Herbert, J. A. and D. Marx. 1990. Short-term control of Panama disease of ba Ploetz, R. C. 1998. Banana diseases in the subtropics: A review of their impor nanas in South Africa. Phytophylactica 22:339-340. tance, distribution andmanagement. Acta Hort. 490:263-276. Jagoueix, S., J. M. Bove and M. Gamier. 1994. The phloem-limited bacterium Ploetz,R. C, J. L. Haynes, A. Vazquez and D. Benscher. 1998. Evaluation of ofgreening disease of citrus is a member of the a subdivision of the Pro- new banana germplasm in Florida. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 111:296- teobacteria. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 44:379-386. 299. Jagoueix, S.,J. M. Bove and M. Gamier. 1997. Comparison of the 16S/23S ri- Ploetz,R. C. and K. G. Pegg. 1997. Fusarium wilt of bananaand Wallace's bosomal intergenic regions of "Candidatus Liberobacter asiaticum" and line: Was the disease originally restricted to his Indo-Malayan region? Aus- "Candidatus Liberobacter africanum," the two species associated with citrus tralas. Plant Pathol. 26:239-249. huang long bing (greening disease). Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 47:224-227. Ploetz, R. C. and O. Prakash. 1997. Foliar, floral and soilbome diseases of Johanson, A., R. N. Crowhurst, E. H. A. Rikkerink, R. A. Fullerton, M. D. Tem- mango, pp. 281-325 In: R. E . Litz. (ed.) The Mango. CABI. Wallingford, pleton, 1994. The use of species-specific DNA probes for the identifica UK. tion of Mycosphaerella fijiensis and M. musicola, the causal agents of Randies, J. W.,M. J. B. Rodriguez and D. Hanold. 1994. Cadang-cadang and Sigatoka disease of banana. Plant Pathol. 43:701-707. tinangaja. pp. 28-29 in: R. C. Ploetz, G.A. Zentmyer, W. T. Nishijima, Jones, D. R. (ed.) 1994. The Improvement and Testingof Musa: a Global K. G. Rohrbach and H. D. Ohr (eds.). Compendium of Tropical Fruit Dis Partnership. INIBAP. Montpellier, France. eases. APS Press. St. Paul, MN. 111pp. Lafleche, D. andJ.-M. Bove. 1970. Structures de type mycoplasme dans les Soomro, M. H. and S. Khalid. 1993. Banana bunchy top virus confirmed in feuilles d'orangers atteints de la maladie du greening. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. Pakistan. InfoMwsfl2:17. D 270:1915-1917. Story, G. E. and R. S. Halliwell. 1969. Association of a mycoplasma-like organ Manicom, B. Q. and F. M. Wallis. 1984. Further characterization of Xanthomo- ism with bunchy top disease of papaya. Phytopathology 59:1336-1337. nas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae. Int.J. Syst. Bacteriol. 34:77-79. Stover, R. H. and N. W. Simmonds. 1987. Bananas. 3rd edition. Longmans. Manicom, B. Q. and O. P. Pruvost. 1994. Bacterial black spot. pp. 41-42 In: London. 468pp. R. C. Ploetz, G. A. Zentmyer, W. T. Nishijima, K. G. Rohrbachand H. D. Tejerina, J. C, Meriles, G., Stover, R. H., Ploetz, R. C. and S. Romanoff, 1997. Ohr, (eds). Compendium of Tropical Fruit Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul. First report of black Sigatoka in Bolivia. Plant Dis. 81:1332. Ploetz, R. C. 1994a. Fusarium wilt (Panama disease) pp. 10-11 in: R. C. Ploetz, Thomas, J. E. and R. G. Dietzgen. 1991. Purification, characterization and se- G. A. Zentmyer, W. T. Nishijima, K. G. Rohrbach and H. D. Ohr (eds.). rological detection of virus-like particles associated with bananabunchy Compendium of Tropical Fruit Diseases. APS Press. St. Paul, MN. 111pp. top disease in Australia. J. Gen. Virol. 72:217-224. Ploetz, R. C. 1994b. Panama disease: Return of the first banana menace. Int. J. Pest Manag. 40:326-336.

Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 111:327-329. 1998.

CURRENT AND POTENTIAL PESTS THREATENING TROPICAL FRUIT CROPS IN FLORIDA

Jorge E. Pena Introduction Tropical Research and Education Center University of Florida, IFAS Florida's prominent position in the Caribbean, tropical Homestead, FL 33031 climate, popularity among tourists, international commerce and tropical agriculture make it particularly vulnerable to ex otic pests. While most introduced species fail to become es Additional index words. Maconellicoccus, Conotrachelus agua- tablished, those that do can become serious pests of catae, Heilipus lauri, catenifer, Scirtothrips spp., agricultural crops. These species cost Florida and the coun Aceria litchi, carambolae. tries where they are established billions of dollars annually in control measures and crop damage. For example, the root Abstract. Florida's favorable climate, international commerce weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus which was introduced from the and abundant tropical fruit crop production make it particularly Caribbean into Florida 30 years ago, cost growers approxi vulnerable to exotic pests. During the last 10 years several pests have added significant costs to tropical fruit production. mately 72 million dollars to citrus growers alone. The species They include among others, the citrus leafminer, Phyllocnistis that would likely invade and become pests would be those citrella and citrus root weevil, Diaprepes abbreviates. Other with high rates of growth, maturation and reproduction over pests that are a threat to Florida tropical fruits include, the pink a wide range of environmental conditions (Venette, 1997). , , avocado weevils, Invasions are most likely to succeed in sites that are highly dis Conotrachelus aguacatae, Heilipus lauri, the avocado , turbed or have similar climate where the pest originated. , the litchi mite Aceria litchi, and the fruit , Even though 'disturbed sites" are difficult to define, those sys Bactrocera carambolae. Understanding the biology and char tems where the numbers of natural enemies are reduced, acteristics of these pests may help understanding principles of would be more vulnerable than those where there are less dis their control, thus avoiding unnecessary environmental and turbances. Tropical fruit pests, such as the destructive pink economic costs. mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, the carambola fruit fly, Bac trocera carambolae are examples of pests that are a threat to

Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. N-01632. No tropical fruits. The objective of this paper is to elucidate some endorsements or registration of chemicals implied herein. characteristics of these pests that affect tropical fruit crops in

Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. Ill: 1998. 327 neighboring areas and are a threat to the tropical fruit crop pest population was observed 12 weeks after introduction of industry of Florida. the predator (McComie, 1997). Other important natural en Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green). The pink mealybug, hi emy of M. hirsutus is Anagyrus kamali Moursi (Hymenoptera: biscus mealybug or grape mealybug, has been previously re Encyrtidae), Moreover, Mani (1989) lists at least 30 species of ported as Pseudococcus hibisci Hall or Phenacoccus hirsutus predators and 16 hymenopterous parasitoids that can be con Green. Its original distribution is in the Oriental, Australian, sidered as candidates for biological control of M. hirsutus. Paleartic and Ethiopian regions (Mani, 1989). It has also Heilipus lauri. The large borer-weevil Heilipus lauri damag been reported from Pakistan, some islands in the Pacific, Ha es up to 80% of avocado fruits, causing extensive fruit drop. waii and Guam (Ghani and Muzaffar 1974; Beardsley 1985, It is distributed in Mexico in the states of Hidalgo, Morelos, 1986). It was first identified in the Caribbean in Grenada in Puebla, Veracruz and Guerrero. The dark-brown (with two in November 1994, first recorded in Trinidad in June 1995 (Mc- complete yellow bands on the elytra) adult is 14 mm long, and Comie, 1995) and by 1996 it was found in St Kitts. Latest re emerges from the fallen fruits (Ebeling, 1950). It can fly and ports in 1998 are from Guadeloupe (Etienne et al., 1998). regularly mates 2.5 months after emergence. The female de Maconellicoccus hirsutus is an extremely polyphagous species. posits her eggs under the epidermis of the developing fruit, Affects at least 74 plant families, about 144 genera. Some ma making in the latter a "half moon" puncture. The small oval jor hosts include mango, hibiscus, palms, coffee, grape, citrus eggs are 1 mm long and change from pale green to cream col and Annona spp. M. hirsutus caused losses to landscape and ored. The female deposits one to two eggs per fruit and a total fruit trees in Egypt (Hall, 1926) and Williams (1985) noted of 36 eggs per month.Twelve to 15 days after oviposition, the that caused bunchy leaves on Lime in Australia. The tropical legless larvae bore through the pulp to the seed, where it fruit crops in the Caribbean that are affected include Annona feeds and spends its larval and pupal existence (Ebeling, spp., carambola, litchi, mango, avocado, Citrus sp., bananas 1950). The larvae has 5 instars that last approximately 54-63 and papaya. days. Late instar larva measures approximately 2.5 cm (Anon The development of this species occurs in 3-4 weeks and ymous, 1984). Pupal stage lasts 15 days. Emerging adults feed the females can produce approximately 500 eggs each on the foliage and live up to 4 months. (Ghose, 1972). Work by Ghose (1972) demonstrated only In case of fallen fruits, the larvae sometimes leave the fruit sexual reproduction. During late autumn and winter, the fe and enter the soil to pupate. The larva initiates a rotting of male seeks a sheltered position to lay her eggs, usually ending the pulp, principally near its tunnels, and a partial or total rot in a gathering of similar females. In the summer, females may ting of the seed, eventually resulting in the premature drop not seek shelter to lay eggs. Eggs hatch in 3-8 days (Ghose ping of the fruit. The adult feeds on leaves, buds, sprouts and 1972; Misra 1919) and the nymphal stage lasts 10-22 days in fruit which may offer point of entry, as through a puncture (Mani 1986). or wound (Ebeling, 1950). In Mexico two generations are ob Infestation symptoms appear first on the growing points. served. The first one occurs from January to August and the Shoots become twisted with shortened internodes, forming second one is observed from July to February (Anonymous, bunchy heads of small bushy leaves at the tips (Hall 1921, 1989). 1926), assuming a multiheaded appearance with multiple Conotrachelus aguacatae. The small, shiny, almost black damage (Pusha Veni et al., 1973). In heavy infestations, leaves weevil Conotrachelus aguacatae, is regularly not observed in the and shoots become compact and crisp. Symptoms in mulber same orchards where H. lauri is prevalent. However, it can ry are known as Tukra disease (Misra 1920b). On mango, in cause up to 85% of fruit loss. It is observed in the areas of Que- fested flowers dry and drop, resulting in fewer, smaller, retaro, Michoacan, Jalisco, Puebla, Morelos and Guanajuato. abnormally shaped fruit that may drop early. M. hirsutus is The adults are 7 mm long, and they can copulate immedi one of those mealybug species to have a toxic saliva which ately after emergence. The females deposit 1 to 4 eggs per stunts and kills young shoots. fruit, but sometimes the number can be as high as 70. Eggs Several factors favor M. hirsutus infestations: weather, host are whitish, and eclose in 7-10 days. The larvae develops in the preferences, perennial versus annual host growth, weak or seed and last 20-35 days. The number of larvae per fruit could young growth, and apical portions of plants. The rate of de be as high as three to four. The larvae leave the fruit to pupate velopment shortened with increasing temperatures, but in the soil at 5 cm depth. The life cycle from egg to adult is 42- lengthened with rising relative humidity (Babu and Azam, 75 days. The first generation starts in January and February 1987; Mani and Thontadarya, 1988). and lasts approximately 10 weeks. The second generation Several insecticides have been tested against this mealy starts in April and ends in June or July (Anonymous, 1989). bug. For instance, Beevi et al. (1992) reported that the use of Stenoma catenifer. The seed moth Stenoma catenifer, can per neem oil resulted in reduction of egg hatching. However, forate 95% of the fruits. It is distributed in Mexico and in most researchers agree that chemical and cultural control some areas of Central and South America. The adult is a small provides relief for a short period of time or are ineffective lcm nocturnal moth. will regularly mate 2-3 days after control methods (McComie, 1996). emergence and can live up to 10 days. One day after mating, An integrated pest management program has been pro the female deposit as many as 240 eggs. These eggs are depos posed for the Caribbean region, with classical biological con ited in crevices on the fruit. The egg is 0.6 mm long, oval and trol as the main component. One of the candidates, the lady light green. The egg ecloses in 5-6 days, the larvae penetrates beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) the fruit and consumes the seed in 20 days. There are five in was introduced into Trinidad from India in 1996 (Gautam et stars. Early instars are whitish, while late instars are pink or al., 1996). Results of the effectiveness of the predator are giv reddish. Larval stage lasts 16-21 days and pupal stage lasts 11- en by McComie (1997). For instance, the pink mealybug den 19 days. The life cycle lasts between 44 and 49 days with three sity at the time of the releases of the lady beetles averaged 19 complete generations per year. Highest damage is observed ovisacs and 14 adults per shoot. A significant decline in the between May through August.

Proc. Fla. StateHort. Soc. Ill: 1998. 328 Scirtothrips spp. An undescribed species of Scirtothrips, orig or the same color as the fruit pulp (Midgarden and Fleu inally intercepted at the Port of San Diego from a shipment rkens, 1998). At the end of the third instar, the larvae leave from Oaxaca, Mexico, is now considered the major thrips pest the fruit and burrow 2-7 cm into the soil to pupate Pupae are attacking avocados in California. The was first noticed dark reddish brown, barrel-shaped and about 4-5 mm long. in 1996, damaging an avocado orchard in Ventura, CA (Hod- Since its detection the fruit fly has spread throughout the die, 1998). Avocado thrips females lay eggs singly in an inci coastal areas of Suriname and French Guiana (Sauers-Muel sion made into the soft plant tissue with the ovipositor. Eggs ler and Vokaty, 1996) are kidney shaped and whitish-yellow in color. Following egg An effective control method called the male annihilation hatch, developing thrips pass through two actively feeding im technique has been developed for members of the Bactrocera mature stages called larvae. dorsalis complex. Baits are impregnated with a combination of Adults are straw yellow in color, with brown wings (Hod- lure and insecticide. Methyl eugenol, a parapheromone lure, die, 1998). Avocado thrips larvae and adults feed on develop is also used to attract male fruit before they become sex ing fruit while hidden under the calyx. Fruit is susceptible to ually mature. Surveillance methods are accomplished using damage until it exceeds the size of half dollar. Feeding scars delta-shaped Jackson traps impregnated with methyi-eugenol develop from the calyx and as feeding damage and as feeding and an insecticide. Another surveillance method performed continues scars radiate towards the top of fruit. Fruit scarring in the infested areas, consists of collecting fruit and rearing can be severe resulting in "alligator skin". Bronzing is ob the larvae in screened cages with sand or sawdust. served (Hoddle 1998). Bactrocera carambolae. The carambola fruit fly, Bactrocera Literature Cited carambolae (Drew & Hancock) was found for first time in the Western hemisphere in Suriname in 1975, although it was Anonymous. 1984. Manual Fitosanitario del aguacate. Bayer de Mexico. 38p. Babu, T. R. and K. M. Azam. 1987. Studies on biology, host spectrum and sea properly identified in 1986. This species is endemic to Indo sonal fluctuation of the mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) on nesia, Malaysia and southern Thailand (Van Sauers-Mueller, grapevine. Indian J. Hortic. 44:284-288. 1991). Beevi, N. D., R.Janarthanan and K. Natarajan. 1992. Efficacy of some insecti In Surinam, the major hosts are carambola, Averhoa caram cides against eggs of Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green on mulberry Morus al bola and the Curacao apple, Syzygium samarangese. Minor hosts ba.]. Insect Science 5:114. BeardsleyJ. W. 1985. Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green). Proc. Hawaii Entomol. include, West Indian Cherry, Malphigia punijicolia, mango Soc. 25:27 Mangifera indica, sapodilla, Manilkara achras, guava Psidium Ebeling, W. 1950. Subtropical Entomology. Lithotype Process Co. San Fran guajava and Indian jujube Ziziphus jujuba and Citrus spp., and cisco. cashew as occasional hosts. Export losses of infested countries Etienne,J., D. Matile-Ferrero, F. lablanc and D. Marival. 1998. First record of are calculated to be 25.3 million dollars (Midgarden and the mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) from Guadeloupe; present state of this pest of crops in the French Caribbean (Hem., Pseudococ- Fleurkens, 1998).The life cycle of B. carambolae is typical of cidae). Bull. Societe Entomol. De France. 103:173-174 other fruit flies. From egg to mature adult takes about 22 days Gautam, R. D., De Chi, W. and C. Maraj. 1996. A successful journey of lady under good conditions (26° and 70% RH) (Midgarden and birds from India to Trinidad. IICA Caraphin News. 14:1-2 Fleurkens, 1998). Eggs take 1-2 days to hatch. The larval stage Ghose, S. K. 1972. Biology of the mealybug. Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Pseudococcidae, ). Indian Agriculturist 16:323-332. lasts 6-9 days, and pupation 8-9 days. Adults are 3.5-5 mm, Hoddle, M. 1998. The avocado thrips and thrips natural enemies. California black yellowish with brown tinge, especially on abdomen, Avocado Commission. 4p. head, and legs, ovipositor on female is knife shaped (Midgar Mani, M. 1989. A review of the pink mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus den and Fleurkens, 1998). Adults become sexually mature in (Green). Insect Science and its Appl. 10:157-167 8-10 days after emergence. The minimum period of time for Mani, M. and T. S. Thontadarya. 1988. Population dynamics of the mealybug Maconellicocccus hirsutus (Green) and its natural enemies in grapevine ec one generation is approximately 30 days (Midgarden and osystem. J. Biol. Control 2:93-97. Fleurkens, 1998). The adult female fly feeds for up to a week McComie, L. D. 1995. Status of the hibiscus mealybug Maconellicoccus hir on protein, e.g., on bacteria growing on fruit and plant sur sutus (Green) in Trinidad. Tropical fruit Newsletter. 17: 12-13. faces, bird feces, and on sugars, e.g., in honeydew and nectar, McComie, L. D. 1996. Incidence and treatment of the hibiscus mealybug Ma conellicoccus Hirsutus(Green) one year after his discovery in Trinidad. First spoiled fruit, before laying eggs. Mature adults copulate after Regional Symposium on The hibiscus mealybug. June, 1996. St Georges, groups of males gather and perform a courtship dance in the Grenada. early evening, just before the sun falls. Females puncture the McComie, L. D. 1997. The effect of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Mulsant) on the skin of green or mature fruit and lay eggs in groups of three hibiscus Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), on hibiscus plants. II to five just under the skin (Midgarden and Fleurkens, 1998). CA, Tropical Fruits Newsletter 23:7-8. Midgarden, D. and M. Fleurkens. 1998. Carambola Fruit Fly Programme, ht- Males and females are strong fliers and will fly long distances tp://iinuw.carambolafly.com/Eng\ish/eng\\sh.htm. if they cannot find a good source of food or site to lay eggs. Misra, C. S. 1920. Tukra disease of mulberry. Proc. 3rd Entomol. Meeting, Data from B. dorsalis have shown that the adults can fly over Pusa. pp. 610-618. 50 km from the emergence site (Midgarden and Fleurkens, Van Sauers-Mueller, A. 1991. An overview of the carambola fruit fly Bactrocera species (Diptera: ), found recently in Suriname. Florida Ento 1998). Adults might live 30-60 days in nature. Females can lay mol. 74:432-440. more than 1,000 eggs over their lifetime. Eggs are white, ba Van Sauers-Mueller, A. and S. Vokaty. 1996. Carambola fruit fly projects in nana-shaped and 1 mm long, shining white, milky when ready Suriname and Guyana. Tropical Fruits Newsletter 18:6-8. to hatch. Larvae have three instars inside the fruit where they Vennette, R. C. 1997. Assessment of the colonization potential of introduced feed on the pulp and make tunnels in the fruit. Larvae are species during biological invasions. Ph.D. Diss. University of California, Davis, 202p. elongate and pointed at head. Length from 1 mm just after Williams, D. J. 1985. Australian . London: British Museum Natural hatching to 7-8 mm just before pupation. The color is white History. 13:194-196.

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