Chapter 2 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species

With M.J.A. Werger & N.H. Nghia

Introduction Asuccessfulconservationstrategyrequiresagoodunderstandingofthenaturaland socialconditionsandtheirrelationstothestrategy’sobjectives.Thisisparticularly importantforthetropicalcountries,wheretheforestsareverydiverseinspeciesand complexinstructures, but beinglostatanalarming rate (Wilson 1988, Whitmore 1997, Sodhi et al. 2004). Tropical countries, on the other hand, have among the world’ highest population (people) growth rates, which are the most crucial underlyingcauseofdeforestation(Laurance1999,Wright&MullerLandau2006). In this chapter, we present several natural conditions of , a tropical country located in SouthEast Asia. We also discuss the biodiversity, forest status,protectedareasandtherelationshipamongpeople,forestsandthreatenedtree specieswithrecommendationsforabetterconservation. Geographical location VietnamislocatedinSoutheastAsia,sharingboundarieswithChina(1400km)inthe North,withLaos(2067km)andCambodia(1080km)intheWestandhavingthe EastSeaintheEast.Thecountryhasatotallandareaof330,991squarekm,and stretchesover3,200kmbetweenthelatitudesof8°30 ’and23 °22 ’N,andbetweenthe longitudes of 102 °10 ’ and 109 °24 ’E(Thao1998,Lap1999).Threequartersofthe countryiscomposedofhillsand mountains with the highest peaks reaching over 3,000mabovesealevel(a.s.l.)(GovernmentoftheSocialistRepublicofVietnamand theGlobalEnvironmentFacilityProject‘GoVN’1994,Nhat2001). ThecountryisSshapedinoutline.Ithastwowidedeltas,oneinthesouthalong MekongRiverandoneinthenorthalongtheRedRiver.TheMiddleofthecountry isalmostcompletelyoccupiedbytheTruongSonRange,therebeingonlyanarrow stripofcoastalplains(Thao1998,Lap1999).TheTruongSonRangeisdividedinto theNorthandtheSouthofTruongSonbytheHaiVanPass.TheCentralHighlands lieattheSouthoftheMiddle,sharingboundarieswithCambodiainthewest,with SouthernTruongSonintheEastandwiththeSoutheastregionintheSouth(Soil Chapter 2

ScienceAssociationofVietnam‘SSA’1996).AtitsnarrowestpointintheMiddle,the countryisonly50kmacross,whileatitswidestintheNorth,itisabout600km. MostofthecountrydrainsdirectlyintotheEastSea,butthewesternpartsofthe CentralHighlandsdrainintotheMekongbasinofCambodiaandthenintotheEast Sea(GoVN1994,Trung1998).

Climate VietnambasicallyhasatropicalclimateasitliesinsidetheNorthernTropicalZone. However,duetoavaryingmonsoonregimeandacomplex terrain, theclimateof Vietnamdifferswithlatitudeandaltitude(Trung1998,Lap1999). Sunshine regime Situated in the Northern Tropical Zone, Vietnam receives a great amount of sunshine, though it differs from the South to the North. Each year, the South receivesaround2000to3000hrsofsunshinewithmeancumulatedintensityof160 kcalcm 2 yr 1,whiletheNorthhasonly1400to2000hrsandanintensityofbetween 110 to 140 kcal cm 2 yr 1(Toan1998,Lap1999).Duetothecomplexterrain, the sunshine regime also differs per area. For instance, the NorthEast and Northern TruongSonRangeannuallyreceivearound1600to1800hrs,whiletheSouthEast receivesaround2600to3000hrs(Lap1999). Monsoons ThreemonsoonalsystemsaffecttherainfallpatterninVietnam.FromSeptemberto April,thewintermonsoonoriginatingfromSiberia,blowsoverahugecontinental area(China),carriescoldanddryairthatcausescoldanddryweatherintheNorthof Vietnam(Toan1998,Trung1998,Lap1999).ThiswindmayalsoreachVietnamvia theEastSea,andthencarrieshumidityfromthesea, and produces drizzle in the NorthfromDecembertoJanuary(Trung1998).FromMaytoOctober,therearetwo monsoonalsystemsaffectingthecountry.TheSouthwestPacificmonsoonblowsto thecountryviaCambodiaandLaos.WhenmeetingtheTruongSonRange,itcauses a lot of rainfall in the west of the Range, but dry and hot weather in the East, particularlyfromJunetoAugust.TheprovincesoftheMiddlearestronglyaffected bythismonsoon(Trung1998,Lap1999).Incontrast,theSoutheastmonsoonfrom theEastSeabringsalotofrainfalltothewholecountry.Thismonsoonmaymitigate the unfavourable effects of the Southwest monsoon as it brings a cool and rainy weather(Lap1999). Apart from the three monsoons mentioned above, the country is under the influence of typhoons bearing from the East Sea from July to November. The typhoonsoftenbringstrongwindandheavyrains,andmaycauseasevereflooding

20 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species alongthecoastline,particularlyinthemiddleofthecountry(GoVN1994,Thin2000, Nhat2001). Temperature ThetemperatureofVietnamisgenerallyhigh,butvarieswithseasons,latitudesand altitudes. Inthewinter,theNorthandtheNorthernMiddle(asfarsouthastheHaiVan Pass)arecoldastheyareaffectedbythewintermonsoon.However,therestofthe countrydoesnothavethewinterweatherduetotheweakinfluenceofthiswind.The meantemperatureofthecoldestmonth(January)inHaNoi(theNorth)is16.4 °C, Hue(theMiddle)19.7 °C,butinHochiminhCity(theSouth)itisstill25.8 °C(Table1) (Trung1998,Lap1999). Table 1. Monthlymeantemperatureofareasthroughoutthecountry( °C)

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII LangSon 13.3 14.3 18.2 22.1 25.5 26.9 27.0 26.6 25.2 22.2 18.3 14.8 HaNoi 16.4 17.0 20.2 23.7 27.3 28.8 28.9 28.2 27.2 24.6 21.4 18.2 Vinh 17.6 17.9 20.3 24.1 27.7 29.2 29.6 28.7 26.8 24.4 21.6 18.9 DongHoi 19.0 19.3 21.7 24.9 28.0 29.7 29.7 29.1 27.0 24.8 22.4 19.9 QuangTri 19.4 20.4 22.6 25.6 28.1 29.4 29.5 29.0 27.1 25.1 23.2 20.8 Hue 19.7 20.9 23.1 26.0 28.3 29.3 29.4 28.9 27.1 25.1 23.1 20.8 DaNang 21.3 22.4 24.1 26.2 28.2 29.2 29.1 28.8 27.3 25.7 24.0 21.9 QuyNhon 23.0 23.8 25.3 27.2 28.8 29.6 29.7 29.8 28.2 26.6 25.3 23.7 PhanThiet 24.7 25.2 26.5 27.9 28.3 27.7 26.9 27.0 26.8 26.7 26.3 25.3 HCMCity 25.8 26.7 27.9 28.9 28.3 27.5 27.1 27.1 26.8 26.7 26.4 25.7 CaMau 25.1 25.8 26.8 27.9 27.7 27.3 27.1 27.0 26.9 26.7 26.3 25.5 Source:Lap(1999) In summer, however, the temperature does not differ much throughout the country.ThemeantemperatureofthehottestmonthinHaNoi(July)is28.9 °C,Hue (July)29.4 °C,andHochiminhCity(April)28.9 °C(Tabe1)(Trung1998,Lap1999). Thereisadropofabout0.5 °Cwithevery100mincreaseinaltitude(Toan1998,Lap 1999). From example in the South between 1000 and 1800 m altitude the mean annualtemperaturedropsfrom20 °Cto15 °Candthesamehappensbetween700and 1600mintheNorth.Betweenthesealtitudesthemeantemperatureofthecoldest monthisbelow15 °C,andthelowesttemperatureinthismonthmaybeaslowas0 °C

21 Chapter 2 20 423/20 170/18 /18 374/18 167/14 6/21 581/22 297/19 15/16 69/7 23/4 277/18 155/11 41/5 23 266/21 117/12 48/7 /15 621/19 491/20 281/18 65/14 131/9 43/7 23/6 164/13 79/8 34/6 23/6 I VIII IX X XI XII (Lap1999) (mm/rainy days)

I II III IV V VI VI Rainfallinareasthroughoutthecountry Table2. NhaTrang 47/10HCMcity 17/4 14/2 32/4 4/1 33/5 11/2 55/8 50/5 49/8 218/18 312/22 43/8 294/23 51/8 270/22 167/15 327/ 324 QuangTriHue 157/15QuyNhon 66/12 65/12 161/16 66/12 32/6 63/11CanTho 58/9 47/10 110/10 24/4 12/2 52/9 81/7 32/4 82/10 80/8 63/7 2/1 117/9 110/8 61/6 10/1 436 95/8 55/5 50/3 104/10 177/14 473/16 59/7 206/17 79 245/15 227/18 463/ 217/18 273/19 LangSonHaNoi 24/7 19/8 41/10 26/11 53/12 44/15 96/12 165/13 90/13 200/15 188/14 258/17 240/15 255/17 288/16 318/17 2 VungTau 2/1 1/1 5/1 33/3 188/5 206/18 213/20 178/19 214/19 2

22 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species

(Trung1998).From1600to2600mintheSouthandfrom1600to2400minthe North the annual mean temperature drops from 15 °C to 10 °C, and in the coldest monththetemperatureislessthan10 °Cwiththeminimumtemperaturebelow0 °C. Athigheraltitudes,itiscoldthroughouttheyear,andthereissometimessnowinthe winter(Trung1998). Rainfall Ingeneral,Vietnamhasahighannualrainfallanditvarieswithlatitude,altitudeand seasonally. The annual rainfall of Ha Noi (the North Delta) is 1676 mm yr 1, HochiminhCity(theSouthDelta)1931mm,andQuyNhon(adeltaoftheMiddle) 1692mmyr 1(Table2,Lap1999).Thehighmountains,whichtrapmonsoons,often haveahighrainfall,suchasSapa(HoangLienSonMountains)2833mmyr 1,and HonBa(TruongSonMountains)3751mmyr 1(Lap1999).ParticularlyatBachMa (TruongSonMountains)theannualrainfallisveryhigh:morethan8000mmyr 1at higher700ma.s.l.(FTSA2001,Keo2003).Incontrast,areasbehindthesemountains mayhavelittlerainfall.Forinstance,PhanRang(edgeofthesouthernTruongSon) hasonly653mmyr 1andKySon(edgeofthenorthernTruongSon)has643mmyr 1 (Lap1999). TherainfallinVietnamisconcentratedinarainyseasonthatcomprisesabout70 to80%oftheprecipitationofthewholeyear.TherainyseasonlastsfromMayto NovemberintheNorth,theCentralHighlandsandtheSouth,andfromAugustto February in the Middle (Lap 1999). On the other hand, the dry season is often characterizedbysomeperiodsofnorain(Trung1998,Lap1999).

Humidity ThehumidityofVietnamishighasthecountryreceiveshighannualrainfall,andthe NorthisoftenmorehumidthantheSouth(Trung1998).ThehumidityoftheNorth isaround80to85%,whiletheSouthisabout78to83%.IntheNorth,themost humidperiodisfromMarchtoApril(87%)andthedriestperiodisfromNovember toDecember(81%).IntheSouth,thehumidityishigh(82%88%)intherainy season(MaytoOctober),anddry(70%80%)inthedryseason(FebruarytoApril). TheMiddleisacombinationoftheNorthandtheSouth,itisdry(73%82%)from MaytoJuly,andhumid(86%91%)fromAugusttoApril(Trung1998,Lap1999). Climate zones Inshort,Vietnamhas3mainkindsofclimatein3mainzonesthroughthecountry (SSA1996,Thao1998,Lap1999).

23 Chapter 2

- The Northern climate: FromtheboundarybetweenVietnamandChinatotheCaRiver thereisatropicalmonsoonclimatewith4distinctseasons.Thesummerishotand rainy,thewinteriscoldanddry(SSA1996,Thao1998,Lap1999). - The Middle climate: FromtheCaRiveralongtheTruongSonRangetoMui Dinh (excepttheCentralHighlands)thereisalsoatropicalclimate,whichisacombination oftheNorthernandtheSouthernclimate.Inthiszonetherainyseasoncomeslate (fromAugusttoNovember).Thiszoneisalsostronglyaffectedbythehotanddry Southwestmonsoon,andbythetyphoonsfromthesea(SSA1996,Thao1998,Lap 1999). - The Southern climate: The South Delta, the Central Highlands and the Edge of SouthernTruongSonhaveatypicaltropicalclimate.Inthiszonethetemperatureis highalltheyearround,andithasonlythedryandtherainyseasons,inwhichthe rainyseasonoccupiesmorethan90%ofthetotalannualrainfalls(SSA1996,Thao 1998,Lap1999). Apartfromthe3mainclimatezonesabove,Vietnamalsohasbothsubtropical andtemperateclimatesasonethirdofthecountryismountainouswithaltitudesof above500ma.s.l.(Trung1998,Lap1999,Thin2000).Theareasfrom1000to1800 m a.s.l. in the South and from 700 to 1600 m a.s.l. in the North are under the influenceofasubtropicalclimate.Theregionhas alowannualtemperatureanda distinctwinter.From1800to2600ma.s.l.intheSouthandfrom1600to2400m a.s.l.intheNorththereisahumidtemperatureclimate.Itisverycoldinwinter,but coolinsummer,andtheminimumtemperaturemaybeaslowas0 °C.Atstillhigher altitudes,thereisacoldtemperatureclimate,anditiscoldallyearround.Thereis sometimessnowinwinter(Trung1998). Geology, terrain and soils

Geology ThegeologyofVietnamisundertheinfluenceof2mainlandblocks,theIndonesian LandBlockcoveringtheSouth,theMiddleandanedgeoftheNorthwest(Muong TeandDienBienPhu),whiletheSouthernChineseLandBlockaffectedtheNorth totheMaRiver(Thao1998). IntheNorthrockfromtheCambrictoMesozoicerasiswidelydistributed,while preCambricrockonlyoccursalongtheRedRiver.UndertheNorthDeltatherockis Neogenicandiscoveredbyrecentalluvium(Thao1998,Lap1999). Therestofthecountryisdividedgeologicallyintotwoparts.FromTamKy Phuoc Son to the North the rock is mainly Paleozoic and Mesozoic. The South, however,mostlyhaspreCambricrock.IntheCentralHighlands(whichbelongto

24 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species theSouth),therewasstrongofvolcanicactivityattheendoftheNeogenPeriod,and fromthisresultthefertileredsoilsintheseareas(Thao1998). Apart from the sedimentary rocks discussed above, magmatic rock is widely distributed(particularlyGranite)fromNorthtoSouth.TheyaremainlypreCambric, butalsoPaleozoic,MesozoicandKainozoic.PreCambricgraniteiscommoninthe EastoftheCentralHighlandsandsomeotherareas oftheMiddlesuchasQuang Ngai,BinhDinhprovinces.MesozoicandKainozoicgranite occur throughoutthe country(Thao1998,Lap1999). Terrain TheterrainofVietnamiscomplicatedandvariesfromtheNorthtotheSouthand fromtheWesttotheEast(Thao1998,Lap1999).AccordingtoLap(1999),Vietnam hasfivemainkindsofterrain:Hillsandmountains,Karsticlandscapes,valleysand hollows,alluvialplainsandcoastalareas,andtheyshowacomplicateddistribution throughoutthecountry. - North-western Zone: This area contains the Hoang Lien Son Range, which is an extensionoftheChineseHengduanMountainsandconstitutesthehighestpartofthe country.Itisalargearea,includingtheprovincesofHaGiang,TuyenQuang,Yen Bai,NorthwesternHaTay,HoaBinh,LaiChau,Son La,westernNinhBinhand ThanhHoa(Nhat2001).Thetopographyisverycomplexasitrangesfromveryhigh and steep mountains, highlands and hills to valleys and hollows (Lap 1999, Thin 2000).Themeanaltitudeofthemountainrangesisaround2000ma.s.l.Themain directionofthemountainrangesisfromnorthwesttosoutheast(SSA1996). - North-eastern Zone :SharingboundarieswiththeHoangLienSonRangeandtheRed River Delta, the topography of this area is less complex than the Northwestern Zone,asitincludesmainlylowmountainsalternatingwithhills,valleysandplains. Thealtitudeofthezonedecreasesgraduallyfromthenorthwesttothesoutheast (SSA1996,Nhat2001).Themountainsandhillsoftheregionwereformedlikean arc,inwhichmountainsfromtheborder(Vietnam–China)convergetowardsthe TamDaoMountains.Thistypeoftopographyincreasesthecapacityofreceivingthe influenceofthewintermonsoonfromChina(SSA1996). - Red River and Mekong River Deltas : These Deltas were filled up by Quaternary sedimentsfromtheRedandMekongRiver.Theterrainoftheseregionsisgenerally simpleasitislowandflat.ThereareseveraldepressionssuchasNamHa,NinhBinh (intheNorth),DongThapMuoiandUMinh(intheSouth),andalsoseveralhigher tonguesoflandmadeupbyalluvialdeposits(Lap1999). - Northern Truong Son Zone :FromtheCaRivertotheHaiVanPassrunstheNorthern TruongSonRangeintheMiddleofthecountry.Therangeincludeshighmountains

25 Chapter 2 withsteepslopesintheeast,andgentleslopesinthewest(SSA1996,Lap1999). There are also narrow plains with alternating depressions and sand dunes. These plains are strongly separated from one another by mountainous spurs where the TruongSonRangereachesthesea(Lap1999). - Southern Truong Son Zone:BeginningatHaiVanPassandsharingaboundarywiththe CentralHighlands,theSouthernTruongSonRangeextendsalongthecoastlineand thentotheEastSeainBinhThuanprovince(SSA1996,Lap1999).Thetopography of the region is complex with high and steep mountains, narrow plains and sand fields,againseparatedbyspursoftheTruongSonMountains(SSA1996). - Central Highlands: FromtheborderswithLaosandCambodiainthewest to the Southern Truong Son Range in the east, the Central Highlands comprises the highlandsofKonTum,DacLac,DaLat,LamDongandSnaro (SSA1996).The altitudeoftheCentralHighlandsrangesfrom500ma.s.l.(KonTum)tomorethan 2000m(DaLat).However,theterrainoftheCentralHighlandsisgeneralflatand simple,anditslopesgentlyfromthenortheastorthenorthtothesouthwestorthe south(SSA1996,Lap1999).

Soils Affectedbyamonsoontropicalclimateandacomplextopography,Vietnamhasa diverse system of soil types, ranging from the Ferralsols distributed widely in mountainsandhills,Luvisolsinhighlands,FluvisolsindeltastoArenosolsandthe Salic Fluvisols in the coastal areas (Binh 1996, SSA 1996, Thao 1998, Lap 1999). However,severalmainsoiltypesandtheirdistributioncanbeclassifiedasfollows: Plinthic Ferrasols:Formedinahumidtropicalclimate,thesesoilsoccupy around 47%ofthetotallandareaofthecountry(Lap1999).Theyoccurfrom8 °5Nto22 °5 Nandataltitudelowerthan600m(intheNorth),800m(intheMiddle)and1000m (intheSouth)(Binh1996,Sam&Binh2001).Thesesoilsareoftenacid,andreserved forforestryandagroforestryproduction(Lap1999). - Luvisols: Thesesoilscoverofaround1%ofthetotallandarea,andoccurinthe CentralHighlands,theSoutheastandinKarsticterrainsinseveralprovincesofthe NorthsuchasCaoBang,HoaBinh,SonLaandLaiChau(Lap1999). - Rhodic Ferralsols: Thesesoilscoveraround2,680,000haofthetotallandareaand occurmostlyintheCentralHighlandsandsomeotherprovinces,e.g.QuangTri, NgheAnandThanhHoa(Lap1999). Acrisols: Comparedwithotherkindsofsoils,theAcrisolsareunfertileastheywere affected by a strong progression of leaching and erosion (Binh 1996, Lap 1999).

26 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species

Thesesoilscoveraround7.5%ofthetotallandareaandmainlyoccurintheNorth andSouthdeltasandthehighlands(Lap1999). Humic Ferralsols: Thesesoilsoccurinlowmountainsofthecountry over around 10.25%ofthetotallandarea.Thesesoilsareoftenhumidandfertileandtobethe habitatoftheevergreenforests(Lap1999). Fluvisols: Thesesoilsoccupyaround24%ofthetotallandareaofthecountry,and occurmainlyindeltasandvalleys(Binh1996,SSA1996,Lap1999).Thesesoilsare very important for the country as they are the base for most cultivation and inhabitationofpeople(Lap1999). Salic Fluvisols: Thesesoilsoccuralongtheentirecoastlineofthecountry.Thetotal areaofthesesoilsisaround4.4%ofthetotallandareaofVietnam(SSA1996,Lap 1999). Biogeography ThebasisofthefloraofVietnamandthewholeofIndochinawaslaidalongtime ago.Schmid(1962)andVidal(1973)statedthatmanyspeciesoftheLycopodiales, EquisetalisandPteridospermaeoccurredinthePaleozoicEra,whenthelandblocks ofAnnamia(intheNorth)andSinien(intheSouth)emerged.InthelatePaleozoic andtheMesozoicEra,thefloracontainedspeciesoftheclassofthePsilotophyta and particularlyoftheCycadales(Schmid1962).However,thepresentfloraofVietnam andIndochinadevelopedmainlyintheKainozoicEra (Schmid1962,Vidal1973). Duringthisperiodalsomanytaxaimmigratedintothearea(Trung1998). ImmigrationoftaxafromadjacentareasintoIndochinaandsubsequentradiation ofspecieswasfacilitatedasthearealiesonornearthecontactzonesofthreemajor earth plates: the huge Eurasiatic plate with smaller, adjacent South China and Indochinaplates,theIndianplateandthesmaller,adjacentBirmaSiamplate,andthe SouthEast Asian (Sunda) plate. Furthermore, the mainly NorthSouth running mountainrangesfacilitatedthemigrationoftaxa.Theavailabilityofdifferentsource floras and the occurrence of dispersal tracks make the Indochinese area plant geographically very interesting. The mixture of taxa with different geographic affinities,theevolutionofnewtaxainthearea,andthepersistenceofgeographically restricted,relictaxaaddtoitsattractiveness(cf.Willis&McElwain2002). Basically,Vietnam’sfloraincludesspeciesfromtheNorthernVietnamSouthern ChinaFlora(indigenousandendemicspecies),theHimalayaYunnanGuizhouflora in the NorthWest, the IndiaMyanmar flora in the West, and the Malaysia IndonesianfloraintheSouthandSouthEast(Fig.1)(Trung1998,Chanetal .1999, Lap1999).

27 Chapter 2

Figure 1. NorthVietnam–SouthChinafloristicareaandtheimmigrationof fromthreenearbyfloras(fromarrows13)(Trung1998). ThefloraofNorthernVietnamSouthernChinaextendsfromSouthernChinato theHaiVanPass(exceptintheNorthwestandtheTruongSonRange).Itconsists ofaround50%ofthetotalspeciesoccurringinVietnam,ofwhich40%evolvedin Vietnamand10%camefromSouthernChina(Pocs1965,Trung1970,1998).The NorthernVietnamSouthernChinafloraisintegratedastheNorthernVietnamflora wasalmostsimilartotheSouthernChinaflorafromtheThirdFormtodate(Trung 1998,Lap1999).Manyspeciesrichfamiliesbelongtothisflora,suchasLauraceae, Moraceae, Fagaceae, Leguminosae, Liliaceae, Betulaceae, Ebenaceae, Magnoliaceae, Annonaceae,Sterculiaceae,Sapindaceae,Meliaceae,Clusiaceaeandseveralconiferous families,e.g.CupressaceaeandTaxodiaceae(Engler1882,Schnell1962,Good1969, Trung1998,Lap1999,Willis&McElwain2002). Itisestimatedthataround10%ofthetotalspeciesofVietnamoriginatedfrom theHimalayaYunnanGuizhouflora(Trung1998,Lap1999).Originatingfromthe temperate zone, most immigrated species inhabited the high to middle high mountainsoftheNorthWestandtheTruongSonRangetothelatitudeof10 °N(Lap 1999).Severaltaxa,however,extendedfurthersouthandalsotolowerelevations,and

28 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species as a consequence developed more subtropical and tropical species (Trung 1998). ManyspeciesinthisgroupareGymnospermae,suchas Pinus merkusii , Pinus kesiya , Keteleeria davidiana , Fokiena hodginsii , Calocedrus macrolepis ,Tsuga yunnanensis , Abies pindrow , Cryptomeria japonica . However, the deciduous broadleaved species of the families Fagaceae,Betulaceae,Aceraceae,Oleaceae,Juglandaceae,EricaceaeandVacciniaceae arealsofoundinthisregion(Schnell1962,Good1969,Trung1998,Lap1999). From the west, the IndiaMyanmar flora contributed around 14% of the total speciesnumberoftheVietnam’sflora.Taxawiththisaffinitymainlyoccurinthe NorthWest,theTruongSonRangeandtheCentralHighlandsofthecountry(Trung 1998,Lap1999).ThemostcommonfamilyinthisgroupisCombretaceaewiththe generaTerminalia,Anogeissus,FinetiaandCombretum.Theydroptheirleavesinthe dry season (Trung 1998). Also the species of Lagerstroemia (Lythraceae), Tetrameles nudiflora (Datiscaceae), and Gossampinus malabaricus (Bombacaceae) belong to this group(Good1969,Trung1998). Around 15% of the flora of Vietnam has affinities to the MalaysiaIndonesian flora(Schnell1962,Good1969,Trung1998,Lap1999).Inthisgroup,thespeciesof the (both evergreen and deciduous species) occur mainly in the CentralHighlandsandtheTruongSonRange.Thedeciduousspeciescanbefoundin theCentralHighlands,wheretheclimatehasadistinctdryseason,andtheevergreen speciesoccurin tropicalhumidforests(Lap 1999). However, Lap (1999) reported that the species may occur to as north as 20 °N, and several species of Dipterocarpaceae , such as tonkinensis ,occurintheevergreenforestsin PhuThoandYenBaiprovinces(theNorth). Table 3. ElementsofVietnam’sFlora(Pocs1965,Trung1998) Elements Contribution(%) Endemicspecies(SouthernVietnamSouthernChinaFlora) 50 HimalayaYunnanGuizhouFlora 10 IndiaMyanmarFlora 14 MalaysiaIndonesiaFlora 15 Othertropicalzones 7 Othertemperaturezones 3 Elsewhere 1 Total 100 Apartfromthefourflorasmentionedabove,thefloraofVietnamalsoincludes speciesthatarrivedfromotherpartsof the world. Pocs (1965) and Trung (1998)

29 Chapter 2 estimatetheirnumberataround7%ofitstotalspeciesfromothertropicalzones,3% fromothertemperatezones,and1%fromelsewhere(Table3). In plant geographical classifications all of Indochina including Vietnam and Thailand,arepartofthePaleotropicalKingdom,the IndoMalaysian Subkingdom, and the (Continental) Southeast Asian Region (Schmithusen 1968, Good 1969, Walter&Straka1970).Dependingonthetaxonomicclassificationfavouredbythe authors,theareahasnoorafew,smallendemicfamilies,butitcontainsmorethan 250endemicgenera,mostlysmallinspeciesnumbersandwithalocalizeddistribution (Good1969,Takhtajan1971). Biogeographical zones of Vietnam are recognized on the basic of natural geography, topography and species composition of the region (GoVN 1994, Thin 2000). In general, 3 main biogeographical zones are distinguished: The first zone coverstheNorthWestandtheTruongSonRange(untilthelatitudeof10 °N).Inthis zone, most plant species occurring in the mountains are of HimalayaYunnan Guizhoufloraaffinity,whilethespeciesgrowinginlowerareasaremostlyofIndia Myanmarfloraaffinity(Trung1998).FromtheNorthEasttothelatitudeof16 °Nwe find a biogeographical zone, where most species belong to the endemic Southern VietnamSouthern China floral element (Trung 1998). This zone is the habitat of Erythrophloem fordii ,whichisstrictlyendemichere(Trung1998).However,inthiszone wealsofindseveralspeciesofMalaysiaIndonesianfloralaffinity(Lap1999).From theSouthtothelatitudeof18 °NisthezoneofMalaysiaIndonesianfloralaffinity. TherearemanyspeciesofDipterocarpaceaeoccurring inthiszone(Trung1998). Plant biodiversity Table 4. ComponentsofthefloraofVietnam(Thin1997) Phyla Numberoffamilies Numberofgenera Numberofspecies Bryophyta 60 182 793 Psilotophyta 1 1 2 Lycopodiophyta 3 5 57 Equisetophyta 1 1 2 Polypodiophyta 25 137 669 Gymnospermae 8 23 63 Angiospermae 299 2175 299 Total 378 2524 11373 Endemic(%) 0 3 27.7

30 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species

Vietnampossessesaveryabundantanddiverseflora,ofwhicharound30%ofits total species are endemic (Thin 1997, Trung 1998). Vietnam is estimated to have from12,000to15,000plantspecies,accordingtodifferentscientists.GoVN(1994) reportsthatVietnamhasmorethan12,000plantspecies,ofwhich7,000havebeen identified. In the 3 phyla Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae and Angiospermae 11,000 species belonging to 2500 genera were identified (Ly 1993). Subsequently, Thin (1997)indicatesthatVietnamhas11,373plantspecies,27.7%ofwhichareendemic, belongingto2524genera,378familiesand7phyla(Table4).Healsopredictsthat Vietnammaypossess between12,000to15,000plant species (Thin 2000). Several floristic biodiversity centres in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia have also been determined(Fig.2). Figure 2. Floristic biodiversitycentres(the number) in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia (Schmid1993).

Basedonthepotentialuseofthespecies,Chuyenetal .(1987)dividethefloraof Vietnamintoseveralutilitygroups: • Groupoftimberspecies:1200speciesin100genera • Groupofspeciesproducingfibersforpaperproduction:100species • Groupofspeciesproducingessentialoils:500species • Groupofspeciesproducingfatoils:260species • Groupofspeciesproducingtannin:600species • Groupofspeciesproducingdyes:200species • Groupofmedicinalplantspecies:1000species

31 Chapter 2

However,thenumberofspeciesineachgroupwillprobably increase as more research is carried out. For instance, Chi (1997) determines that there are 3200 medicinalplantspecies,ratherthanthe1000speciesasgivenbyChuyenetal.(1987). Table 5. Plantfamilieswithmorethan100speciesoccurringinVietnam(Thin1997) Family Numberofspecies Family Numberofspecies inVietnam inVietnam Orchidaceae 800 Arecaceae 125 Leguminosae 470 Melastomataceae 124 Euphorbiaceae 425 Moraceae 118 Poaceae 400 Caesalpiniaceae 118 Rubiaceae 400 Asclepiadaceae 113 Asteraceae 336 Polypodiaceae 113 Cyperaceae 303 Fagaceae 111 Lauraceae 246 Araliaceae 110 Acanthaceae 175 Zingiberaceae 109 Annonaceae 173 Rutaceae 108 Apocynaceae 170 Myrtaceae 107 Lamiaceae 145 Theaceae 101 Myrsinaceae 139 Araceae 100 Verbenaceae 131 Rosaceae 100 Scrophulariaceae 128 Urticaceae 100 ManyplantfamiliesoccurringinVietnamareveryrichinnumberofspecies.Thin (2000)describes30familieswithmorethan100species(Table5).Theauthoralso distinguishes20familiesthatareveryabundantinthevegetationofVietnam.They are:Acanthaceae,Araceae,Arecaceae,Asteraceae,Caesalpiniaceae,Dipterocarpaceae, Elaeocarpaceae,Euphorbiaceae,Fabaceae,Fagaceae,Lauraceae,Meliaceae,Moraceae, Myrtaceae,Rubiaceae,Rutaceae,Sapindaceae,Sterculiaceae,Urticaceae,Verbenaceae. Main vegetation types ThevegetationofVietnamhasbeenstudiedandclassifiedfromthebeginningofthe lastcentury(Chevalier1918).Nevertheless,thenumberoftypesandrulebywhich thevegetationwasclassifiedhavevariedovertimebyscientists(e.g.Fig.3isonetype offorestclassification).Theresultofallsuchworkswasarangeofvegetation

32 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species

Figure 3. Original vegetation cover and bigeographical units (GoVN 1994). The biogeographicalunitsinclude:NorthEastVietnam(06a),HoangLienSonMountainRange (10c),NorthCentralInidochina(10b),SouthCentralIndochina(10a),RedRiverDelta(05d), North Annam (05c), South Annam (05b), Mekong Delta (05a), Central Truong Son Mountains(Ma),DaLatHighlands(Mb),andRedRiverDelta(05d).

33 Chapter 2 classifications for Vietnam with several overlapping and/or similar forest types identified.However,themaintypesofvegetationofVietnamcanbedistinguishedas follows: Tropical evergreen broad-leaved forest Thiskindofforestisfoundwidelythroughoutthecountryatelevationsbelow700m a.s.l.intheNorthandbelow1000ma.s.l.intheSouth(Chan&Dung1992,Trung 1998).Inthedistributionareaofthisvegetationtypethemeanannualtemperature rangesfrom20to25 °C.Theannualprecipitationismorethan1200mm,with23dry months(withrainfalllessthan50mmpermonth)(Trung1998).Thisforesttypeis verydiverseandcomplexinstructurewithagreatnumberoftree,vine,epiphyteand shrubspecies.Ithas25vegetationlayers:alayerofemergents,themaincanopy storey, the subcanopy layer, the shrub understorey and the forest floor layer. The emergentsmayreachupto2530minheight(Chan&Dung1992,Trung1998).

Tropical semi-deciduous broad-leaved forest The occurrence of this forest type is concentrated in Northern Vietnam and the CentralHighlandsatthesameelevationasthetropicalevergreenbroadleavedforest (Chan&Dung1992,Linh1996,Trung1998).Inthedistributionofthisvegetation typethemeanannualtemperatureis20to25 °C,withthetemperatureofthecoldest month1520 °C.Annualrainfallishigh,from1200to2500mm,but46monthsare considered dry, and 1 month usually has no rain at all (Trung 1998). The forest structureisalsocomplexanddiverse.Deciduoustreesoccupyabout25to75%of thetimbertreesinthisforesttype(Chan&Dung1992,Linh1996).

Tropical deciduous broad-leaved forest Thistypeisdistributednaturallyatanelevationoflessthan700ma.s.l.intheNorth andbelow1000ma.s.l.intheSouth.Thiskindofforesthasasimplestructurewith2 mainlayersoftimbertrees.Thepercentageofdeciduoustreesisestimatedatmore than75%(Chan&Dung1992).Intheseareas,therainfallislow:itmaybeaslowas 600mmperyear.Thedryseasonmaylastfrom4to6months,withatleast1month ofnorainatall(Trung1998). Subtropical evergreen forest This forest is distributed naturally at altitudes above 700m a.s.l. in the North and above1000ma.s.l.intheSouth(Chan&Dung1992,Hung1996).Occurringathigh elevations,thistypeofforestisundertheinfluenceofsubtropicalclimate.Themean

34 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species annual temperature ranges from 15 to 20 °C. The annual rainfall is still high, fluctuatingfrom1200to2500mm(Chan&Dung1992).Liketemperateforest,the subtropicalevergreenforesthasasimplestructureof2mainlayersoftimbertrees. The overall species richness is less than in the tropical evergreen forest (Chan & Dung1992).

Limestone forest Thisforestgrowsonthelimestonesubstrate(calcareoussoil),whichextendsovera largeKarsticareaoftheNorthandasmallerareaofNorthernMiddleofVietnam (GoVN1994,Truong1996).Theareaoflimestoneforestisestimatedatabout5.4% ofthetotalforestedland(Phonetal .2001,Dung2005).Infact,theseforestsare subtypesoftheclosedevergreenandsemideciduousbroadleavedforests.Theflora isdiverseandincludesalargenumberofconiferousandbroadleavedspecies(Chan &Dung1992,Truong1996,Dung2005).Growingoninfertilesoilandunderhard climaticconditions,theforeststructureissimple,with12layersofslowgrowingtree species(GoVN1994,Truong1996,Phuong2000).Thisforesttypehasrecentlybeen severelydegradedbyuncontrolledlogging,wildfireandslashandburncultivation, andneedstobeprotectedandreserved(GoVN1994,Phonetal .2001).

Coniferous forest ThisforestoccursintheNorthandtheCentralHighlands,atelevationsofover1000 ma.s.l.wheretheclimateiscoolinsummerandcoldinwinter(Chan&Dung1992, Truong1996).Theseareasarecomparativelydryasannualprecipitationisonlyfrom 600to1200mm(Chan&Dung1992).Thedryseasonislong,lastingfrom4to6 months,with1monthwithoutanyrain(Trung1998).Theforeststructureisoften simpleandtheforestisdominatedby2species, Pinus merkusii and P. kesiya (Chan& Dung 1992). However, more recently, large areas of plantations of P. merkusii, P. kesiya, P. massoniana and P. caribaea havebeenestablishedatlowerelevations(Truong 1996).

Mangrove forest Theseforestsgrowintidalareasalongthecoastofthecountry,especiallyinestuaries (Chan&Dung1992,Sametal .2005).Thistypeofforestismostprevalentinthe South,butalsooccursasshorterandsimplerforestintheNorth(GoVN1994).The structureoftheforestissimpleasitoftenhas1layer(Chan&Dung1992,Truong 1996).However,thistypeofforesthasdramaticallybeendestroyedandreplacedby farmingandlandreclamation(GoVN1994,Sametal .2005)

Bamboo forest

35 Chapter 2

Theseforestsaredistributedthroughoutthecountryandemergeafterharvestingof thenaturalforestsorafterslashandburncultivation(Chan&Dung1992).Thetotal areaofbambooforestsofVietnamisestimatedat1,489,000ha,ofwhich1,415,500 ha are natural bamboo forests (both monoculture and mixture) and 73,500 ha are plantations. The bamboo species of Vietnam are diverseastheycontainabout29 genera and 140 species (Dung & Lam 2005). This type of forests occurs as pure patchesorasmixtureswithtreespecies(Lam2005). Forest status

a. b.

Figure 4. ForestcoverofVietnamin1995(a)andin1943(b)(Maurand 1943,FIPI1995). TheforestsofVietnamhavedramatically decreased duringthelast60years,even thoughtheyhaveslightlyincreasedrecently.Before1945,whenVietnamwasunder FrenchColonialRule,forestshadheavilybeenharvestedfortimber,poleandalsofor rubberandcoffeeproduction(Dangetal.2001).However,atthattimetheforest areawasstillhighasitcoveredaround43%ofthecountry’sarea(Fig.4)(Maurand 1943).From1954to1975,theforestsofVietnamwereseverelydamagedbythelong war with the USA (the American war hereafter), overexploitation and shifting cultivation.By1976,thetotalareaofforestshadbeenreducedto11.2millionha (covering33.8%thecountry),ofwhichonly 10%were intact forests (Lung 2001, Nhat2001).Sine1976,moreforestshavestillbeendestroyedformanyreasons,such as overexploitation, shifting cultivation, and agricultural extension. As a result, the

36 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species forestcoverdeclinedtoanestimated30%in1985,and28%in1995(Fig.4)(Lung 2001).In1998,the5MillionhaReforestationProgramwaslaunchedwithatargetto plant5millionhaofforestsby2010,restoringtheforestcoverto 43%(Forestry Department 2001). The program aims not only to reforest, but also to protect existing natural forests. As a result, the forest cover of Vietnam has gradually increased. In 2003, the forested area of Vietnam was 12,094,518 ha, of which 10,004,709hawerenaturalforestsand2,089,809hawereplantationforests,resulting inaforestcoverof36.1%(Hung2004). However, the quality of forests is still low as most of the forests are poor in timbervolumeandlackvaluablespeciesasaresultofalongtimeofoverexploitation andrandomlogging(Thin1997,Dangetal.2001).Itisreportedthatnaturalforests richintimberresourcescoveronly1.4millionha(13%)whilepoorandyoungforests comprisearound6millionha(55%).Theamountofplantationforestshassharply increased(Hung2004),butthequalityalsostilllow.Mostplantationsareevenage andtobeestablishedbyexoticspecies(e.g. Pinus spp, Eucalyptus spp, Acacia spp).In general,theplantationshavelowgrowthrate (about 810 m 3 ha 1 year 1), and they mainlysupportsmallandmediumsizedstems(Dangetal.2001). TherearemanyreasonsfortherapidlossofforestsinVietnam,buttheAmerican warplayedamajorrole(Quy1985,Bouny2006).From1954to1975,theAmerican Armyusedaround74millionlitersofherbicides(AgentOrange)inordertodefoliate denseforestareas(Quy1985,Bouny2006).Around13milliontonsofbombs(some whatbetweentwoandfourtimesthebombs’tonnageofthewholeSecondWorld War)weredroppedonVietnam,mostofwhichseverelyimpactedtheforestedareas (Quy1985,Bouny2006).Asaresult,morethan2millionhaofnaturalforests,of which 500,000 ha of closed upland forests and 30,000 ha of mangroves were completelydestroyed(Westing1971,Quy1985,Truong1996). Overexploitationisalsoanimportantreasonforthedecreaseinforestresources inVietnam.DuringtheAmericanwar,manylargeforestareaswereheavilyloggedto supportpeopleandthewareffort.Subsequently,torebuildthecountryafterthewar, around 1.31.4 million m3 of timber and 100,000 tons of bamboo were exploited annually (Nhat 2001). As a developing countrywith 80%of the population being farmers,Vietnamneedsahugeamountoffirewood.Annually,from22to23million tons of firewood are harvested (Dang et al. 2001, Nhat 2001). In addition, illegal loggingisaseriousproblemasithasannuallydestroyedaround30,000haofforests inseverallastdecades(GoVN1994). Thepopulationof Vietnamhasincreasedquickly,andthishasalsoadramatic impactontheforests.Atthebeginningofthelastcentury,thepopulationofVietnam was about 15 million. However, this number had doubled by 1940, in just 3040 years.From1960onwards,thepopulationhasdoubledevery25years(Dangetal. 2001).In1999,thepopulationofVietnamwas77,263,000people,withadensityof

37 Chapter 2

233peoplepersq.km,5timeshigherthantheaveragedensityoftheworld(Toan 1998,Dangetal.2001).Suchalargepopulationputstheforestunderheavypressure, notonlythroughpracticesofshiftingcultivation,butalsobytransformingforested landintoagricultureproductionfields(Toan1998,Nhat2001). The impact of shifting cultivation on forests may be sustainable if the local populationdensityislow(Sam1996,Nhat2001).Toproduceenoughfoodforself sufficiency,peoplejustcultivatealimitedareaforawhile,andthenleaveitfora reasonabletimebeforegoingtouseitagain.So,thefieldhasenoughtimetorenewa coverandforthesoiltorejuvenate,andpeopledonotneedtogreatlyextendthearea forcultivation,sothattheydonotcausemuchfurtherlossofforests.However,ifthe densityofthepopulationincreases,therateofforestdestructionwillexceedtherate ofrecovery(GoVN1994,Nhat2001).Foreststhereforewillberapidlylostwhenthe populationdensityisextremelyhigh,andpeoplehavetokeepclearingnewforestsfor cultivationofagriculturalcrops(Sam1996). Vietnamhasseveralmillionpeoplewhoselivesarebasedonshiftingcultivation. IntheNorth,around1.4millionpeoplearereportedtopracticeshiftingcultivation. Thepopulationdensitiesofthemountainousareasarenowveryhigh,inmanyplaces up to100 people per sq.km (Dang et al. 2001). The government has introduced policiesandencouragedruralpeopletoconverttopermanentagriculture.However, moreattentionshouldbepaidtothispointinordertobetterpreservetheforests (Dangetal.2001). Transformationofforestedlandintoagriculturalfieldshasdecreasedtheforest cover quickly as a huge number of people from the delta areas moved to live in mountainousareas(GoVN1994).Forinstance,before1975around1millionpeople of the North moved from the Red River delta (very high population density) to mountainousareas (Dangetal.2001).From 1975to 1995, the Central Highlands receivedaround650,000peopleunderthepolicyofarelocationscheme,aswellas around334,000freemovingpeople(Dangetal.2001).Thebigmovementofpeople hasquicklychangedtheforests.Theyclearedforeststocultivateagriculturalcrops. Theyalsouncontrollablyharvestedtimber,firewood,foodandotherforestproducts. Particularly, in the Central Highlands and the SouthEast, large areas of natural forests have been cleared for planting industrial trees such as rubber and coffee. Alongthecoastlineandestuariesofthecountry,especiallyinMinhHaiprovince(in theSouth),certainareasofmangroveshavebeenclearedtoformfarmsforshrimp productionandotherseafood(GoVN1994,Nhat2001). Recently,thecountryhasbeenmovingtowardsamarketeconomy, which may haveanegativeimpactonforests(Nhat2001).Toincreaseyieldfromforestsand plantations,manyexoticandhybridspecieshavebeenimported.Thesespeciesmay invadethehabitatofthenativeforests,andalsobringnewpestsanddiseases,that

38 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species maydamageindigenousspecies(Nhat2001,SocialistRepublicofVietnam‘SRVN’ 2003). Threatened tree species TheforestsofVietnamhaveseverelydegradedforoverhalfacentury,notonlythe areaofforests,butalsotheirquality.ThishadsevereimpactsonthefloraofVietnam astheirhabitatwasfragmentedanddestroyed.AccordingtotheMinistryofScience, Technology and Environment ‘MSTE’ 1996), Vietnam has around 356 threatened treespecies(indifferentdegreesofendangerment)ofwhich337arevascularplant speciesand19lowerspecies.Inhisstudiesontheconservationofthreatenedtree species,Nghia(2005)classifiedanumberofvaluabletrees,whicharefacingdangerof extinction.ThisclassificationisgiveninTable6. Table 6. LevelsofendangermentofvaluabletreespeciesinVietnam,adaptedfromNghia 2005(UsingcategorizationofIUCN1997). Vietnamesename Latinname Family Threatened levels Sơnhuy t Melanorrhoea laccifera Pierre Anacardiaceae CRC Sơnñào Melanorrhoea usitata Wall Anacardiaceae CRC Sơn Toxicodendron succedanea (L)Mold Anacardiaceae ENC Thi tñinh Markhamia stipulata Seem Bignoniaceae VUAcd Trailý Garcinia fagraeoidesS.Chev. Clusiaceae NT ðnhtùng Cephalotaxus mannii Hook.f. Cephalotaxaceae ENC Báchxanh Calocedrus macrolepis Kurz Cupressaceae END Hoàngñàn Cupressus funebris Endle Cupressaceae EW Pơmu Fokienia hodginsii Henry&Thomas Cupressaceae VUAcd Tùng Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br Datiscaceae ENAcd Vênvên Anisoptera costata Korth Dipterocarpaceae VUAcd Dun ưc Dipterocarpus alatus RoxbexG.Don Dipterocarpaceae NT Ducát Dipterocarpus chartaceus Sym Dipterocarpaceae ENAcd Dusongnàng Dipterocarpus dyeri PierreexLaness Dipterocarpaceae NT Chònâu Dipterocarpus tonkinensis A.Chev. Dipterocarpaceae ENAcd Dubao Dipterocarpus baudii Korth Dipterocarpaceae END Dumít Dipterocarpus costatus Gaert.f. Dipterocarpaceae ENC Duñ ttím Dipterocarpus grandiflorus Blanco Dipterocarpaceae VUB

39 Chapter 2

Dulông Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer Dipterocarpaceae LC Duñ ng Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb Dipterocarpaceae LC Saoláhìnhtim Hopea cordata Vidal Dipterocarpaceae CRC Săngñào Hopea ferrea Pierre Dipterocarpaceae VUAcd Saoñen Hopea odorata Roxb Dipterocarpaceae NT Ki nki n Hopea pierrei Hance Dipterocarpaceae VUAcd Saom ng Hopea reticulata Tardieu Dipterocarpaceae CRC Ki nki n Hopea siamensis Heim Dipterocarpaceae VUAcd Chòch Parashorea chinensis H.Wang Dipterocarpaceae VUAcd Chòñen Parashorea stellata Kurz Dipterocarpaceae ENAcd Chailácong Shorea falcata Vidal Dipterocarpaceae VUAcd Sncát Shorea roxburghii G.Don Dipterocarpaceae VUAcd Cmliên Shorea siamensis Miq Dipterocarpaceae LC Chòchai Shorea guiso (Blco)BL Dipterocarpaceae LC Táutr ng Vatica odorata (Griff)Sym Dipterocarpaceae VUAcd Táuduyênh i Vatica mangachapoi Blanco Dipterocarpaceae VUAcd Táum t Vatica cinerea King Dipterocarpaceae VUAcd Mun Diospyros mun AChev.exLecomte Ebenaceae CRAcd Vngtr ng Endospermum chinense Benth Euphorbiaceae VUAcd Dñ Lithocarpus ducampii A.Chev. Fagaceae NT Chòñãi Annamocarya sinensis (Dode)j.Leroy Juglandaceae CRC Mych u Carya tonkinensis Lecomte Juglandaceae CRC Vùh ươ ng Cinnamomum balansae Lecomte Lauraceae CRAcd Xáx Cinnamomum glaucescens Drury Lauraceae CRAcd Reh ươ ng Cinnamomum parthenoxylum Meisn Lauraceae CRAcd Kháovàng Machilus odoratissima Nees Lauraceae NT Gõñ,càte Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz)Craib Leguminosae ENAcd Tr cdây Dalbergia annamensis A.Chev. Leguminosae ENAcd CmlaiBàR a Dalbergia bariensis Pierre Leguminosae ENAcd Tr cngh Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre Leguminosae VUAcd Cmlaivú Dalbergia mammosa Pierre Leguminosae ENAcd Sưa Dalbergia tonkinensis Prain Leguminosae END Xoay Dialium cochinchinensis Pierre Leguminosae ENAcd

40 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species

Limxanh Erythrophloeum fordii Oliv. Leguminosae ENAcd Rángràngmít Ormosia balansae Drake Leguminosae VUAcd Gm t Sindora siamensis Teysm.ExMiq Leguminosae VUAcd Gbi n Sindora siamensis var.maritima Leguminosae NT Glau Sindora tonkinensis A.Chev. Leguminosae ENAcd Giángh ươ ng Pterocapus macrocarpus Kurz Leguminosae VUAcd Cămxe Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb)Taub. Leguminosae VUAcd TraiNamB Fagraea fragrans Roxb Loganiaceae CRC MBaVì Manglietia hainanensis Dandy Magnoliaceae END Láthoa Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss Meliaceae CRAcd Vânsam Abies delavayi Franchetsspfransipanensis Pinaceae END Fansipăng (Q.P.Xiang)Rushforth Dusamñávôi Keteleeria davidiana Beissn Pinaceae END Dusam Keteleeria evelyniana Master Pinaceae VUAcd ThôngðàL t Pinus dalatensis deFerre Pinaceae NT Thônghailád t Pinus krempfii H.Lecomte Pinaceae VUAcd ThôngPàCò Pinus kwangtungensis ChunexTsiang Pinaceae END Thi tsamgi Pseudotsuga sinensis Dode Pinaceae VUAcd Thi tsam Tsuga chinensis (Franchet)PritzelexDiels Pinaceae END Trúcvuông Chimonobambusa yunnanensis Hsuehet Poaceae CRD Zhang Trúchoálong Phyllostachys aurea Carr.ExA.et Poaceae CRD Trúcñen Phyllostachys nigra Munro Poaceae CRD Trúcdây Ampelocalamus sp. Poaceae CRD Bchtùng(Thông Dacrycapus imbricatus (Blume)deLaub. Podocarpaceae VUAcd nàng) Hngtùng Dacrydium elatum (Roxb.)Wall Podocarpaceae VUAcd (H.D.gi ) KimgiaoB c Nageia fleuryi (Hicke)deLaubenfels Podocarpaceae ENB KimgiaoNam Nageia wallichiana (Prest.)Kuntze Podocarpaceae VUAcd Thôngtre Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don Podocarpaceae VUAcd Thôngtreláng n Podocarpus pilgeri Foxwonrthy Podocarpaceae VUAcd Hngquang Rhodoleia championii Hook Rhodoleiaceae VUAcd Snm t Madhuca pasquieri H.J.Lam Sapotaceae VUAcd

41 Chapter 2

Dtùngs ctr ng Amentotaxus argotenia Pilg Taxaceae NE Dtùngs cnâu Amentotaxus hatuyenensis HiepetVidal Taxaceae END DtùngPoalan Amentotaxus poilanei Ferguson Taxaceae NE DtùngVânNam Amentotaxus yunnanensis Li Taxaceae NE Thôngñ Taxus chinensis Pilger Taxaceae END Thôngñ Taxus wallichiana Zucc Taxaceae CRC Samud u Cunninghamia konishi Hataya Taxodiaceae VUAcd Thu tùng Glyptostrobus pensilis (Staunton)K.Koch Taxodiaceae CRAcd BáchtánðàiLoan Taiwania cryptomerioides Hataya Taxodiaceae CRD Báchvàng Xanthocyparis vietnamensis Farjon&Hiep Taxodiaceae END Tr mh ươ ng Aquilaria crassna PierreexLecomte Thymeleaceae CRAcd Dógi y Wikstroemia balansae (Drake)Gilg. Thymeleaceae VUAcd Nghi n Burretiodendron tonkinensis Kost Thymeleaceae ENA

Note: EW:Extinctioninthewild CR:Criticallyendangered(threatenedleveldecreasesfromAtoE) EN:Endangered(threatenedleveldecreasesfromAtoE) VU:Vulnerable(threatenedleveldecreasesfromAtoD) cd:Conservationdependent NT:Nearthreatened LC:Leastconcern NE:notevaluated

National Park and nature reserve system Toaddressthebiodiversitythreatsduetohabitatloss,Vietnamestablishedasystem ofprotectedforestswiththeaimofprotectingthemainecosystemsrepresentedin Vietnam,aswellasthethreatenedandendemicspeciesoffloraandfaunaandtheir habitats,andthevaluablelandscapesforculture,ecologyandbiodiversity(Tai1995, SRVN2003). ThefirstNationalPark(CucPhuong)wasestablishedin1962asanimportant pointforforestprotectionandconservationinVietnam(Thu2002).Sincethen,the nationalparkandnaturereservesystemofVietnamhasdevelopedquickly.Bythe year1986,Vietnamhadestablished87protectedareas,occupying3.3%ofthetotal areaofthecountry(SRVN2003).From1986onwards,moreattentionhasbeenpaid to forest protection and conservation and a large number of protected areas was established.Bytheyear2003,Vietnamhad126areasofspecialpurposeforestswith totalareaof2,541,675ha(Table7),occupying7.7%ofthetotalareaofthecountry (ForestDepartment2004).

42 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species

Table 7. Systemofspecialpurposeforests(ForestDepartment2004) Classification Number Area(ha) NationalParks 27 957,330 Naturereserveareas 49 1,283,209 Species/habitatmanagementprotectedareas 11 85,849 Protectedlandscapeorseascapeareas 39 215,287 Total 126 2,541,675

The4kindsofspecialpurposeforests(protectedareas)havedifferentpurposes, andthustheydifferintermsofimportanceforprotectionandconservationandalso managementlevel.ForestTechniquesandScienceAssociationofVietnam(FSTA) (2001)definedthe4kindsofprotectedareasasfollows: • National Park: Anareaonthemainlandorintheseathathasnot or only slightly been impacted by human activities. It contains rare, precious or endemicspeciesorhaspopularlandscapesatnationalorinternationallevels. TheobjectivesofestablishingaNationalParkaretoprotecttheecosystemof threatenedspecies,astheyhaveimportantrolesforthecountryandtheworld, andtoprovidefacilitiesforscientificstudyandecotourism. • Nature Reserve: A large area having typical ecosystems or containing populationsofvaluablespeciesthatneedconservation.NatureReservesareto protectandmaintainecosystemsandfloralandfaunalspeciesintheirnatural conditions.Theyaimalsotoprovideforscientificresearchandenvironmental • management.However,incontrasttoNationalParks,ecotourismislimited innaturereserves. • Species/Habitat Management Protected Area :Aforestareaestablishedtoprotect, maintainandfavorparticularthreatenedspeciesandtheirenvironment. • Protected Landscape or Seascape :Aprotectedlandscapeorseascapeestablishedto protectfamousnaturallandscapesornationalculturalproperties.Itisalsoto protect the natural beauty of forests, caves, waterfalls, sand dunes, coral islandsandvolcaniccraters. National parks are the most important for protection and conservation. In NationalParks,activitiessuchaslogging,firewoodandfoodcollection,huntingor fishingarenotallowed.Incontrast,alltheseactivitiesareallowedintheProtected Landscape or Seascape areas. In Nature Reserve Areas and Species/Habitat Management Protected Areas, several activities are allowed, as long as they are in harmony with the purpose of conservation of the area. The location, sizes and purposesofprotectedareasarespecifiedinTable8(SRVN2003).

43 Chapter 2 * ,* ,* lfloodedgrassLand* ins * Diospyros mun , Nageia fleuryi ,* Tsugadumosa , , ,* ,* Hopea Hopea siamensis * * Excentrodendron tonkinense Fokienia lanceolata, hodginsii, Cunninghamia Calocedrus macrolepis Fokienia hodginsii Erythrophleum fordii Abies fansipanensis Nageia fleuryi eenforests,* estoneforests,* Forestsontheisland, Objectives 7,610 Limestoneforests,naturallakesinthemounta 91,113 Evergreenforests, 31,422 Forestsontheisland, 16,634 Evergreenforests, 18,765 Deciduousandsemideciduousforests,seasona 41,862 Mangroveforests,* 29,865 Dryforests 85,754 Limestoneforests, 58,947 Evergreenforests,* 29,845 Evergreenforests, 41,780 Evergreenforests, 26,032 Evergreenforests,* 15,200 Limstoneforests, 56,621 Evergreenforestsandsemievergreenforests, 957,330 2,541,675 RVN2003) ProtectedareasandtheirobjectivesinVietnam(S Nameofprotectedarea Location(provinces) Area(ha) Total 2 BaVi3 BachMa4 BaiTuLong HaTay,HoaBinh ThuaThienHue QuangNinh 12,023 22,030 Evergreenforests, Evergreenforests,* 15,738 1 BaBe5 BenEn BacCan ThanhHoa 6 BuGiaMap7 CatBa BinhPhuoc HaiPhong 8 CatTien9 ConDao DongNai,LamDong,BinhPhuoc BaRiaVungTau 70,548 Evergr 19,998 Forestsontheisland, 20 PuMat NgheAn 19 PhuQuoc KienGiang 15 LoGoSaMat TayNinh 16 MuiCaMau17 NuiChua18 PhongNhaKeBang CaMau QuangBinh NinhThuan 11 ChuYangSing12 CucPhuong13 HoangLienSonSapa DakLak LaoCai NinhBinh,ThanhHoa,HoaBinh 22,200 Lim 14 KonKaKinh GiaLai 10 ChuMomRay KonTum I NationalParks

Table8.

44 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species dendron dendron ,* * rassland,* * Fokienia hodginsii, , * Cupressus torulosa, tonkinense Excentrodendron Markhamia stipulata, Garcinia Excentrofagraeoides, Garcinia Markhamiastipulata, Fokienia hodginsii Pinuskrempfii Fokienia hodginsii, * Fokienia hodginsii, eninsula,beautifullandscapes,* ocarpforests,* reenforests,* vergreenforests, tonkinense, Chukrasia tabularis, tabularis, Chukrasiatonkinense, Objectives 5,675 Evergreenforests, 8,038 Mangroveforests,* 7,588 Mangroveforests,floodedecosystem,floodedg 1,535 7,100 Mangroveforests,* 24,801 Evergreenforests,* 19,353 24,293 Forestsonlimestonehills 40,526 Evergreenforests,* 22,000 Dipterocarpforests,naturalgrasseslands,* 10,640 Limestoneforests, 64,366 Evergreenforests, 27,800 Limestoneforests, 55,029 Evergreenforests, 15,048 Limestoneforests,* 115,545 DryDipterocarpforests,* 1,283,209 Area(ha) Location(provinces) Nameofprotectedarea 6 ChamChu7 Copia8 CuLaoCham9 DuGia TuyenQuang QuangNam SonLa HaGiang 58,187 Limestoneforests,* 4 BinhChauPhuocBuu5 BidoupNuiBa BaRiaVungTau LamDong 11,392 DryDipter 1 BaNaNuiChua2 PeninsulaSonTra3 BacMe DaNangCity,QuangNam DaNangCity HaGiang 38,210 Everg 4,370 Forestsonthep 13 KeGo14 KheRo HaTinh BacGiang 10 Dakrong11 Easo12 HuuLien QuangTri DakLak LangSon 23 UMinhThuong24 VuQuang KienGiang HaTinh 22 TramChim DongThap 21 TamDao VinhPhuc,ThaiNguyen,TuyenQuang 34,995 E 25 XuanSon26 XuanTruong27 YokDon PhuTho NamDinh DakLak I NationalParks

II Nature conservation areas

45 Chapter 2 ,* ,* ,* ,* ,* ,* ,* Excentrodendron tonkinense,Excentrodendron Podocarpus Excentrodendron tonkinense , * Craibiodendron selenranthum Cunninghamia Cunninghamia lanceolata * , , Cunninghamia lanceolata Cunninghamia , Fagraea fragrans, tonkinense Excentrodendron Pinuskwangtungensis Markhamiastipulata * Fokienia hodginsii, Fokienia hodginsii Pinuskesiya, Hopea siamensis Panax vietnamensis, Dacrydium elatum Afzelia xylocarpa, Dalbergia Afzelia Dalbergia oliveri xylocarpa, Fokienia hodginsii Objectives pilgeri. pilgeri. 5,647 5,000 1,500 7,091 Limestoneforests, 9,107 Dipterocarpforests,Semideciduousforests,* 27,503 Evergreenforests,Chukrasiatabularis, 19,81467,934 Evergreenforests, Evergreenforests, 10,84941,424 Evergreenforests, Evergreenforests, 25,468 Evergreenforests,* 10,000 18,840 Limestoneforests, 17,66293,249 Limestoneforests,* 27,886 Evergreenforests,* 18,893 15,900 Evergreenforests, 24,555 Evergreenforests, 15,461 Limestoneforests, 50,075 Evergreen, 182,000 Nameofprotectedarea Location(provinces) Area(ha) 33 PuHu ThanhHoa 29 PhongDien30 PhuCanh31 PhuocBinh32 PuHoat ThuaThienHue HoaBinh NinhThuan NgheAn 41,548 Evergreenforests, 21 NamNung22 NgocLinh DacLak KonTum 23 NuiOng24 NuiDaiDinh25 NuiCam26 NuiPiaOac27 HangKia–PaCo28 LamDong PhongQuang BinhThuan AnGiang HoaBinh CaoBang HaGiang 35 PuLuong36 SongThanh37 SopCop38 TaDung ThanhHoa QuangNam SonLa DacLac 16 KonChaRang GiaLai 17 KrongTrai18 KyThuong19 MuongNhe20 NamCa PhuYen QuangNinh LaiChau DacLak 17,640 Evergreenforests 15 KimHy BacCan 34 PuHuong NgheAn

II Nature conservation areas 46 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species s,* Excentrodendron tonkinense,Excentrodendron , ,* ,* Fokienia hodginsii Cupressus torulosa Podocarpus chinensis Fokienia hodginsii Madhuca Madhuca pasquieri , Podocarpuspilgeri ,Nageia fleuryi , forests,* Glyptostrobus pensilis Objectives Glyptostrobus pensilis Dacrydium elatum Dacrydium Melaleuca 50 100 127500 * Evergreenforests, 2,6433,394 Limestoneforests,* Mangroveforests,* 6,0004,000 Mangroveforests,* Limestoneforests,* 7,3083,000 Limestoneforests 4,510 14,605 Mangroveforests,seasonalfloodedgrassland 17,823 17,650 28,261 Limestonebambooforests, 12,500 Mangroveforests,* 27,668 Evergreenforests, 16,466 38,069 Limestoneforests,* 85,849 Nameofprotectedarea Location(provinces) Area(ha) protected area protected 2 KienLuong KienGiang 1 Earal DakLak 8 TienHai9 TrapKso ThaiBinh DakLak 6 SanChimBacLieu7 TamQuy BacLieu ThanhHoa 3 LungNgocHoang4 MoReBacSon5 NaHang CanTho LangSon TuyenQuang 41,930 Limestoneforests, 10 VanLong11 VoDoi NinhBinh CaMau 39 TaKou BinhThuan 40 TaSua41 TayConLinh HaGiang SonLa 44 ThanSaPhuongHoang45 ThuongTien46 ThaiNguyen TrungKhanh47 XuanLien HoaBinh CaoBang ThanhHoa 11,220 42 TayYenTu43 ThachPhu BacGiang BenTre 48 XuanNha49 YenTu SonLa QuangNinh,BacGiang 3,040 Limestoneforests

II Nature conservation areas III Species/Habitat management

47 Chapter 2 eKing nPass Objectives 562 300 285 VestigeofHungKings 267 1,000 6,770 6,770 5,000 1,000 2,000 1,4775,000 Pineforests,NguyenTraiVestige 3,000 8,876 LandscapeofCaPassandcoastlineforests 2,616 Landscapeandhistoricalarea 5,6246,000 Limestoneforests,VestigesofDinhKingandL 3,4954,355 Limestonelandscapes Limestoneforests,HuongTichPagoda 11,488 15,000 12,744 Naturallakeinthehighlands 215,287 Nameofprotectedarea Location(provinces) Area(ha) 1 Antoankhu2 AiChiLang ThaiNguyen LangSon 10,059 3 BaTo4 BaiChay5 BacHaiVan6 CaoMuon7 IslandsofThacBa8 IslandsofHalongBay9 BinhDinh QuangNinh ChangRiec ThuaThienHue YenBai QuangNinh QuangNgai TayNinh 14,547 LandscapeofHaiVa 10 ChienKhuBoiLoi11 ConSonKiepBac12 DuongMinhChau13 TayNinh BaTrieuTemple14 HaiDuong HungTemple15 TayNinh IslandsofSongdaLake16 CaHonNuaPass17 ThanhHoa HoaBinh DoSon18 PhuTho GhenhRang19 CamSonLake PhuYen 20 HoLac21 HoaLu22 NuiCoc23 BinhDinh HaiPhong BacGiang HonChong24 HuongSon DakLak NinhBinh ThaiNguyen KienGiang HaTay

IV Protected LandscapesSeascape or

48 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species Objectives ricalHeritageSite 300 300 400 940 177 600 KimLienHeritageSite 1,855 1,500 1,883 HistoricalHeritageSite 10,850 LandscapeofHaiVanPass 32,05132,051 Limestoneforests,historicalHeritageSite PineforestontheHighLands 24,842 Severalrarewildlifespecies : * Nameofprotectedarea Location(provinces) Area(ha) 27 NorthofHaiVan28 NgocTrao29 NguHanhSon30 BaDenMountain DaNang 31 BaRaMountain32 SamMountain33 ThanhHoa DaNang TayNinh ThanhMountain34 ChungMountain35 BinhPhuoc PacPo36 AnGiang PineforestsofDaLat37 QuangNam TanTrao38 NgheAn VucMau39 LamDong YenThe CaoBang TuyenQuang NgheAn BacGiang 6,633 Evergreenforests,histo 25 KimBinh26 LamSon TuyenQuang ThanhHoa 1,937 HistoricalHeritageSite

IV Protected LandscapesSeascape or

49 Chapter 2

Theestablishmentof126protectedareascoveringmorethan2.5millionhahas required a substantial effort (SRVN 2003). However, this system still has several problems and needs to be improved in order to protect and conserve effectively forests,landscapesandbiodiversity. TheprotectedareainVietnamisnotaslargeenoughforaneffectivestrategyof protection and conservation and several protected areas are too small for conservationpurposes(FSTA2001).ThetotalprotectedareainVietnamwasaround 8% of the country in 2003 (Forest Department 2004). This is low compared to neighboringcountriessuchasCambodia(18.05%),Lao(11,6%),Thailand(13.01%) and Indonesia (11.62%) (IUCN 1997). It is also below the minimum of 10% recommended by IUCN (1997). Recently, Vietnam has developed the watershed protectionregimeforseveralimportantbasins,whichmayhelpprotectforestsand threatenedtreespeciesinthoseareas(Taylor&Wright2001).However,inorderto protectandeffectivelyconservethreatenedspeciesandlandscapes,thecountrystill needsnotonlytoincreasethenumberofprotectedareas,butalsotoexpandsome smallprotectedareas,andensurethatprotectedareasareindeedproperlyprotected. In most protected areas, basic research such as on taxonomy of the species, inventoriesofbiodiversityorsurveysofthreatenedspeciesarestillinsufficient(FSTA 2001).Controlofhumanactivitiesinprotectedareashasproveddifficultduetoa largenumberoflocalpeople,whorelyontheforestsforaliving(Quy1985).They practice agriculture in the forests, also extract timber from the forests, collect fire wood, medicinal plants and other forest products, hunt and fish. In addition, a movement from the neighboring areas to protected areas has increased the population density, which makes protection and conservation more difficult. For instance,manypeoplehavemovedtoBaBeNationalPark,NamCatTienNational ParkandYokdonNationalPark(Tai1995). Toreducethepressureofahighhumanpopulationdensityonprotectedareas, localpeoplefromthecores(restrictedzones)havebeenmovedtothebufferzones, asimplementedinCucPhuongNationalParkin1987 (Thu 2002).Other national parksarealsodividedintotwoparts,inwhichthecoresarestrictlyprotected,but localpeoplecanliveandpracticeagricultureinthebufferzones.However,thisisnot sufficienttoprovideasustainablestrategyofprotectionandconservationiftheliving standard of local people is not improved. Local people should be taught new methods of cultivation and production or should be provided with other ways to improvetheirlivingconditions. Severalother problemsarealsoaffectingprotected areas. Investment from the Government for protection and conservation is limited. Lack of funds and useful equipment for implementing protection and conservation is common in protected areas(Tai1995,FTSA2001).Humanresourcesarealsolimited:Thecapacityofstaff to implement protected and conservation projects is limited both by insufficient

50 Vietnamese forestry, biodiversity and threatened tree species numberofpeopleandbythelackofqualification,experienceorskillsofthestaff (Tai1995).Toimprovethissituation,protectedareasshouldseekadditionalfunding from donors, particularly international donors. The staff should also be increased both in quantity and quality in order to implement sustainable protection and conservationactivities. In summary, Vietnam is characterized by a monsoonal climate and a complex terrain.Vietnampossessesaverydiverseforestvegetation,rangingfrommangrove, limestone, and tropicalrain forests to subtropical, bamboo and coniferous forests. Beingavenueofplantsemigratedfromthethreeflorasnearby,Vietnamalsoharbors ahugenumberofplantspecies.Nevertheless,duetomanyreasons,theforestsof Vietnamhaveseverelyreducedforlastdecades,leadingtoathreatofextinctionrisks formanyspecies.Recently,byagreateffort,Vietnamhasestablishedagoodsystem ofprotectedareas,andincreasedtheforestcoverinthewholecountry.Toeffectively conservethreatenedspecies,however,moreattentionisrequired,notonlytoprotect andincreasetheforestcover,butalsotostudyandimprovethesituationsofthese species. Acknowledgements WearegratefultoPieterZuidema,MaureenMarray,NielsAntenandPhamQuang Vinhforvaluablediscussionandcommentsonthischapter. We also acknowledge MarjoleinKortbeekforpreparingmapsforfigures.

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