Succeeding in Sea Turtle Conservation: Not Just Counting the Decline

Munibe Monographs. Nature Series • 1 (2013) • 89-98 • Donostia-San Sebastián • ISSN 2340-0463

Succeeding in sea turtle conservation: not just counting the decline

NICOLAS PILCHER Marine Research Foundation, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Marine turtle conservation is complex and requires long-term interventions. Long-term projects require large investments in terms of finance, physical resources and human capital, and the decadal time-frames provide the opportunity for population loss even in the face of conservation action. Compounding this sea turtles evoke a range of personal responses from conservationists and scientists which often blur the objectivity of conservation initiatives, and projects and programmes across the globe frequently document the decline of turtle populations without implementing appropriate conservation action. Herein I reflect on the value and commonplace of documenting population downward trends, and use a non-exhaustive series of examples of effective measures with relatively rapid conservation outcomes as examples of what may be required for marine turtle conservation to succeed.

KEY WORDS: Sea turtles, conservation actions, population loss.

RESUMEN Las acciones de conservación de tortugas marinas son complejas y requieren intervenciones a largo plazo. Los proyectos a largo plazo, a su vez, requieren grandes inversiones en términos económicos, de recursos materiales y capital humano. Los periodos decenales permi- ten constatar los declives en las poblaciones, incluso en actuaciones de conservación. Para agravar la situación, las tortugas marinas evo- can una serie de respuestas personales de los conservacionistas y los científicos que a menudo pierden la objetividad de las iniciativas de conservación y los proyectos y programas en todo el mundo con frecuencia documentan la disminución de las poblaciones de tortugas, sin aplicar las medidas adecuadas para su conservación. En este artículo, se refleja el valor de documentar las tendencias de disminución de las poblaciones y el uso de las series no exhaustivas de ejemplos de medidas efectivas con resultados relativamente rápidos en cuanto a conservación, como ejemplos de lo que las tortugas marinas pudieran requerir para su éxito de conservación.

PALABRAS CLAVES: Tortugas marinas, actuaciones para la conservación, declive poblacional.

LABURPENA Itsas dortoken kontserbaziorako ekintzak, konplexuak eta epe luzera begirakoak behar dute izan. Hau dela eta epe luzerako egitasmoek ere inbertsio ekonomiko handia behar izaten dute, bai gizakiei baita ornigaiei dagokienez ere. Hamarkadek, populazioen gainbeherak ikus- teko aukera ematen dute baita kontserbaziorako egitasmoetako ekintzetan ere. Gainera egoera hau gehiago nabarmentzen da zientzilari eta naturzaleek ikuspegi objetiboaz aldendu eta kontserbaziorako neurririk hartu gabe gainbehera hauek azpimarratzen dituztenean. Artikulu ho- netan, itsas dortoken populazioen gainbeherarako joerak dokumentatzeak nolako garrantzia duen azpimarratzen du baina baita kontserba- zioari dagokionez, beste neurri eraginkor batzuek izan dituzten emaitza azkarrak ere, itsas dortokek, beren kontserbaziorako beharko lituzketen neurrien adibide gisa.

GAKO-HITZAK: Itsas dortoka, kontserbaziorako ekimenak, populazioen gainbehera.

INTRODUCTION until it disappeared (C HAN & L IEW , 1996). Pakistan has seen their olive ridley population practically disappear and the Not so long ago I was in a country discussing the po- green population substantially diminished (A SRAR , 1999; tential for sea turtle conservation with a group of people KABRAJI & F IRDOUS , 1984). I could go on… I would argue from various agencies when a well-known and respected that counting turtles alone does not save them, and that local ‘turtle’ person exclaimed “But Nick, we have been bold and decisive measures, which often take considera- working for twenty-seven years and yet our turtle popula- ble courage and determination to implement, can make a tions continue to decline alarmingly! What should we do?” significant difference. I understand fully that many conser- So I said “Whatever it is you’re doing now, I’d stop. If it isn’t vation measures take years to implement and show results. working, there’s not much point in continuing…” Looking These programmes work in cases where the conservation back this seems a bit abrupt, but it got me thinking about resources are sufficient and available over long periods, what makes conservation approaches for turtles significant and turtle populations are sufficiently robust to withstand and of great impact while others simply continue to docu- continued threats until conservation measures have the in- ment population declines. tended effect. Meeting both requirements is often impossi- Numerous projects and programmes across the globe ble: either resources dry up or turtles do. Sometimes what ‘document the decline’ of turtle populations without really started out being the reason for initiating a conservation in- taking appropriate conservation action. Malaysia docu- tervention stops being a priority, and other interventions are mented the leatherback population decline in Terengganu needed. Long-lasting programmes need continued reeva- 90 PILCHER luation, both of their objectives and their outcomes, be- also have non-consumptive uses such as tourism, edu- cause often what was a problem one decade is no longer cation and research. They posses endearing qualities the next. I do not disregard or disrespect any of the pro- which evoke considerable passion amongst native peo- tection measures and awareness programmes and beach ples, conservationists and most people with whom they monitoring programmes currently out there, although I will come in contact. In many parts of the world, sea turtles admit that the implementation of these seems at times ar- and humans share cultural links that can elicit deep-roo- bitrary. Rather, I use a series of examples to highlight how ted reactions to conservation action (C AMPBELL , 2003). conservation can be substantially accelerated through Being long-lived (H EPPELL et al ., 2003) and of late ma- courageous, even audacious actions, decisions and/or turation (M ILLER , 1997) they face a multitude of threats over programmes which have lead to a well-documented dif- long periods of time. These threats include mortality in ference. After reading of population declines, I thought it mechanized and artisanal fisheries, egg and turtle con- was time for some good news. sumption, and habitat degradation and loss, amongst Here I look at some of what I call ‘bold steps’ that others (L UTCAVAGE et al ., 1997). Sea turtles are evolutiona- have been taken by individuals, agencies and organisa- rily prepared to suffer high mortality rates in the early life tions, which have had substantial immediate and long- stages, but their large juveniles and adults have substan- term effects on turtle populations. I have no ‘scientific’ tially high reproductive and population maintenance value measure for what ‘substantial’ entails, but used the follo- (C ROUSE et al ., 1987, H EPPELL et al ., 2007). The loss of a wing criteria as my personal guideline: 1) turtle popula- small proportion of eggs or hatchlings may be compen- tion(s) prior to the activity were declining, often at alarming sated by their demography, but the loss of a older animals rates and/or were under great threat; 2) the activity was can have substantial negative effects on population size clearly defined and recognizable for being a unique, stan- (C ROUSE et al ., 1987). Compounding this, population dalone action rather than the result of cumulative and structure whereby turtles comprise distinct genetic stocks complementary activities; 3) subsequent to the action tur- (M ORITZ , 1994) or management units (W ALLACE et al ., 2010) tle population(s) enjoyed a reversal of trend(s) and were precludes substantial interaction of stocks and restricts stable; and 4) today are recovered or recovering at a gene flow. In practice this means that turtle populations rapid rate. This paper is not a thorough examination of that have been decimated are not about to rebound everything that has ever been done for sea turtles, and it through massive immigration from outside populations. is concerned more with processes than specific popula- Hatchling sex is dependent on temperature during incu- tions. I hope the examples I list herein provide impetus for bation, particularly during the middle of the incubation pe- individuals, agencies and organisations that face decli- riod (M ILLER & L IMPUS , 1981; M ILLER , 1985), a critical ning turtle population trends with ideas and (hopefully) ca- biological adaptation that often comes into play in con- talyse a renewed approach to turtle conservation. servation schemes. Additionally, hatchling sea finding and Marine turtles are highly valued marine species that orientation are guided by visual stimuli (W ITHERINGTON & arguably are essential to ocean health, and which have BJORNDAL , 1990) whereby altered ambient lighting may di- garnered the attention of conservationists, government of- sorient turtles and cause high levels of mortality. To com- ficials, the public and the media. They support substan- plicate matters, hatchlings disperse into open ocean tial aspects of many economies through tourism, they areas, adult turtles migrate great distances between fo- confer indirect benefits which ensure that local fisheries raging and nesting habitats, and juveniles and adults can are sustained, and they aesthetically enhance coastal se- occupy multiple foraging grounds at different stages of ascapes. They are also marine substrate engineers, and their life cycle (M USICK & L IMPUS , 1997). nutrient transporters (P REEN , 1996; B OUCHARD & B JORNDAL , Given these biological characteristics and the myriad 2000). Sea turtles and their products have been used by threats they face, conservation of sea turtles is a massive mankind for thousands of years as an important food challenge. Management plans for marine turtle conser- source as well as a host of other uses. Sea turtles play va- vation and/or recovery run into dozens of pages and ad- luable ecological roles in marine ecosystems as consu- dress hundreds of actions. Since the ‘conservation mers and prey among other roles (L ANYON et al ., 1989; awakening’ for sea turtles by Archie Carr in the 1960s and BJORNDAL , 1996; B JORNDAL & J ACKSON , 2003), and they are thereafter (e.g. C ARR , 1967; 1986a,b) and his pioneering indirectly linked to seabed and fisheries stability (T ELUCK - work in Costa Rica, conservation programmes have strug- SINGH et al ., 2010). They function as key individuals in a gled to meet the varied threats, and costs have grown ex- number of habitats, and can be indicator species of the ponentially. The challenges have been taken up across relative health of habitats that have a tangible value to so- the globe and while some interventions have worked won- ciety. These habitats support commercial fish and inver- ders, others have been left lacking. tebrates (found in seagrass beds, open oceans and coral reefs, among others) that are valued by mankind. For example, green turtles crop seagrasses and maintain the DOCUMENTING THE DECLINE health of these important habitats. Seagrass beds can Documenting the decline in populations is unfortuna- also be developmental grounds for shrimp and other lar- tely a major part of modern science. Many turtle workers vae, which are the building blocks of economically-va- rally around beach monitoring programmes that faithfully luable shrimp and fin-fisheries industries. Today, turtles count fewer and fewer turtles each year. The sea turtle

Munibe Monographs. Nature Series • 1 (2013) • 89-98 • Donostia-San Sebastián • ISSN 2340-0463 Succeeding in sea turtle conservation: not just counting the decline 91 scientific literature is littered with scientific descriptions of other parts of the globe have left me in no doubt that while population declines: Malaysia’s decline of the leatherback many projects and programmes work well, others are off- is a good example (C HAN & L IEW , 1996), and the 90% de- target. For instance, in one place where fisheries bycatch cline of the green turtle in the early part of the 20 th century was an obvious threat (hundreds of shrimp trawlers sitting in Sarawak (L EH , 1985) was equally alarming. B JORNDAL et just offshore) erosion of the nesting beaches was being ad- al . (1993) report on the decline of hawksbill turtles at Tor- dressed. In another, a concern over egg poaching drove a tuguero. W ITHERINGTON et al . (2009) document the decline massive egg-relocation effort when again fishery pressure of loggerhead nests in Florida. Laura Sarti and colleagues was the key issue. In neither of the projects had anyone recorded the early decline of the leatherback in Mexico considered assessing fishery bycatch. Sometimes these (S ARTI et al ., 1996), and S POTILA et al ., (2000) summarise off-target efforts, though well-intentioned, are linked to a the precipitous decline of the leatherback across the Pa- basic lack of grounding in turtle biology, but often they are cific. Luckily for turtles, these people know what to do with the ‘low hanging fruit’ option – the easier problem to tackle. the information they gather to influence conservation. The Very often projects implement piecemeal efforts with no lon- documentation phenomenon is not only restricted to sea ger-term strategy, no link to data needs, or no clear cause- turtles – it is prevalent in a wide diversity of fields: K RYSKO effect linkages. Some projects tag some turtles in a season, & S MITH (2005) highlight how Kingsnakes Lampropeltis with no follow-up plans for monitoring recaptures. A simple getula (Linnaeus, 1766) declined until disappearing com- look at recapture rates for long-term saturation tagging pro- pletely from Florida. The Steller's sea cow Hydrodamalis jects highlights just how many tags one would have to put gigas (Zimmerman, 1780) was hunted to extinction (A N- out to hope for a realistic return rate. Other projects deploy DERSON , 1995) while hunters and scientists documented satellite transmitters but never follow up with the country the dwindling numbers. The African manatee Trichechus where their turtles end up. While still others relocate thou- senegalensis Link, 1795, was counted for years until it re- sands or clutches of eggs to hatcheries when there are no ached the brink of extinction (N AVANZA & B URNHAM , 1998), major poaching or predator threats – or where these could and W HITE (1995) describes how species after species of be addressed through more efficient beach patrols or nest frogs disappeared from Australia amidst countless rese- protection schemes. All too often the turtle populations at arch programmes. G ARBER & B URGER (1995) highlight a these sites continue to decline (there are a few exceptions!) 20-year decline in wood turtles Clemmys insculpta (Fit- suggesting to me that the piecemeal approach, of efforts zinger, 1835) as a result of human recreation, and B IES - here and there that are not necessarily aligned, and which MEIJER et al . (2006) report on declines in pollinators and often take decades to implement, is not the best recipe for link this to declines in insect-pollinated plants, while L UND - turtle conservation, and that effective, and sometimes ag- MARK (2008) describes lessons learnt from declines in gressive and audacious interventions are needed. Indeed, species diversity in forest studies. a look at some examples of these supports this claim. I realise that this process drives subsequent conservation action in an area, but in many ways, documenting THE BOLD AND THEIR CONSERVATION OUTCOMES the decline is becoming synonymous with conducting wildlife research. Ben Rawson, a primatologist with Conser- Given the criteria outlined above, I turned up a suite of vation International, commented in an interview in 2007 what I would describe as bold initiatives, which can be ca- with Krista Mahr, a reporter from Time/CNN, that primate tegorised into three key groupings: 1) Major turtle-related surveys in Southeast Asia had turned into a process of policy shifts with long-lasting impacts; 2) Direct interven- “documenting the decline of these species for science”. tions by Governments or individuals; and 3) Simply trying But documenting a population decline should only be something new, even when there were wide mispercep- considered a catalyst to spring into action, not a conser- tions about the chances of success. vation activity in itself. Assessment of population trends In the 1950s, one of the forefathers of the modern-day and threats are critical to understanding conservation turtle conservation movement, Dr. Archie Carr, came across needs and for forming conservation strategy. The problem a black sandy beach some 50 miles north of Limon, on the lies when these are conducted exclusively, in the absence Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, where hundreds upon hun- of any conservation action. In many cases, while beach dreds of green turtles laid their eggs. But local poachers patrol units are out there counting turtles, their numbers had long been aware of the location of the site, turtles and often just continue to decline, in need of some effective eggs were a valuable commodity, and the population was strategy to reverse the trend. More often than not, imme- in steep decline. Turtles were harvested, consumed and diate impacts are needed to stem the declines before the traded to international markets. Dr. Carr and the Caribbean populations collapse. Conservation Corporation (the organization Dr. Carr helped form to carry out the annual nest monitoring and protection program at Tortuguero) suggested to the Costa Rican go- OFF-TARGET CONSERVATION APPROACHES vernment that all of Tortuguero beach be set aside as a Na- All too often I come across cases where the conser- tional Park and that turtle hunting be banned in the country. vation activities being implemented are not addressing the And so, it was that with the help of a great many people key threats. I do not have a global overview of who does and institutions, as well as the people of Tortuguero, these what, but my travels through the Indo-Pacific and many recommendations came to pass in 1975 (Law 5680) with

Munibe Monographs. Nature Series • 1 (2013) • 89-98 • Donostia-San Sebastián • ISSN 2340-0463 92 PILCHER

the creation of the Tortuguero National Park and in 1999 (I BRAHIM , 1993). The Terengganu leatherback Dermochelys with the complete ban on turtle hunting in Costa Rica. coriacea (Vandelli, 1761) was well on its way to local extir- Today, the Tortuguero green turtle colony (by far the largest pation, the Sarawak green turtle Chelonia mydas (Lin- remaining in the Western Hemisphere) has made a remar- naeus, 1758) egg harvest was drying up, the olive ridley, kable recovery. While foraging ground mortality still occurs was fast disappearing from Malaysian shores. The turtles in (C AMPBELL & L AGUEUX , 2005) this does not seem to have im- Sabah were facing a similar fate. The government over pacted the steady growth in nesting numbers (B JORNDAL et there had tried closed seasons, purchasing eggs from the al ., 1999), highlighting just how important it is to protect tur- traders, and had enacted legislation to protect turtles, but tle nesting grounds. Tortuguero is one of the two largest re- nothing seemed to work. That was when the Sabah State maining green turtle rookeries in the world (T ROËNG & government stepped in and purchased the islands outright RANKIN , 2005), thanks to key interventions by an inspiratio- from the local inhabitants and turned them into a protected nal leader, and his many supporters and collaborators that area (B ASINTAL & L AKIM , 1993). In its day this was a bold and precipitated decisive action on the part of the government very expensive move, but today the Turtle Islands Park bo- and people of Costa Rica. asts the only robust and growing population of turtles in all On a remote beach in Tamaulipas, on Mexico’s Gulf of Southeast Asia (S HANKER & P ILCHER , 2003). coast, once nested thousands upon thousands of Kemp’s Cuba was once a willing partner in the trade in hawks- ridley Lepidochelys kempii (Garman, 1880) sea turtles. An bill Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766) shell. With ac- amateur video in 1947 documented an arribada style nes- cess to large tracts of the hawksbill’s Caribbean range, ting event, where tens of thousands of turtles crawled and Cuba amassed huge stockpiles of shell over the years (C A- bumped over each other to lay eggs at the same time. But RRILLO et al ., 1999). But when it first reduced, and then eli- by the 1960s Kemp’s ridley nesting had declined by some minated, all legal take of hawksbills, the impressive move 80% and showed no signs of stopping. The turning point contributed to strong population recoveries region wide. came about when Mexico’s Instituto Nacional de Investi- The Cuban turtle fishery was closed in 1994 at all but two gaciones Biológico-Pesqueras started patrolling the bea- traditional harvest sites (Isla de la Juventud and Nuevitas). ches in 1966, and in 1977 when the key nesting beach was A 2008 moratorium prohibited the catch in these last two protected with armed guards to deter egg poachers (M AR - sites, creating a nation-wide ban for an indefinite time. Con- QUEZ et al ., 1999), with a concurrent prohibition of fishing in currently, the main nesting and feeding areas for turtles gra- nearshore waters off the reserve. By declaring the area a dually came under special protection, most of them as national reserve and fiercely protecting the turtle nests and National Parks (e.g. Peninsula de Guanahacabibes, Jardi- simultaneously reducing bycatch offshore, these activities nes de la Reina, San Felipe Key and Cayo Largo). Gene- prevented the extinction of the Kemp’s ridley. Today the tics research by B OWEN et al . (2007), originally used to Kemp’s ridley is staging an amazing comeback (M ARQUEZ support arguments for the cessation of Cuban trade (M OR - et al ., 2001; C ROWDER & H EPELL , 2011), and would likely TIMER et al ., 2007) link the Cuban hunting grounds with key have been lost to humanity if it were not for the timely and nesting grounds throughout the Caribbean, and today bold intervention of the Mexican people. these linkages are demonstrating how the Cuban end to Pushing the boundaries even further, and in the face of legal harvests is helping regional nesting aggregations widespread egg consumption and traditional uses, the achieve astonishing comebacks. For example, at Mona Is- 1990 complete ban on harvest of sea turtles and their eggs land in Puerto Rico, nesting numbers are up 700% in the in Mexico was another bold and effective move by the Me- last 20 years, and continue to rise there 10-20% annually xican government, in my opinion. In May 1990 the Presi- (D IEZ & V AN DAM , 2006; D NER , 2010). Similarly over in the dent of Mexico Carlos Salinas de Gortari announced a total Yucatan peninsula, population recovery has been evident and permanent ban on the capture and trade of all sea tur- since then (G ARDUÑO -A NDRADE et al ., 1999), and in Barba- tle species and related products in Mexico's waters (A RID - dos (B EGGS et al ., 2007), and while the jury is still out on a JIS , 1990). Working tirelessly behind the scenes to make definitive cause-effect relationship, Cuba’s bold and very this happen were countless inspiring individuals, among effective move is suggestive of great regional impacts, ori- them Georgita Ruiz, Rene Márquez, Raquel Briseño, Daniel ginally negative, and subsequently positive. Rios, Alberto Abreu-Grobois, and many others. As a result, Similarly bold, Indonesia designated green turtles as a in La Escobilla, there has been a dramatic increase in olive protected species in 1999 despite controversial use of ridley Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, 1829) nests green turtles in religious ceremonies and through cultural from 50,000 in 1988 to over 700,000 in 1994 to more than traditions in Bali, and historical take of adult turtles from a million nests in 2000 (M ÁRQUEZ et al ., 2002). If the go- both nesting and foraging areas across many parts of the vernment had waited until everyone was in agreement archipelago. The sheer size and diversity of Indonesia about such a ban, chances are we would still be waiting. poses a variety of challenges for turtle conservation: there With this decision in the background, Mexican conservation are 33 provinces comprising over 17,000 islands covering agencies added a legal foundation upon which to address spread over some 6 million km 2. National legislation is en- bycatch, poaching and illegal consumption. forced at a provincial level, with varying degrees of auto- In the early 1970s populations of turtles in Malaysia nomy and success. Massive exploitation of green turtle were all suffering dramatic declines. In peninsular Malaysia eggs took place since the 1900’s, when turtle eggs were turtles had crashed, with reported declines of up to 99% used as royal gifts (such as in the Derawan Islands), but

Munibe Monographs. Nature Series • 1 (2013) • 89-98 • Donostia-San Sebastián • ISSN 2340-0463 Succeeding in sea turtle conservation: not just counting the decline 93 which later developed into large-scale, unregulated co- oil spill), nor any restrictions on harvests and domestic llection of eggs for commercial purposes. Based on re- trade (as noted earlier for Hawaii). The ESA was very bold cords from the local office of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, move to comprehensively address wildlife conservation, some two to two and a half million green turtle eggs were and unfortunately and surprisingly, not all turtle range coun- collected at just about every island each year from 1985 to tries have anywhere near such stringent legislation. 2000 (A DNYANA , 2003). Prior to 2000, an estimated >30,000 Turtles require several key habitats to survive. They turtles were traded legally in Bali alone using a quota need beaches to lay eggs, but they also need vast expan- system. But then all turtle species were protected by the ses of marine habitats in which to feed and grow. So it was Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia No. 7 & 8 pas- bold indeed when farther across the Pacific, the establis- sed in 1999 through which all forms of turtle trade are pro- hment of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park by the Com- hibited, and while there are still many hurdles to overcome, monwealth of Australia (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act this decisive move set the legal scene for greater control 1975), created the then largest marine park in the world and management than was ever possible previously in In- spanning 344,400 km 2 in a tremendous step that resulted donesia. in the protection of vast tracts of turtle nesting and foraging Along the same lines, Hawaii's listing of its endemic habitat. This was further supported by the Park’s World He- green turtles in 1975 under State Division of Fish and Game ritage listing in 1981 (sea turtles were a specific value iden- Regulation 36 (B ALAZS , 1976; B ENNETT & K EUPER - B ENNETT , tified in the WH listing process). Today the park, located in 2008), a few years before green turtles were listed under the Coral Sea off the coast of Queensland in northeast Aus- the US Endangered Species Act (ESA), led to near-com- tralia, is managed by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park plete cessation of harvest, a bold move which was likely Authority to ensure that it is used in a sustainable manner the main cause for the recovery of the Hawaiian green tur- through a combination of zoning, management plans, in- tle stock. The Hawaiian green turtle population had been cluding co-management plans with indigenous peoples, harvested in the 19th century during expeditions to the Nor- permits, education and incentives, all of which have hel- thewestern Hawaiian Islands (A MERSON , 1971; B ALAZS , ped turtle populations flourish. 1980) and the pressure persisted at foraging grounds of A commonly raised cause for concern with sea turtles the main Hawaiian islands until the mid-1900s. Commer- is the ubiquity of plastic in our oceans. With alarming fre- cial harvest began in the mid-1940s in part due to restau- quency sea turtles mistakenly ingest plastic bags because rant demand and tourism which increased significantly in they resemble sea jellies (M ROSOVSKY , 1981) and hard plas- the 1960s and early 1970s ( B ALAZS , 1980; W ITZELL , 1994; tics when fouled and disguised by goose barnacles and CHALOUPKA & B ALAZS , 2007). Compounding this there was macro algae (W ITHERINGTON , 1994). More than a million additional unregulated traditional harvest by native Ha- birds, tens of thousands of whales, seals and turtles and waiian and other Pacific Islander communities in Hawaii. countless fish worldwide are killed by injesting plastic rub- By the mid 1970s, the Hawaiian green turtle population was bish every year (L AIST , 1997). So it is bold indeed when over-exploited and reduced to approximately 20% of pre- countries take drastic moves and ban the use of plastics exploitation numbers, but since the enactment of state and entirely. In March 2002, Bangladesh declared an outright federal ESA protections in the 1970s the number of nesting ban on all polyethylene bags after they were found to have green turtles has increased dramatically over the past thirty been largely responsible for the floods that submerged years with an estimated annual growth rate of 5.7% per two-thirds of the country by choking the drainage systems th year (B ALAZS & C HALOUPKA , 2004; C HALOUPKA et al ., 2008). in 1988 and 1989. On the 4 of March 2005, the President Despite the cessation of harvesting and protection under of Eritrea announced a full ban on plastics of any kind in State and Federal laws, occasional illegal harvesting of the country, citing blocked gutters, choked farm animals and marine wildlife, soil pollution and aesthetic reasons. In green turtles still occurs in Hawaii, but this does not appear 2009 Papua New Guinea joined the fray, and the import, to be hindering population recovery. manufacturing, sale and use of non-biodegradable plastic A few bold moves that had indirect impacts on sea tur- shopping bags was banned. On the 5 th of January 2011, tles are also noteworthy. The promulgation of the US En- Italy followed suit, even though it received a wave of dangered Species Act (Public Law 93-205) in 1973 with its backlash by critics who were worried it could not be specific enforcement penalties was a critical step in provi- done. To date, at least Australia, Belgium, Bhutan, Bots- ding legal protection to species, turtles included, and es- wana, China, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Ireland, tablished the foundation upon which conservationists and Italy, Japan, Kenya, Malta, Maui (US), Papua New Gui- government agencies grounded their turtle-related protec- nea, Philippines, Samoa, San Francisco (US), Singapore, tion activities. Dr. Russell Train was appointed by President Somalia, South Africa, South Korea, Sweden, Turkey, Nixon to draft the ESA, and he and his team incorporated Uganda, and Zanzibar (Tanzania) all have some form of new principles and ideas into the landmark legislation plastic bag ban in place. These bans are bold indeed, which transformed environmental conservation in the Uni- and surely a good move for sea turtles. ted States. Without the ESA, there would likely be no turtle Over the years, it has been interesting to see people try excluder devices (TEDs), no lawsuits to close fisheries in something new, bold and even audacious even, where which bycatch is an issue (such as the Hawaii longline clo- concerns over the novelty and viability were ignored and sure), no nest relocation in the face of natural and anthro- from which exciting new approaches to conservation evol- pogenic threats (such as during the recent Gulf of Mexico ved. The Seychelles islands host one of the five largest re-

Munibe Monographs. Nature Series • 1 (2013) • 89-98 • Donostia-San Sebastián • ISSN 2340-0463 94 PILCHER maining populations of hawksbills in the world, although in returns). The jury is still out on how successful the project the latter half of the 20 th century their numbers declined was at a population level, but today there are more and alarmingly (M ORTIMER , 1984, 1998). Confronted with this, the more headstarted Kemp’s ridley turtles nesting on Padre Seychellois government gradually implemented all the right Island (S HAVER , 1996; S HAVER & R UBIO , 2007). measures: stopping people from killing turtles on the bea- Similarly alarming further south in the Americas, Bra- ches, revegetation of nesting beaches, implementing an zil’s turtle populations in the 1970s were all undergoing artisan compensation and re-training scheme for those in- precipitous declines. But the creation of Projeto TAMAR- volved in the shell trade, honouring its international com- IBAMA, which involved local communities as key prota- mitments (such as to CITES), providing legal protection and gonists in conservation activities and expanded the conducting thorough monitoring and research program- protection of key nesting beaches to some 1100 km of the mes to inform decision-making. But it was probably the coastline, was a bold stroke of genius. Prior to the 1970s 1998 public burning of its stockpile of raw hawksbill shell conservation of coastal and marine natural resources in during the 1998 Miss World Pageant that got the world’s at- Brazil was nonexistent, and nearly all loggerhead Caretta tention. From the late 1960s to the early 1990s, most of the caretta (Linnaeus, 1758) eggs and nesting females along nesting females had been killed at the nesting beaches, the Brazilian coast were taken (M ARCOVALDI et al ., 2005). often before laying any eggs (M ORTIMER , 1984). The turtles Turtles were threatened by marine debris (B UGONI et al ., were slaughtered for their shell, destined for the curio mar- 2001) and coastal gillnet and pelagic longline fisheries kets in Japan. In 1993 the government banned the sale of (S OTO et al ., 2003; K OTAS et al ., 2004). Turtles in Brazil hawksbill shell products, and some 2.5 tons of raw hawks- faced an uphill battle. TAMAR needed to design an ap- bill shell were purchased from local artisans (C , 1995). OLLIE proach that generated buy-in from low-income coastal Then, in November 1998, in conjunction with the Miss communities with few alternatives, and that relied on egg World Pageant, the government publicly burned the stock- collection for consumption and sale. They did this by cre- pile to demonstrate it felt the turtles had far greater value as ating a collaborative and all-inclusive system that inclu- live animals than as dead shells (M , 1999). The go- ORTIMER ded direct employment; environmental and public vernment was of the opinion that live hawksbills would bring outreach campaigns including educational and health- more revenue to Seychelles (as a tourist attraction), and related projects; research; internships; work at visitor cen- had made a public demonstration that poaching of hawks- tres, shops and museums; production of handicrafts; bills would not be tolerated. Turtle conservationists were of development of ecotourism guides, and participation in two minds as to the value of the event and the loss of the cottage industries, sports activities, kindergartens, com- shell stockpile, but one thing is for sure: it was different, it munity vegetable gardens, provision of technical assis- was bold, and it got everyone’s attention. tance to various fisheries, as well as a suite of other local By the late 1970s the Kemp’s ridley population at Ran- activities. TAMAR was not a just turtle conservation pro- cho Nuevo was down to an estimated <500 nesting turtles ject, it was a complete livelihoods package using sea tur- and while beach protection was underway on key beaches tles as flagship species. Each year some 14,000 turtle in Mexico, the population continued to decline. So a US nests are protected along Brazil’s mainland and islands, and Mexican team comprising the Instituto Nacional de la and hundreds of turtles are released alive from fishing Pesca of Mexico, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Na- gear, a massive endeavor lead successfully by local fis- tional Park Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service hers and other stakeholders (M ARCOVALDI et al ., 2005). and the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department designed an Today in Brazil, all four species are recovering, and likely audacious and controversial headstart project, which in- would have been locally extirpated without the interven- cubated eggs and reared the hatchlings until they were a tion of TAMAR and its visionary leaders. year or so old. The idea back then was to allow the turtles The Grupo Tortuguero de las Californias network took to grow beyond a size at which natural mortality decrea- a truly bold approach to address turtle poaching and sed substantially. Some 20,000 eggs were brought up by bycatch at Mexico´s Baja California peninsula, an important plane over ten years from Mexico to Padre Island, Texas, foraging and nesting area for five turtle species. When by and then the hatchlings were imprinted on the beach and the mid 1990s Mexico´s ban on sea turtle harvest had had in nearshore waters at South Padre before being reared in little effect on the isolated Baja California peninsula, the tanks (K LIMA & M CVEY , 1982; M ANZELLA et al ., 1988). The Grupo Tortuguero transformed turtle poachers into turtle small juveniles were then tagged as they were released, in protectors by celebrating their considerable turtle kno- the hopes of documenting the establishment of a new nes- wledge, and together they assessed turtle population ting colony. While some argued the project had no way of trends through a standardised regional monitoring network. determining success and others that it was a mitigation me- Lifelong turtle hunters alienated by the ban found positive asure for existing threats, one thing is for sure: the heads- outlets for their considerable hunting prowess, and dozens tart project was bold and ingenious for its time, and spurred became proud leaders of turtle conservation in their com- greater research and conservation efforts for the Kemp’s ri- munities. By assembling turtle hunters and other stakehol- dley along the way (B YLES , 1993). It took some creative thin- ders through festivals and annual regional meetings plus king to put it together, and trialed a relatively small number engaging fishermen in participatory research, the network of eggs (minimal risk) in the hopes of devising a strategy to has greatly reduced sea turtle traffic, consumption and rapidly repopulate depleted turtle populations (maximum bycatch. To address loggerhead bycatch, the network took

Munibe Monographs. Nature Series • 1 (2013) • 89-98 • Donostia-San Sebastián • ISSN 2340-0463 Succeeding in sea turtle conservation: not just counting the decline 95 the ostensibly outrageous approach of convening a series Legal instruments, multi-national institutions and grea- of tri-national fishermen’s exchanges, uniting delegations ter access to funding have all contributed to turtle wellbeing of Japanese, Hawaiian, and Mexican fishermen to share and recovery efforts. The Convention on International Trade bycatch solutions. The exchanges inspired a large contin- in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) gent of Mexican fishermen to switch to turtle friendly gear had a massive impact on international trade starting in the in 2007, sparing 100s to 1000s of loggerheads each year 1980s, and was largely responsible for the halt in the de- since (P ECKHAM et al ., 2011). The exchanges also led to cline of hawksbills, then heavily traded for their shell (M EY - bycatch mitigation solutions for the Japanese poundnet fis- LAND & D ONNELLY , 1999). The creation of the Marine Turtle hery through demonstration trials involving fishermen, fis- Conservation Fund through the Marine Turtle Conservation heries managers, gear manufacturers, academics and Act (Public Law 108-266) in the US has created a stable public media. Largely through the Grupo Tortuguero’s work and growing funding platform for countless small-scale and partnerships, loggerheads at two critical habitats in the conservation projects across the globe, by providing fi- Pacific are today the focus of effective conservation strate- nancial resources for projects that conserve the nesting ha- gies. Other networks in Baja California have since ensued, bitats, marine turtles in those habitats, and other threats to addressing the same issues throughout the ranges of their the survival of marine turtles. A few of these projects are turtles – following green turtles to mainland Mexico and log- described within this report. gerheads to their Japanese nesting sites. Bold was initially The Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Network (WIDECAST) bothering at all when experts said the turtle populations brought together 43 countries to actively collaborate on sea were already hopelessly depleted, then involving suppo- turtle conservation, much to a suite of detractors in its early sedly worthless poachers, followed by facing down corrupt days. Over the years it has been successful in engaging all officials with quiet tenacity and facts. countries in dialogue, getting laws changed, habitats protected, trade stopped, turtles saved, people involved, training imparted, funds raised, and inspiration imparted at a SOME FINAL THOUGHTS large regional scale (around the entire Caribbean sea) Clearly, there are many good stories to tell. My rese- fraught with political complexity. WIDECAST has linked arch on the subject has left me in no doubt that these scientists, conservationists, resource managers, resource steps were amongst those responsible for the turnaround users, policy-makers, industry groups, educators and other of not only the individual turtle (and human) populations at stakeholders together in a collective effort to develop a uni- stake, but also for the global reversal of sea turtles’ fortu- fied management framework, and brought the best availa- nes. I am convinced that the bold moves I present above ble science to bear on decision-making. The network has (used as a group of representative examples rather than been instrumental in creating conservation models, en- a comprehensive register) set the scene and can provide couraging community involvement, and raising public awa- the encouragement and impetus for the development of reness, and in sharing this approach with other regions of countless other great initiatives that have made huge dif- the world, to broader benefit (W IDECAST , 2010). ferences across the globe. From the early days, when Ar- Protection of turtle habitat is crucial. Without this pro- chie Carr led a delegation to Mexico to discuss bans on tection, we would have said goodbye to many turtle popu- the slaughter of turtles with industry leaders – recounted lations a long time ago. Today, critical habitats have been in his famous “Encounter at Escobilla” piece in the MTN protected that have set the scene for tremendous popula- (C ARR , 1979), and the informal discussions amongst pro- tion recoveries. For instance, nesting beaches have been minent turtle conservationists in the 1980s with the Japan protected in La Réunion (B OURJEA et al ., 2007), in South Bekko Association to find solutions to the hawksbill shell Africa (H UGHES , 1993), in Turkey (W HITMORE et al ., 1990), in trade (MTSG, 1993), there have been, and continue to be, the Seychelles and in Mexico and in Malaysia and throug- some very charismatic people and some very important hout the Caribbean, as noted above, and just about every- personal linkages that have made a difference. where turtles exist. Policy changes, as a result of research into mortality A common link amongst many emerging successful factors, have also come along strongly: the requirement to conservation programmes of today is partnership with local use circle hooks in the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline fis- communities. Papua New Guinea has a very successful hery and the Hawaii shallow-set fishery for swordfish, the community-based conservation programme, as do Sierra net ban on the east coast off Florida and Georgia, and the Leone, Australia, Costa Rica, Mexico, and loads of others. Queensland government’s complete protection of Mon In Papua New Guinea the use of finance incentive sche- Repos, the major rookery for loggerheads in the South Pa- cific, are great examples. Novel thinking and a willingness mes to promote community buy-in has been a particularly to try something new, even in the face of public opposi- effective strategy (P ILCHER , 2007). These grassroots pro- tion, continue to emerge: an electric fence to keep pigs jects are becoming the mainstream conservation initiatives of the 21 st century. from leatherback nests in West Papua (S UGANUMA , 2005), or the culling of thousands of feral pigs from north So it should come as no surprise that I feel turtles have Queensland to reduce predation on flatback Natator de- fared well given all this attention. I know that most conser- pressa (Garman, 1880) and ridley turtles (Q UEENSLAND GO- vation initiatives make gradual impacts over long periods of VERNMENT , 2010), come to mind. time. But turtles may not have the luxury of that timeframe,

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and for this reason I think that stepping out of the ordinary BALAZS , G. H., C HALOUPKA , M. 2004. Thirty-year recovery trend in and trying something new, which can accelerate the reco- the once depleted Hawai’ian green sea turtle stock. Biol. Con- serv. 117: 491-498. very of turtle stocks, should still be recognised for what it can do. BASINTAL , P., L AKIM , M. 1994. Status and management of sea turtles at Turtle Islands Park. In: Proceedings of the first ASEAN As to how one tops the examples listed above, I’m sure Symposium-Workshop on Marine Turtle Conservation . A. there are still loads of opportunities. One might contem- Nacu, R. Trono, J. A. Palma, D. Torres, F. Agas, Jr. (Eds.): 139- plate some level of sustainable take as a way of balancing 147. WWF-USAID. Manila, Philippines. human and turtle needs and promote greater buy-amongst BEGGS , J. A., H ORROCKS , J. A., K RUEGER , B. H. 2007. Increase in communities, or use novel financial measures to influence hawksbill sea turtle Eretmochelys imbricata nesting in Barba- conservation behaviour, such as micro-credit schemes, dos, West Indies. Endang. Species Res. 3:159-168 payments for ecosystem services, incentive mechanisms BENNETT , P., K EUPER -B ENNETT , U. 2008. The Book of Honu: Enjo- that drive behavioural change. I imagine even green or blue ying and learning about Hawai'i's sea turtles. University of Ha- carbon credits all have their place in turtle conservation of waii Press. Honolulu. the future. And I think that we should not be so quick to dis- miss something new and untested, so long as the founda- BIESMEIJER , S. C., R OBERTS , S., R EEMER , M., O HLEMÜLLER , R., E D- WARDS , M., P EETERS , T., S HAFFERS , A., P OTTES , S., K LEUKERS , R., tions upon which it is designed have been carefully thought THOMAS , C., S ETTELE , J., K UNIN , W. 2006. Parallel declines in po- out, researched and grounded in the best available llinators and insect pollinated plants in Britain and the Nether- science, and it does not threaten recovering wild popula- lands. Science 313: 351-354. tions. I look forward to this turtle conservation future. BJORNDAL , K. A. 1996. Foraging Ecology and Nutrition of Sea Tur- tles. In: The Biology of Sea Turtles . P. L. Lutz, J. A. Musick (Eds.): 199-232. CRC Press. New York. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS BJORNDAL , K. A., J ACKSON , J., 2003. Roles of sea turtles in marine I’d like to thank (in alphabetical order) Alberto Abreu, ecosystems: reconstructing the past. In: The biology of sea Antonio de Padua Almeida, Edward Aruna, George Balazs, turtles Vol. II . P. L. Lutz, J. A. Musick, J. Wyneken (Eds.): 259- 274. CRC Press. Boca Raton. Brian Bowen, Milani Chaloupka, Stephane Ciccione, Robert van Dam, Kirstin Dobbs, Marydele Donnelly, Karen Eckert, BJORNDAL , K. A., B OLTEN , A. B., L AGUEUX , C. 1993. Decline of the Sheryan Epperly, Alejandro Fallabrino, Cécile Gaspar, David nesting population of hawkbsill turtles at Tortuguero, Costa Godfrey, Mark Hamman, Selina Heppell, Julia Horrocks, Rica. Conserv. Biol. 7(4): 925-927.

Yakup Kaksa, Colin Limpus, Dimitris Margaritoulis, Rod BJORNDAL , K. A., W ETHERALL , J. A., B OLTEN , A. B., M ORTIMER , J. A., Mast, Felix Moncada, Colum Muccio, Carmen Pilcher, SMA 1999. Twenty-six years of green turtle nesting at Tortuguero, Rashid, Julia Azanza Ricardo, Sylvia Spring, Bryan Wallace Costa Rica: an encouraging trend. Conserv. Biol. 13(1): 126-134. and Blair Witherington for timely and pertinent suggestions BOURJEA J., F RAPPIER , J., Q UILLARD , M., C ICCIONE , S., R OOS , D., H UG - which contributed to this manuscript. I’d like to single out HES , G., G RIZEL , H. 2007. Mayotte Island: another important Hoyt Peckham and Irene Kinan Kelly for their invaluable green turtle nesting site in the southwest Indian Ocean. En- input and thoughts. I have tried to incorporate as best I can dang. Species Res. 3: 273-282. the wonderful suggestions they have all made. BOUCHARD , S. S., B JORNDAL , K. A. 2000. Sea turtles as biological transporters of nutrients and energy from marine to terrestrial ecosystems. Ecology 81:2305–2313.

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