good book. The author, born Willi Henkel, a .M.L, has edited Biblio­ment. in China of Presb yt erian mi ssionary graphia Missionaria. (From 1966 to 1976 he Volume 61 continues the thorough parents and later himself a missionary in assisted the founding editor, Joh annes pr esentation of every scholarl y article and Korea, has a previous book on Christianity Rommerskirchen, a .M.!.) At this mile­ book published on missiology in 1997, in in the People's Republic of China. The stone of accomplishment, we congratulate any Europea n language. Volume 60 (for work under review here is a balanced and well-researched de scriptive history. The book has appropriate coverage of both the ninet eenth and twentieth cen tu ries, includesboth Northernand SouthernLl.S, Presbyterianbodies, has severalsimplified but intelligibl e maps, and also contains 25 photographs.Three useful appendices list Presbyterian hospitals, schools, and all of th e more than 1,700 Presbyterian missionaries (North and Sou th), including dates of arrival, departure, and stations worked at. Quotations are carefully sou rced in th e end notes, and th e bibli ography includes seve ral items not often found in librari es, such as privately published memoirs or booklets and pamphlets put out by va rious bodies within th e Presbyterian church orga nizations. In short, this is a carefully done work, and was obviou sly a labor of love on the part of the author, wh o personally knew several of the twentieth century actors. It is more a descriptive chronicle than an an alytical or interpretiv e history, but in th e concl ud ing chap ter Brown al so includes some thou ghtful assessments of the Presbyterian and wider missionary ex perie nce in C hina . Because the Presbyterian s were among the largest of th e Protestant gro u ps in China, and because of the ecumenical nature of much of the Protestant effort in the twentieth century (e.g., in union hospitals, schools, publishing, and in church stru ctures such as the National Christian Council), the Presbyterian experience can to some extent be writ lar ge to represent other large d enominational missions as w ell. Mor eov er , the missionary actors and events are well grounde d in the main contours of Chinese history over this period, contextualizing the missions story as well as could be expected in a historical sur vey such as this. ------Daniel H . Bays Daniel H. Bays is Professor of Modem Chinese '"-­ History and Chairman of the History Department CA LL US TODAY at the University of Kansas, Lawrence.He is editor of Christianity in China, From the Eighteenth Century to the Present (Stanford Univ. Press, 1=800-117-2227 Adivisiono!'columbia International University 1996). EXt. 3326 or E-mail usat 7435 Monticello Rd. • P.O. Box 3122 • Colum!!!a, SC 29230-3122 803. 754. 4100 • Toll Free 1. 800. 777. 2227 • www.ciu.edu Preparing World Christians To Know Him And To Make Him Known ,.. "'"

January 1999 41 U~e and Learn 1996) contained 3,239 items; volume 61, eluded: both Konrad Raiser and Lesslie at the 3,312, making it one of the largest ever Newbigin are well represented. And published (volume 52, for 1988, had 3,542 Maryknoller James Kroeger's review of Overseas Ministries entries). Saayman and Kritzinger's book on David Henkel presided over the decision to Bosch, Mission in Bold Humility, under­ changethe technical apparatusfrom Italian lines the value of the ever-growing book Study center to English, which was done for volume 50 review section (48 reviews). in 1986. It is evidentin the present volume Alert readers will notice a new Oblate that the growth of the importance of the name in the book review section: Marek English language continues: more and Rostkowski, O.~ .I. , reviewing Emilio moreoftheauthorscited for English works Grasso's Ora E Tempo di Andare. haveArabic, Asian,andAfricanlanguages Rostkowski is now assisting Henkel in the as their first language. Spanish continues Pontifical Urban University Missionary to increaseas the second language. (French Library. First Romrnerskirchen, then and German were the predominant lan­ Henkel made Bibliographia Missionariathe -and find renewal for guages when Bibliographia Missionariafirst indispensablereference tool for all scholars appeared in 1935.) Henkel has also of mission. Now Rostkowski joins the world mission presided over the computerization of project. Bibliographia Missionaria. Since 1991, the -Harry E. Winter, O.M.1. Fully furnished apartments data has been on computer; if enough and Continuing Education interest is shown, a CD-ROM is an­ ticipated. Harry E. Winter, O.M.I., is pastor of St. Rose program of weekly seminars Conciliarand evangelical Protestants Catholic Church , Buffalo, N.Y. Write for Study Program and will find their authors thoroughly in- Application for Residence Overseas Ministries Study Center 490 ProspectStreet New Haven, Connecticut 06511 The Recovery of Mission: Beyond htlp://www.OMSC.org the Pluralist Paradigm. By Vinoth Ramachandra. Grand Rapids, Mich.:Eerdmans,andCarlisle,Cumbria,U.K.: Paternoster, 1996. Pp. xiii, 293. Paperback $25. The Friends This book is a clearly written, welcome recurrent central theme is the particularity of the addition to the continuing discussion and ultimacy of Jesus, and the specificity Overseas Ministries about Christian faith and witness in a anduniversalityof the incarnation.This is religiously plural world. Ramachandra the pivotal issue in his analysis of the Study Center states that his book is intended as a Christology of Samartha, Panikkar and Financial contributions from the contribution to the worldwide debate Pieris,butalso in his discussion of election about whether "all religious traditions .. . and mission in the Old Testament, his Friends of OMSC supportthe work havesalvific value...so thatthe traditional critique of gnosticism, his summary of the of the Center through its Scholar­ Christianconceptofmissionmust be given Hindu concept of avatara

42 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF M ISSIONARY R ESEARCH Mission Handbook, 1998-2000. The Missionary Factor in Ethiopia: Papers from a Symposium on the Edited byJohn A. Siewertand EdnaG. Valdez. Impact of European Missions on Monrovia, CaLif. :MARC Publications, 1997. Ethiopian Society. Pp. viii, 512. Paperback $49.95. Edited by Getatchew Haile, AasuLv Lunde, We have come a long way since R. Pierce and Samuel Rubenson. Frankfurt am Main: Beaver firs t published the Mission Hand­ Peter Lang, 1998. Pp. 215. $37.95. book in 1953 as a set of mimeographed pa ges at the Missionary Research Library. Th ir teen fascina ting and in for ma tive Studies in the Intercultural History of This se ve nteenth edition ex tends th e essays compose thi s w elcom e addition Christianity series. Origina lly prepared mean ingful contribution ofa uniqueinfor­ (vol. 110) to Peter Lang 's highly regard ed for a sym pos iu m co nvene d at Lu nd mation tool. Anyone who needs data on North American mission agencies need only turn to this volume . Since 1992 U'S, home staff grew appreciably (32percen t),butove rseas staff INITY PRESS increased only slightly (4.6 percent). The top one hundred agencies (14 pe rcent of 1;',bJ T. .~ R ·N A T ION A L a ll) se n d 91 percen t of lo ng-te rm RI SB UR G, PE NNSYLVAN IA missionaries and receive 87 percent of the total income. Ll.S, inco me for mission, as in the 1992 data, tops two billion dollars; the total is an inc re ase, even after New Titles in the Christian Mission adjus tme nt for inflation. Essay s customarily included in earlier and Modern Culture Series edi tions cede their place to an updating of "The Changi ng Shape of World Mission," Canon and Mission w hich was distributed to the 1996 Urba na by H.D. Beeby Confe rence and now is helpfully embel­ lished here.John Siewert, w ho has served Explores the theme that the biblical canon, as a MARC researcher for two decad es, read as a whole, calls for mission, and addresses mission mo tiva tion, describing mission emerges from and always has need six denominationally di verse cong rega ­ of the biblical canon for its w itness in and to tions to illustrate ways local congregations the world.The Bible, from Genesis to are increasin gly involved in mission . Revelation is, according to Beeby, a MARC has created a da tabase for the "handbook of mission:' 1984-96 period of the fifty largest agen­ $12.00 paper cies in the Un ited States. (The reader sho uld note that extrapo lations based on these fifty must be carefu lly qualified .) From Complicity to Encounter For the first time, ru d imentary an alysis is The Church and the Culture attempted on the basis of theological and of Economism denominational background . Somewhat by Jane Collier and Raphael Esteban surprising ly, agencies that refer to them­ selves as either Bap tist or eva ngelical far Presents a thoughtful and disturbing critique outstrip Pentecostals, Presbyterians, Luth­ of Western culture obsessed by the "culture era ns, and others in both long-t erm of econornism," in which economic causes or personnel and income (pp . 100,101). factors become the main source of cultural Treat ment of Rom an Catholic mis ­ meanings and values, thus perpetrating sio ns, prepared by a Ca tho lic au tho r, inequality, injustice, and divisions. includes countries of service and sending $11.00 paper communities. For the first time there is a sho rt descriptive chapter on Orthodox mission . Missiological Implications - Samuel Wilson of Epistemological Shifts by Paul G. Hiebert Samuel Wilson is Directorofthe Stanway Institute Examines the questions of epistemology, or andProfessorofMissionandEvangelismat Trinity theory of knowledge, and its im pact upon how Episcopal School for Min istry, Am bridge, we view and do missions in today's world. Pennsylvania. He served with the Christian and Explores three specific theories of Missionary Alliance in Peru, 1956- 67, and is a knowledge - positivism, former editorof the Mission Handbook. instrumentalism/idealism , and critical realism. $10.00 paper

Call: 800-877-0012· Fax: 717-541 -8218. www.morehousegroup.com

January 1999 43 University in August of 1996, th e volume scarce ly any mention of th e eq u ally million in nearly 4,000 congregations, this includ es six p a p ers b y Et hiopian considerable impact made by missionaries is a grievous lack indeed! academics. from elsewhere, especially NorthAmerica. Nevertheless, th e vol ume is essential Rea ders may find th e titl e to be A reading of th is book w ould leave one reading for anyone interested in Ethio pia n somewha t mislead ing, since it suggests unaw are of the subs tantial and ongoing Christianity. Tadesse Tamrat' s wonder­ an ecclesiastical comprehe nsive ness that (if not always welcome) religious impact fully inform ed cha pter, "Evangelizing is not found in the volume itself. Thus, upon Ethiopia of Presbyterian, Baptist, th e Evangelized : The Root Prob le m while th e essays examine wi th great Seven th-day Adven tist, Mennonit e, Bet w een Missions and the Ethiopian sensitivityaspectsof the complex historical Pentecostal, interdeno mi na tional (SIM), Ortho dox Church," is alone worth the and functional in terp lay betw een th e and othe r mission societies. Given the fact price of the volume! Reading between the Ethiopia n OrthodoxChurch and European th at th e Kale Heyw et Church alone-still lines, one is made acutely aware of th e (especially Scandinavian) Lutheran and closely connec ted with SIM missionary cu lt ural gu lf bet w een th e Ethiopian Ca th oli c mi ssionary efforts, th ere is activity-has a membership of some 3.5 Ortho dox Church and othe r, more recent C h ristian g roups in tha t co u n try. Consu lta tions such as the one that eventuated in th is book are a hearten ing sig n th at w hile brid ge building between Ethopia's Ortho dox Church and othe r churches is slow, complex, and difficult work, construction has advance d to the point w he re a few are able to cross, if th ey are carefu l. Appropriately d ed icat ed to Sve n Rube nson, one of Sweden's premier fig­ ures in the field of Ethio pian studies, th e book' s usefulness is enhanced by a bibli­ og raphy, an index of person s m ention ed in th e text and footno tes, and a list of I NTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY R ESEARCH. 1993- 96 contribu tor s. - Jonathan Bonk 274 Contributors 299 Book Reviews 175 Doctoral Dissertations Jonathan Bonk, Associate Directorof the Overseas Ministries Study Centerand formerly Professor of Gtobal Christian Studiesat ProvidenceCollegeand TheologicalSeminaryin Canada,spent anumberof ere is more gold for every theolog­ years in Ethiopia as a youth and as a missionanj. H ical library and exploring scholar of mission studies-with all 16 issues of 1993-1 996-bound in red buckram, with vellum finish and embossed in gold lettering. It matches the earlier bound volumes of the Occasional Bulletin of Missionary Research, 1977-1980 (sold out), and the International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 1981-1984 (sold out), 1985-1 988 (sold out), and 1989-1992 (sold out). At your fingertips, in one volume: David Barrett's Annual Statistical Table of Global Mission, the Vatican Archives: An Inventory Editors' annual selection of Fifteen Outstanding Books, and the four-year and Guide to Historical cumulative index. Documents of the Holy See.

Special Price: $64.95 Francis X. Blouin, [r., general editor. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998. Pp. xl, 588. Send me bound volume(s) of the International Bulletin of Missionary $150 . Research, 1993-96 at $64.95. Orders outside the U.S.A. add $7.00 per volume for postage and handling. Payment must accompany all orders . Pay in U.S. This remarkabl e volume is the result of a dollars only by check drawn on aU.S. bank, International Money Order, or VISA/MasterCard. Allow 5 weeks for delivery within the U.S.A . huge project undertaken by th e Bentley Histor ical Library of the University of • Enclosed is my check in the amount of $ made out to "International Bulletin of Missionary Research ." Michigan, at the invitation of ]osef Metzler, O .M.l., prefect of th e Vatican Secret • Charge $ to my VISA or MasterCard : Archives (Archivo Segreto Vatica no, or Card # ______Expires _ ASV). The purpose was to provide for the Signature _ first time in a sing le wo rk "a com pre­ hensive ove rv iew of exta nt historical • Name documentat ion ge ne ra ted by the Ho ly See Address since th e ninth century" (p. xvii). The guide, however, incl udes more than the title suggests . Since it is Mail to: Publications Office , Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect Street, "organized arou n d th e bureaucratic New Haven, CT 06511 U.S .A . structure of th e Holy See fro m th e time of Visit our website at http://www.OMSC.org its establis hme nt under Sixtus V:' the guide actually provides a historical road map for the complicated ne twork of some 450 cong regatio ns, comm issio ns, offices,

44 INTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF M ISSION ARY R ESEARCH A World of Crisis agencies, departments, and secretariats of century has indeed, in the words of Philip and Progress the central government of the Roman Yancey, "produced more martyrs than all The American YMCA Catholic Church that functioned between other centuries combined." the years 800 and 1960. It then "links each The twenty chapters in this collection in Japan, 1890-1930 office or agency to its extant records" (p. are powerfully written vignettes of JON THARES DAVIDANN xv), Historically these include the College seventeen individuals; several cases of Cardinals, the Papal Court, the Roman include a group who suffered together. This book provides a fascinating account Curia, Apostolic Nunciatures and None of the persons described here is new of the cultural relations between American Delegations, Papal States, Permanent to students of the modern church or the YMCA missionaries and native Christians in Commissions, Miscellaneous Materials, twentieth-century historical canvas. The Japan at the turn of the century. In addition and SeparateCollections. Missionscholars stories of Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Simone to demonstrating clear evidence that this will be especially interested in the section Weil, Oscar Romero, and Martin Luther cross-cultural interaction produced changes under the Roman Curia for the King, [r., have often been told. They are on both sides of the Pacific, the author also "Congregatio de Propaganda Fide" (pp. properly included here. Others like 38-62). Aleksandr Menn, [anani Luwum, Etty analyzes the implications of late-nineteenth­ The project staff identified and made Hillesum, and Eva Price are less well century nationalism and imperialism for all a census of eleven hundred series of known. Their stories are also deeply participants. This work also contributes to records in the ASV. They then entered motivating. Most of the writers are an international perspective in historical basic descriptive data for each series in contemporary American poets and critics understanding. USMARC (United States Machine who only in a few cases were previously YMCA missionaries faced conflict and Readable Cataloging) format. "This knowledgeable about their subject. The confrontation with Japanese Christians. By database was loaded into the archives and power of these essays comes in part from the 1930s, the American YMCA acknowl­ manuscripts section of the Research the way the authors were captivated by edged the failure of its mission to Japan, Libraries Information Network (RLIN) ... their martyr subjects. identifying indigenous nationalism as the [and] the information regarding the ASV The introduction, "Twentieth­ main culprit behind the failure. This book contained in this guide has been available Century Martyrs-Meditation," by the serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers to scholars through the RLIN network editor, who also conceived the project, of attempting to remake the world in one's since 1991" (p, xxviii). This electronic and the afterword, "To Witness Truth own image. (Lehigh University Press, database is available at most major Uncompromised," by Dana Gioia, $37.50) research libraries in the United States and thoughtfully squeeze meanings and some European libraries. The guide is a significance from martyrdom for complete printout of that database. contemporary Christians. Bergman, In addition to the inventories of echoing Augustine, reminds readers that The Changing Role of records, the guide includes an analysis of "the cause, not the suffering, makes the British Protestant existingfinding aids that gives somesense genuinemartyrs" (p. 6).Gioia understands of the scope and content of the records. It that "remembrance of their sacrifice is the Missionaries in China, also includes valuable bibliography on church's consciousness of its own identity the organization or the content of in a secular world" (p. 326). 1945-1952 particular series. The Vatican Archives Martyrstoriesare easilydistortedand 01 KI LING are an internationaltreasurefor historians, oversimplified and too often become and this guidewill help exploringscholars hagiography. Kathleen Norris struggles This book focuses on the British Protestant take ad vantage of its riches. to find the martyr truth in Maria Goretti, a missionaries in China in the period from -Gerald H. Anderson twelve-year-old Italiangirl knifed to death 1945 to 1952. It captures the complexity and in an attempted rape in 1902. Already contradictions between the missionaries' Gerald H. Anderson is Editor of this journal and canonized in 1950, she became a kind of own perception of their role and Chinese Director of the Overseas Ministries Study Center, "cipher, a blank page in which others reality. It also examines the missionaries' New Haven, Connecticut. write to suit their own purposes" (p. 299). perception of the nature of Communism and Even so, she can "free us, as a powerful their evaluation of the future prospects un­ symbol of the grace of healing for those wounded by rape and sexual abuse" (p. der Communist rule. 308). Robert Ellsburg forthrightly faces What results from this examination is a the ambiguity of Charles De Foucauld as stimulating reflection on the missionaries' Martyrs: Contemporary Writers on military veteran and French patriot along strategies for propagating the Christian faith, Modern Lives of Faith, with being an austere Trappist Little their priorities, and theological as well as Brother of Jesus. cultural assumptions with regard to mission Editedby Susan Bergman. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Martyrs is an important volume for and politics, mission and culture, and mis­ OrbisBooks, 1998. Pp.x, 334. Paperback $15. rememberingwhatOsig Mandestaincalls sion-church relations during the transition a "tyrant century." It is also a book for from Guomindang to Communist rule. In Nearly a decade ago, the British church nurturing the soul. "What matters," Etty general terms, it provides an insight into the historian Owen Chadwick commented Hillesum wrote from the prison camp, "is idealism and frustrations of missionaries as that "the most astonishing feature of the not whether we preserve our lives at any they wrestled with the changing political twentieth century was the reversion to an cost, but how we preserve them" (p. 180). context in China. (Fairleigh Dickinson Uni­ age of persecutionof Christianity" (Oxford -John A. Lapp versity Press, $45.00) Illustrated History of the Church, p. 354). From pogroms against Armenians and John A. Lappis ExecutiveSecretary Emeritusofthe ORDER FROM Syrian Orthodox in Ottoman Turkey to Mennonite CentralCommittee. He is currently the Associated University Presses the brutal murder of Roman Catholic Organizing Secretary of the Global Mennonite 440 Forsgate Drive, Cranbury, NJ 08512 bishop Juan Jose Gerardi in Guatamala HistoryProject, sponsored bytheMennonite World 609-655-4770 or Fax 609-655-8366 City on April 16, 1998, the twentieth Conference.

January 1999 45 Invest in Dissertation Notices Worldwide Ministry Chung, Mary KengMun. Pachuau, Lalsangkima. "Factors Influencing the Role of "Ethnic Identity and Christianity in OMSC invests in Christian Women in Christian Ministries in the Northeast India: A Socio-Historical leaders from all parts of the Chinese Church:' and Mis siological Study, with Special world. Your Bequests and PhD . Pasadena, Calif.: FullerTheological Reference to Mizoram." Planned Giving make it happen: Seminary, 1998. PhD. Princeton, N .J.: Princeton Theological • ResidentialScholarships for Seminary, 1998. Third WorldChurch dnd Dom Wachukwu, Peter Nlemadim. MissionLeaders "Christianity as Authentic Igbo Sutherland, James W. Religion: A Model for Inculturation." "African-American Under­ • Furlough and StudyLeave Ph.D. Louisville, Ky.: Southern Baptist Representation in Intercultural Accommodations Theological Seminary, 1997. Missions: Perceptions of Black • Mission Studies Research Miss ionaries and the Theory of and Writing Gallagher, Robert Lloyd. Survival/Security." "Luke, the Holy Spirit, and Mission: Ph.D. Deerfield, III .: Trinity Evangelical Consider remembering OMSC An Integrative Analysis of Selected Divinity School, 1998. and its service to the worldwide Protestant 'Writings' in Theology, church in your will or through Mission, and Lukan Studies." Wass erman,Jeffrey Steven. life-income gifts. For informa­ Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.:Fuller Theological "Messianic Jewish Congregations: A tion or suggested language, Seminary, 1998. Comparison and Critiques of contact Contemporary North American and [ang, Nam Hyuck. Israeli Expressions." Robert F. Ford "Shamanism in Korean Christianity: Director of Development PhD. Louisville, Ky.: Southern Baptist Evaluating the Influence of Theological Seminary, 1997. Overseas Ministries Study Center Shamanism on Perceptions of Spiritual 490 Prospect Street Power in Korean Christianity." New Haven, CT 06511-2196 USA (203) 624-6672 Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.:FullerTheological Seminary, 1996.

Larson, Warren Fredrick. CIRCULATION STATEMENT "Islamic Fundamentalism in Pakistan: Statement required by the act of August 12. 1970, section 3685 . Till e 39, United States Code, showing ownership, Its Implications for Conversion to management, and circulation of INTERNATIONAl B ULLETIN OF Christianity." M,SSIONARY RESEARCH. Published 4 times per year at 490 Check out PhD. Pasadena, Calif.: FullerTheological Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511. Seminary, 1996. Publisher: Gerald H. Anderson, Overseas Ministries Study ~ Center,490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut06511. Editor:Gerald H.Anderson,Overseas Ministries Study Center, Livingston, C. Jeter. 490 Prospect Stree t, New Haven, Connecticut 06511. on the World Wide Web! Associ ate Editor, Jonathan J. Bonk, Overseas Ministries "Wh ere Souls Sit in Heathen Darkness: Study Center,490 Prospect Street. New Haven, Connecticut, Christian and Missionary Alliance 06511 . The owner is Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 http://www.OMSC.org Missionaries as Interpreters of African Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511. The known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security Culture. An Investigation of Their holders owning or holding one percent or more of total t/ Register for 1998-99 Writings, 1881-1997." amounts of bonds, mortgages or other securities are: None. PhD. Deerfield, III.: Trinity Evangelical Study Program Average no. Actual no. of Divinity School, 1998. of copies copies of t/ Preview the next issue of each issue single issue during pre­ published INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN Nichols, Anthony Howard. ceding 12 nearest to "Translating the Bible: A Critical months filing date t/ Browse through Special Analysis of E. A. Nida's Theory of Total no. copies printed 7,49 1 7,330 Book Features Dynamic Equivalence and Its Impact Paid circulation: sales upon Recent Bible Translations: ' through dealers, carriers , t/ Learn about scholarships street vendors , and Ph.D. Sheffield, England: Univ. of Sheffield, coun ter sales o o 1997. Mail subscriptions 6,470 6,303 t/ Meet Senior Mission Total paid circulation 6,470 6,303 Scholars Free distribution 470 470 Total distribution 6,930 6,773 Copies not distributed: 561 527 office use, left over, Overseas Ministries unaccounted, spoiled after printing Study Center Returns from news agents o o Total 7,491 7,300 If.90 Prospect Street Percent Paid and/or New Haven, CT 06511 Requested Circulation 93% 93% Tel (203) 62lf.-6672 I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete. Fax (203) 865-2857 (signed) Gerald H. Anderson E-mail [email protected] rg

46 I NTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY R ESEARCH Sign up now for 1999 Spring Seminars and Workshops and

Darrell Whiteman Jan. 18-22 Break New Culture, Values, and Worldview: Anthropology for Mission Prac­ tice. How worldview and theology Ground at of culture impact cross-cultural mission. Cosponsored by F.M.M. Mission Resource Center and OMSC! Wycliffe Bible Translators. Eight sessions. $95 Kenneth Mulholland Jan. 25-29 Maria Rieckelman and Missionary Life and Work in the Donald Jacobs Apr. 12-16 New Millennium. OMSC Senior Spiritual Renewal in the Mission Mission Scholar explores issues of Community. A time of renewal personal growth and development through biblical and personal in the context of cross-cultural reflection. Cosponsored by Eastern mission. Cosponsored by Christian Mennonite Missions. Eight ses­ Reformed World Missions, Church sions. $95 on the Rock (New Haven, Conn.), Latin America Mission, and Gen­ David Augsburger Apr. 19-23 eral Board of Global Ministries, Counseling across Cultures. United Methodist Church. Eight Fuller Seminary professor shows sessions. $95 June 3, 1998, Breaking ground for how to apply biblical principles of Great Commission Hall counseling in cross-cultural settings Robert T. Coote Feb. 22-26 and highlights the dangers of How to Write to be Read. An ethnocentrism . Cosponsored by interactive workshop on letter writing and publishing for Southern Baptist Woman's Missionary Union. Eight sessions. $95 missionaries. Eight sessions. $95 J. Martin Bailey Apr. 26-30 Charles C. West Mar. 1-5 The Challenge of Christian Witness in the Middle East. Gospel and Culture: Christian Mission in a Post-Modern Former communications consultant to the Middle East Council of World. Professor Emeritus, Princeton Theological Seminary, Churches explores the roles of indigenous churches and expatriate and OMSC Senior Mission Scholar, identifies the issues and Christians in the lands where our faith began. Cosponsored by openings for effective witness in a world of pluralism and Common Global Ministries Board of the United Church of Christ relativism. Cosponsored by Greenfield Hill Congregational and the Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ), Evangelicals for Church (Fairfield, Conn.). Eight sessions. $95 Middle East Understanding, Mennonite Board of Missions, and Middle East Office, National Council of Churches . Eight Jonathan J. Bonk Mar. 9-12 sessions. $95 The Problem of Missions and Money. OMSC Associate Director examines challenges associated with economic disparities Rob Martin May 3-5 between expatriate missionaries and their host countries. Leadership, Fund-raising, and Donor Development for Cosponsored by Mennonite Central Committee and Moravian Mission. Director of First Fruit, Inc., Newport Beach, Church World Mission. Four morning sessions. $65 California, outlines and illustrates the steps for building the support base, including foundation funding, for mission. Mon. William Headley Mar. 15-19 2:00 p.m.-Wed. noon. $75 Conflict Resolution and Peacemaking. Duquesne University specialist examines principles and models of effective intervention in social conflicts. Cosponsored by First Presbyterian Church (New Haven, Conn.), Maryknoll Mission Institute, and World Vision International. Held at Maryknoll, New York. Eight r-- ~------, sessions. $120 Tite Tienou Mar. 22-26 Send me more information about these seminars: The Church as African: Implications for Mission. Trinity Evangelical Divinity School professor explores theological, cultural, and missiological realities of the world's fastest growing churches. Cosponsored by Mennonite Central Committee and SIM International. Eight sessions. $95 Saphir Athyal Apr. 5-9 NAME Christian Identity in Light of Religious Pluralism. From a lifetime of ministry in India and Asia, a World Vision pastor ADDRESS offers insights for Christian witness and personal integrity. Eight Overseas Ministries Study Center 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511 sessions. $95 Tel (203) 624-6672 Fax (203) 865- 2857 E-mail [email protected] Web http://www .OMSC.org Publishers of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Book Notes In Coming Baumgartner, Erich W., ed. Re-Visioning Adventist Mission in Europe. Issues Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews Univ. Press,1998. Pp. xio, 280. Paperback $15. The Future of the Church in Latin Becker, Dieter,and Andreas Feldtkeller, eds. America Es begann in Halle: Missionswissenschaft von Gustav Warneck bis Heute. C. Rene Padilla Erlangen: Verlagder Ev.-Luth. Mission, 1997. Pp. 203. No price given. A Comparison of Missionary Berneburg, Erhard. Attrition Between Old Sending and Das Verhaltnis von Verkiindigung und sozialer Aktion in der evangelikalen New Sending Countries Missionstheorie. Detlef Blocher Wuppertal: Brockhaus Verlag, 1997. Pp. 413. Paperback. No price given. In Quest of the Father of Mission Denis, Philippe. Studies The Dominican Friars in Southern Africa: A Social History (1577-1990). Andrew F. Walls Leiden: Brill,1998. Pp. xiii, 322. No price given. Kenneth Cragg in Perspective: A Gifford, Paul. Comparison with Temple Gairdner African Christianity: Its Public Role. and Wilfred Cantwell Smith Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press,1998. Pp. viii, 368. $39.95; paperback $22.95. James A. Tebbe

Hall, Douglas John. , The Northern Outreach Program of The End of Christendom and the Future of Christianity. the Presbyterian Church of Ghana Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity Press International, 1997. Pp. x, 69. Paperback $7. Elorn Dovloand Solomon S. Sule-Saa

Jonge, Marinus de. What's Behind the 10/40 Window? Early Christology and Jesus' Own View of His Mission. A Historical Perspective Grand Rapids,Mich.: Eerdmans, 1998. Paperback $18. RobertT. Coote

Kirk,J. Andrew. In our Series on the Legacy of The Mission of Theology and Theology as Mission. Outstanding Missionary Figures of Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity PressInternational, 1997. Pp. viii, 71. Paperback $7. the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, articles about Leslie, DonaldDaniel. Norman Anderson Jews and Judaism in Traditional China: A Comprehensive Bibliography. Thomas Barclay Sankt Augustin, Germany: Monumenta Serica Institute, 1998. Pp. 291. Paperback Johannes Beckmann, S.M.B. DM65. Rowland V. Bingham Thomas Chalmers Stekelenburg, Laetitia E. van. . Helene de Chappotin Wegen naar waarachtig mens-zijn ... het werk van Wilfred Cantwell Smith. Francois E. Daubanton Kampen: Kok,1998. Pp. xix, 179. Paperback f 39.50. G. Sherwood Eddy Hannah Kilham Taylor, John V. Johann Ludwig Krapf The Uncancelled Mandate: Four Bible Studies on Christian Mission and the George Leslie Mackay Approaching Millennium. William Milne London: ChurchHouse Publishing,1998. Pp. vi, 42. Paperback £3.95. Lesslie Newbigin 1. Ludwig Nommensen Voshaar, Jan. Constance E. Padwick Maasai: Between the Oreteti-Tree and the Tree of the Cross. Timothy Richard Kampen: Kok,1998. Pp. 262. Paperback f 79.90. Julius Richter John Ross Weber, Christian. Elizabeth Russell Missionstheologie bei Wilhelm Lohe: Aufbruch zur Kirche der Zukunft. C. F. Schwartz Giitersloh: Giitersloher Verlagshaus, 1996. Pp. 576. Paperback DM 72. William Shellabear James Stephen Eugene Stock Bengt Sundkler William Cameron Townsend William Ward