J. Trop. Agric. and Fd. Sc. 46(2)(2018): 117 – 125 M.B. Noor Fadilah, A. Mohd Suhaimi and A. Nur Arma Ariza Effects of processing conditions on acrylamide levels in local chips [Kesan keadaan pemprosesan pada aras akrilamid dalam kerepek ubi tempatan]

M.B. Noor Fadilah1, A. Mohd Suhaimi1 and A. Nur Arma Ariza2

1Food Science Technology Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, Persiaran MARDI-UPM, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 2Strategic Planning and Innovation Management Centre, MARDI Headquarters, Persiaran MARDI-UPM, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract Acrylamide is a toxic chemical formed when certain starchy foods are cooked or processed. Generally, the production of acrylamide in food is associated with high temperature processing (cooking) method such as frying and baking. This study was carried out to investigate the effects of such processing parameters, i.e. heating time, heating temperature and cooking method, on the level of acrylamide in local tapioca chips. Acrylamide levels in the samples were analysed using SPE/HPLC/UV. Results showed that heating time and temperature were positively correlated with the acrylamide levels in the tapioca chips (R2 = 0.942 and R2 = 0.8712 respectively) and the highest level was found in heating time of 15 mins (447.12 mg/kg) and heating temperature at 210 °C (882.85 mg/kg). In addition, the study also found that the method of cooking (i.e. frying with vacuum fryer), produced the lowest level of acrylamide and resulted in good acceptability product characteristics compared to other methods of cooking.

Keywords: acrylamide, heating time, heating temperature, cooking methods, tapioca chips

Introduction chips and traditional cakes like the foods are described as, always kueh bahulu, are now being consumed not ready, crispy, chewy provisions, comfort only during high tea but in between meals food, meal replacement, companion for as well. Hence, the increase in demand relaxing and party staple during celebrations for convenient fried and baked foods and (Nielsen 2014). Consumer enjoy for snacks over the past few years (Farzana et their great taste, obtainability, availibility al. 2011). This ever increasing and changing and diversity. There are numerous pattern of food preferences are basically due reasons as to why people consume snack to the hectic modern lifestyles and scarcity foods, nonetheless, pure enjoyment was of time. Moreover, considerably cheaper identified as the primary drive for snacking prices and the easiness to prepare and (Nielsen 2014). In Malaysia, popular consume the food has elevated fried food as local snacks (fried and baked foods) such the ‘choice-to-go’ food in Malaysia. as banana , fish crackers, tapioca

Article history Authors' full names: Noor Fadilah Mohd Bakri, Mohd Suhaimi Alias and Nur Arma Ariza Alias Received: 26.12.2017 E-mail: [email protected] Accepted: 25.6.2018 ©Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute 2018

117 Acrylamide levels in local tapioca chips

Based on the Nielsen report (report Malaysia is estimated to be about 0.21 mg/ generated by Nielsen Company, a leader day/kg body weight (Othman and Shamsinar in internet research and survey based in 2008). United State), these indulgent products Nowadays, numerous studies have been comprising of fried and baked snacks, often conducted around the globe to investigate receive a bad reputation as they contribute factors which contribute to the formation of to undiserable eating habits which may acrylamide in foods. These factors include then relate to more adverse health issues. heating time, heating temperature, pH, These processing conditions, which involves the concentration of precursors and their cooking at high temperature, long duration compositions, and heat processing methods and using plenty of oils, were also found (Zhang and Zhang 2007). Overcooked to contribute directly to the production of were found to contain extremely various undesirable compounds like dioxin, high levels of of acrylamide (>10 ppm), furan, polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and indicating frying temperature and frying acrylamide in foods (Cristina et al. 2016). time influenced acrylamide formation Similarly, the occurrence of acrylamide in (Granda et al. 2004). Hence, the use of food products has also been widely reported low temperature frying (under 160 °C) as contributors to neurotoxic, genotoxic and was found to reduce the concentration of carcinogenic effects on animals (Haiqin et acrylamide produced in foods (Pedreschi and al. 2011). This monomer was also found Zuniga 2009). On the other hand, quality to be carcinogenic and mutagenic and characteristics of the foods such as texture, responsible for the nervous system damage colour and oil content may be negatively (Gema et al. 2009). The International affected and will consequently affect the Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) acceptability of the product by the consumer has classified acrylamide as 'probably (Romani et al. 2009). carcinogenic to humans' (Group 2A) Different theoretical mechanisms (Wendie et al. 2005). have been proposed for the formation of The presence of acrylamide in food acrylamide in heated foods (European was first discovered in 2002 by researchers Food Safety Authority 2003). According from Sweden (Granda et al. 2004). to Wendie et al. (2005), acrylamide occurs According to the Food and Agriculture through reaction between amino acids Organisation (FAO), acrylamides are found (primarily asparagine) and a reactive in foods that are cooked and processed at carbonyl (eg. glucose), proceeding through high temperatures and increasing in level intermediates that include Schiff’s base. based on time of heating (FAO 2002). Study Besides that, acrolein was also reported as on the level of acrylamide in food showed one of main precursor in the formation of that foods rich in carbohydrate such as this compound. Next to Maillard reaction, french fries, potato crisps, biscuits, breads acrolein was formed by transformation of and coffee contain the highest levels of lipids or by degradation of amino acids, acrylamide (Gema et al. 2009). Alarmingly, proteins and carbohydrates. Oxidation of a study conducted by Malaysia’s Ministry acrolein to acrylic acid and subsequent of Health detected various levels of reaction of acrylic acid with ammonia acrylamide in foods like maruku, martabak generated from the pyrolysis of nitrogen- and layer cake among others (Leong et al. containing compounds present in foods 2004). In the same report, the highest level results in formation of acrylamide. The of acrylamide was found in potato chips Maillard reaction plays an important role (693 mg/kg). The total dietary exposure in improving the appearance and taste of of acrylamide from food consumption in various fried foods (Zhang and Zhang 2007).

118 M.B. Noor Fadilah, A. Mohd Suhaimi and A. Nur Arma Ariza

In addition, two important precursors slices of pre-treated samples were fried in responsible for acrylamide production a deep fryer containing 5 litres of cooking has been identified as asparagine and oil at different increasing frying durations reducing sugars (Romani et al. 2009). i.e. 5 min, 8 min, 11 min and 14 min Hence, to reduce the acrylamide levels respectively. The heating temperature was in fried products, the contents of these consistently set at 150 °C following the two precursors are critical and need to standard normal range temperature practiced be managed (European Food Safety by the industry. Authority 2003). On the other hand, to evaluate the This study was aimed to investigate level of acrylamide and also the correlation three crucial factors in the formation of of temperature with acrylamide formation, acrylamide in local tapioca chips i.e. (i) pre-treated samples were fried at increasing heating time, (ii) temperature of fried temperatures i.e. 120 °C, 150 °C, 180 °C tapioca chips and (iii) different methods and 210 °C respectively. of cooking. The best frying conditions to minimise the amount of acrylamide and Effect of different methods of cooking on to obtain a final product with acceptable level of acrylamide in tapioca chips quality characteristics will be discussed. Four different method of cooking i.e. vacuum fry, deep fry, pan fry and microwave Materials and methods were tested in cooking the samples. Since Materials the minimum sample weight requirement Tapioca (Manihot esculenta var. Ubi for the vacuum fryer (Berjaya Deep brand) Kuning) was purchased from Pasar Borong was 1 kg, we used 1 kg of slice tubers Selangor, Malaysia. Each tuber weighed for the treatment and the samples were approximately 20 g per tuber of dry solid fried at 90 °C for 15 min (most acceptable with a diameter of 7 cm. Refined Bleached parameter in producing tapioca chips). As Deodorized (RBD) Palm Olein (SAJI brand) for the other cooking methods (deep fry, was chosen as the cooking oil in this study pan fry and microwave), only 200 g of slice as palm olein is the most-used tropical tubers were used accordingly. oil in food manufacturing as well as in For , samples were fried tapioca chips manufacturing. Samples were using Berjaya Deep-frying at 150 °C for stored at ± 3 °C and taken out at least 3 h 5 min with 3 litres of palm oil (Saji Brand). before frying to allow for room temperature Heating time and temperature were equilibration. chosen based on the accepted parameters for producing tasty tapioca chips by the Sample preparation industry. Approximately 200 g of samples were peeled manually using a were pan fried with less than 0.5 litres of sharp peeler and soaked in fresh tap water palm oil and 200 g of samples were also for 10 min to discard starch content prior to microwaved (Panasonic, Dimension 4) for frying. Tubers were then washed and sliced 5 min using high temperature mode. to a thickness of 2 mm (general average measurement of local tapioca chips). Determination of acrylamide content in fried tapioca chips Effect of different heating time and frying Acrylamide standard (99.4% purity) temperature on acrylamide levels in tapioca was obtained from Sigma (Diesenhofen, chips Germany). Chromatography grade Frying conditions - To study the acrylamide acetonitrile and analytical grade methanol levels in samples and also the correlation of were obtained from MERCK. Ultrapurified heating time with acrylamide formation, 15 (Purelab Ultra, Elga) and distilled water

119 Acrylamide levels in local tapioca chips were used throughout the experiments. wavelength of 210 nm. For acrylamide Single SPE Sorbent-strataX-C catridges identifications, the retention times were (1ml) and the analytical column, Synergi compared with the internal standard. The Polar-RP 4 m, 150 mm x 4.6 mm supplied amount of acrylamide levels in tapioca by Phenomenex was used. Stock solution chips were quantified from the peak area of acrylamide (1 mg/ml) was prepared by using a standard curve prepared from dissolving 2.5 mg acrylamide in 50 ml standard acrylamide (y = 49.107x – 16.509, of ultrapurified water. Working standard R2 = 0.9749) and expressed in mg/kg. solutions were prepared by diluting the stock Measurements were done in triplicates for solution of acrylamide to concentrations of each sample. 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 mg/ml with ultrapurified water. Experimental design and statistical analysis All experiments were carried out in Extraction procedure triplicate and recorded as mean ± SD Determination of acrylamide was carried (standard deviation). Statistical analyses out based on the method described by was performed with Stastical Analysis Liming et. al (2007) with few modifications. Software (SAS) package (version 9.1.2 Approximately 5 g samples were ground of SAS Institute, Inc. Cary, NC, 2008). with a waring laboratory blender (Waring, For significant differences between USA) at high for 2 min. Samples were then treatments, means were determined by one placed in a flask with 25 ml of distilled way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and water and shaken at 120 rpm for 20 min subsequently compared using Duncan’s using a laboratory shaker (SI300 Lab Multiple Range Test (DMRT) to determine Companion,USA). This procedure was the significant effects between the means at carried out to ensure that the samples were p <0.05. well homogenised. The samples were then centrifuged using the Allegra ™ X-22R Results and discussions (Beckman Counter) at 1,000 rpm for 15 Effect of heating time on acrylamide levels min (defatting process). Samples were then in local tapioca chips further purified by a simple solid-phase Figure 1 illustrates the acrylamide extraction method using a single SPE levels for the tapioca chips fried at Sorbent-strata-X-C. The SPE cartridges were different times. Tapioca chips fried for conditioned with 2 ml of methanol and 2 ml 5 min gave acrylamide level of 431.54 ± of ultrapurified water before 1ml of sample 1.2 mg/kg and at 15 min, the acrylamide was applied. Purified extracts were then level was 447.12 ± 1.3 mg/kg. While these transferred into HPLC vials for analysis. two treatments were not significantly different at p <0.05, there was an increase HPLC analysis of 3.6% of acrylamide level between the For High Pressure Liquid Chromatoghy two heating times. In addition, the HPLC (HPLC) analysis, 20 µl analyte was chromatogram of acrylamide in tapioca injected into a reversed phase column chips showed highest peak with a retention (Synergi Polar-RP 4 mm x 150 mm x time of about 6.5 min (Figure 2). Figure 3 3.0 mm, Phenomenex), using a Waters showed a strong correlation (R2 = 0.942) 2996 liquid chromatography (Waters, USA) between heating time and acrylamide equipped with a UV detector PDA 2996 level. In other words, longer cooking time (Waters, USA). The columns were eluted will subsequently increase the acrylamide with a mobile phase of water/acetonitrile level in fried tapioca chips. Unsprisingly, (94/6, v/v). The flow rate was 0.4 ml/min tapioca which was fried for 14 min and the acrylamide was detected at UV produced the darkest colour compared to

120 M.B. Noor Fadilah, A. Mohd Suhaimi and A. Nur Arma Ariza other samples. This indicates that cooking chips. Similarly, Tereke et al. (2002) also practices (i.e. time of cooking) may affect showed that increased heating time to the appearance of samples (i.e. browning) cook mashed potatoes in a microwave which in turn will increase the acrylamide oven increased the amount of acrylamide content in foods. This is in agreement more than 100% (at heating time 100 s with the study by Ahn et al. (2002) which acrylamide level was detected at 47 mg/ reported that acrylamide content was kg and at 150 s, acrylamide level was positively correlated to food browning. detected at 4,400 mg/kg). Further studies Furthermore, the authors also noticed done by Rydberg et. al. (2003) and Becalski that increasing acrylamide levels will et al. (2003) on french fries also showed still occur on overcooked but still edible similar trends. This strongly exhibited that acrylamide levels in potato based foods a a elevates with increasing frying time. 450 445.5 447.12 445 a 439.85 440 Effect of heating temperature on a 435 431.54 acrylamide level in local tapioca chips 430 In Figure 4, we observed that frying tapioca 425 chips at diferent heating temperatures gave

Acrylamide levels (ug/kg) 420 5 8 13 15 significantly diferrent levels of acrylamide. Heating time (min) Tapioca chips cooked at 120 °C gave acrylamide level of 431.54 ± 2.1mg/kg and Figure 1. Acrylamide levels (µg/kg) vs heating it increased significantly103% at heating time (min). Data expressed as mean SD. Each ± temperature of 210 C (p <0.05). This value is a mean of triplicate readings (n = 3). ° Means with the same lower case letters are not finding was supported by a study done by significantly different (p <0.05) Raquel et al. (2011) and Pedreschi and Zuniga (2009), which showed that intense frying conditions (time and temperature) 1.20 lead to darker fries and higher acrylamide 1.00 conditions. A positive linear correlation 0.80 (R2 = 0.8712) was found between heating 0.60 6.609 Acrylamide temperature and acrylamide content in

0.40 5.800 4.791 local tapioca chips (Figure 5). Acrylamide 3.558 3.384 6.357

0.20 3.972 7.384 7.644 Methacrylamide – 13.071 – Methacrylamide content increased substantially as the heating 0.00 temperature elevated from 120 °C to 150 °C

2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00 22.00 24.00 and 180 °C and less increament was found Figure 2. LC/UV chromatogram of acrylamide in at temperatures between 180 °C and 210 °C. tapioca chips Another study conducted by Pedreschi et al. (2006) reported similar findings i.e. acrylamide concentration 450 significantly increased with increasing frying R2 = 0.94202 temperatures between 150 °C to 190 °C. 445 Haiqin et al. (2011) also reported that 440 acrylamide formation and methylglyoxal ( µ g/kg) 435 content were highly correlated at the

Acrylamide levels early stages of the Maillard reaction. This 430 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 hypothetically suggests that increasing Heating time (min) acrylamide levels start to happen when different food components reacted together Figure 3. Correlation between heating time (min) for instance carbohydrates, proteins and and acrylamide levels (µg/kg) in tapioca chips

121 Acrylamide levels in local tapioca chips

a a William (2005) reported that influence of 950 882.85 900 873.42 cooking temperature and time were found to 850 be highly significant (p <0.001), reflecting 800 that the extent of acrylamide formation in 750 700 heated foods is highly dependent on the

(µg/kg) 650 severity and duration of heat exposed to b 600 the food. Moreover, a study using potato Acrylamide levels 550 c 508.54 500 as a model, showed that acrylamide levels 450 431.54 decreased initially at about 120 °C. This 400 120 150 180 210 suggested that reduction of acrylamide levels produced at higher temperatures Heating temperature (°C) is due to the lack of sugar availability. Figure 4. Acrylamide levels vs heating According to Pedreschi and Zuniga (2009), temperature. Data expressed as mean ± SD. Each value is a mean of triplicate readings (n = 3). when temperatures were raised even further, Means with different lower case letters are an increase in acrylamide destruction is significantly different (p <0.05) apparent. Elevated cooking temperatures showed promising evidence in reduction of acrylamide, however, it resulted in poor sensory attributes including the colour, 1000 900 taste and texture of the chips. This finding 800 700 was supported by Romani et al. (2009) 600 500 in which the authors observed that frying 400 2 300 R = 0.87122 at low temperatures (under 160 °C) may 200 reduce the concentration of acrylamide 100 Acrylamide levels (µg/kg) 0 but will negatively affect the organoleptic 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 attributes of the food product including Figure 5. CorrelationHeating between temperature heating (°C) texture and colour. Thus, compromising the temperature (°C) and acrylamide levels (µg/kg) balance between reduction of acrylamide during heat processing and the maintenance amino acids, lipids and possibly other of good product, flavour, texture, colour minor food components. The reaction was and general sensory attributes needs to be then promoted by heating and increased considered (Pedreschi et al. 2006; Zhang exponentially with time of heating. and Zhang 2007). The fact that acrylamide is volatile, reactive and could partially be lost after formation Effect of cooking methods on acrylamide adds another level of complexity to the levels in local tapioca chips matter stated above (FAO/WHO 2002). Table 1 illustrates the levels of acrylamide In contrast, another temperature- in tapioca chips produced by different dependent study found that acrylamide cooking methods. Apparently, cooking of formation increased with temperatures tapioca chips using the deep frying method from 120 °C to 170 °C but decreased gave the highest reading of acrylamide afterwards (Zhang and Zhang 2007). level (209.1 ± 2.3 mg/kg). In comparison, Similar temperature dependence was acrylamide was not detected in potato chips observed by Tereke et al. (2002) in cooked in the microwave. Although the laboratory heated foods. Moderate amounts level of acrylamide seems to be lower in the (5 – 50 µg/kg) were detected in heated deep frying method, this cooking method protein-rich foods and higher levels also produced undesirable chips in terms (150 – 4,000 µg/kg) were detected in of colour, texture and taste. Nevertheless, carbohydrate-rich foods such as potatoes. we still manged to detect the presence

122 M.B. Noor Fadilah, A. Mohd Suhaimi and A. Nur Arma Ariza

Table 1. Acrylamide levels produced by different during frying. We anticipate that higher types of cooking levels of vacuum fryers may promote lower acrylamide formation since water content in Method of cooking Acrylamide levels (mg/kg) Vacuum fryer 120.3 ± 2.1 mg/kgb potatoes evaporates at lower temperatures. Deep frying 209.1 ± 2.3 mg/kga In addition, vacuum fryers only require Pan frying 142.0 ± 3.4 mg/kgb minimal use of cooking oil to fry food Microwave nd* compared to other cooking methods, while still producing food with the same or better *nd: not detected. Data expressed as mean ± SD. Each value is a mean of triplicate quality in terms of taste, texture and colour. readings (n = 3). Means with different lower case letters are significantly different (p <0.05) Conclusion Our study clearly indicates that temperature of acrylamide in each cooking method. and time of frying process are positively Pan frying gave 47% lower acrylamide level correlated with acrylamide levels in local (142 ± 3.4 mg/kg) than deep frying. Frying tapioca chips. In addition, the difference the chips using deep frying and intense between acrylamide levels formed at frying conditions (time and temperature) 180 °C and 210 °C was smaller compared results in darker chips and with higher to 120 °C to 180 °C (with 90% difference). acrylamide content. This finding was This supports the notion that acrylamide supported by Pedreschi et al. (2006). formation largely happens during the early Other factors such as the product/oil stages of frying. Even though cooking ratio may also influence the formation of temperature and cooking time were found to this compound. Greater use of oil in deep affect the formation of acrylamide, taking an frying may cause drop in initial frying approach to minimise acrylamide formation temperature and therefore longer frying via reducing these parameters would be periods would be needed resulting in higher of limited use to the food industry in acrylamide content (Medeiros et al. 2011). Malaysia as it would negatively impact the Hence, taking into account the acceptable product quality. In this study, we also found traits that are desired, we found that the that vacuum frying reduced acrylamide the least acrylamide level was produced by formation significantly in tapioca chips cooking using a vacuum fryer. The product compared to traditional frying (atmospheric from vacuum frying was found to have good conditions). Thus, we strongly recommend physical appearance in terms of colour, vacuum frying as an option to produce texture and taste. This was exemplified in tapioca chips with both low acrylamide the work undertaken by Granda et. al (2004) content and good sensory attributes. in which showed that alternative deep fat Due to increasing consumer awareness frying technologies such as vacuum frying about nutrition and health, producing can be considered as a potential approach healthy tapioca snacks with good sensory to reduce acrylamide in foods. In that study, attributes and low acrylamide levels should they concluded that vacuum frying could be prioritised in Malaysia’s snack production reduce acrylamide formation in potato chips industry. Hence, further research to optimise by 94% in comparison to traditional frying. the processing conditions in producing Likewise, Pedreschi and Zuniga (2009), healthy snacks particularly tapioca chips will whilst utilising a vacuum fryer, also found be needed. that water content in potatoes evaporated at temperatures lower than 100 °C. This finding supported the conditioning of Maillard reactions which subsequently led to lower formation of acrylamide

123 Acrylamide levels in local tapioca chips

Acknowledgement Liming, P., Farkas, T., Loo, L., Dixon, A., The author acknowledges the financial Teuscher, J. and Kallury, K. (2007). Rapid support from Sciencefund Grant (Project and reproducible extraction of acrylamide in French fries using a single SPE Sorbent- No: 05-03-08-SF1003/RF 1183SF10) strata-X-C. Phenomenex SPE application note and Malaysia Agricultural Research and Medeiros, R.V., Mestdagh, F. and Muelener, B.D. Development (MARDI) for supporting the (2011). Investigation of factors that influence study. the acrylamide content of heated foodstuffs. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry References 24: 7012 – 7018 Ahn, J.S., Castle, L., Clarke, D.B., Lyold, A.S., Othman, F. and Shamsinar, A.T. (2008). Risk Philo, M.R. and Speek, D.R. (2002). assessment of acrylamide in Malaysian food. Verification of the findings of acrylamide Proceedings of National Food Technology in heated foods. Food Additive and Seminar p. 24, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Contaminants 19(12): 1116 – 1124 Pedreschi, F., Kaack, K. and Granby, K. (2006). Becalski, A., Lau, B.P.Y., Lewis, D. and Seamen, Acrylamide content and colour development S.W. (2003). Acrylamide in foods: in fried potato strips. Food Research Occurrence, sources and modelling. Journal International 39: 40 – 46 of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51(3): Pedreschi, F. and Zuniga, R.N. (2009). Acrylamide 802 – 808 and oil reduction in fried potatoes: A review. Cristina, N., Margarita, A. and Daniel, C. (2016). Global Sciences Books 3: 82 – 91 Food contamination during food process. Raquel M.V., Frederic, M. and Bruno D.M. (2011). Trends in Food Science and Technology 48: Acrylamide formation in fried potato products 63 – 68 - present and future, a critical review on European Food Safety Authority (2003). Workshop mitigation strategies. Food Chemistry 133(4): on acrylamide formation in food. Report of 1138 – 1154 the Workshop, 17 November 2003, Brussels Romani, S., Bacchiocca, M., Rocculi, P. and FAO/WHO (2002). Summary report on consultation Dalla Rosa, M. (2009). Influence of frying on the health implications of acrylamide in conditions on acrylamide content and other food. 25 – 27 June 2002, Geneva quality characteristics of French fries. Journal Farzana, Q.H., Rozhan, A.D. and Sabarudin, of Food Composition and Analysis 22: Z. (2011). Consumer preference and 582 – 588 consumption towards fast food: Evidence Rydberg, P., Eriksson, S., Tereke, E., Karlsson, from Malayia. Business Management P., Ehrenberg, L. and Tornqvist, M. (2003). Quarterly Review 2(1): 14 – 26 Investigations of factors that influence the Gema, A., Vinceno, F. and Francisco, J.M. (2009). acrylamide content of heated foodstuffs. Acrylamide formation in a cookie system as Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry influenced by the oil phenol and degree of 24: 7012 – 7018 oxidation. Food Res Eur. Technology 229: SAS Inc. (2008). Statistical Analysis System 63 – 72 Software [computer program]. Version 9.1.2. Granda, C., Moreira, R.G. and Tichy, S.E. (2004). SAS Institute, North Carolina, USA Reduction of acrylamide formation in potato Tereke, E., Rydberg, P., Karisson, P., Eriksson, chips by low-temperature vacuum frying. S. and Tornqvist, M. (2002). Analysis of Journal of Food Science 64(8): 405 – 411 acrylamide, a carcinogen formed in heated Haiqin,Y., Yutian, M., Chencheng, Z. and Yuan, foodstuffs. Journal of Agricultural and Food Y. (2011). Acrylamide and methylglyoxal Chemistry 50(17): 4998 – 5006 formation in potato chips by microwaving and The Nielsen Company (2004). Snack Attack: What frying heating. International Journal of Food consumers are reaching for around the world. Science and Technology 46: 1921 – 1926 Retrieved on 20 June 2016 from http:// Leong, S.H., Jamal Khair, H., Laila Rabiah, A.S. nielsen.com and Noor Azia, A.R. (2004). Acrylamide Wendie, L., Claeys, K., Vleeschouwer, D. and content in local food in Penang. Food Marc, E.H. (2005). Quantifying the formation Contaminant Series 15 – 17 of carcinogens during food processing: Acrylamide. Trends in Food Science and Technology 16: 181 – 193

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Abstrak Akrilamid merupakan sejenis bahan kimia toksik yang terhasil ketika makanan berkanji diproses atau dimasak. Secara umumnya, akrilamid terhasil ketika makanan diproses pada suhu yang tinggi seperti penggorengan dan pembakaran. Kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengkaji kesan parameter pemprosesan iaitu masa pemprosesan, suhu pemprosesan dan kaedah pemprosesan terhadap aras akrilamid di dalam kerepek ubi dari variati tempatan. Aras akrilamid di dalam kerepek ubi dianalisis menggunakan kaedah SPE/HPLC/UV. Kajian menunjukkan masa dan suhu pemanasan memberi korelasi yang positif terhadap aras akrilamid di dalam kerepek ubi (R2 = 0.942 dan R2 = 0.8712 masing-masing) dengan kandungan akrilamid paling tinggi didapati pada masa penggorengan 15 min (447.12 mg/kg) dan suhu penggorengan 210 °C (882.85 mg/kg). Di samping itu, kajian terhadap kesan kaedah penggorengan terhadap aras akrilamid menunjukkan penggorengan menggunakan vakum memberikan nilai terendah akrilamid dan kualiti produk yang baik berbanding dengan kaedah lain.

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