https://doi.org/10.1130/G46159.1

Manuscript received 26 December 2018 Revised manuscript received 19 February 2019 Manuscript accepted 25 March 2019

© 2019 The Authors. Gold Open Access: This paper is published under the terms of the CC-BY license. Published online 16 April 2019

Stratigraphic aliasing and the transient nature of deep-water depositional sequences: Revisiting the Mississippi Fan Andrew S. Madof1, Ashley D. Harris1, Sarah E. Baumgardner1, Peter M. Sadler2, Fabien J. Laugier1, and Nicholas Christie-Blick3 1Chevron Energy Technology Company, Houston, Texas 77002, USA 2Department of Earth Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA 3Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, New York 10964, USA

ABSTRACT and into the effect of climatic and tectonic sig- Sequence stratigraphy remains the foremost methodology used to describe the stratigraphic nals on modulating inherently nonstationary record and to interpret the controls on deposition; yet, it relies on long-standing assumptions deposition. that few studies have sought to validate. Here, we present results from testing hypotheses related to the deep-water depositional sequence model by revisiting the seismic-based type locality: MISSISSIPPI FAN, GULF OF MEXICO the Mississippi Fan, in the central Gulf of Mexico. By independently testing the relationship The Neogene–Quaternary Mississippi Fan between cycles of relative sea-level change and those of sedimentation, we demonstrate that in the central Gulf of Mexico is one of the most >98% of Neogene–Quaternary deep-water sequences do not accumulate in a manner prescribed well-studied submarine fans on Earth. Because by long-held sequence stratigraphic conventions. Instead, over the past 5.5 Myr, sequences of the abundance of subsurface data, it has been show a temporal mismatch in frequency, phase, and amplitude with cycles of relative sea-level used to understand deep-water stratigraphic change, a concept we refer to as stratigraphic aliasing. Divergences are attributed to variable archi­tecture and cyclicity, as well as relative rates of sedimentation, which were responsible for creating cycle frequencies that were both sea-level change and sedimentation. higher and lower than those of relative sea-level change, and that resulted in two modes of Mississippi Fan accumulation: lower average sedimentation rates in older sediments, and an opposite trend in younger successions. The latter mode occurred ~2.2 Myr after the onset of Architecture and Cyclicity North American glaciation, a period marked by significant continental drainage reorganiza- The Mississippi Fan is a submarine accu- tion and salt-tectonic deformation. Based on our conclusions, we recommend that the future mulation >4 km in thickness situated outboard of sequence stratigraphy be rooted firmly in assessing the reproducibility of preexisting spatio- of the Sigsbee Escarpment. Based on downlap- temporal predictions and in the rigorous use of multiple working hypotheses. ping reflections (i.e., geometric evidence for se- quence boundaries), Weimer (1990) interpreted INTRODUCTION 2016; Catuneanu and Zecchin, 2016), and on 17 laterally compensatory deep-water sequences For over 40 years, depositional systems have its ability to be treated as a set of testable hy- (Fig. 2A) and inferred each to be composed of been thought to be controlled by the interac- potheses (this study). channelized (coarse-grained) deposits flanked tion of eustasy and subsidence (i.e., “relative The Mississippi Fan, in the central Gulf of by levee-overbank (fine-grained) deposits. By sea level” of Jervey, 1988), with variability in Mexico, serves as the type locality for the seis- incorporating age control, Weimer and Dixon sediment supply providing a secondary effect mic-based model of the deep-water depositional (1994) showed that sequence duration gener- (see Vail et al., 1977; Posamentier et al., 1988; sequence. In addition to Weimer (1990), other ally decreased from 0.66 Myr (5.5–4.84 Ma; Van Wagoner et al., 1990). According to this workers identified Mississippi Fan lobes from sequence number 1) to 0.023 Myr (0.23–0.0 Ma; view, relative sea-level change drives reciprocal downlapping reflections at the base of gullwing- sequence number 17) and increased in lateral sedimentation, whereby condensed sections and shaped deposits (Garrison et al., 1982) and re- extent and overall thickness through time (Figs. nearshore deposits accumulate during rises and lated accumulations to falls in relative sea level 2B and 2C). In addition to the duration of se- high stands, and erosional surfaces and deep- (Bouma et al., 1985). While these concepts have quences, Weimer and Dixon (1994) interpreted water accumulations deposit during falls and been applied globally to deep-water systems, two major hiatuses, from 3.0 to 1.9 Ma and from low stands (Figs. 1A and 1B). While active few studies have sought to validate the initial 0.45 to 0.086 Ma. While Weimer and Dixon debate regarding both controlling mechanisms findings. Here, we revisited the Mississippi Fan (1994) may have incorrectly assumed that seis- and their stratigraphic responses has been ongo- in an attempt to independently reproduce the mic reflections were laterally continuous syn- ing since the late 1980s (see Haq et al., 1987; relationship between relative sea-level change chronous surfaces, alternative interpretations Christie-Blick et al., 1988), the community re- and sedimentation, and to test whether the lat- have not yet been proposed. mains divided on the level of applicability of ter is controlled by changes in the former. By sequence stratigraphy (see Madof et al., 2016; testing long-standing conventions, we offer Sea Level and Sedimentation Burgess, 2016), on its status as a workflow as new insights into the time-varying interactions We calculated relative sea-level change and opposed to a paradigm (see Burgess and Prince, between purported drivers and accumulation, sedimentation rates independently for the last

CITATION: Madof, A.S., et al., 2019, Stratigraphic aliasing and the transient nature of deep-water depositional sequences: Revisiting the Mississippi Fan: Geology, v. 47, p. 545–549, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/G46159.1

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Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/47/6/545/4707771/545.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 Figure 1. Schematic A 5.5 Myr of growth of the Mississippi Fan (Figs. diagram of reciprocal sedi- Sea level 3A and 3B). The former was constructed by add- mentation and deep-water Shelf depositional sequence ing the eustatic record of Miller et al. (2005, Slope their fig. 3, created from the benthic forami- model. A: Two-dimen- Basin sional transect along RSL SR RSL SR niferal δ18O record) to the back-stripped sub- continental margin show- HS * sidence rate of the northern Gulf of Mexico of ing shelfal accumulations LS developing during rela- * Diegel et al. (1995, their fig. A-3). While spe- This study cific details regarding the construction of the tive sea-level high stands B and rises, and slope-to- Relative Hypothetical Sedimentation Systems subsidence­ curve remain unclear, it serves as sea level well log rates tracts basinal sedimentation the most robust (if not the only) example for occurring during low Lowstand the area. Sedimentation rates for each Missis- stands and falls. B: Each ? deep-water sequence Highstand sippi Fan sequence were calculated by dividing develops during one Transgressive maximum preserved thickness (from Fig. 2A) by cycle of relative sea-level ? duration (from Fig. 2B); rates span two orders Sawtooth change (modified from wave Lowstand Sine Sequenc e of magnitude, with older sequences display- Posamentier and Kolla, wave 4 2003), during which rate of ing lower average accumulation rates (i.e., 10 sedimentation decreases. 100 68 cm/Myr), and younger ones showing an opposite 14 18 6 Sedimentation-rate curve Low High 0 50 100 0.5 1.0 0 trend (i.e., 10 cm/Myr). Based on our analysis, Magnitude Gamma ray Normalized Percentage was created by dividing the bulk of long-term relative sea-level change = Mass transport = Weakly confined channel = Channel-levee = Hemipelagites and facies thickness (from complex and sheet complex complex muddy turbidites in the Mississippi Fan was caused by subsid- hypothetical well log) by = Sequence boundary = Facies boundary = Maximum flooding surface duration (from relative sea-level curve) and normalizing to maximum rate. Abbreviations are ence related to salt withdrawal, rather than by as follows: RSL—relative sea level; SR—sedimentation rate; HS—high stand; LS—low stand. eustatic change.

A C SW NE 90°W 89°W 88°W 87°W Sequence no. Sequence no. Sections used in Fig. DR2 1 2 3 4 5

5 2 8 8 0 5. 4. 3. 3. 3.4 3. 27°N Fig. 2A-B 4.84

Gulf of Mexico Fig. 2A-B Fig. 2C 26°N N

50 km

1000 m Sequence Time Channel Deformed Mass transport = = = = = 50 km boundary line complex levee deposit complex 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 = Seismic sequence no. (levee complex) Sequence no. Sequence no. 6 7 8 9 0.071 14-17 B 9 4 1 1 8 7 0 1. 1. 1. 1. 0. 0. Lacuna 0.4 13 0.5 0.5 0.6 12 0.7 11 0.8 10 9 8 1.0 1.1 7 1.4 1.5

Pleistocen e 6 Sequence no. Sequence no. 1.9 10 11 12 13 2.0 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.45

2.5 Lacuna

3.0 Onset of North American glaciation

Age (Ma) 3.0 5 3.4 3.5 4 e 3.8 Sequence no. Sequence no. 4.0 3 14 15 16 17 4.2

Pliocen 0.0 0.04 0.04 0.0710.055 0.023

4.5 2

4.84 5.0 1

5.5 5.5

Figure 2. Stratigraphic architecture, Wheeler diagram, and map-view evolution of Neogene–Quaternary Mississippi Fan (modified from Weimer, 1990; Weimer and Dixon, 1994). A: Proximal deposit consists of 17 seismic sequences showing an up-section increase in thickness and extent. Sequences laterally compensate and migrate eastward with respect to time. Location of section is shown by line in inset map. B: Time- stratigraphic relationships for Mississippi Fan, showing shorter duration sequences in successively younger sediments. Sequence numbers 14–17 are below temporal resolution of diagram. Time scale is from Cohen et al. (2013). C: Map-view evolution of Mississippi Fan, showing channelized architecture of 17 seismic sequences (i.e., A–H; modified from Weimer, 1990). System is most expansive during seismic sequence number 10. Odd-number sequences are marked by dotted lines; star indicates position of modern system.

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Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/47/6/545/4707771/545.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 Eustasy and subsidence (m) Relative sea level (m) Sed. rate (cm/Myr) x 106 Relative sea level (m) A –400 –200 0 –400 –200 0 0.00.5 1.02.0 3.0 B –200 –100 0 0 0 Lacuna 5 0.5 MIS 1 Eustasy Sequence no. 10 MWSF-5 10 MWSF-4 MWSF-2 MWF-3 1.0 MWF-1 15 Subsidence 1.5 20 MIS 2 Sequence no. 17 (23–0 ka) Pleistocen e 2.0 25

30 2.5 Lacuna

35 MIS 3 Onset of North American glaciation Sequence no. 16 (40–23 ka) 3.0 Age (ka ) Age (Ma ) 40

3.5 45 e 50 4.0 Sequence no. 15 (55–40 ka)

Pliocen 55 4.5 60 Sequence no. Frequency Phase Amplitude

17–11 > 1 0°–180° Moderate to high MIS 4 5.0 10 = 1 N/A Moderate 65 9–1 < 1 N/A Low to moderate Sequence no. 14 (71–55 ka) 5.5 70 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 = Seismic sequence no. (levee complex) = Meltwater flood (MWF) = Meltwater superflood (MWSF)

Figure 3. Comparison of cycles of relative sea-level change and sedimentation for Mississippi Fan. Relative sea-level curve was constructed by adding eustasy (Miller et al., 2005) and subsidence (Diegel et al. 1995); sedimentation rates were calculated from Figures 2A and 2B (note change in scale; see text for details). A: Eustatic curve shows two distinct periods and amplitudes: shorter periods (40 kyr) from ca. 2.7 to 1.1 Ma and longer ones (100 kyr) from ca. 1.1 to 0 Ma; lower amplitudes from ca. 5.5 to 3.0 Ma and higher ones from ca. 3.0 to 0 Ma. Note that sequence number 10 is the only accumulation for which period (frequency) appears to match that of relative sea-level change. B: Magnification of last four Mississippi Fan sequences. Sequence numbers 14–16 developed during a fall in relative sea level, whereas sequence number 17 accumu- lated between a low stand and rise. Marine isotope stages are abbreviated as MIS; timing of meltwater floods was taken from Aharon (2003).

ASSESSING DEVIATIONS FROM sequence is required to correlate to a single ing” is aimed at objectively comparing (and in CONVENTIONS lowstand interval, with the greatest amount of the time domain) the cycle frequency, phase, and To test the effect of accommodation on Mis- sediment delivered during the maximum rate amplitude of relative sea-level change to those of sissippi Fan deposition, conditions both con- of relative sea-level fall (Weimer, 1990; Posa- sedimentation. For utility, we define frequency forming to, and deviating from, conventional mentier and Kolla, 2003). To address alternative as the number of sedimentary cycles deposited sequence stratigraphic models must be evalu- scenarios, we introduce a conceptual framework within one cycle of relative sea-level change; ated. Although no framework currently exists to termed stratigraphic aliasing (see Fig. DR1 in the frequencies can be equal to, less than, or greater address the latter, we considered mismatches be- GSA Data Repository1), which makes use of var- than one and correspond to equivalent, longer, tween relative sea-level change and sedimenta- ied waveforms to describe input parameters and or shorter sedimentation periods. Phase relates tion, and the incompleteness of the stratigraphic to facilitate multiple working hypotheses. Al- to the timing of sediment delivery with respect record. though aliasing generally refers to the misiden- to changes in relative sea level and can be used tification of signal frequencies due to sampling to describe lags and leads in accumulation. We Stratigraphic Aliasing biases, our use of the term “stratigraphic alias- describe deposition occurring at phase shifts of Sequence stratigraphic models for deep-water 0° (falls; conventional model expectations), 90° settings assume that cycles of relative sea-level 1GSA Data Repository item 2019202, methods (lowstands), 180° (rises), and 270° (highstands). involving aliasing and log-log plot of accumulation change and sedimentation have equal frequen- rate vs. time span, is available online at http://www​ ​ Amplitude is the rate of accumulation during one cies, zero phase shift, and moderate amplitudes .geosociety​.org​/datarepository​/2019/, or on request cycle of relative sea-level change; its variance (Figs. 4A–4D). As a result, each deep-water from editing@​geosociety​.org. describes increased and decreased flux.

A B Frequency C Phase D Amplitude Relative Equal depo. Fewer depo. More depo. Max sed. Max sed. Max sed. Max sed. Moderate Low High sea level cycles cycles cycles rate at fall rate at low rate at rise rate at high flux flux flux 1.0x freq. 0.5x freq. 2.0x freq. 0° ph. 90° ph. 180° ph. 270° ph. 1.0x amp. 0.5x amp. 2.0x amp.

Sine wave

Time Sawtooth wave

Low High Min Max Min Max Min Max

Figure 4. Concept of stratigraphic aliasing as it relates to relative sea-level change (blue) and sedimentation (green). Conventional sequence stratigraphic conditions are noted by shaded boxes. Frequency is defined as ratio of periods of relative sea-level change to sedimentation. Phase relates to timing of maximum sedimentation with respect to relative sea level and can occur at any point in cycle. Amplitude describes sedimentation with respect to time and is classified as moderate, low, or high.

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Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/47/6/545/4707771/545.pdf by guest on 24 September 2021 “Sadler Effect” and higher average accumulation rates and has clude that sequence stratigraphic models present In addition to stratigraphic aliasing, we moderate amplitude (i.e., a sedimentation rate an oversimplified and stationary view of deep- considered the preservation of Mississippi of 105 cm/Myr). However, phase could not be water depositional systems. Our results call into Fan sequences. Because sequences (i.e., strata evaluated because sampling was insufficient to question the concept of accommodation-driven bounded above and below by sequence bound- determine timing of sediment delivery. Remark- reciprocal sedimentation, highlight the necessity aries; see Figs. 2A and 2B) are marked by re- ably, sequence number 10 contains the largest of reevaluating type localities, and suggest that petitive changes in accumulation rates, they can number of deep-water channels of any Mis- stratigraphic aliasing can be a more objective be classified as cycles. Cycles (i.e., sequences) sissippi Fan accumulation (see Fig. 2C), even framework than well-accepted sequence strati- can be used to assess the completeness of the when compared with other Mississippi Fan se- graphic conventions. depositional record by comparing their ampli- quences. The finding that deep-water systems tude (i.e., sedimentation rate) to their frequency are the most well preserved when conventional ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (i.e., time span). sequence stratigraphic conditions are met has We thank Chevron for allowing publication, and J.V. Sadler (1981) observed that the number and significant implications in sediment routing and Bent, M.L. Amaru, and F. Lin for their support. We duration of nondepositional events (hiatuses) source-to-sink analyses. thank reviewers P.A. Burgess and S.M. Hubbard for cause accumulation rates to obey an inverse The two modes of deposition for the Mis- thoughtful comments. power-law relationship with respect to the span sissippi Fan (i.e., lower average sedimentation of measurement. Although this technique (i.e., rates in older sediments, and an opposite trend in REFERENCES CITED plotting a function and its reciprocal, which re- younger successions) suggest that stratigraphic Aharon, P., 2003, Meltwater flooding events in the sults in a negative correlation) has received some aliasing is a more appropriate framework of Gulf of Mexico revisited: Implications for rapid scrutiny (see Anders et al., 1987), it has become interpretation than sequence stratigraphy. As climate changes during the last deglaciation: Paleo­ceanography, v. 18, p. 1–14, https://​doi​.org​ a standard practice in quantifying the complete- such, we find that older Mississippi Fan suc- /10​.1029​/2002PA000840​. ness of the stratigraphic record. The trend, which cessions accumulated under markedly differ- Anders, M.H., Krueger, S.W., and Sadler, P.M., 1987, is observed both in Mississippi Fan sequences ent conditions than younger ones. Although A new look at sedimentation rates and the com- and in globally sampled turbidites­ (Fig. DR2), younger accumulations were deposited during pleteness of the stratigraphic record: The Jour- nal of Geology, v. 95, p. 1–14, https://​doi​.org​/10​ manifests as cycles with lower average sedimen- large-scale climatic and tectonic changes (e.g., .1086​/629103​. tation rates (lower amplitude) at longer durations North American glaciation [see Aharon, 2003], Bentley, S.J., Sr., Blum, M.D., Maloney, J., Pond, L., (lower frequency). Higher rates of accumulation continental drainage reorganizations [see Bent- and Paulsell, R., 2016, The Mississippi River are necessarily sustained only over shorter inter- ley et al., 2016], and salt-related deformation source-to-sink system: Perspectives on tectonic, vals than are lower rates (see Sadler and Jerol- [see Tripsanas et al., 2007]), they responded climatic, and anthropogenic influences, Miocene to Anthropocene: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 153, mack, 2014; Tipper, 2015; Paola et al., 2018), with shorter periodicities. We attribute these p. 139–174, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.earscirev​ implying that the “Sadler effect” operates also short-lived stratigraphic responses not to rela- .2015​.11​.001​. in the frequency domain. tive sea-level change, but to the liberation of Bouma, A.H., Stelting, C.E., and Coleman, J.M., 1985, onshore sediment during glacial advance and Mississippi Fan, Gulf of Mexico, in Bouma, A.H., et al., eds., Submarine Fans and Related DISCUSSION retreat, and to the subsequent transport through Turbidite Systems: New York, Springer-Verlag, Assessment of the applicability of sequence continental drainages and around regional and p. 143–150, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1007​/978​-1​-4612​ stratigraphic concepts relies on the number of local salt-related structures. Based on the cli- -5114​-9_21​. sequences satisfying the conditions set forth matic and tectonic forces that overprinted the Burgess, P.M., 2016, The future of the sequence stra- by well-accepted models. 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Of the 17 deep-water sequences, older cy- CONCLUSIONS Christie-Blick, N., Mountain, G.S., and Miller, K.G., cles (numbers 1–9; 5.5–0.7 Ma) are character- We used the deep-water Mississippi Fan in 1988, Technical comments—Sea level history: ized by lower frequencies (longer periods) and the central Gulf of Mexico to test objectively Science, v. 241, p. 596, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1126​ /science​.241​.4865​.596​. lower amplitudes (lower accumulation rates), the effect of changes in accommodation on the Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.C., Gibbard, P.L., and Fan, with the opposite pattern observed for younger stratigraphic evolution of 17 seismic sequences, J.X., 2013, The ICS International Chronostrati- ones (numbers 11–17; 0.6–0 Ma). In the for- which developed during the past 5.5 Myr. 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Garrison, L.E., Kenyon, N.H., and Bouma, A.H., matches the period of coeval relative sea-level Mississippi Fan sequences have lower average 1982, Channel systems and lobe construction in change is sequence number 10 (0.6–0.7 Myr); sedimentation rates in older sediments, and an the Mississippi Fan: Geo-Marine Letters, v. 2, that deposit spans the transition between lower opposite trend in younger successions, we con- p. 31–39, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1007​/BF02462797​.

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