Buy Now! Operation Savannah: Home Task Force Zulu & the Rommel of

By Kelly Bell

Background

s Portuguese military personnel and settlers prepared to depart Angola in 1975, a civil A war was breaking out in that newly inde- pendent colony. The three anti-colonial insurgent movements—FNLA, UNITA and MPLA—were each making a bid for power. The FNLA and UNITA had some connections with the West, but the MPLA was inclined toward the Soviet bloc. The three factions all had their origins in the anti-colonial insurgency just concluded against Portugal. The FNLA, led by Holden Roberto, drew its membership from the Bakongo tribes. It was based in Zaire and its area of operations was northern Angola. UNITA, headed by Jonas Savimbi, was built around the Ovimbundus, the largest single ethnic group in Angola. They operated mainly in

the south-central part of the country. and, ever since the government guerrillas into a regular army. In May The MPLA, under Agostinho Neto, in Lisbon had announced a year 1975 the first 250 Cuban technicians recruited supporters from Angolans earlier they were going to withdraw and advisors arrived. Meanwhile, living in urban and coastal areas. The from their African empire, the three UNITA looked to the Chinese for MPLA took an openly Marxist-Leninist factions had been maneuvering for support, while the FNLA brought in line, calling for a one-party state. position. The Eastern Bloc began European mercenaries to bolster its The official date for Portuguese shipping large volumes of arms, as ranks while also taking advantage of Portuguese infantry on patrol in Angola in 1974. withdrawal was 11 November 1975 well as personnel, to turn the MPLA covert CIA assistance from the US.

40 MODERN WAR 4 | MAR–APR 2013 MODERN WAR 4 | MAR–APR 2013 41 into South West Africa and sending The Players a small infantry unit into Angola to guard the vital hydroelectric dam at Portugal had been involved with what is today Angola since the 16th Ruscana, near the border. There was century, when it established fortified trading posts along the coast. Angola at also the , 25 miles the time wasn’t a country; rather, it was a region containing several warring upriver in Angola and then still a kingdoms. The Portuguese wanted the coastal settlements as bases to support year from completion. The dams and their trans-oceanic trade to the East Indies as well as the African slave trade. connected hydroelectric complex Later the Portuguese moved farther inland, but it wasn’t until the late 19th century were important strategic assets, as the that the area that became modern Angola took shape. As part of the general European entire region relied on them for water colonial “scramble for Africa,” the Portuguese established the current borders in and electricity. The South Africans 1891. They also began to develop some of the area’s resources and built a railroad. further justified the move because During the Cold War, three major anti-colonial insurgent groups arose: the Angolan the dams had been funded largely National Liberation Front (FNLA), the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola by investment from their country. (MPLA), and the National Union for the Total Liberation of Angola (UNITA). There were also other factors at Open warfare broke out in 1961, and the colony became something of an arena for work. South Africa originally gained Cold War conflict even then. The MPLA was supported by the Soviet Union; UNITA was control of South West Africa as a supported by communist China, and the US gave at least verbal sympathy to the FNLA. The mandate from the League of Nations Kennedy administration wanted Portugal to withdraw from its African empire, in part to following World War I. While the United prevent the communists from being able to further exploit the anti-colonial movement. That Nations later tried to take over South A view of newly arrived Cuban soldiers in Angola in 1975. created tensions between Washington and Lisbon, since Portugal was a member of NATO. West Africa as a Trust Territory, the Portuguese counterinsurgency efforts proved largely successful in South Africans refused to yield control. on Nova Lisboa (Huambo), turning Foxbat, Orange and X-Ray. The Angola. That was in part due to reforms implemented by the colonial armed Jonas Savimbi of UNITA. An insurgency was then organized them back. That move enabled overall plan was for all the columns forces, which won the support of sizable sectors among the populace. It by the South West Africa Peoples’ UNITA to hold the town, and South to eventually converge on Luanda, was also due to infighting among the FNLA, MPLA and UNITA. Given its geopolitical base on Organization (SWAPO), which set up Africa thereby became a major securing the capital for UNITA. The big change came in April 1974, when the Portuguese military overthrew the the coast, the MPLA was in the best bases in southern Angola and was soon player in the . The operation wasn’t an exclusive government of Antonio Salazar. Salazar was something of a dictator, and while the position to gain control of the capital launching raids across the frontier. SADF enterprise. Much of its infantry war in Angola had gone well for Portugal, similar conflicts in Mozambique and Guinea- Luanda. With what appeared to be Meanwhile, bolstered by Soviet Codename Savannah was provided by UNITA, FNLA and Bissau had not. The endless fighting was undermining the home country economically a nascent communist regime taking and Cuban support, the MPLA South West African forces, with and radicalizing much of the younger generation there. The coup established a new over next door, the South African was steadily consolidating its hold Under the codename Zulu, a South the SADF supplying armored cars, democratic government in Lisbon that decided to withdraw from the African colonies. government began to take more of in southern Angola, bringing 12 African motorized column moved heavy weapons, artillery and some In January 1975, representatives of the three Angolan insurgent groups and the an interest, as did Washington. provinces and most of the towns into Angola. It was commanded paratroopers. Savannah also had Portuguese met and agreed to establish a government in the newly independent there under its control. It was also by Col. Jan Breytenbach and was support from the Central Intelligence country. That government was supposed to be shared among the insurgents, with a Enter Pretoria pushing UNITA into a shrinking zone part of Operation Savannah, which Agency. Washington saw Angola as combined military made up of all the former guerrilla forces. The agreement quickly in the central part of the country. kicked off on 14 October. Zulu was a critical new front in the Cold War fell apart as each of the factions laid sole claim to political legitimacy. On 9 August 1975, Pretoria took The South African government the first of four SADF columns, the struggle against the USSR. At stake b the precaution of deploying South aligned itself with UNITA, since they others crossing from South West was the mineral wealth of southern African Defense Force (SADF) troops both had a common enemy in the Africa into Cuando Cubango with the Africa as well as the security of MPLA. On 5 October a SADF advisory objective of clearing the MPLA from global petroleum shipping routes. team that had been supporting UNITA the southern border region. Those With Zulu in the vanguard, the clashed with MPLA forces advancing other columns were codenamed South Africans advanced swiftly,

The Chessboard

In the 1970s Europe and the US were heavily dependent It was difficult, however, for Western countries to send on Middle East oil shipments sent via tanker around the Cape their own armed forces into Africa despite the high stakes of Good Hope. There was therefore concern in Washington involved there. One reason was anti-colonial sentiment made that, if a Soviet proxy took over Angola, Moscow would such moves politically perilous. The recent American experience establish bases in the country that could be used to interdict in Vietnam, with the fall of Saigon occurring at about the time those shipments in the event of NATO/Warsaw Pact conflict. of the outbreak of the Angolan civil war, mitigated against US TU-95 Bear and TU-16 Badger bombers flying from Angolan airbas- conventional forces being sent to fight in a new foreign war. es could cover much of the South Atlantic. Similarly, the Soviet fleet, The alternative was covert operations. In July 1975, US which under Adm. Sergey Gorshkov was for the first time developing President Gerald Ford authorized the CIA to provide support to true blue water capabilities, could base from ports in the country. As UNITA as well as the SADF. Angola was seen as a front in which well, Angola itself held sizable deposits of petroleum and diamonds. communism could be challenged and defeated. The CIA went on The larger surrounding area was also critical in the geostrategic to provide arms and training to UNITA as well as the FNLA. The sense. The region dominated the Indian Ocean—Atlantic Ocean FNLA effort wasn’t productive, given that faction’s dismal military trade routes, as well as holding considerable mineral wealth. performance, but the UNITA operation paid off throughout the rest If it were taken over by allies of the Soviet Union, it would’ve of the Cold War by tying down communist forces in Angola. been catastrophic for the global balance of power. b Holden Roberto (center) outside Luanda shortly before independence.

42 MODERN WAR 4 | MAR–APR 2013 MODERN WAR 4 | MAR–APR 2013 43 Buy Now!

The Pieces Home South African Defense Forces

South African forces operating in Angola were based largely out of South West Africa. The initial commitment in 1975 was in the form of trainers for UNITA and the FNLA, as well as supplying some heavy weapons. The objective was to turn those guerrillas into an effective offensive force. UNITA’s men proved more amenable to training than those of the FNLA, and its forces would later become a major challenge to the MPLA. For Savannah, the South African Defense Force (SADF) organized four task forces.

Zulu consisted of a battalion of Caprivi Strip bushmen from South West Africa and a battalion from the FNLA, reinforced with an artillery battery. The task force was led and truck-transported by a cadre of South Africans. There were also some former Portuguese officers among them.

Foxbat consisted of a battalion of UNITA troops and an SADF armored car squadron.

Orange & X-Ray each consisted of a battalion of UNITA troops plus an SADF armored car squadron, an infantry company and some artillery. In some accounts these tasks forces are called Alfa and Bravo, respectively. SADF Col. Jan “Rommel” Breytenbach photographed soon after Operation Savannah. There was yet another SADF force operating with the FNLA st in northern Angola. Also available were elements of 1 Parachute driving the MPLA from the south. Battalion, for a total SADF commitment of around 3,000 men. When MPLA forces attempted a The South African Air Force and Navy were also involved. The Air Force counterattack at Nova Lisboa, the provided helicopters and tactical fixed-wing aircraft for recon and close support. SADF defeated them. Zulu secured It also made good use of transport aircraft to move men, supplies and armored Sa da Bandeira on the 24th and cars around Angola. The Navy operated some frigates off the coast, and evacu- Mocamedes on the 28th. With Zulu Two views of Eland Armored Cars. ated some SADF personnel from the country at the end of the operation. leading the way, the rest of the Something Savannah clearly demonstrated was Angolans could be effective Savannah force bore down on Luanda. troops if they were given good training and leadership. Afterward, Breytenbach The Cubans reacted by sending their nd Eland Armored Car would recruit former FNLA personnel into the SADF’s 32 “Buffalo” Battalion. advisors as well as Angolan recruits Specifications During subsequent operations in Angola and against SWAPO, that unit to Luanda to make a stand. That force proved to be one of the most effective in all the South African military. encountered Zulu on the night of 2-3 Weight: 6 tons November, when they clashed outside East Bloc Catengue. Zulu kept advancing. Dimensions: In the northern part of the length 4.04 meters; 5.12 meters The Soviet Union provided considerable support to the MPLA throughout the country a combined FNLA/Zairian (with gun forward); insurgency against the Portuguese. MPLA personnel were trained in the USSR column commanded by Col. Gilberto width 2.015 meters; and then sent back to Angola to lead guerrilla units. The Soviets were also able Santos e Castro secured the strategic height 2.5 meters to send in arms via friendly countries such as Tanzania and the Congo. In that crossroads of Caxito, 30 miles north effort they sometimes had the collaboration of leftist Portuguese officers. of Luanda, on 6 November. Roberto Crew: 3 (commander, With the 1974 coup in Lisbon, Angola was wide open for intervention. In personally accompanied that driver, gunner) August 1975 the Soviets started an airlift of tanks, MiGs and artillery to the group, and made preparations for MPLA. Also included were advisers from various East Bloc countries to train an assault on Luanda on the 10th. Armament: 1 x 90mm low recoil MPLA personnel in-country and then sometimes even lead them in the field. Victory seemed imminent, but the gun, 2 x 7.62mm MG, 4 x 2 Despite all that, it quickly became apparent more assistance was going to be FNLA attack turned into a fiasco. smoke grenade dischargers Knight’s Mount needed for the MPLA to be able to seize control of the entire country, which meant The first thing to go wrong was committing combat formations. A commitment of conventional Soviet units might the effort’s timing. Roberto’s officers Engine: 4-cylinder 2.5-liter petrol A weapon in the SADF inventory that proved particularly effective in Angola was the lead to a confrontation with NATO, so Moscow got the Cubans involved. overslept, and the assault, which Eland armored car. It was an upgraded version of the Panhard AML-90. While originally Castro wasn’t initially enthusiastic about sending troops to Africa, since it was scheduled to begin at daybreak, Power/weight ratio: 10.6 kW/t designed as a light scouting vehicle, the SADF upgraded it to carry a 90mm gun. That cannon could possibly lead to retaliation from the United States directly against , therefore didn’t get rolling until 7:45 proved effective against both infantry and armor, and the Eland was used for reconnaissance, as well as further straining his dictatorship’s already tight budget. Moscow a.m. That gave the defenders more Suspension: wheeled 4 x 4 infantry support and anti-tank work. Further, its cross-country mobility came in handy then offered to cover the monetary cost, while also assuring Castro the time prepare. Further, the Cubans in the often roadless spaces of Angola. A well trained Eland crew could outmaneuver US wasn’t going to take action so soon after the Vietnam debacle. in Luanda were better armed than Range: 450 kilometers heavier tanks, score flank shots, and then break off before a counterattack could be made. An air and sea lift of Cuban forces followed, including both regular armed the approaching FNLA troops. With Variants were armed with a variety of weapons, including 60mm mortars. forces and security troops from the Ministry of the Interior. While Angola was vehicle-mounted guns, heavy mortars, Speed (road): 90 km/hour b still technically a Portuguese colony until official independence on 11 November multi-barreled rocket launchers, and 1975, the Portuguese were in no position to object as their goal was simply to large numbers of machineguns and Speed (off-road): 30 km/hour get out of the country. By the time of Operation Savannah’s launch, then, Castro

already had some 4,000 personnel on the ground in Angola. b continued on page 46 »

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