Australian academy of Technological sciences and engineering (ATSE)

Number 155 April 2009

ENERGY EFFICIENCY CUTTING OUR POWER BILL Contributors discuss how to lessen Australia’s power demand across a raft of industry sectors, against the background of generation and transmission issues and power generation externalities Older buildings have a past and a future

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09_03_green old buildings_focus advert.indd 1 13/03/2009 12:01:34 PM contents 3 april 09 Focus 5 Energy pricing in Australia – a complicated setting By Ken Dredge

9 Tarong Energy turbine hall – page 5. Achieving efficient energy 15 significant reduction in resources energy distribution consumption is proving difficult By John Sligar 19 Cutting energy use in Australian manufacturing 21 reducing transport energy demand and 11 consumption Externalities – the reality 23 We can ease primary production energy of hidden costs requirements of electricity 26 localised generation can reduce built By Tom Biegler environment energy demand 29 ‘Hidden’ costs should be counted to optimise AustrAliAn AcAdemy of technologicAl sciences And engineering (Atse) clean energy efforts number 155 April 2009 30 Electricity rationing and blackouts “inevitable” without technology boost 34 remote laboratories – new horizons 36 rebuilding the mathematical sciences Front cover: Power ENERGY EFFICIENCY supplies tramp across CUTTING OUR POWER BILL 37 sTELR takes teachers back to school Contributors discuss how to lessen the nation. Australia’s power demand across a raft of industry sectors, against the background of generation and transmission issues 41 ATSE in Focus and power generation externalities Photo: CSIRO

ATSE is an independent body of eminent Australian engineers and scientists established to promote the application of scientific and engineering knowledge to practical purposes. ATSE Focus is produced to serve this goal. Opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of ATSE. Material published in Focus may be reproduced provided appropriate acknowledgement is given to the author and the Academy. ATSE Focus is produced to stimulate discussion and CEO: Dr Margaret Hartley Editor: Bill Mackey public policy initiatives on key topics of interest to the Technical Consultant: Dr Vaughan Beck FTSE Academy and the nation. Many articles are contributed Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE) by ATSE Fellows with expertise in these areas. Opinion Address: Ian McLennan House, 197 Royal Parade, Parkville Victoria 3052 pieces on topics of national interest, particularly Postal Address: PO Box 355, Parkville Victoria 3052 the Academy’s key interest areas – climate change, Telephone: 03 9340 1200 water, energy and education – will be considered for Facsimile: 03 9347 8237 publication. Items between 800 and 1500 words are Email: [email protected] preferred. Please address comments, suggested topics ACN 008 520 394 and article for publication to [email protected]. ABN 58 008 520 394 Print Post Publication No 341403/0025 Deadline for the receipt of copy for next edition of Focus is ISSN 1326-8708 27 May 2009 Design and production: Coretext 03 9670 1168 www.coretext.com.au TO JOIN THE TOP RESEARCHERS IN AUSTRALIA’S LEADING ECONOMY, LOOK WEST.

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UNWG00293 FP 297x210 ATSE 5Dec08.indd 1 7/11/08 12:38:17 PM energy 5 efficiency april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus Energy pricing in Australia – a complicated setting Australian retail electricity prices have been moving upwards – further increases have to be expected as government policy decisions start to impact on the market

By Ken Dredge [email protected]

ustralia has lived well on relatively low energy In a worst-case scenario, with a severely reduced local costs for decades. Our standard of living and economy, energy demand may reduce such that available competitiveness of key industries have relied on electricity supply remains adequate for five to 10 years. the support of low-cost energy. All this is now un- However, this will be at a price of a significantly lower av- derA serious threat. erage standard of living. The major legislative initiatives, in particular the Emis- A loss of funding for major capital investment is a con- sions Trading Scheme (ETS) and Carbon Pollution Reduc- sequence of the global crisis. This is a two-fold develop- tion Scheme (CPRS), impacted on the status quo dramati- ment, with debt hard to raise in both private and public cally. They are well intentioned. However, they have ensured arenas and equity investors wary of long-term commit- that overt difficulties will emerge in the next decade. ments, particularly in a depressed business climate and un- The rules seek to reduce carbon emissions by curtailing certain impact of the proposed ETS format. growth of electricity generation from thermal coal produc- tion and mandating a drastic increase in energy production The east coast electricity market from renewable sources, to 20 per cent of total generation. Currently, all eastern states and South Australia are inter- The prospect of timely generation capacity being in place connected with transmission lines that serve to link the for reliable electricity supply to be available for expected regions’ demand and supply. Development of the National loads in the five-to-10-year horizon relies on growth of re- Electricity Market (NEM) over the past few decades has newable energy and gas-based generation. allowed valuable sharing of supply and demand between The ‘cap and trade’ system embodied in the ETS has what would otherwise have been fragile local markets. the advantage of ensuring that the desired outcome is It has allowed a measure of support between regions, so achieved through a market-based mechanism. It has the that excess demand in one zone can be supplied from other disadvantage that certainty of the emissions outcome is re- regions. However, the linkages are limited in capacity. placed by uncertainty of investment outcome for new ven- The entire east coast electricity market is not large by tures impacted by the ETS. This drawback is of particular world standards. For example, at about 37,000 megawatts concern for new generation investment. (MW) it is smaller than the market covered by one com- The proposed Electricity Sector Adjustment Scheme pany in the US (Oncor in Texas – 44,000MW). Simi- (ESAS) seeks to provide some support for the thermal coal larly, Europe has a large network that is underpinned by generators so as to cushion the impact of the new rules. Its substantial nuclear power station capacity, predominantly contribution is yet to be clear. The best solution – develop- based in France. ment of technology to eliminate coal power station emis- The approval process for regulated energy transmission sions, such as through carbon capture and storage (CCS) – applying to all major links other than Basslink, between – has yet to gain traction anywhere in the world. Tasmania and the mainland – is labyrinthine. It could also The global financial crisis impacts on the local energy be viewed as placing low or zero value on factors such as scene in two ways. A reduced global economy has begun diversity, security of supply and encouraging competition to hurt Australia. The combined effect of industry wind- between local sub-markets (selling significant volumes of downs and increased unemployment will cause energy use electricity production from one region into another). to be less than was previously anticipated. Overall econom- A detached observer may conclude that provision of ic activity and our standard of living may decline tangibly. an integrated and resilient national electricity market sup- 6 energy efficiency april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au

ported by a resilient transmission system is not a goal of – as investment in new generation capacity will be limited current policy settings. to ventures compatible with new emissions-related policies Admittedly, the cost of having a national link is not and certain of economic return. trivial. If the capital were available for this purpose the Renewable energy, mandated to become 20 per cent of loading on bulk electricity charges would be in the range total electricity production, has low availability and high of five to 10 per cent. However, it is suggested that a change costs by past standards. This is a major cause for increased in approach is needed to maximise resilience of energy de- electricity prices in the future. Wind power generation will livery across the network in the decade ahead. be the major input for this transition. Yet the practical fea- The downside of increased unreliability of electricity sibility of achieving this goal is challenging. supply is not as visible as the extreme example of a major Wind power stations are unlikely to be located where bushfire. However, its effect over time could be compara- they can be serviced by existing transmission infrastruc- ble in terms of economic and human impact. ture with spare capacity. The performance of a wind tur- bine generator improves by the fourth power of average Tarong Generation wind speed. This gives overwhelming incentive to locate Energy Localised generation capacity shortfalls are quite likely in wind generation stations at locations where prevailing turbine hall. the next decade – barring a massive drop in the economy winds and topography support maximum economic per- energy 7 efficiency april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus formance, to offset cost disadvantages related in particular technology for bulk electricity production. The technol- to wind variability. ogy needs serious outlays for establishment of integrated Locating wind farms in or near populated areas is large-scale demonstration. The component technologies rarely received with enthusiasm by urban and near-urban are evident but the costs involved in progressing a demon- residents. The consequence is that many preferred wind stration project, and supporting it in a market that other- farm locations are relatively remote and existing transmis- wise is free of the costs of CCS, have been too much for sion infrastructure may well have difficulty servicing such every country3. significant (by the standard of the original service) and Australia’s interest in success is two-fold: first, so that variable generation sources. coal could continue to supply baseload electricity into the New gas-based generation capacity is likely to be the future without emissions, and second, so that exports of main source of short-term generation capacity growth1. thermal coal to other countries can be maintained into the However, it has a higher operating cost-base than has been future. the norm for thermal coal generation. Also because it in- The wash-up for electricity generation is that supply volves carbon emissions, albeit reduced relative to thermal will not increase significantly in the coming years and coal-based generation, this fuel source has no incentive thermal coal plant age will increase as a result of limited for development other than commercial expectations of renewal activity. increased market prices in the future. Gas pipeline infra- structure is potentially a limiting factor also. Electricity price expectations Gas has become the fuel of choice for new generation Continued upward price adjustments have to be expected ventures, but the volume of new construction is small in in other than a serious economic downturn. The likely new the context of the overall market. Natural gas has limited electricity sources have higher production costs compared opportunity as resources have not expanded significantly with traditional coal stations – three to five times higher – and export markets are available that are attractive to pro- and increases of this magnitude will be hard to ameliorate ducers. An increase in market price for bulk gas may cause as time progresses, even with promised support of consum- more reserves to become evident. ers by government from ETS earnings. Coal seam gas is being advanced as a new and signifi- A less obvious issue is the need for substantial expan- cant source of energy. It involves gas recovery over a wide sion of intra-network connections. While at most these area and needs transmission pipeline capacity and linking works may involve, say, 10 per cent extra loading on bulk infrastructure. It may well be the major source of energy for electricity costs, the reality is that the funding involved is creation of new and replacement power in the near term. substantial and the approval process is slow. Gas generation has benefited from regional support Consumers may well expect blackouts to become fre- mechanisms such as Queensland’s 13 per cent gas man- quent in a worst-case scenario in the absence of clear path- date, requiring retailers to source 13 per cent of their retail ways for resolution of the national electricity transmission electricity sales from gas generation. Gas generation de- issue. t velopers seek an extension of this encouragement, which may be needed if commercial risk-taking is insufficient to References deliver enough generation capacity in coming years. 1. Trevor St Baker (ERM Power), ATSE Queensland Branch, March Current NEM electricity generation is overwhelm- 19, 2009 ingly based on thermal coal, with major brown coal op- 2. NEMMCO, Statement of Opportunities 2008 erations in Victoria and black coal stations in NSW and 3. ‘Trouble in store’, The Economist, March 7, 2009, 69-70 Queensland usually located on coal sources. New con- struction of thermal coal generation has been precluded by Ken Dredge FTSE studied chemical engineering and then strong negative factors2. economics. He is Chair of APS Consolidated Pty Ltd, a private Uncertainty over the potential impact of the ETS company making GPS-based systems for large mining equipment, makes a commercial decision very difficult. Also the reali- and a director of listed mining company, Queensland Ores Ltd. He ties of limited finance availability add to the difficulty fac- was Chair of Tarong Energy Corporation Ltd from 1999 to mid-2007 ing any initiative in this area. The normal pattern would and Managing Director of Dominion Mining Ltd from 1994–98. have been to see new stations replacing old operations and Within MIM Holdings Ltd he held positions including Executive exploiting new coal sources with consequent support of a General Manager – Mount Isa Operations and Executive Director continued low energy price. This cannot be expected now. and was a director of related companies in Germany, Canada and CCS is yet to be established as a proven and costed the US. He served three terms on university councils. Generation next Energised to save power Monash University researchers are committed to developing solutions to the energy challenge. In addition to developing cleaner energy alternatives, researchers are working closely with industry and partner universities on a range of projects designed to conserve power and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Current projects include: • Developing high-performance, advanced materials for batteries and fuel cells for electric vehicles • Electricity forecast modelling which is being used for long-term electricity planning • Investigating the use of vegetable oils in power transformers to extend the life, safety and performance of high voltage insulation systems • Developing a sustainable technology for the storage of energy in soil through the use of building elements to transfer thermal energy from and to the ground • Increasing the efficiency and cost effectiveness of dye sensitised solar cells. To find out more, please contact Professor Kerry Pratt on +61 3 9905 5922, email [email protected] or visit www.monash.edu/sustainability-institute

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COR00405.indd 1 12/03/09 11:32:53 AM energy 9 efficiency april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus Achieving efficient energy distribution A preferred Australian national transmission system would result in the eventual addition of an east–west line from near Yass, NSW, to near Kalgoorlie, Western Australia

By John Sligar [email protected]

he role of distribution with respect to energy lies The major transmission links are now ageing, with re- in ensuring that supply always exceeds demand, to placement of some equipment becoming necessary. minimise severe disruption. Energy distribution, Quite often major generation additions were accompa- of necessity, uses a proportion of the energy in nied by large aluminium refining plants as stabilising loads. transferringT the remainder to the consumer. This has resulted in well-run facilities with losses of five to Using electricity transfer as an example, the high-volt- six per cent for transmission and distribution. This can be age transmission and low-voltage distribution network compared with other economies – the UK, for instance, in an efficient electric power system suffer a loss of five to where the loss is about seven per cent, Sri Lanka 16 per six per cent in providing power to the customer. This level cent and India 32 per cent. It should be noted that there of loss represents an economic balance. are both technical and social reasons for this greater level In distributed generation there is an attempt to reduce of loss in some economies. losses by locating the generation facility within the distribu- tion network to eliminate the transmission loss component. Necessary change The coming changes in energy resource mix for elec- Following the realisation that the remaining life of cheap tricity generation will require innovative solutions to fossil resources is limited and recognition of the necessity maintain reliable supply to the consumer and preferably to reduce generation from fossil resources, there has been a reduce this level of loss in the longer term. major change in direction, resulting in a revised generation energy resource mix. Present situation This new approach sees far more generation from In Australia the development of electricity supply systems natural resources, such as wind, solar and wave technology has been generally within states. It was based on coal mining combined with geothermal, while maintaining reduced areas, with mine-mouth power stations for electricity gen- but significant generation from coal and gas. eration, followed by transfer to major facilities, such as larger Treasury predictions for generation resource mix for cities, plus aluminium refineries providing stable loads. 2030 and 2050 have provided some indication of the likely The development of the Snowy Mountains irrigation/ change in energy resource mix. The proposed new genera- flood-mitigation/electricity-generation scheme provided tion resources are generally not located near existing load the nucleus of a national interconnected power system centres or transmission lines. supplying both Victoria and New South Wales. There is a need for extended transmission to get large Following this initiative state power systems were tranches of electricity from these new resources to load slowly extended using incremental economic regulation centres. The location of Australia’s natural resources is pre- resulting in suboptimal extension. This has resulted in a dominantly along the south coast. Wind and wave resourc- relatively long (4500-kilometre), thin system on the east es are located along the coast and potential geothermal re- coast, with fairly well distributed generation and load cen- sources are located inland in SA, together with relatively tres. Geographically this transmission system was north– stable dry conditions suitable for large solar arrays. south in nature, stretching from North Queensland to Tasmania, with some westerly penetration to South Aus- There is a need for extended transmission to get tralia. In addition there was a smaller system around Perth large tranches of electricity from new resources – in Western Australia. wind, solar, wave, geothermal – to load centres. 10 energy efficiency april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au

While it is acknowledged that these natural resources extensions were completed over the next 30 years and con- will be significantly modified as climate change proceeds, tributed to minimise system losses as far as possible. there should be adequate residual generation to support With respect to the subsidiary networks, distributed extending the transmission system in this region. generation is one of the tools that may be used in an ef- fort to minimise losses. Distributed generation in itself Possible outcome may increase or decrease system losses or transfer them to As a result of these generation changes there needs to be a a higher or lower voltage level. Research is in hand to try new approach to transmission of power, allowing a com- to optimise lower voltage capability to reduce losses, where plete rethink of the major trunk lines without concern for possible, using distributed generation concepts. previous state limitations. This enhanced power system will require consider- A revised national electricity system could be envis- able extension of frequency control capability to cover the aged with far less congestion, which is an outcome of the changes in demand brought about by customer require- previous state-based system. It would, of course, include ments, plus the variability of the new natural resources. the present load centres and reduced contribution from The main source of this capability is pumped storage and coal-fired power stations. open-cycle gas turbines at part load, until alternate tech- Based on Treasury and other projections of genera- nologies are developed. tion resource, with sufficient time, a preferred Australian The new power system will have quite different stabil- national transmission system could be set out, and rights ity requirements and while the changes are in progress sta- of way reserved, using major components of the existing bility needs to be reviewed at every stage. system, where appropriate. The regulatory test for exten- These provisions will make it possible to maintain rea- sions would necessarily change from an economic position sonable reliability and relatively low levels of power loss in to one of national importance. both transmission and distribution over and after the ma- This would result in the eventual addition of an east– jor changes being brought about by energy resource mix west line from near Yass in NSW to near Kalgoorlie in changes required by 2050. t WA. This would presumably be an extra high voltage DC line built in stages as new natural generation was required, Dr John Sligar FTSE is the Director of Sligar and Associates, a starting from near Yass and heading towards Olympic small consultancy focusing on the competitive electricity market Dam as a significant load centre in the first instance. and the technology needed to compete successfully in the market The main line would be regulated and new generators over the next 30 years. He was formerly Chief Scientist of Pacific would be expected to link to this. Incremental extension Power, then the largest electric utility in Australia. He has been a would ensure orderly development of new generation as Fellow of the Academy since 1994. The power to choose Domestic electricity users in Western Australia The meters are the first step in a plan to the opportunity to alter their usage patterns could soon be able to choose the price of the restructure electricity tariffs, so that customers to take advantage of cheap power and also electricity they use, with technology available will pay more for the expensive peak-load increase their awareness of their power usage. that is capable of taking energy efficiency to electricity and less for the cheaper-to-produce “It could mean that they decide not to another level. baseload electricity. turn the dishwasher or washing machine Synergy, WA’s biggest energy retailer, is About the size of a pack of cards, the on early in the evening while the red light’s advocating a trial of advanced in-home meters meters are designed to be stuck to the front glowing, but wait until it’s green later in the that use wireless technology to tell consumers, of a refrigerator and use wireless technology evening and turn them on then,” he says. in real time, whether they are using cheap or to communicate with Synergy, keeping Differential tariffs are part of a range expensive electricity. customers updated as to which type of power of initiatives Synergy is looking at to help Managing director Jim Mitchell says that they are using at any given time. customers reduce their electricity usage and Synergy’s electricity supplies are based on A green light will mean cheap baseload to mitigate the cost increases in electricity three different types of generation capacity: electricity is in use, orange will indicate medium expected when the Federal Government’s very cheap baseload electricity, slightly more tariff and a red light will come on when the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme expensive intermediate load and peak load, most expensive electricity is being used. commences in December 2010. which is very expensive to generate. Mr Mitchell says the meters give customers – ScienceNetwork Western Australia energy 11 efficiency april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus Externalities – the reality of hidden costs of electricity Popular notions of the zero-emission status of cars running on hydrogen or batteries have come about through ignoring parts of the energy life cycle

By Tom Biegler [email protected]

xternalities represent only one factor in assessing and new energy technologies. Externalities demand our at- power generation technologies. But with one ex- tention now that we are facing the introduction of a new ternality already having a decisive influence on fu- portfolio of energy technologies for reducing emissions. ture power sources, the more we know about them Ethe better off society will be. Monetary costing of energy ATSE has recently completed a study – The Hidden Costs externalities of Electricity: Externalities of Power Generation in Australia. The Understanding externalities involves identifying all im- term ‘externalities’ refers to costs (or sometimes benefits) pacts of a technology on human health and the environ- of an economic transaction not covered by the price. For ment – on climate, crops, structures and biodiversity, for power generation the externalities comprise environmental example – and then trying to place a cost on each impact. and social costs arising anywhere in the complete produc- Costing methodologies applied to externalities of pow- tion chain for getting electricity to end-users. er generation and transportation have been the main focus Report The reason for the surge in interest in externalities is of recent research on energy externalities. authors obvious: one particular externality – the environmental Since 1991 the European Union has poured tens of mil- Dr Tom cost of greenhouse gas emissions – is changing the whole lions of Euros into such multidisciplinary research, notably Biegler and way we think about energy. the ExternE project. Professor For evidence, look no further than ATSE Focus, with Australia’s electricity comes mainly from coal. Most Zhang this and other recent issues devoted to energy efficiency of the external costs are directly connected with the four Dong-ke. 32nD Atse nAtionAl sYMPosiuM BRisBane, 16-17 novemBeR 2009 Future - ProoFing AustrAliA Rising to the Challenge of Climate Change sPonsorsHiP oPPortunities AVAilABle

The academy welcomes participation by sponsors to support this influential symposium. sponsors will benefit from exposure to many key decision makers in industry, government, academic and research communities – both during the symposium and through the symposium Report distributed widely afterwards. The 2009 symposium will continue the academy’s long, successful and distinguished tradition of providing forums for:  discussing issues relevant to the formulation of public policies;  conveying expert advice to Governments and the community; and  promoting the application of scientific and engineering knowledge to practical purposes. The 2009 symposium will examine the issues of climate changes that threaten our economic and ecological sustainability and our lifestyle – and the daunting challenges of meeting the targets that are being debated for emissions reduction over the period to 2050. The symposium will focus on the practical potential of current and future low emission technologies and other greenhouse gas abatement strategies. Four large emissions sectors will be addressed – electricity generation, transport, the minerals industry and land management. The academy has arranged symposium technical sessions, an open forum and broad community participation to help clarify positive paths forward for australia. To take advantage of sponsor benefits please contact aTse now. Dr Margaret Hartley Professor John simmons Atse Ceo 2009 symposium Convenor (03) 9340 1207 (07) 3365 3595 [email protected] [email protected]

ATSE_Sympo09.Ad.indd 1 19/02/09 3:34 PM energy 13 efficiency april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus

power-station emissions: carbon dioxide (CO2) (climate Union’s ExternE project and related work. Each bar repre- costs) and sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and fine par- sents a combination of contributions from direct emissions ticles (health costs due to various respiratory and cardio- at the actual generating plant and emissions attributable to vascular ailments). These and other emissions also occur other stages of the life cycle. Also, different proportions – in smaller quantities – with renewable technologies if due to climate, health and other social costs contribute to assessed over the full life cycle. each total. The aim of a costing model is to determine the dam- One striking thing about externality costings, to a scien- age cost per unit of each emission (the ‘unit cost’) and the tist at least, is their lack of precision. Attaching a cost to cli- quantity of that emission per unit of electrical energy gen- mate change or to human sickness and death is fraught with erated. From those two figures a damage cost can be de- subjectivity, uncertainties and unknowns. The bar chart, rived in terms like dollars per megawatt-hour ($/MWh), while illustrating relativities and orders of magnitude, gives which then provides a common basis for comparing differ- no indication of the range of uncertainty for each value and ent technologies. must be interpreted with appropriate caution. The costing process needs to account for externalities at In choosing the unit cost needed to calculate the climate all stages of a production chain. For electricity generation, change contribution, one is faced with a wide range of esti- these might include exploration, mining and transport of mates covering two orders of magnitude. Also, there is a gen- the fuel; construction, manufacture and operation of the uine conceptual difficulty in the idea that a single number plant; and delivery and storage of the electricity produced. could possibly convey the damage cost for the whole globe

Without this life-cycle approach there will inevitably of each extra tonne of CO2. Despite these problems, Ex- be misconceptions or wrong assessments concerning the ternE adopts a cost figure of €19 (or A$31) per tonne CO2 environmental credentials of an energy technology. For and this is what the ATSE report uses for its calculations. example, popular notions of the zero-emission status of The number will need tuning as exchange rates fluctuate. cars running on hydrogen or batteries have come about For each of the other three emissions, ExternE arrives through ignoring parts of the energy life cycle. at unit health damage costs pertaining to European con- Why the effort on monetary costs? Why not just iden- ditions. ATSE’s estimate is that the corresponding health tify damaging impacts and then do whatever possible to damage costs in Australia, with its lower population den- control and rectify them? sity, are some 7 to 20 per cent of European costs. There are several reasons. Knowing the damage costs Each result in the chart represents the sum of a cost for provides a basis for internalising them. It allows insight climate change based on life-cycle CO2 emissions data, a into priorities for control and abatement measures and cost for health effects based on actual emissions and scaled into the value of their eventual benefits. down for population density, and certain other costs, usual- External costs are needed to help make energy tech- ly minor, from various life-cycle estimates in the literature. nology choices for the future. Quantified knowledge of external costs can assist in setting fiscal policy, such as envi- Figure 1 Estimates for external costs of various generating ronmental taxes. Importantly, the very process of exploring technologies and costing externalities raises awareness of the externali- External cost ($A/MWh) ties associated with all technologies. 60

50 Results of the ATSE study 40 The ATSE study presents a review of power generation externalities and costing methodologies, especially the rel- 30 evance and application to Australia of research originating 20 in Europe. It also goes a step further, trying to foreshadow 10 which external impacts of various emerging technologies 0 might turn out to be important. Wind NGCC NGCC

Figure 1 shows the ATSE study’s estimates of Aus- Solar PV IGCC-CCS Black coal Black coal Black coal Brown coal Brown tralian external costs for various generating technologies Nuclear LWR Solar thermal now in use or under consideration and development. The NGCC = natural gas combined cycle wholesale price of electricity, about $40/MWh, provides a post-combustion CCS CCS = carbon capture and storage context for these external costs. IGCC-CCS = integrated gasi cation combined cycle-carbon capture and storage LWR = light water reactor Most of the ATSE data are derived from the European PV = photovoltaic Source: The Hidden Costs of Electricity, ATSE, 2009 14 energy efficiency april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au

On the whole, the relativities reflect European results. and nuclear proliferation represent additional external im- External costs of fossil-fuel based electricity are highest, pacts that weigh heavily in public concerns about nuclear

largely because of their greater CO2 emissions. With car- energy in Australia. bon capture and storage (CCS) technologies, these costs Accidents and proliferation are ‘Damocles risks’ of low are significantly reduced. Renewable energy, as expected, frequency but high impact, which may not be amenable to has the lowest external costs. Nuclear energy also has quite quantitative costing. low externalities, at least to the extent that external impacts The many knowledge gaps mentioned above provide have been costed. good reasons for further work aimed at improving our un- derstanding of externalities. The ultimate aim is to ensure Looking ahead that Australia’s energy policies lead to maximum social Australian energy policy for the future sets great store by benefit. t CCS and renewable technologies, especially geothermal energy. These emerging technologies all show low or mod- The full ATSE report, The Hidden Costs est externalities. However, there are several potential im- of Electricity: Externalities of Power pacts that merit further consideration. Generation in Australia, with an extensive

CCS will have externalities associated with CO2 pipe- bibliography, is available online at www. lines and with increased scale of fuel extraction, transport atse.org.au/index.php?sectionid=128 and generation. Solar installations will need to be very large to contribute materially to power needs and there Dr Tom Biegler FTSE is author of the ATSE report The Hidden may be impacts from the greatly increased requirements Costs of Electricity. An electrochemist with a PhD in Agricultural for inputs such as concrete and steel. Geothermal plants Science, he spent most of his research career in CSIRO working on will probably be in remote locations, so that cooling water fuel cell electrocatalysis, electrochemistry of sulphide minerals, and long transmission lines present potentially significant and electrowinning and refining of metals. He became Chief of the sources of externalities. CSIRO Division of Mineral Chemistry (later Mineral Products) in Externalities of nuclear energy fall into a special cat- 1985. After retiring from CSIRO in 1996, he consulted on fuel cell egory. Costing via the usual models arrives at low external- commercialisation. He is a Fellow of the Royal Australian Chemical ity values. Yet it seems clear that waste disposal, accidents Institute and the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. The sunny side of the street Researchers in the US are claiming that solar efficiency of solar collectors in recent years, The system involves installing a cells built into roads could produce enough Solar Highways believes that, if implemented latticework of pipes under the road, which are power to light the world. While it may sound from coast to coast in the US, this concept then filled with water. The water in the pipes like a wild proposal, the concept of using could produce enough energy to meet the heats up during warm weather and is pumped road surfaces to generate clean solar power is electricity needs of the entire world. underground where it maintains its higher already moving past the idea stage. But it is not just Americans that are temperature and can be retrieved months There are literally millions of kilometres of working on the solar-roads idea. UK firm later and pumped though heating systems in roads and, as they absorb heat from the sun Astucia has developed a road stud that buildings. Many apartment buildings in the every day, there is an abundance of surface contains small solar panels and emits LED light Netherlands have already benefited from this that could be utilised. to illuminate dark roadways. The idea replaces clever innovation and the company plans to US company Solar Highways is already the need for conventional, energy-consuming export the technology in coming years. designing a system that combines a durable overhead streetlights and the studs have With ideas such as these already being put and translucent glass road surface with already been installed on 120 UK roads, with into action, the notion that the world’s roads photovoltaic solar collectors that could be results showing a 70 per cent drop in night- could be a significant free energy source is a wired directly into the electricity grid. The time accidents. realistic one. It could well be that, in the not so innovative design also incorporates the ability Another way of using road surfaces as a distant future, the road you drive on not only to heat the roads in winter, thus providing an source of energy has been developed in the helps you to get to a destination but may be important safety benefit in preventing the Netherlands. A forward-thinking company powering your home as well. build-up of ice and snow. has invented a way to siphon solar heat from – Sustainable Energy Development Office, With numerous improvements in the asphalt roads to help heat nearby buildings. WA Government energy 15 efficiency april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus Significant reduction in resources industry energy consumption proving difficult

Sustained effort is needed on both incremental and step-change technologies for the resources industry to significantly reduce overall energy use

By Ray Shaw [email protected]

nergy use is a critical component within the Aus- lian operations handle about five billion tonnes per year of Energy tralia resources industry. The cost and availability solid material with coal (50 to 60 per cent) and iron ore accounts for are major factors in determining the growth rate of (about 20 per cent) dominating over other metallic miner- about 30 per the industry, the extent of processing carried out als, industrial minerals and construction materials. cent of the Ewithin Australia and long-term profitability. The large open-cut operations typically used have total cost of Currently the minerals industry consumes about waste:ore ratios (strip ratio) of around 8:1 for coal and 3:1 producing 30 per cent of all electricity generated. The total resources for iron ore. Moving the waste material using diesel haul aluminium. industry, including oil and liquid natural gas, accounts for trucks is the largest user of energy and a primary target for about 10 per cent of total Australian energy use. reducing energy. The resources industry energy usage has increased over The industry is pursuing specific initiatives including the past 15 years, through both growth and higher energy changing design parameters for mines to minimise strip ra- intensity per tonne of product. Increased LNG produc- tios and haulage distance for the trucks and using alterna- tion and the need to process more difficult lower-grade tive technologies for material movement. orebodies have mainly contributed to the higher intensity. In pursuing alternative technologies, large tonnage Increasing energy cost, supply limitations and the im- conveyors with the ability to traverse uneven topography portance of greenhouse gas emissions are driving the in- and/or handle steep slopes, such as from pit walls, offer dustry to reduce energy demand and consumption across particular opportunities – as does increased use of rail for the whole production chain. internal mine material movement. The relative energy intensity of these systems is truck/ Mining pipeline/conveyor/rail in the ratio of around 50:15:13:1. Moving large tonnages of material, both ore and waste, is The preference for trucks largely stems from their greater the major consumer of energy in mining. Overall, Austra- flexibility, especially for changing mine faces, and lower The NSW Office for Science and Medical Research www.osmr.nsw.gov.au

Promotes growth, innovation and the public profile of science and medical research to achieve better outcomes for the people of NSW through:

• Funding to foster and build NSW research capabilities • Legislative, regulatory and policy advice • Creation of research networks and hubs • Science communication and public engagement • Forums, workshops, conferences and promotions • Strategic investments in areas of State strength

Contact NSW Office for Science and Medical Research T: 02 9338 6700 E: [email protected] energy 17 efficiency april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus up-front costs. That may change with the new conveyor Changing energy use in smelting has proven more dif- systems being developed. ficult because the electricity is needed directly to carry out Another path is improving the efficiency of the mining the reduction step. There were major advances in the ef- equipment. The large advances in diesel engine technology ficiency of the conventional Hall–Héroult process in the now found in passenger vehicles are flowing into the larger 1980s, but since then the energy performance has largely motors in road freight and mining trucks. levelled out. There is also potential to use hybrid drive systems and/ The reduction cell designs over the past 10 to 15 years or electrical assistance where there is a need for higher have often been a compromise between capital and op- power such as on steep slopes from pits. erating productivity versus energy efficiency. The overall industry energy efficiency has improved more through Mineral processing the closure of old energy-inefficient plants and improved Crushing and grinding ore to liberate the valuable miner- operational control of the existing ones rather than radical als is the major consumer of energy in mineral processing new technologies. using around 10 to 15 per cent of Australia’s total electric- The industry is now much more actively pursuing ity. Fine grinding is the main consumer, being most com- technology changes to reduce energy. Specific initiatives monly done using very large tumbling mills where less than include: five per cent of the energy input is directly involved in the ¢the  program by Rio Tinto Alcan, announced in early actual breakage and liberation. 2008, targeting 20 per cent reduction in energy use for The industry is currently working on reducing this en- their new AP-Xe Cells; ergy use through a mix of initiatives. ¢the  work by Comalco (now Rio Tinto Alcan) on One is less grinding of low-grade material through pre- radically different lower energy drained cathode cells; concentration by more selective mining and/or sorting of ¢the  CSIRO work on using ionic liquids as an the ore after the initial crushing stages. Technology from alternative electrolyte to give 20 to 30 per cent energy the food and waste processing industry has been adapted improvement; and for use in the nickel and platinum industries and further ¢operational  improvements with current cells with developments are being pursued. Improved design and reports from overseas of five to 10 per cent lower control of existing grinding circuits to maximise efficiency energy being possible from existing technologies. is also being pursued. Advanced control systems have been The base metals industry is much less energy-intensive reported to give up to 10 per cent more production for a as the sulfur present provides much of the required energy. fixed energy input. A modern copper smelter can be largely energy self-suffi- Another initiative is use of new grinding systems, espe- cient, especially when co-generation is added to utilise heat cially High Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR), which are from the smelting reactions. Similarly, while the steel indus- much more energy-efficient. These are commonly used in the try requires significant energy, most of that comes from the cement and diamonds industries, but have been less successful carbon used as the reductant in the smelting reaction. for the harder ores found with copper and gold. Advances in The increased value of energy, and the potential for materials appear to have overcome the high wear from these carbon emissions costs, is driving all of these plants to ores and HPGRs are now being used for these deposits. improve energy efficiency. Much of this is through incre- mental changes but new technologies such as the highly Refining and extraction energy-efficient HIsmelt direct iron-making process being The Australian aluminium industry is highly active in en- demonstrated at Kwinana have the potential to make step- ergy reduction as energy, primarily electricity, is about 30 change differences. per cent of the total cost of producing aluminium. Our Even with these strong drivers, achieving significant re- alumina refineries are world leaders in energy efficiency duction in energy consumption is proving difficult. and continue to improve through increased use of new BHP Billiton has a stated aim of 13 per cent reduction co-generation plants to provide both electricity and steam in energy intensity by 2012, but the last reported figures for heating, and advanced fluid bed calciners to replace the showed an actual increase of one per cent. Similarly Rio older energy-inefficient rotary kilns. Tinto has only reported a 0.7 per cent reduction against a The new Rio Tinto Alcan Refinery in Queensland uses target of five per cent over the past 5 years. concentric tubes for heating the bauxite slurry and dissolv- The combination of long-life operations, high capital ing out the alumina, which is more energy-efficient than costs for replacing existing plants, and lack of radically dif- the traditional digesters at older plants. ferent technology are all barriers to rapid changes. 18 energy efficiency april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au

Sustained effort is needed on both incremental and Dr Ray Shaw FTSE completed a PhD in Extractive Metallurgy at step-change technologies for the resources industry to meet the University of Melbourne and after two years further research these targets and significantly reduce overall energy use. t at Imperial College joined Rio Tinto in 1978. He spent the next 30 years focused mainly on technologies for improved process- Relevant reading ing of minerals and metals with particular emphasis on reducing ¢ BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto Annual Reports and websites energy. He recently left Rio Tinto and is now becoming active with ¢ Australian Aluminium Council Submissions on the Garnaut several universities in the role of Visiting/Adjunct Professor and Report and to the Productivity Council in providing consulting services to the minerals industry in the ¢ ‘Trends in energy intensity in Australian industry’, ABARE technology/R&D area. He is widely involved in the external techni- Report December 2008 cal community within Australia and overseas. Coating could mean savings for smelters A barrier coating developed through CSIRO’s Light Metals Flagship offers aluminium smelters significant annual savings in reduced consumption of petroleum coke alone. Smelter trials indicate that the low- cost coating prevents air burn oxidation and extends the operational life of carbon anodes used in high-temperature electrolytic cells. Use of the coating was shown to produce a net reduction in carbon usage of 0.02 kilograms of carbon per kg of aluminium produced. “Our coating can provide considerable savings for the companies operating the more than 100 smelters that currently produce aluminium,” said Dr Mahnaz Jahedi of CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering. Dr Jahedi presented the results of the project at a recent meeting of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society in San Francisco. Carbon anodes are made from petroleum coke and, in the extreme heat of aluminium electrolysis cells, the exposed top and sides of the anodes can oxidise spontaneously due to air burn. The air burn can spread rapidly between anodes, and necessitates more frequent interruptions to the smelting process to replace anodes. The CSIRO coating performed significantly better than conventional aluminium spray coating. It also proved durable during trials, remaining undamaged during transport of anodes to the smelter and during in-plant handling. of the productivity improvements offered by CSIRO project officer EnzoG ulizia and Dr Mahnaz The next stage of in-plant trials will the coating. Jahedi inspect the surface of a freshly coated use several hundred coated anodes and is CSIRO plans to license the coating carbon anode, intended for use in a trial at an expected to provide a complete assessment technology to smelters. aluminium smelter. Photo: CSIRO energy 19 efficiency april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus Cutting energy use in Australian manufacturing Efforts to improve energy efficiency in the manufacturing sector are driven by the desire to minimise production and energy costs and, more broadly, by a desire to operate sustainably

By Calum Drummond [email protected]

he manufacturing sector, along with transporta- disposal, when it may be land filled, incinerated or recycled. tion, together accounts for more than 75 per cent The life-cycle perspective brings to the fore the holistic of Australia’s total energy consumption. Manufac- view required to minimise environmental impact due to turing is a significant consumer of energy, and an- energy use, while recognising the need for integrating the nualT consumption is growing at an average of 1.7 per cent. efforts along the supply chain. The December 2008 ABARE review of energy statis- LCA can influence product design, material selection, tics in the Australian industry and commercial sectors sug- component purchasing, manufacturing, waste generation, en- gests the sector as a whole has already begun to address its ergy consumption and transportation. Thus, LCA can make energy consumption by becoming more energy efficient. important contributions to the development of many energy However, further significant improvements in efficiency efficient technologies. There are many energy saving initia- and reductions in energy consumption can be made. tives afoot, including some examples that illustrate CSIRO’s As we know only too well, energy generation from research and contributions to the manufacturing sector. fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases. The Australian Gov- ernment’s proposed Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Cold Spray technology seeks to address Australia’s growing emissions and will Cold Spray is a revolutionary and rapidly emerging industrial likely result in increased energy prices. coatings technology that is transforming the Australian In the business sector there is increasing pressure to manufacturing industry with a leading-edge, modern, less continue to adopt sustainable business practices and report labour-intensive, fast, cost-effective and environmentally friendly appropriately. Potential increases in future energy costs approach, to improve their competitiveness in the global market. coupled with the need to reduce our impact on society and It is applicable to a wide range of industries and replaces the environment are key drivers for the manufacturing sec- multi–step conventional manufacturing techniques with one- tor to become more energy efficient. step direct manufacturing. It is possible to directly manufacture Manufacturing organisations are adopting a variety of oxygen-sensitive materials, such as titanium and tantalum, methods in becoming more sustainable and reducing en- without vacuum or a protective atmosphere, using Cold Spray. ergy consumption, while remaining profitable. Cold Spray technology has the following advantages: Identifying and reducing energy waste and implement- ¢ in some cases it has reduced costs by 400 per cent; ing measurement systems to assist with managing and ¢ four layers of electroplating replaced with single layer of monitoring energy demand are the low-hanging fruit in re- copper/zinc Cold Spray coating; and ducing energy use in the manufacturing sector. Significant ¢ the combined environmental impact of Cold Spray coatings improvements can also be realised through the adoption are at least 70 per cent less than competitive coatings – less of new technologies or systems designed for increased pro- energy and water consumption with no hazardous chemicals. ductivity and improved energy efficiency. This is an area of increased interest and opportunity. Thermoelectric generators – heat in, Life cycle analysis (LCA) is an holistic approach to electricity out identifying where energy and resource savings can occur. Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) have the potential to launch a It considers energy used in obtaining and processing raw solid-state revolution in energy conversion and waste heat recovery. materials in the manufacture of elaborately transformed Unlike conventional engines, in which the ‘working fluid’ goods, over the service life of the product, and during its is a liquid or steam, in TEGs it is a flow of electrons. TEGs have 20 energy efficiency april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au

no moving parts and have demonstrated long-term reliability component. It also includes replacement of high-energy processes over 30 years, without maintenance, in specialised commercial with lower-energy ones, such as low temperature heat treatments. applications and in space exploration. For example, CSIRO has developed technology for the TEGs have not been adopted widely because their formation of titanium sheet directly from powder, rather than efficiency is only about five to seven per cent. At CSIRO we casting ingots from a melt and then rolling. The ingot route are working to develop advanced TEGs. If we can raise their requires up to 10 processes, while formation from powder efficiency to 15 to 20 per cent, widespread use in heat recovery needs only one, dramatically reducing financial and energy could become a reality. costs. We aim to reduce these costs by two-thirds. There are many potential applications. Aluminium smelting, general foundry processes, ceramic and building materials Material redesign and replacement production, food processing, industrial incinerators, and internal Material redesign and replacement can include replacement

combustion engines use a huge amount of energy, much of it of high energy/high CO2 components with lower energy lost as waste heat. Transport is a major energy consumer and components.

a CO2 polluter, where the waste heat accounts for 60 to 70 per For example, CSIRO has developed geopolymers that cent of the fuel used. can replace Portland cement. This will potentially cut the greenhouse gas emission of concrete by 50 per cent, thus ATM high pressure die casting dramatically reducing the five per cent contribution that New CSIRO technology known by the shorthand name of ATM cement production makes to global industrial emissions. saves the die casting industry 10 to 20 per cent of the melting energy used in making castings. A paradigm shift in ‘runner’ These are only a handful of examples, but there is a design has permitted die casters around the world to reduce wealth of energy-efficient technologies and opportunities the mass of metal used in their runner systems. for research in the manufacturing sector, so the future in The runner is the path between the casting machine and this area is bright. the casting mould, along which the molten metal flows to fill the Efforts to improve energy efficiency in the manufactur- mould. Metal that freezes in the runner does not form part of the ing sector are driven by the desire to minimise production finished casting. It is scrapped and re-melted after casting. and energy costs and, more broadly, by a desire to operate ATM die casting reduces the volume of molten metal sustainably. required to produce the parts, and hence reduces energy use. In Improving energy efficiency is a valuable near-term addition, the reduced volume of scrap that has to be re-melted step along the road to sustainability. It can deliver increased further assists in reducing energy requirements. Moreover, ATM productivity, a reduction in pollution, lower consumption improves the quality of the cast components. of natural resources, and improved financial performance ATM technology has the potential to become the new – all this without affecting the benefits that are derived standard for runner design in die casting in an industry keen to from energy use. reduce its environmental footprint and reduce manufacturing However, the true end goal for manufacturing is a costs. ATM is now used for a range of manufactured goods and fundamental shift from the old ‘take-make-waste’ model is being trialled for products made by BMW, Mercedes, Audi, to closed-loop manufacturing. Many manufacturers are Nissan and GM, to name just a few. responding to the signals from the economy, government and consumers as they explore numerous opportunities to Radical process simplification become more energy efficient and sustainable. t Radical process simplification includes new technologies that dramatically reduce the number of processes required to form a Dr Calum Drummond FTSE is Chief of CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering and holds an Australian Research Council (Right) Cold Federation Fellowship hosted by CSIRO Molecular and Health sprayed and Technologies. Prior to these current appointments, he was seconded laser engraved from CSIRO to be the inaugural Vice President Research at CAP-XX, printing roller; which manufactures electrical double-layer capacitors for consumer (far right) Cold electronic products. The World Economic Forum designated CAP-XX sprayed and as a 2005 global Technology Pioneer. Dr Drummond is a Fellow of the electronically Australian Institute of Company Directors and a Fellow of the Royal engraved Australian Chemical Institute and is also a member of the Federal printing roller. Government’s Future Manufacturing Industry Innovation Council. energy 21 efficiency april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus Reducing transport energy demand and consumption Private sales favour small to medium cars, whereas business and governments lean towards larger cars and higher fuel consumption per vehicle kilometre travelled

By John Wright [email protected]

hen it comes time to purchase a new car, what privately, with more than a third by businesses and about goes through your mind? Do you think, seven per cent by governments. Private sales favour small to ‘Within my budget, I want to have the most medium cars, whereas business and governments lean to- fuel-efficient vehicle available because it is wards larger cars and higher fuel consumption per vehicle Wbetter for the environment?’ You do? Congratulations! kilometre travelled (VKT). But some commentators say that very few buyers The automotive fuel mix used in Australia is unremark- choose one car over another because it is better for the en- able. Petrol dominates car use and diesel dominates light vironment. In fact, a high-rating television motoring pro- and heavy trucks. The only other significant contribution gram positively scoffs at the thought. is from LPG (at about three per cent) used in high-travel It is a fact of life that there are other priorities that guide vehicles such as taxis. our vehicle choice decisions. In a conversation with a mo- Diesel use in cars is growing slowly as the quality of toring industry executive some time ago, he said that his Australian diesel improves and diesel cars become more company did not sell cars, they sold image. And I am not readily available. The use of E10 (10 per cent ethanol in sure that this has changed much with the passage of time, al- petrol) is also on the rise. When oil prices get back on their though the recent oil price spike, rapid fall and current slow- growth trajectory, we can expect to see other fuel alterna- er increase is perhaps having an effect on people’s choices. tives come into the market. Combine that with increasing toll charges, ever-in- creasing congestion, horrific city parking fees and some- Transport fuel consumption thing has to give. (energy efficiency) A recent article in the Sun Herald newspaper reported The average fuel consumption of Australia’s passenger vehi- a significant swing to public transport in Sydney that may cles in 2005 was 11.2 litres per 100 kilometres (L/100km) signal a permanent change in the way we view commuter for petrol engines and 12.5 L/100km for diesel. The high- travel. Could this be the start of a significant trend – based er diesel consumption is because diesel passenger vehicles on economics, but also helping overall fuel efficiency based tend to be larger four-wheel drives (4WD) that use more on fuel use per person/kilometre? fuel, even though diesel vehicles are more fuel-efficient than comparable petrol models. Today’s situation These averages have not changed greatly for some time. Australian roads are host to about 15 million vehicles – Improvements in engine/drive train efficiencies have large- hopefully not all on the road at the same time, but some- ly been balanced by increases in power, weight and a strong times it feels that way – 77 per cent of which are cars. The demand for 4WD vehicles – despite a 10 per cent improve- remainder are light and heavy trucks with a sprinkling of ment in fuel efficiency of new light cars entering the market motorcycles and buses. over the past five years. As the average fuel consumption of The fleet has been growing at an average of 2.9 per cent cars in OECD countries is about 8.0 L/100km, there is a per year. We have a relatively old fleet with an average age fair amount of room for improvement. of 9.7 years. This average is coming down, but 20 per cent How to increase fuel efficiency is a wide and complex of our cars are still 15 or more years old. topic. It is impossible to cover all possibilities in a short Over recent years there has been a trend towards the article, but they include the following options, with some sale of smaller cars. A little more than half are bought additional reading suggested. 22 energy efficiency april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au

Technology for-cent basis to offset the CPRS fuel price impact. The -ad Perhaps the biggest recent change in automotive technol- justment mechanism will be reviewed after three years. ogy has been the introduction of hybrid cars with fuel con- There are several other policy approaches in operation, sumption of one-third to one-half of that of conventional or in the pipeline, mostly aimed at the hip-pocket nerve of cars. The technology is not cheap because of the extra consumers to encourage the building of a lower emission components involved (batteries, dual drive trains), but it transport fleet. certainly works. ‘Plug-in’ hybrids that have a greater battery capac- Consumer preferences ity will be the next progression. Plug-in hybrids can be At the end of the chain is the consumer. We can have the charged from the mains and give an extended all-electric ultimate in technology, a policy framework that encour- travel range (currently about 50km) before the petrol en- ages fuel efficiency and even a will to lower our carbon gine is used – and this would cover the needs of the major- footprint, but will we take action? ity of commuters. Perhaps the ‘image’ sold by vehicle manufacturers is All-electric cars also show great promise with advances changing – a fuel-efficient hybrid (or even a small electric in battery technology.* car) might be a better image than a fuel-slurping 4WD. Increasing transport electrification means that we will And I don’t just mean the early adopters. This is the be replacing oil-derived fuels with additional electricity sort of attitudinal change that is needed across society to generation. Given that more than 85 per cent of Austra- convert our fleet to a more fuel-efficient mix. t lia’s electricity comes from fossil fuels, overall greenhouse gas (GHG) benefits will initially be small but, as we pro- Additional reading gressively reduce the GHG intensity of our power gen- ¢ ‘Vehicle Fuel Efficiency: Potential measures to encourage the eration through technologies such as carbon capture and uptake of more fuel efficient, low carbon emission vehicles’, sequestration and the increased use of renewables, the September, 2008 GHG benefit will improve. www.environment.gov.au/settlements/transport/vfe.html Overall fuel efficiency will also ¢ ‘Fuel for Thought: The future of transport fuels, challenges improve thanks to the greater effi- and opportunities’, June, 2008 ciency of electric motors. www.CSIRO.au/resources/FuelForThought.html In the longer term, fuel-cell ¢ ‘Options for Reducing Transport Fuel Consumption and cars hold promise – provided Greenhouse Emissions for Sydney’, cost-effective, low GHG emis- www.fbe.unsw.edu.au/cityfutures/SOAC/ sions hydrogen can be pro- optionsforreducingtransportfuel.pdf duced. All these technologies ¢ ‘The Global Fuel Economy Initiative’, IEA Open Energy will be accompanied, and en- Technology Bulletin, Issue No. 57, March 2009 Honda’s hanced by lightweight structural materials. www.iea.org/impagr/cip/index.htm Ultrabattery vehicle. Policy * Australia certified in April the Mitsubishi i MiEV, a plug-in Policy has an important role to supply an appropriate electric car, for use on our roads – one of the first countries in the background to encourage more fuel- efficient technologies world to give a factory built, all electric vehicle approval to drive and systems. on city streets – Editor. A public discussion paper on vehicle fuel efficiency has been prepared by the COAG Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Dr John Wright FTSE is currently an adviser to CSIRO’s Working Group to assist in policy development. The paper Sustainable Energy Partnerships, working across CSIRO to specifically targets potential measures to encourage the up- develop major partnerships with industry, governments and take of more fuel-efficient, low- carbon emission vehicles. the community. He was previously Director of the CSIRO Energy A range of policy instruments is canvassed, such as setting Transformed Flagship, a position he held from 2002–08. Before emissions standards, charges based on GHG emissions and that he was the Chief of CSIRO Energy Technology. Current board fleet purchasing frameworks to achieve GHG objectives. memberships include the Centre for Low Emissions Technology The introduction of the proposed Carbon Pollution Re- and the Priority Research Centre for Energy. He is a member of the duction Scheme (CPRS) in 2010 will also have the effect of Australian Energy Alliance, the Low Emissions Energy Development increasing fuel prices as part of the process to reduce overall Fund Advisory Group, the IEA Hydrogen Implementing Agency and GHG emissions, although fuel taxes will be cut on a cent- the International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy. energy 23 efficiency aPril 09 www.atse.org.au Focus

We can ease primary production energy requirements Cutting fertiliser and agrochemical use on-farm – as well as using less fuel – can reduce primary production energy demand

By James Ridsdill-Smith [email protected]

griculture depends on fossil fuels for most of its in production between 1960 and 1985 was from increased Minimum energy and chemical requirements. Energy in ag- acreage farmed. tillage – riculture is used directly for running equipment, Farm productivity has grown an average of 2.8 per cent seed and machinery and vehicles, and indirectly for the a year for the past 20 years. This increase in productivity is fertiliser manufactureA of fertilisers and pesticides. a key element in the ongoing profitability of farming. applied in a Total energy use in Australia has increased at 3.6 per The use of larger tractors and equipment has allowed single pass cent a year for the past 30 years. Energy use by the on-farm increases in productivity by being able to prepare and sow enterprise – agricultural sector was about two per cent of the total en- land more quickly in a single pass at optimal times. Mod- on a farm at ergy end-use in 2005-06. els show that farms with a higher proportion of crops have Kellerberrin, Farms cover more than half of Australia’s landmass, and greater net returns, but these farms have a greater use of Western in 2006-07 contributed three per cent of Australia’s total and dependence on fuel and fertilisers so that any increase Australia. gross domestic product (GDP) at the farm gate, which was in fuel and fertiliser prices will impact on farm net returns. $34 billion, while post-farm gate the agricultural sector Increasing yields by applying more fertilisers and agro- made up 12 per cent of GDP. chemicals is highly profitable: for every $1 spent on fertilis- ers or agrochemicals farmers expect a return of at least $4. Productivity and energy use The farm cost of fuels and lubricants was $2,308 mil- Agricultural systems in Australia were developed when lion in 2008-09, the fertiliser cost was $3,316 million energy and land were cheap – 80 per cent of the increase and the chemical cost was $2,075 million. Together these Leaders in Engineering and Science

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All farmers in a region The index of prices paid by farmers in the 10 years pri- need to apply IPM, because poor control on one farm can or to 2007-08 has increased by 11 per cent for electricity, allow weeds, pests and diseases to move to neighbours. 50 per cent for chemicals, 120 per cent for fertilisers and Cost savings of $110 per hectare have been estimated from 144 per cent for fuel. reduced use of insecticides following the adoption of IPM The long-term outlook is for oil prices to continue to on farms. increase, leading to increases in natural gas, a key ingredi- The use of genetically engineered crops with resistance ent for ammonia and urea production, and thus more ex- to pests can be very successful. On cotton containing ge- pensive nitrogenous fertilisers. netically engineered Bt (a natural insecticide produced the The index of prices received has increased substantially Bt bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis) insecticide applica- in the past 10 years, but so has the index of prices paid. tion reductions of 40 to 50 per cent have been recorded. During 2008 fuel prices were increasing rapidly, but fol- Introduction of multi-gene-resistant cotton crops is ex- lowing the mid-year global financial crisis there was a fall pected to result in a reduction of insecticide use of up to in the Australian dollar exchange rate, fuel prices, fertiliser 80 per cent in Australia. prices, shipping freight costs and wheat contracts. This Research is required to continually improve productiv- volatility in prices and costs distorts long-terms trends and ity of farming and reduce dependence on fossil-based ener- affects farm businesses. gy inputs. Adoption of new research findings is increased Potential crop losses due to weeds, pests and diseases when the outcomes can be demonstrated on-farm. in Australia are high. Losses of production (the difference The Council of Rural Research and Development Cor- between effective pest control and average yield) average porations’ Chairs has estimated that an $11 annual return 9.9 per cent for pathogens, 10.2 per cent for insect and can be expected on average for every $1 spent on R&D in animal pests and 11.5 per cent for weeds – giving a total Australia (www.ruralrdc.com.au). potential loss of 31.6 per cent of attainable production. In spite of this evidence, public investment in agricul- In addition, post-harvest losses can be another 10 per tural research in Australia has been static for two decades, cent. Expenditure on herbicides was $915 million in 2007, and percentage research intensity (agricultural R&D/agri- on fungicides and plant growth regulators $133 million, cultural GDP) has declined (www.nff.org.au). on insecticides $262 million and on animal health prod- Improved investment in R&D would help improve ef- ucts $707 million. These agrochemicals are important ficient use of energy in primary production. t tools to control pests and maintain productivity. Ross Kingwell from the Department of Agriculture and Food, Reduction strategies WA, provided insights into energy use on-farm. There are a number of strategies to reduce demand for fer- tilisers and agrochemicals on-farm, thus reducing primary Further reading production energy demand. ¢ The Garnaut Climate Change Review (2008), New high-yielding cultivars can be planted to improve www.garnautreview.org.au crop and pasture productivity without increasing energy use. ¢ Ratcliffe JC (2002) Pesticide use in Australia, Dependence on nitrogenous fertilisers is high when www.atse.org.au/index.php?sectionid=128 cereal crops are grown continuously, but rotating cereal, ¢ National Farmers Federation (2009), ‘NFF Federal Budget canola or cotton crops with legume crops or pastures re- Submission’, www.nff.org.au turns nitrogen to the soil, provides cash returns and pro- vides a break crop to prevent diseases and pests building up Dr James Ridsdill-Smith FTSE has 40 years’ experience as populations over a period of time. an applied entomologist in CSIRO at Armidale, NSW, and Perth, Integrated pest management (IPM) is a strategy to WA, and has held the positions of Program Leader for Pest suppress pests while reducing dependence on agrochemi- Management and Strategy Director in the Division of Entomology. cals. The techniques used include cultivars with resistance He has published extensively on plant/insect interactions and to pests, enhancing natural enemies and managing the pest management. Now he is a post-retirement fellow with CSIRO, crops or pastures so they are less favourable to weed, pest Principal Scientist for the CRC National Plant Biosecurity, and or pathogen populations, with reduced agrochemical use. Adjunct Professor in the School of Animal Sciences, University of No one tool will eradicate the pests, but in combination WA. A former President of the Australian Entomological Society, he the effects can maintain populations below damaging levels. was recently elected Secretary of the Council for the International Biological control is the deliberate introduction of ex- Congresses of Entomology. 26 energy efficiency april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au Localised generation can reduce built environment energy demand A key strategy for reducing our cities’ carbon emissions, which may be one of the most effective ways of reducing Australia’s overall demand for energy

By Carol Battle, Rob Clinch and James Selth [email protected], [email protected] [email protected]

eter Head had a simple message when he visited power stations is approximately 35 per cent, with most of Australia recently: the technologies and funding the thermal energy lost directly out of the chimney stack mechanisms for a low-emission future are feasible. and as evaporation through the cooling towers. Mr Head, Arup’s global head of planning, deliv- Because of the remote locations of the power stations P ered the Brunel International Lecture Series to audiences – determined, in part, by access to cheap fuel and water – keen to understand how cities will adapt if countries are they provide no opportunities for capturing low-grade en- to meet international obligations such as those outlined in ergy from waste heat streams and little scope for improving the Kyoto Protocol. their overall thermal efficiency. The challenge for the world’s cities is to reduce emis- Meanwhile, the imminent introduction of the Carbon sions generated by their existing energy-intensive assets Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS) is fuelling interest while allowing for projected growth over the next 20 years. in localised energy generation. Under this model, power Emission modelling work undertaken by Arup for the generators are positioned within communities to provide City of Melbourne indicates that stationary energy de- electricity for local consumption, and the waste heat they mand from residents and the commercial sector accounts produce is captured and used for space conditioning via a for nearly 60 per cent of the city’s emissions. Without in- local district heating or district cooling system. centives and policy directions, the stationary energy profile The re-use of waste heat to provide space heating is across all sectors is projected to grow further. referred to as either co-generation or combined heat and Funding arrangements and cost-saving initiatives for power (CHP). If the waste heat is also used to produce retrofitting existing building stocks in Australia’s central chilled water for cooling through the use of an absorption business districts have already proven to be successful. For chiller, it is called tri-generation. Commonly, the preferred new developments, policy initiatives and environmentally fuel source in these local power generators is natural gas, sustainable design technologies are being assessed and im- but other fuels can be considered, depending on availability. plemented. This approach can significantly improve the thermal ef- Localised energy generation, which is complemented ficiency of the electricity generation process and removes by distributed heating and cooling systems, has been used the need for additional space conditioning in buildings in Europe for a number of years and is being assessed as connected to the district heating or cooling system, thus a feasible technology for Australian commercial and resi- reducing the overall demand for energy. dential buildings. It can be considered for both existing Localised energy generation also eliminates transmis- and new buildings, and we believe that it has huge poten- sion costs and transmission losses for the local consumer, tial for reducing the demand for energy in this country. and frees up capacity for use by other consumers on the existing distribution and transmission assets. The argument for localised If this allows any planned network augmentation to be energy generation deferred, industry regulations stipulate that the cost sav- The traditional power supply structure in Australia is based ings should be shared with the local generator. around large fossil-fuelled power stations linked into net- The suitability of co-generation or tri-generation for works that deliver electricity to population centres for con- any given location is determined by the needs of the local sumption. The thermal efficiency of these large baseload buildings and the demands of the climate. However, it is energy 27 efficiency april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus clear that localised energy generation, in this format, offers tricity). Importantly, from an investor’s point of view, as- several benefits: sociated revenue streams and project life-cycles that allow ¢reduced  demand for electricity produced from ineffi- commercially reasonable payback periods, net present val- cient baseload power stations and, therefore, reduced ues (NPVs) and rates of return are also becoming clearer. carbon emissions; Because the CPRS will include a carbon cost, there ¢additional  distribution capacity for the energy distrib- is the potential for significant costs to be added to tradi- utor; tional energy generation processes, and for these costs to ¢multiple  revenue streams (namely, electricity, heating be passed onto consumers. and cooling) for the generator; and Investors in low-emission, localised energy generation ¢lower  capital and operational costs and, therefore, low- are likely to avoid the majority of carbon costs, reducing er cost to the consumer. operating costs and improving payback periods and NPVs. The installation of a local generation plant must be Furthermore, as Australia experiences rapid increases in compatible with the requirements of the network service core energy costs, due to various demand and supply driv- providers who supply gas to, or distribute electricity from, ers, investors in localised energy generation technologies the plant. It should also be noted that there is a lack of ex- will be able to manage their exposure to rising energy prices perience in Australia to predicate regulatory practice per- while earning increasing revenue from supplying energy to a taining to the ownership and operation of district heating/ building or precinct, or even exporting it back into the grid. cooling pipe work located in the public realm. It is becoming more and more apparent that localised energy generation makes both environmental and eco- Costing in the externalities nomic sense. It is a key strategy for reducing our cities’ car- Continuing economic pressures associated with the global bon emissions, and may be one of the most effective ways financial crisis are ensuring that investors, both public and for reducing Australia’s overall demand for energy. t private, are thoroughly investigating the commercial ro- bustness of sustainability focused investments. CAROL BATTLE is a senior sustainability consultant with Arup, This form of transformational investment will be cen- who has more than 10 years’ experience in a range of carbon tral to the transition of developed economies from the In- management and communications projects in Australia, Hong dustrial Age to what Peter Head calls the “ecological age”, Kong and the UK. She specialises in the design and delivery of but potential investors are seeking to better understand carbon management strategies and behaviour change programs the business case in a traditional investment context before for commercial and government clients. taking their involvement further. ROB CLINCH is a senior engineer with Arup. He has more than When considering the financial merits of low-emission 20 years’ experience in the energy industry, and has in-depth energy generation technologies, a traditional commercial knowledge of energy consumption practices and technologies. He assessment approach can be used, although standard quan- managed Australia’s largest single industrial energy audit program, titative factors have to be balanced against qualitative driv- where 600 industrial sites were audited as part of an overall ers such as reputational benefits, and planning and regula- demand management action plan. tory uncertainty. JAMES SELTH is a senior sustainability consultant with Arup Investors in low-emission generation technologies working with commercial and public sector institutions in the must make a significant financial commitment over an -ex areas of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and commercially tended period. However, those who are prepared to pursue sponsored development (CSD). His specialist skills include long-term returns will be best placed to take advantage of project management, corporate planning and strategy, business the opportunities of the emerging carbon economy. framework analysis, process mapping, risk assessment, client While localised energy generation investments are not management and financial modelling. immune to negative qualitative considerations, such as planning and regulatory uncertainty, they are enjoying im- proving commercial certainty compared to other potential Under the model of localised power generation, low-emission technology investments. power generators are positioned within Increasing activity amongst various market partici- communities to provide electricity for local pants – technology providers, specialist energy consul- consumption, and the waste heat they produce tants and regulators – is providing a clearer picture of is captured and used for space conditioning via capital and operating expenditure, maintenance costs and a local district heating or district cooling system. logistics, and the cost of services (for example, gas and elec- Don’t just dream, think...

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08/1780 CRICOS Provider No. 00026A www.eng.usyd.edu.au/engineeringsydney H20485 ATSE in the news 29

April 09 www.atse.org.au Focus ‘Hidden’ costs should be counted to optimise clean energy efforts

Australia needs to take account of all costs associated with alternate CEO power sources as its moves to constrain carbon dioxide (CO2) and Dr Margaret other emissions in pursuit of climate change mitigation policies. Hartley, Greater focus on the hidden costs (or externalities) of Minister electricity generation, preferably quantified in monetary terms, Tanner will help Australia to gain maximum social and environmental and the benefit from the portfolio of electricity generating technologies President, it will use for meeting emission reduction targets. Professor These are key findings of an ATSE report, The Hidden Costs Robin of Electricity: Externalities of Power Generation in Australia, Batterham, launched in Melbourne by Finance Minister Lindsay Tanner after the in March. launch. Authored by Dr Tom Biegler and Professor Zhang Dong‑ke, climate change, health and safety. the report says existing methods for valuing externalities ATSE notes that the main rationale for this study is that (environmental and social costs that are not accounted for in the Australian Government, like others in the industrialised the market price of electricity) give an idea of the relative costs world, has adopted climate change policies such as the Carbon for different technologies in Australia, but some major gaps and Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS) for constraining CO2 and uncertainties need to be resolved. other emissions. Reduction targets call for a new portfolio of The report says these are costs that arise from impacts on, for low-emission electricity generating technologies. example, climate, human health, crops, structures and biodiversity. The Academy believes that to meet these targets the focus Until identified and quantified in monetary terms, they remain must be on technology. Its recent study Energy Technology for hidden, playing a limited role in technology selection. Climate Change: Accelerating the Technology Response looked While the power generation technologies of the future at technical, commercial and investment issues for various will inevitably have lower external impacts relating to CO2 technology scenarios. It noted that about $250 billion would be emissions, policy and investment decisions relating to electricity needed to bring the new technologies into production by 2050 generation can only take into account all social costs and and there would also be heavy development costs. benefits with adequate understanding of these externalities. The Report notes that best available studies of externalities The ATSE report recommends that: of power generation are the European Union’s ExternE  Australian capability in externality assessment and valuation Project and its successor NEEDS (New Energy Externalities should be enhanced and expanded, especially via collaboration Development for Sustainability). Drawing upon a huge body with relevant international agencies and centres of expertise; of research and analysis, ExternE has produced estimates of  an increased policy focus on externalities by Federal and State monetary costs of greenhouse, health and other environmental governments so that energy policies maximise future social impacts of power station emissions in Australia. benefit. It calls for verification that European-derived figures ATSE concludes that attaching monetary values to are applicable to Australian conditions and recommends externalities is problematical and subjective but of increasing that one federal department (possibly the Department importance to an ever-more-watchful and well-informed society. of Resources, Energy and Tourism) should be responsible “With billion-dollar investments at stake, more work collection, analysis and dissemination of externalities data; is needed to reduce the uncertainties and to explore the  an enhanced externalities database with investment-grade externalities of prospective technologies for reducing carbon data, preferably as monetary valuations, for the associated emissions,” ATSE says. “Their evaluation, including open externalities in order to inform policy development and communication, discussion and understanding within the optimise the future portfolio of generating technologies; and community, should not be left until too late.” t  a broadly based public communication program to give the Australian community reliable and factual information on The Hidden Costs of Electricty: Externalities the social and environmental externalities of its electricity of Power Generation in Australia is available at generation technology options, especially in regard to www.atse.org.au/index.php?sectionid=128 30 atse in the news

April 09 Focus www.atse.org.au Electricity rationing and blackouts “inevitable” without technology boost

Key speakers included:  ATSE – Professor Robin Batterham, President; Royal  Academy of Engineering – Dr John Loughhead, Executive Director, UK Energy Research Council; Engineering  Academy of Japan – Dr Tsuneo Nakahara, President; acatech  – German Academy of Science and Engineering – Dr Andreas Müller, Energy Supply and Climate Change specialist; and South  African Academy of Engineering – Dr Adi Paterson, CEO of ANSTO. Other participating ATSE Fellows included: Dr John Burgess, author of the Energy Technology for Climate Change report; Professor Mary O’Kane, NSW Chief Scientist and Chief Engineer; Dr Ziggy Switkowski, Chair of the 2006 UMPNER inquiry; Mr Peter Laver, ATSE Vice-President; Dr David Brockway, Chief of CSIRO Energy Technology; Ms Else Shepherd, Chair of A powerful force for change: delegates at the ATSE-conducted workshop on Powerlink Queensland; Mr Ken Dredge, Chair of Tarong Energy accelerating technological change in electricity generation. Queensland; Mr Martin Thomas, Chair of Dulhunty Power; and Dr John Sligar, former Chief Scientist of Pacific Power. Australia faces inevitable electricity rationing and the threat of The workshop communiqué noted that carbon pricing blackouts unless governments act urgently to ensure large- uncertainty made new coal-generating capacity problematic. scale investments are made in new power-generating capacity, The technology for both carbon capture and storage (CCS) according to experts from five nations. and geothermal was not ready, water for hydro expansion They agree that Australia’s energy security requires a major was not available and current government policy prohibited increase in baseload electric power generation capacity to consideration of nuclear power. meet the expected growth in demand – which will emerge It noted that intermittent renewable energy sources independent of climate change and despite a much greater provided no short-term solution to baseload power security current focus on energy efficiency and conservation measures. because of their intrinsic variability, but that, in the longer term, They see a high level of urgency to accelerate the introduction storage solutions may help overcome some of the variability of of new technologies, given the need to meet the greenhouse gas intermittent renewables. (GHG) targets and timelines established by government. Underpinning the high level of urgency to accelerate Under these conditions sustainable new baseload power is the introduction of new technologies was the fact that limited to a portfolio of a few technologies, all with problems. moving new technologies from demonstration to full-scale These are key elements of a communiqué resulting from a commercial deployment could take as long as 10 years, the recent three-day international workshop conducted by ATSE in communiqué said. Melbourne. ATSE President Professor Robin Batterham said the Delegates from the Royal Academy of Engineering (UK), workshop’s call for urgent new energy technologies should the Engineering Academy of Japan, acatech (the German not be overlooked. “This is a key issue for Australia and one on Academy of Science and Engineering) and the South African which we need to move now to ensure energy security and Academy of Engineering joined ATSE Fellows and an invited sustainability,” he said. group of Australian experts to focus on the major challenges in “The communiqué notes the need for a fundamental accelerating technological change in electricity generation. analysis of options – a need for a bottom-up approach to The 50 participants focused on the strategies necessary analyse the likely scenarios of the technology mix that would be to accelerate the deployment of electricity generation deployed to supply the required generation capacity. technologies at major commercial scale to provide sustainable “This analysis must consider matters such as energy electric power in Australia. efficiency and conservation, generating technology risk and w

ATSE in the news 31

aprilApril 09 www.atse.org.au Focus

financial risk, resource availability, price of electricity supplied exist that there is an adequate skills base to support the and government and industry support. required introduction on a massive scale of new generating “With appropriate support ATSE could undertake this technologies. Education and training policies must ensure project,” Professor Batterham said. skills shortages do not impede accelerating the necessary Other key issues noted included: investments. Urgency  of intervention. There are considerable Community  awareness and support. The introduction of new technological and financial risks attached to the power- technologies requires community awareness and support. generating technologies currently under development and This should not be a matter solely for government. Many they remain uneconomical compared with current baseload organisations, including the Academy, have a role to play in coal generation plants. this matter as independent sources of factual information. Carbon  price. The expected Carbon Pollution Reduction Nuclear  energy. The international contributors to the Scheme (CPRS) price of carbon will not be sufficient to workshop indicated that nuclear energy will need to be encourage investment in new technologies of the magnitude part of their future baseload energy mix if deep cuts in GHG required to demonstrate commercial viability in the time were required. They expressed concern that excluding this scale required. Novel solutions aimed at reducing the capital option in Australia meant considerable reliance was being investment required and risk are required to overcome this. placed on the technological and financial viability of CCS Public  sector support. While significant funds have already and geothermal energy. They suggested it may be prudent been committed by governments for RD&D, these are to address the reduction or removal of the technological, not sufficient to meet the challenges ahead. Investment regulatory and other risks that currently shape government in emission-reduction technologies will generate public policy on nuclear energy. t

good (CO2 reduction) as well as private returns. This justifies additional public support at the R&D and demonstration The communiqué from the Serious stages through to the point that the technologies are able to international workshop on accelerating discussions attract finance on normal commercial terms. technological change in electricity between Long-term  stability. Investment in large-scale commercial generation conducted by ATSE is sessions at plants requires long-term certainty in planning, regulation available at the three-day and financial conditions. This demands clarity in the relative www.atse.org.au/index. international roles of governments, markets and regulators. php?sectionid=1129 workshop.  A strategic focus on technologies. New technologies need both large-scale demonstration and back up R&D. Given their strategic importance, Australia must take a leadership role in major demonstrations of several technologies: CCS, geothermal, solar thermal/PV and brown coal drying. With other technologies, Australia must cooperate internationally with large-scale demonstrations. The workshop also agreed that several other issues needed urgent attention: Grid  expansion and stability. The electricity grid must be planned to meet the long-term demands imposed by a diversity of technologies supplying power, including baseload and intermittent renewables, remote locations for some power generation and the need for stability of the system under variable supply and demand situations. There is a need to introduce consideration of the ‘national interest’ when planning future expansion of the grid. Skills  to support the technology portfolio. Serious doubts NICTA_IEEE_advert_A5hrzntl finalPage 1 3/2/09 12:05:54 PM

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090306_Ad_Clunies Ross.indd 1 16/03/2009 12:37:19 PM energy 33

april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus Powering the future: solar cells by the metre

Recently commenced trials promise a new era of solar cells that are printed like money. World-leading research from CSIRO’s Future Manufacturing Flagship, as part of the Victorian Organic Solar Cell Consortium (VICOSC), aims to develop flexible, large- area, cost-effective, reel-to-reel printable plastic solar cells. Victorian Minister for Energy and Resources Peter Batchelor announced the start of printing trials by Securency International, a banknote printing company. He said the project was at the half- way point and the progress being made was extremely good, with the printing trials occurring six months ahead of schedule. “These solar cells are cutting-edge technology and offer Victorian Minister for Energy and Resources Peter Batchelor (left) and CSIRO's Future advantages over traditional solar technology because of the Manufacturing Flagship research leader Dr Gerry Wilson examining a trial print-out of potential to mass produce the cells cheaply and install them flexible organic solar cells. Photo: Tracey Nicholls, CSIRO over large areas, such as rooftops,” he said.

The Minister for Innovation, Industry, Science and Research, CO2 emissions from major sources, such as power stations. One Senator Kim Carr, said the trial was an exciting development for of the barriers to commercial uptake of the technology is the the solar industry in Australia. current high cost, partly due to the amount of extra energy “This research is at the forefront of polymer technology, needed – known as the energy penalty – when adding carbon which has already brought to the world the banknotes used capture to existing power stations. in Australia and 21 other countries,” Senator Carr said. “It is an “Currently, about 80 per cent of the cost of CCS systems important step in building up the solar industry in Australia.” is in capturing the CO2,” says CO2CRC chief technologist Barry “We have assembled a team of world-class scientists Hooper. “Reducing capture cost is therefore the most effective spanning chemistry, physics and materials science to develop way to make significant savings on the overall cost. Process the molecular building blocks that will form the basis of this solar integration is one of several pathways our research teams are energy revolution,” CSIRO Executive Dr Steve Morton said. “This pursuing to drive down capture costs.” research will act as a catalyst to the creation of world-leading The CO2CRC team, which included researchers from Australian businesses in the field of printable electronics.” Monash University, used process integration studies to identify The three-year $12 million VICOSC solar cell project is 50 per minimum energy targets. They considered the heat and cooling cent funded by the Victorian Government through an Energy requirements of the power plant and capture plant holistically, Technology Innovation Strategy Sustainable Energy Research rather than individually, and found that initial energy penalty and Development Grant and includes researchers from CSIRO's estimates could be substantially reduced. Future Manufacturing Flagship, the University of Melbourne and This is the first such comprehensive study in the CCS area Monash University, with industry partners Securency, BP Solar, and the technique is applicable to both retrofitted and new BlueScope Steel and Merck. carbon-capture plants. While there is still engineering work to be done on capital and operating implications of this research, Cheaper carbon capture? it offers an encouraging finding to generators as they consider

New research from the Cooperative Research Centre for options to reduce their CO2 emissions. Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC) suggests that the This work was performed by CO2CRC as part of the Latrobe cost of capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from Australian power Valley Post Combustion Capture Project (LVPCC), under the stations could be reduced by 25 per cent. Victorian Government's ETIS Brown Coal R&D fund, and in Carbon capture and storage (CCS) has the potential to make association with consortium partners International Power, deep cuts in global CO2 emissions by capturing and storing Loy Yang Power and CSIRO. 34 energy

april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au $50 million wave power project possible for Albany The West Australian Government has announced it will invest Remote $12.5 million in a new low-emissions wave energy power station planned for the south coast, near Albany. Described as the world’s laboratories – biggest wave power project, with the ability to generate 50MW and save 240,000 tonnes in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the proposed Albany new horizons power station has the potential to provide electricity for 30,000 homes. Perth-based wave energy group Carnegie Corporation will be in charge Annual expenditure on Australian of developing the first two stages of the power station by 2013, and the university laboratories is $400 million company will be required to match every dollar of government funds with and some surveys indicate that these $3 from other sources. The $12.5 million government funding will come laboratories are under-utilised by up from the state’s Low Emissions Energy Development fund and will result in a to 90 per cent combined total investment in WA’s renewable energy industry of $50 million. A decision on the project will be made mid-year. The Carnegie CETO wave-energy system is different from other wave- energy devices as it operates out of sight and is anchored to the ocean floor. The system works using an array of submerged buoys, tethered to By Archie Johnston seabed pump units. [email protected] These buoys move in harmony with the motion of the passing waves, driving the pumps which, in turn, pressurises seawater which is delivered ashore via a pipeline. The high-pressure seawater is then used to drive tudents often combine their full-time studies with hydro turbines, which generate baseload, zero-emission electricity. many hours of part-time work in an environment Additionally, the high-pressure seawater can be used to supply a where internet access is prevalent and technology reverse osmosis desalination plant, which replaces the need for GHG- is rapidly changing. emitting pumps that are usually required for such plants. SThere are many ways in which technology can support Carnegie Corporation has since received approval from the Victorian the delivery of education, one being the provision to stu- Government to use and develop coastal Crown land for three wave dents of 24/7 remote laboratory access. energy projects, to undertake marine surveys and to trial the CETO wave Compared with traditional laboratories, where students energy technology at Portland, Warrnambool and Phillip Island. must be present for a number of hours, remote laboratories support the need for flexibility by providing student access Nanotechnology and social through the internet at any time and from any location. It is inclusion report released also possible to share laboratory infrastructure across insti- Nanotechnology will have a strong local future if industry and tutions, both nationally and internationally. community can agree on the type of technologies that should Most laboratory experiments in undergraduate engineer- be adopted, according to one of a number of findings from a ing programs are becoming more complicated and expensive nanotechnology report released by Innovation Minister Senator Kim Carr. to construct and maintain, particularly in relation to chang- The report is based on a workshop on social inclusion and ing education needs, in addition to OH&S obligations. engagement on nanotechnology held in Canberra. It shows that different However, these laboratories have low utilisation levels interest groups sometimes have strongly differing perspectives on and are often duplicated across universities. It is estimated the adoption of new technologies. It also shows how it is possible for that the annual expenditure on Australian university lab- different voices to come together. oratories is $400 million and some surveys indicate that "This workshop and subsequent report demonstrate the power these laboratories are under-utilised, by up to 90 per cent. of big ideas for small and exciting technologies," Senator Carr said. "In Remote laboratories provide an opportunity for this particular it has found the pressing need for increased dialogue between inefficiency to be addressed and for universities to share interest groups. resources, save costs and avoid duplication – as well as pro- "Industries of the future will be based on the convergence of vide opportunities for their staff to collaborate on develop- nanotechnology with biotechnology, information technology and ing innovative teaching and learning delivery approaches. cognitive technologies – all of which will have a significant impact across The first of the large-scale teaching remote laboratories our economy and society.” that catered for hundreds of students emerged in 2000, and A copy of the full report is available at www.nanotechnology.gov.au. education 35

april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus

currently the most advanced examples are at the University tween universities but also aims to provide access to high of Technology, Sydney (UTS) – the Remote Laboratory school and TAFE students, who can use this technology of the Faculty of Engineering – and the Massachusetts In- platform to access state-of-the-art engineering and sci- stitute of Technology’s (MIT) ‘iLabs’. ence experiments. This will benefit all schools but nota- The state-of-the-art UTS Remote Laboratory includes bly schools in remote areas of Australia and less affluent five experiments from different disciplines of engineering: schools that struggle to meet their laboratory resource ¢ micro controller design – Computer Systems Engineering; needs. The scope of this project includes trials with at least ¢ beam deflection – Civil and Construction Engineering; four high schools in 2009. ¢ dynamics and control pneumatics – Mechanical and The planned project outcomes include: Mechatronic Engineering; ¢ a national review of current university engineering lab- ¢ fluid mechanics – Mechanical Engineering; and oratory infrastructure, usage and funding; ¢ micro controller design – ICT Engineering. ¢ a review of pedagogic design and teaching implications This system has the capacity to cater for more than of these laboratories; 1000 students each semester. The laboratory has been ¢ the design of a national laboratory sharing model; continuously enhanced, culminating in the redeveloped ¢ some laboratory sharing trials; laboratory being launched in 2008 by Senator Kim Carr, ¢ the development of technical architecture and sup- Minister for Innovation, Industry, Science and Research. porting resources; and “The UTS Engineering Remote Laboratory is a fan- ¢ the development of a connected community of learn- tastic example of how we can make the most of Australia’s ers from universities, industry, TAFE and high schools. innovation capacity and facilitate effective and efficient -col It is considered that this project will promote a rethink laboration between individuals, institutions and sectors,” of the way in which universities share laboratory resources Senator Carr said. “Australia needs to further focus on its and lead to improved laboratory experiences for engineer- research strengths and encourage greater collaboration be- ing and science students, both in Australia and overseas, as tween universities, other research institutions and industry.” well as provide unique access for high school students to A consortia led by UTS (Professor David Lowe and the engineering and science at our universities. t author) was recently awarded $2.1 million from the Aus- tralian Government’s Diversity and Structural Adjustment Professor Archie Johnston FTSE is a Fellow of both Engineers Fund to expand this education delivery model nationally to Australia and The Institution of Civil Engineers (London). He is all engineering schools in Australia. UTS is supported in Dean of Engineering and Information Technology at UTS, Chair of this project by the Australian Technology Network (ATN) the Centre for Leadership and Management (Engineers Australia), of Universities and includes the participation of Engi- Advisory Professor to Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Adviser to neers Australia, all the schools of engineering in Australia the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India, through the Australian Council of Engineering Deans a Director of Insearch and a Member of the Australian Institute (ACED), ATSE and the secondary school sector, through of Company Directors. He was the Sir John Holland 2007 Civil the Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA). Engineer of the Year and 2007 Entrepreneurial Educator of the Year The project not only focuses on laboratory sharing be- of the Business and Higher Education Roundtable.

(Far left) UTS's Remote Laboratory housing five sets of different experiments capable of serving 1000 students each semester.

(Left) one of the 16 micro controller design experiments accessed 24/7 through the internet. 36 education

april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au Rebuilding the mathematical sciences The number of students studying the Year 12 mathematics courses required for entry into technological and physical sciences and engineering courses has dropped alarmingly

By Hyam Rubinstein [email protected]

ustralia has had a stellar reputation in mathemat- tive in trying to improve the situation. The Australian ics and statistics, producing outstanding figures in Mathematical Sciences Institute (AMSI) was established areas such as fluid mechanics, non-linear analysis in November 2002 with initial funding from the Victo- and PDE, probability and statistics. In 2006 Pro- rian Government’s Science, Technology and Innovation fessorA Terry Tao was awarded a Fields Medal. Infrastructure grants program and matching funds from a Our school education in mathematics has traditionally member consortium of Australian universities and other been strong. Australia also has a notable record of achieve- mathematical organisations. ment in the International Mathematical Olympiad, with a AMSI plays a vital role in developing interactions network of outstanding teachers and academics involved with industry, fostering research workshops and intensive in training activities. courses for honours and postgraduate students. AMSI has However, in the decade between the national reviews produced high-quality textbooks, professional develop- of the mathematical sciences in 1995 and 2006, substantial ment and other materials for schools and teachers. Cur- problems have become apparent. The number of school rently, core activities of AMSI are funded by cash-strapped students studying the advanced and intermediate Year 12 university mathematical sciences departments. mathematics courses required for entry into technological In 2006 a national review of the mathematical sciences and physical sciences and engineering courses has dropped in Australia included representatives from industry. Emi- alarmingly. For advanced mathematics at Year 12, the de- nent international reviewers commented: “we found the cline was 20 per cent and many schools no longer offer this nation’s distinguished tradition in mathematics and statis- subject as an option. Intermediate mathematics numbers tics to be on a truly perilous path”. have declined by to a similar degree. In the decade from 1995 to 2006, Australian universi- The demand for mathematical and statistical graduates ties had decreased teaching and research positions in math- has outstripped supply in recent years and forecasts are ematics and statistics by more than 30 per cent. for this situation to get worse. OECD figures from 2003 The national review’s two priorities were increased gov- showed that Australia produces 0.4 per cent of its universi- ernment funding per student for the teaching of mathemat- ty graduates in the mathematical sciences, compared with ics and statistics, and support for the key infrastructure rep- the OECD average of one per cent. In fact, the number of resented by AMSI. Its five key recommendations also called such graduates from Australian universities has decreased for a campaign to increase careers awareness in the math- from 2100 to 1800 in the period 2001–07, so 0.4 per cent ematical sciences for students, parents and schools, and is now an optimistic figure. measures to improve the supply of mathematics teachers. Not surprisingly, the number of senior mathematics The Howard Government in its 2007 budget sup- teachers in Australian schools who do not have a three-year ported the first of these initiatives by raising the funding degree majoring in the mathematical sciences has increased for teaching of the mathematical sciences in universities by from 30 per cent in 1999 to 40 per cent in 2007. Finally, the nearly $3,000 per full-time student. However, only a hand- performance of Australian Year 8 students in the internation- ful of universities have passed on more than a token amount al study Trends in International Mathematics and Science of the extra funding to mathematical sciences departments, Study (TIMSS) has dropped from statistically above the UK so that the number of academic positions has continued to and the US in 1995, to below these countries in 2007. slide in the 2007-08 period by approximately eight per cent The mathematical sciences community has been ac- nationally. This was a truly disappointing outcome. education 37

april 09 www.atse.org.au Focus

Recently, with the encouragement of key advisers to foundation of knowledge and confidence in applying the Rudd Government, we produced an updated strategic mathematics and statistics, students have reduced chance plan with more focus on the schools issues. This plan can be of success both in their studies and in their careers. t downloaded from the AMSI website at www.amsi.org.au/ pdfs/National_Maths_Strategy.pdf. Hyam Rubinstein is Chair, National Committee for the It includes national registration for mathematics teach- Mathematical Sciences and has been a Professor of Mathematics ers to establish standards of mathematics knowledge re- at the University of Melbourne since 1982. He was educated at quired for teaching at different levels in schools, incentives Monash and completed his PhD at the University of California, to attract more appropriately trained graduates into teach- Berkeley, in 1974. He has published more than 100 papers in ing, establishing specialists in mathematics in primary the areas of geometric topology, differential geometry, minimal schools similar to language specialists and requests to the surfaces, shortest networks applied to underground mine design universities from the government to report on the use of and machine learning. He is a past President of the Australian the increased funding of the mathematical sciences. Mathematical Society and was elected to the Academy of Sciences Engineering and the technological sciences are natural in 2003. He was awarded the Hannan Medal in 2004 and the partners of the mathematical sciences. Without a strong Szekeres Medal in 2008.

Innisfail High School science teachers John Christensen (left) and Cameron Wayman get ‘hands on’ with a science experiment at the STELR workshop in Melbourne.

and workshops on the latest theory and science education practice; ¢ feature hands-on workshops run by teachers experienced in running the STELR STELR project in classrooms; and ¢ provide a forum for exchanging ideas and takes teachers networking opportunities for teachers from across the country. back to school One of the workshop presenters was the BHP Billiton CSIRO Science Teacher of the More than 70 science teachers from across relevance to the lives of students and teachers. Year, Soula Bennett, president of the Science Australia met in Melbourne in March as part STELR is in its second year in Australian Teachers‘ Association of Victoria, who led the of ATSE’s STELR campaign to re-energise schools, following a successful ‘proof-of- STELR program at Northcote High School science teaching in Australian high schools. concept’ program in four Victorian high in Melbourne in its proof-of-concept phase They attended a two-day workshop, organised schools in 2008. last year. by STELR Project Manager Peter Pentland, The teachers came from the 30 The STELR program is based on renewable designed to bring more relevance to science metropolitan and regional schools across energy technologies, which ATSE believes will: teaching in secondary schools. five states that are participating in the ¢ help students and teachers see science The STELR (Science and Technology STELR Pilot Project in 2009 and bringing the and technology as extremely relevant to Education Leveraging Relevance) program relevance concept to some 3000 high school their living circumstances today and in the emphasises enhanced student engagement students. ATSE met airfares, accommodation future; and interest in science and technology by and teacher release costs for the teachers ¢ demonstrate to students its potential in highlighting the relevance of science to attending the workshop. their job prospects; and everyday issues. The workshop was designed to: ¢ provide an inquiry-based platform on STELR provides schools with a carefully ¢ cover the philosophy of the STELR project; which formal studies in enabling scientific planned and resourced curriculum ¢ improve the teaching skills of participating disciplines and science-based professions unit incorporating ‘hands-on’ learning teachers; can be built. opportunities that are closely aligned with ¢ feature some of the country’s top The STELR program is funded by ATSE, state technologies that have a high degree of education academics delivering lectures education departments and private donors. 38 linkages

april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au Science meets Parliament: “tremendously worthwhile”

Christine Charles ATSE again was a sponsor of ‘Science meets Parliament’ (SmP) 2009, a major event in Canberra organised by the Federation of Australian Scientific and Technological Societies (FASTS) in March. ATSE nominated five mid-career scientists as delegates to attend: Christine Charles, Australian National University; Judith Charlton, Monash University; David Grayden, the University of Melbourne; Kate Neely, Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Automotive Technology (AutoCRC); and Mihail Popescu, the Ian Wark Research Institute. These delegates were proposed by ATSE Fellows. ATSE was well represented at FASTS, where speakers included: Dr Megan Clark FTSE (CEO, CSIRO), Professor Mary O’Kane FTSE (NSW Chief Scientist), Dr Neville Smith FTSE (Acting Director, Bureau of Meteorology) and Dr Ian Poiner FTSE (CEO, Australian Institute of Marine Science). worthwhile experience,” she said. “From my perspective, the ATSE Vice-President Peter Laver, CEO Dr Margaret Hartley two-day program was an excellent investment of time. and Deputy CEO Bill Mackey attended the event and took “It challenged me to think about the role of science and advantage of networking opportunities at the SmP dinner at innovation on several levels: from the ‘big picture’ issues about Parliament House and the National Press Club lunch, addressed the way research intersects with politics and the potential by Senator Kim Carr. impact and opportunities for science in the current global The five ATSE delegates all said the event was of value to financial crisis, to the more practical issues such as how, as them and enhanced their understanding of politics and the scientists, we can best communicate our research to policy media. makers.”

Dr Judith Charlton is Associate Director of Education and Dr Christine Charles is an Associate Professor at ANU. She Research Training at the Monash University Accident Research has an engineering degree in applied physics from France, a Centre (MUARC) and is responsible for the PhD program at the PhD in plasma physics, a French Habilitation thesis in materials centre. Judith also manages the Behavioural Safety Science science and a bachelor’s degree in music (jazz). Research Team at MUARC and was nominated by Dr Matthew For the past 20 years she has been working on experimental Judith Charlton Cuthbertson FTSE, CEO of the AutoCRC. expanding plasmas and their applications to electric propulsion, Her current research priorities microelectronics and optoelectronics, astrophysical plasmas, include driver, occupant, pedestrian and more recently to the development of fuel cells for the and cyclist behaviour in vulnerable hydrogen economy. She is the inventor of the Helicon Double road-user groups: children, youth Layer Thruster, a new electrode-less magneto-plasma thruster, and seniors. The emphasis of the for which applications include satellite station keeping or research is on understanding risk interplanetary space travel. factors and developing effective In 2009 Christine will be giving lectures around Australia countermeasures for the prevention as part of the Australian Institute of Physics ‘Women in Physics’ and reduction of injury using a lecture tour, and actively popularises her science on ABC TV’s range of study techniques including science program Catalyst, on the Discovery Channel, and via simulation, naturalistic driving and radio and public lectures. instrumented vehicles, surveys, and Nominated by ANU Professor Rod Boswell FAA FTSE, she mass crash and injury data analysis. found SmP “the perfect way to meet other scientists and “SmP was a tremendously politicians”. linkages 39

april 09 David Grayden www.atse.org.au Focus

Dr David Grayden is Senior Lecturer in the Department my understanding of framing my message for my audience, of Electrical and Electronic Engineering at the University of especially if that audience is a hardworking parliamentarian,” Melbourne and was nominated by Professor Iven Mareels FTSE. Kate said. “I have also made contact with a parliamentarian He is discipline coordinator for the Biomedical Engineering whose electorate is “doing it hard” and might benefit from some teaching program and one of the leading researchers in the of the new technologies or programs that my organisation is Neuro-Engineering research group. working on. I also have a promise that we will meet again and The focus of his teaching and research is in understanding that I can call on her if I need to in the future. how the brain processes information and how best to present “I really appreciate the opportunity that ATSE has provided information to the brain using artificial systems, such as the in sponsoring this event.” bionic ear and bionic eye. “I am keen to develop medical bionics systems that provide health benefits to people who are deaf, Dr Mihail Popescu is an applied theory physicist with blind, epileptic or in a locked-in/vegetative state,” he says. complementary training in numerical analysis and was “The SmP event was very informative, shedding new light nominated by Professor John Ralston AO FAA FTSE of the Wark on the process of speaking with and reaching out to politicians Institute at the University of South Australia. and advisers. And I think I was able to help the parliamentarians Mihail was awarded an MSc in 1992 from the Faculty of I met to better understand the impact and promise of science.” Physics, University of Bucharest, and a PhD in 2000 from Emory University, Atlanta. In Kate Neely is Education 2001 he moved to the Programs Manager with Max Planck Institute the AutoCRC and was also for Metals Research nominated by Dr Cuthbertson. in Stuttgart, joining She has a Bachelor of Applied as a research scientist Science (Chemistry and before moving to the Aquatic Biology), a Grad. Dip. Wark in 2007. in Environmental Chemistry, His present a Grad. Dip. in Secondary research interests Education and a Masters in are in the areas of: Adult Science Education. Kate Neely capillary flows and Kate has worked for a variety of scientific and thin-film drainage educational institutions and is responsible for a unique in chemically undergraduate industry-based research program at the heterogeneous AutoCRC, as well as a large cohort of postgraduate students environments; who are contributing to the understanding of safe and theoretical models sustainable mobility for the future. for, and applications She said day one of the SmP event was “a full day of having of, phoresis via our eyes opened to how hard parliamentarians work, what sort self-generated of timeframes they work within and just how many people are concentration Mihail Popescu vying for their attention at any time.” gradients; and diffusion and attachment of small particles to Day two gave her the “opportunity to discuss issues interfaces in mineral flotation. close to my heart (green cars) and the discovery that the The most important lesson Mihail saw in SmP was the parliamentarian I met with was well informed on the broader opportunity “to look at what research, in general, needs for issues and interested in the details that I could provide,” which support – not only in terms of equipment or funding, but more she found very constructive. in terms of political and social framework, because these are the “This two-day event has been really valuable in developing aspects that the MPs and senators can actually change”. 40 climate

april 09 Focus www.atse.org.au

Aerosols are fine particles suspended in the atmosphere. Sources Indian Ocean of human-generated aerosols include industry, motor vehicles and vegetation burning; natural sources include volcanoes, dust storms and temperature link ocean plankton. Human-generated aerosols have long been known to exert a to bushfires cooling effect on climate. This has partly masked Bushfires – the warming effect of increasing greenhouse The weather conditions that led to Victoria’s past link to Indian gases. As aerosol pollution is predicted to two major bushfires may be linked to lower than Ocean surface decrease over the next few decades, unmasking normal sea-surface temperatures in the eastern temperatures. of the greenhouse effect may lead to accelerated Indian Ocean, according to researchers from Photo: CSIRO global warming. CSIRO’s Wealth from Oceans National Research In an address to the recent International Flagship. Conference on Southern Hemisphere The Ash Wednesday bushfires in February Meteorology and Oceanography in Melbourne, 1983 and the Black Saturday bushfires in February Dr Rotstayn said aerosols were much more of this year were preceded by months of very than a 'negative greenhouse gas' because they dry conditions, partly caused by cooler ocean can actively force changes in winds and ocean sea-surface temperatures in the eastern Indian currents by altering the distribution of solar Ocean, which contributed to a substantial heating at the earth’s surface. reduction in spring rainfall over the south-east of “Recent climate modelling at CSIRO shows Australia. that there may be important effects on Australian The see-sawing nature of sea-surface climate due to aerosol pollution from the temperatures in the eastern and western Indian northern hemisphere,” Dr Rotstayn said. “These Ocean is commonly referred to as the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). When include an increase of rainfall in north-western Australia, and an increase the dipole is in a positive phase seawater off the Sumatra–Java coast, of air pressure over southern Australia, which may have contributed to north-west of Australia, tends to be cooler than normal, leading to a less rainfall there.” reduction in the rain-bearing systems that normally extend to Victoria Dr Rotstayn said that further research into how aerosols are during spring. influencing climate and rainfall patterns across Australia is critical to According to CSIRO’s Dr Wenju Cai, the recent bushfires in Victoria scientists’ ability to more accurately predict the longer-term effects of occurred during a protracted drought made worse by an unprecedented climate change. three consecutive positive IOD events from 2006 to 2008. “The sequence of these dipole events were captured by Argo Carbon sinks losing the measurements, which use robotic floats that spend most of their life battle with rising emissions drifting below the ocean surface,” Dr Cai says. The stabilising influence that land and ocean carbon sinks have on “Another study examining temperature records of the past 100 years rising carbon emissions is gradually weakening, says CSIRO scientist shows that the frequency of positive IODs in the past three decades is and co-Chair of the Global Carbon Project, Dr Mike Raupach FAA FTSE. much higher than over the previous 70 years. This trend is consistent “Forests, grasslands and oceans are absorbing carbon dioxide with climate change experiments from the IPCC Fourth Assessment (CO2) from the atmosphere faster than ever, but they are not Report, published in 2007, which projects a mean warming pattern keeping pace with rapidly rising emissions,” he says. across the Indian Ocean reminiscent of a positive dipole pattern.” “While these natural CO2 sinks are a huge buffer against climate The research, co-funded by the Department of Climate Change, was change, which would occur about twice as fast without them, they presented at the GREENHOUSE 2009 Conference in Perth in March. cannot be taken for granted.” Dr Raupach and Swiss scientist Dr Nicolas Gruber co-chaired Aerosols and our rainfall one of 43 sessions at the recent Copenhagen Climate Change Aerosols may have a greater impact on patterns of Australian rainfall and Conference – ‘Climate Change, Vulnerability of Carbon Sinks’. future climate change than previously thought, according to leading Dr Raupach says concern about the vulnerability of carbon sinks is atmospheric scientist, CSIRO’s Dr Leon Rotstayn. based on identifying several mechanisms that could cause the present “We have identified that the extensive pollution haze emanating stabilising role of oceans and land to be weakened or even reversed. from Asia may be reshaping rainfall patterns in northern Australia, but “Such a change would have drastic consequences for the we wonder what impact natural and human-generated aerosols are predicted magnitude or speed of climate change occurring.“ having across the rest of the country,” Dr Rotstayn said. Australian academy of Technological sciences and engineering

Number 155 IN April 2009 ICT Roundtable backs ATSE’s cloud computing project The ICT Roundtable has agreed to sponsor an organisation to outsource the management was an inspiring and influential leader in ATSE’s cloud computing initiative, with a and location of its IT equipment to such the important debate about water in this $20,000 grant being provided by CSIRO facilities. country. and NICTA. “Because they use commodity PCs and “The Peter Cullen Water and The Academy has formed a Working disks, shared power and cooling, and 100 per Environment Trust will honour and continue Group on ‘Cloud computing at peta-scale’ cent automation of operations, overall costs Peter’s legacy by building water science to construct a roadmap for Australia that are a factor-of-five less,” he says. knowledge and skills in Australia, promoting will guide effective use of this emerging The ICT Roundtable was formed in informed exchange and debate on national disruptive technology in business, September 2005 by DSTO, CSIRO, NICTA water issues, and contributing to improved government, and science. Its membership and the ICT CRCs to facilitate discussion and environmental water management.” of 15 is drawn from Fellows and others collaboration between the publicly funded ICT The objectives of the Trust, with its initial in universities, CSIRO and NICTA, with research groups and large university groups. funding from the Raising National Water strong engagement from Google, IBM and Its vision is to foster globally successful ICT Standards Program, which is managed by Microsoft Research in the US. research that addresses Australia’s national the National Water Commission, are to: “Every time you do a Google search you priorities. The timeline for this is a generational ¢ protect and enhance the Australian use a form of cloud computing, since you commitment of 15 to 20 years. natural environment, in particular aquatic are using the internet to access storage and environments and their catchments; and computers located in massive warehouse- ¢ provide and facilitate learning, sized data centres,” Dr Mudge says. Peter Cullen Trust communications and informed debate “More generally, cloud computing allows launched about aquatic environments and their The Federal Government has announced catchments, and about things that $1 million funding to help establish the influence them. Peter Cullen Water and Environment Trust, in “The Trust is expected to support memory of deceased ATSE Fellow Professor early career researchers, and people who Peter Cullen. Additional contributions will be can ‘speak for the rivers’ with clarity and sought from the public and private sectors. credibility – something Professor Cullen was Launching the Trust at Parliament House passionate about,” Senator Wong said. in Canberra in March, the Minister for Climate Change and Water, Senator Penny Wong, said: “The creation of a perpetual legacy in name Natural climate change of Peter Cullen is a fitting tribute to this great symposium Australian on the anniversary of his death a Emeritus Professor Lance Endersbee is year ago today.” convening a public symposium on Natural Professor Cullen made an “enormous Climate Change at Monash University on contribution to the management of natural 24 May (Lecture Theatre South 1, near Craig Mudge resources in Australia, most of all around rivers Alexander Theatre, 1.00-5.00pm). Professor and freshwater ecology,” Senator Wong said. Endersbee says the symposium will be “As a founding National Water “directed to explaining the natural driving Commissioner, a leading member of the forces that cause natural climate change.” Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists, For further information please email and in his many other roles, Professor Cullen [email protected]. 42 atse April 09 Focus in focus

the aerospace and aviation industry’s most management and our ability to predict and outstanding achievements by Australians cope with weather events on land and at and is made biennially by the Australian sea. We have seen this most recently as we Division of the Society. The Royal Aeronautical have dealt with disasters like the recent Society in Australia provides professional Victorian bushfires and Queensland floods, development support to aerospace and and storms and tidal events in our oceans. aviation practitioners. “Under the Rudd Government, the Lawrence Hargrave was an Australian Bureau also has a central and expanded role pioneer in flying machines and his work was in providing the hydrological information we Alan Baker a major influence on 19th century aviation need to deliver national water reform. developers, particularly in Europe and some in “Dr Ayers has expert knowledge in all the wins Hargrave the US, including the Wright Brothers. Bureau’s major fields and I wish him every Award success in his new role.” Greg Ayers to head Alan Baker (right) receives his award Bureau of Meteorology Ernie Tuck: highly from Mr David Forsyth, President Royal Renowned atmospheric scientist Dr Greg regarded in fluid Aeronautical Society, Australian Division. Ayers FTSE has been appointed the new mechanics director of Australia’s Bureau of Meteorology. Professor Ernie Tuck FAA FTSE, former The researcher credited with saving the Dr Ayers joined CSIRO in 1975. Since Professor, Department of Applied Australian Government hundreds of millions 2005 he has been Chief of CSIRO Marine and Mathematics at the University of Adelaide, of dollars through the life extension of Atmospheric Research. In 1995 he won the died on 11 March, aged 69. He had been a Australian Defence Force aircraft has received Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Fellow since 1995 and was highly regarded one of the country’s most prestigious awards. Society’s Priestley Medal. by his peers. The Australian Division of the Royal Senior Principal Research Scientist Seconding his nomination, former ATSE Aeronautical Society has awarded the 2009 Dr Neville Smith FTSE has been Acting Director Council member and SA Division Chair Lawrence Hargrave Award to Dr Alan Baker, of the Bureau since the departure of Dr Geoff Professor Russell Luxton said that “amongst an ATSE Fellow since 1991, and Emeritus Love in August 2008. the international engineering fraternity Research Leader, Aircraft Composite Dr Ayers’ appointment was announced by Professor Tuck’s work over a broad span of Structures, at DSTO. Environment Minister Peter Garrett. the fluid mechanics discipline, especially that Dr Baker conceived and developed the “Dr Ayers has impressive experience in relating to the behavior of ships in a seaway, unique technology for extending the life both research and policy development and is is both very highly regarded and used by of defective aircraft structures through the ideally qualified to lead the Bureau into a new naval architects.” use of adhesively bonded advanced fibre and very challenging era,” Mr Garrett said. After graduating with first class honours composite patches or reinforcements, which “The Bureau is already playing a crucial in mathematics from the University of greatly increase the life of the defective part in shaping Australia’s understanding Adelaide, he worked as an assistant lecturer component by reducing stress in the of and response to climate change and at the University of Manchester and then damaged area and bridging any cracks. makes a major contribution to emergency with the US Navy in Washington, while Other countries, including the US and completing his PhD at Cambridge in 1964. Canada, have also adopted the technology Greg Ayers This began his long association with developed by Dr Baker, and are experiencing American universities and institutions over similar cost savings on their aircraft. the next 30 years, concurrent with his career During his early career, Dr Baker at the University of Adelaide from 1968 to conducted novel research into providing 2002, and extended his influence in areas bird-impact resistance to the new as diverse as naval architecture, marine lightweight polymer-matrix carbon fibre engineering, mechanical engineering and composite jet engine fan blades initially defence science. developed by Rolls Royce for the Lockheed He was named a Fellow of the Australian L1011 aircraft. He gained several patents for Academy of Science in 1988 and in 1999 this and other concepts. won the AAS Thomas Ranken Lyle Medal and The Lawrence Hargrave Award honours the ANZIAM Medal. atse 43 April 09 in focus Focus

coexistence strategies between GM and non- precision sounding techniques. Coexisting GM agricultural supply chains to be designed In 1952 John joined the Weapons and implemented. Research Establishment, forerunner of from paddock “There has been significant growth in the today’s Defence Science and Technology introduction of GM crops in global agriculture Organisation (DSTO), at Salisbury, South to plate over the past decade,” Professor Spangenberg Australia. His early work included provision Professor German Spangenberg FTSE, who says. “This is reflected by the increasing of support to the signal intelligence heads the Victorian Department of Primary number of countries growing GM crops, as community and pioneer investigations Industries’ Biosciences Research Division, well as the growing area under GM crop at Woomera on the HF cross section will chair an international conference on cultivation globally. enhancement of a ballistic missile during its coexistence between genetically modified “Coexistence between GM and non-GM passage through the upper atmosphere. (GM) and non-GM crops in Melbourne in agricultural supply chains is highly relevant in This work led him to speculate on the November 2009. providing choice.” possibility of aircraft detection with over the The GMCC is the only international horizon radar (OTHR), using radio reflections conference series that focuses on coexistence from the ionosphere – a layer enveloping the issues between GM and non-GM agriculture earth at a few hundred kilometres height. and the 2009 event will be the first outside During 1968 he was made aware of Europe. Key issues will include strategies for highly classified OTHR programs in the US. coexistence and organisational measures By 1972 he had helped establish a formal across the supply chain, as well as highlighting arrangement between the US and Australia the progress of the Australian approach in the on OTHR, ensuring support at home for a coexistence of GM canola. program that became Jindalee. This involved “We also want to address the planning the building of two demonstrator OTHRs of for coexistence measures in advance of other increasing complexity in Central Australia GM crop introductions such as wheat, rice, to assess the value of the technology to sugarcane and pastures.” defence surveillance. Ironically, John was forced, by public service regulations, to retire on the eve of his John Strath a 65th birthday, at a time of great progress and Jindalee pioneer excitement. Nonetheless, he maintained a John Strath AM FTSE, a renowned defence keen and critical interest in the project until scientist and one of the ‘fathers’ of Australia’s he was in his 90s. Jindalee radar system, died on 26 February The success of the Jindalee program led aged 92 years. to the Jindalee Operational Radar Network, Born and educated in Scotland, in 1939 a critical element in Australia’s defence he obtained an MA and BSc, with honours surveillance. DSTO counts it as its crowning in Mathematics and Physics, from Edinburgh achievement. German Spangenberg University. In 1979 John was made a Member of After being mobilised in 1940 as a civilian the Order of Australia for public service to The GMCC’09 conference will bring scientific adviser to Orkney and Shetland defence science. In the same year he was together the scientific community working Defences, in 1941 he joined the research elected a Fellow of this Academy. on coexistence between GM and non-GM staff of Telecommunications Research – Dr Malcolm Golley FTSE agricultural supply chains. The event will Establishment at Swanage and Great Malvern, cover key issues from production to the England. Over the next seven years he was The success of the marketplace – or ‘from paddock to plate’. closely involved in the development of Jindalee program led to Professor Spangenberg sees GMCC’09 techniques and components for various blind the Jindalee Operational as a unique opportunity to showcase the bombing aids. Radar Network, a critical latest research taking place worldwide in After the war he participated in a element in Australia’s biological, agricultural and socioeconomic special mission to Norway and was defence surveillance. DSTO sciences. This research will provide the subsequently responsible for the initiation counts it as its crowning knowledge base to enable feasible of early work on centimetric upper air achievement. 44 atse April 09 Focus in focus

In the case of spontaneous explosion, Key speakers included Dr Mark Toner FTSE Zhang’s research led to the identification of shale and Dr David Skellern FTSE. The meeting with the potential to combine with the addressed key R&D issues, including a variety research cuts ammonium nitrate fuel oil explosive used at of aspects of picking winners in relation to the mine and lead to premature detonation. R&D, innovation and commercialisation. black shale The identifier is the rock’s pH level. Further At the AGM conducted during the event research established a pH of 5.5 as the Mr David Hughes, Director Brand Innovation combustion level below which ammonium nitrate fuel at Fonterra, was elected President of AIRG, oil explosive should be replaced with an succeeding Mr Alexander Gosling. ATSE risk inhibited explosive. provides AIRG’s administrative services and A six-year project led by Professor Dong-ke BHP Billiton says the project has delivered helped organise the event. Zhang FTSE, from the University of Western multiple benefits. Using pH to determine Australia (UWA), has led to a dramatic shale reactivity to ammonium nitrate fuel reduction in safety hazards in iron ore mines. oil has reduced the use of more expensive Martin Green public Pyritic (black) shale found within the inhibited explosives, saving about $1 million lecture at nanophotonics waste rock associated with ore-bearing annually, as well as reducing labour and conference rock at BHP Billiton’s Mount Whaleback iron improving productivity. Professor Martin Green FAA FTSE, one of ore operations in the Pilbara, in north- Eliminating spontaneous combustion in Australia’s leading authorities on solar power, western WA, poses significant safety and the waste rock dumps has improved safety by will give a public lecture in Melbourne as environmental challenges. eliminating the risk of exposure to personnel part of the Nanophotonics Down Under

Black shale exposed after blasting is and equipment from high temperatures, SO2 2009: Devices and Applications conference. prone to spontaneous combustion in the emissions and dump instability. It has also His address, ‘Solar energy for a sustainable open-cut mine and in waste dumps. There is reduced the closure environmental liability future’, will be at 11.00am on Sunday 21 June also potential for it to react with ammonium and ongoing maintenance costs. in the Level 2 Corryong Rooms, Melbourne nitrate fuel oil (used as an explosive at the Shale and waste containing mine) and detonate prematurely. potentially acid-forming pyrite

Emitting sulfur dioxide (SO2), the shale needs more attention in relation also presents environmental challenges. to closure actions than inert Acid rock drainage – resulting from shale and waste. Without the rainwater oxidising the pyrite and forming ability to accurately identify sulfuric acid – can lead to potentially severe waste material that may result environmental damage and long-term in acid rock drainage a further financial liability. estimated 370 million tonnes of Martin Green Professor Zhang (initially from Curtin waste rock at Mount Whaleback University and more recently UWA) led would need to be treated as a collaborative project to explore the potentially acid-forming and fundamental science associated with require encapsulation. black shale and to devise practical control BHP Billiton says that being able to Convention Centre (for more information see techniques. Laboratory-based research was accurately identify potentially acid-forming www.smonp2009.com). complemented by implementation support waste material has potentially reduced the Nanophotonics Down Under 2009 is a from Mount Whaleback Mine personnel. estimate of material requiring encapsulation Sir Mark Oliphant Conference under the ATSE Implementation involved what BHP to fewer than 150 million tonnes – with banner and will be held on 21 to 24 June. Billiton describes “as an enormous effort by the potential to save BHP Billiton about Professor Min Gu FTSE is Convenor and Chair Professor Zhang” in undertaking education $60 million. of the Organising Committee. workshops and discussions with site personnel The Sir Mark Oliphant Conferences use to transfer knowledge developed from his funding from the Department of Innovation, research to operation and management AIRG Picking Winners Industry, Science and Research (DIISR), and are procedures. Since implementation, Some 80 delegates – 10 per cent of them ATSE conducted by either ATSE or the Academy of spontaneous combustion incidents at the Fellows – attended the Australasian Industrial Science as strategically significant international mine have fallen dramatically, with only one Research Group (AIRG) National Meeting in conferences in Australia on high-priority, recorded in the 2007-08 financial year. Melbourne in February, titled ‘Picking Winners’. cutting-edge, multidisciplinary themes. atse 45 April 09 in focus Focus

to advise on the likely effects of proposals for Engineering, University of Sydney – for his genetic research involving transfer of genes work on autonomous vehicle navigation between organisms. and sensor data fusion; and Nancy Millis has been a member of the ¢ Dr Michael Raupach, Research Scientist, Board of Management of Fairfield Infectious CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Diseases Hospital, the Australian Water Canberra – for his work on atmospheric Advisory Resources Committee, the CRC for thermodynamics: turbulent flow, Freshwater Ecology, the ATSE Council, the transport and energy balances over National Commission for UNESCO and many heterogeneous landscapes. other professional organisations. She was Nancy Millis appointed Chancellor of La Trobe University in 1992. Water reform submission ATSE prepared a submission in response to an invitation from the Chair of the National Nancy Millis Three Fellows elected to Water Commission seeking ATSE’s comments Academy of Science as “a significant stakeholder” on the progress honoured Three Fellows were among 16 eminent of water reform. The submission was ATSE’s scientists elected to the Fellowship of the comment relative to the 2009 Biennial with Australian Academy of Science in March: Assessment of Progress in implementing the ¢ Professor John Carter AM, Pro Vice- National Water Initiative. 'contribution' Chancellor and Professor of Civil Under the lead of Water Forum chair Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Dr Don Blackmore AM FTSE, with substantial symposium Built Environment, University of Newcastle input from Water Forum members, ATSE ATSE Fellow Professor Nancy Millis AC – for his work on computational and outlined what it believed to be the MBE FAA FTSE has been honoured with a experimental geomechanics: prediction of fundamentals for success in managing symposium to mark her career. the behaviour of geotechnical structures; Australia’s water resources in the future. ATSE The Royal Society of Victoria, with ¢ Professor Hugh Durrant-Whyte, Professor also offered to critically review the various sponsorship from the University of of Mechatronic Engineering, School of responses and provide strategic advice on Melbourne, held the Nancy Millis AC Aerospace, Mechanical and Mechatronic the next steps and their policy implications. Symposium in April to celebrate her legacy of impact in science and public policy – from John Carter water and environment to women in science and higher education. Nancy Millis has had a dynamic and enduring impact on public life in Victoria over diverse fields, from her own discipline of microbiology to higher education, water management, health, women in science, environmental protection, monitoring of gene technologies and the promotion of science. Michael Raupach Elected a Fellow in 1977, Professor Millis served on the ATSE Council from 1979 to 1982 and on The Crawford Fund Board of Management from 1994 to 2001. Nancy Millis was only the fourth woman to be appointed as a Professor at the University of Melbourne, her achievements recognised with the award of a personal chair in 1982. She chaired the Recombinant DNA Monitoring Committee, set up in 1980 46 atse April 09 Focus in focus Fellows in the News Martin Green Deborah Rathjen ventures, including the CRC for Tissue Growth Professor Martin Green, from the University Dr Deborah Rathjen, CEO of the Adelaide and Repair, and her contributions to the of NSW, has won the runner-up award in the biotechnology company Bionomics, has been biotechnology industry have been recognised world’s richest science prize – the inaugural named woman entrepreneur of the year at the by appointment to boards such as the Prime Zayed Future Energy Prize – in recognition 2009 BioSingapore Asia Pacific Biotechnology Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation of his research on high-efficiency third- Awards. Dr Rathjen is a member of the Prime Council, the Federal Government’s Industry generation solar cell technology. Minister’s Science Engineering and Innovation Research & Development Board and the Council and the Innovation Australia Board. National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Scheme Committee. She also serves on the TJ Higgins SA Economic Development Board and the SA Dr TJ Higgins, Deputy Chief, CSIRO Plant Kadambot Siddique Premier’s Science and Research Council. Industry, was a key speaker at the annual Professor Kadambot Siddique, Chair in ABARE Outlook Conference in Canberra, Agriculture and Director of UWA’s Institute discussing Biotechnology in Food Security. of Agriculture, was recently presented with Mike Taylor His presentation and all ABARE presentations a gold medal from the Indian Society of Mike Taylor retired as the Secretary of the and papers are available at www. Pulse Research and Development. Professor Department of Infrastructure, Transport, abareconomics.com/outlook. Siddique began exploring the potential Regional Development and Local of chickpea adaptation when he started Government on 24 April. He was previously postgraduate work at UWA in 1981. His work the Secretary of the Department of Cheryl Hirst was the starting point for the Australian Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2000-04) Dr Cheryl Hirst, former Chancellor of the chickpea industry, now valued at more than and prior to that the Secretary for various Queensland University of Technology, $200 million annually. Victorian Government Departments – the has been appointed to the Board of the Department of Natural Resources and Education Investment Fund, which will Environment (1996–00), the Department of advise the Australian Government on Leanna Read Agriculture, Energy and Minerals (1995–96) making grants for the Fund. Dr Hirst was Dr Leanna Read, CEO and Managing Director and the Department of Agriculture a pioneer of breast cancer screening of TGR Biosciences, has been appointed to (1992–95). Earlier Mr Taylor held the position and influential in a range of women’s the Future Manufacturing Industry Innovation of Chief Executive with the Australian Dairy health issues. Council by the Minister for Innovation, Industry, Industry Council (1990–92). Science and Research, Senator Kim Carr. She has led successful research and commercial Scott Sloan Leanna Read Professor Scott Sloan, an ARC Federation Fellow, has been awarded the five-year title of Laureate Professor by Newcastle University.

Xiao Dong Chen TJ Higgins Professor Xiao Dong Chen was presented with the AFSIA Award for Excellence in Drying Research, recognising his career achievements and contributions to drying, at the 16th International Drying Symposium Deborah Rathjen (held in Hyderabad, India in November 2008. AFSIA is the French Agricultural Industries R&D Association. The award recognises researchers who have contributed significantly to transferring the results of their academic research to industry and into real practice. 2009 ATSE CLUNIES ROSS AWARDS PRESENTATION DINNER 20 MAy 2009 DOLTONE HOUSE, PyRMONT, SyDNEy The ATSE Clunies Ross Awards recognise Australia’s pre-eminent scientists and technologists who have bridged the gap between research and the marketplace. The 2009 Awards Dinner will be a great opportunity for guests to network with sponsors, industry, government and academic and research leaders and help ATSE celebrate excellence in science, engineering and technology. To ensure your attendance please make your booking for the Awards Dinner through the ATSE office on (03) 9340 1200 or by email to [email protected]

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2010 ATSE CLUNIES ROSS AWARDS CALL FOR NOMINATIONS The ATSE Clunies Ross Awards are awarded to people who have persisted with their ideas, often against the odds, to the point that their innovations are making a real difference economically, environmentally, and socially. If you can identify a worthy candidate you should make your nomination now. To view previous winners and to download nomination forms please visit www.cluniesross.org.au ENTRIES CLOSE 30 JUNE 2009

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