Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology

This book presents the ¼rst translation into English of the full text of the Kaogong ji. This classic work, described by the great scholar of the history of Chinese science and technology Joseph Needham as “the most important document for the study of ancient Chinese technology”, dates from the ¼fth century BCE and forms part of the Zhouli (the Rites of the Zhou Dynasty), one of the great Confucian classics. The text itself describes the techniques of working and the technologies used by over twenty different kinds of craftsmen and arti¼cers, such as metal workers, chariot makers, weapon makers, music instrument makers, potters, and master-builders. This edition, besides providing the full text in English, also provides a substantial introduction and other supporting explanatory material, over one hundred illustrations of ancient Chinese artefacts, and the original Chinese text itself.

Jun Wenren is a Research Fellow at Zhejiang University, China, and has worked concurrently for over ten years as a senior design, system, and hard- ware engineer in leading technology companies in the USA. Routledge Studies in the Early History of Asia

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Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology Translation and annotation of the Kaogong ji (the Arti¼cers’ Record) Jun Wenren Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology Translation and annotation of the Kaogong ji (the Arti¼cers’ Record)

Jun Wenren

CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS First published 2013 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Jun Wenren The right of Jun Wenren to be identi¼ed as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patent Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identi¼cation and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Wenren, Jun, 1945- [Kao gong ji. English] Ancient Chinese encyclopedia of technology: translation and annotation of the Kaogong ji (the Arti¼cers’ Record) / Jun Wenren. p. cm. – (Routledge studies in the early history of Asia ; 7) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Technology–China–Early works to 1800. 2. Science–China–Early works to 1800. I. Title. T27.C5W3513 2013 603–dc23 2012004042

ISBN: 978-0-415-53143-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-62398-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-10898-7 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong For GiGi and KiKi This page intentionally left blank Contents

List of illustrations ix Preface xvi Background xx

PI ART 1

1 Opening paragraphs 3 2 Wheelwrights (lunren 輪人) 18 3 Chariot-basket makers (yuren 輿人) 24 4 Pole makers (zhouren 輈人) 26 5 Metal workers (gong jin zhi gong 攻金之工) 31 6 Forging founders (zhushi 築氏), smelting founders (yeshi 冶氏), and sword smiths (taoshi 桃氏) 34 7 Bell founders ( fushi 鳧氏) 39 8 Measure makers (lishi b氏), plough makers (duanshi 段氏) (lost) 44 9 Cuirass makers (hanren 函人) 48 10 Skinners (baoren 鮑人) 51 11 Drum makers (yunren 韗人), tanners (weishi 韋氏) (lost), and furriers (qiushi 裘氏) (lost) 53 12 Painters (huaren 畫人), embroiderers (huiren 繢人) 57 13 Feather dyers (zhongshi 鍾氏), silk printers (kuangren 筐人) (lost) 60 14 Silk cleaners (huangshi a氏) 61 viii Contents

PIIART 63

15 Jade makers (yuren 玉人), comb makers ( jieren 楖人) (lost), and carvers (diaoren 雕人) (lost) 65 16 Stone-chime makers (qingshi 磬氏) 75 17 Arrow makers (shiren 矢人) 77 18 Potters (taoren 陶人), proto-porcelain makers ( fangren 瓬人) 81 19 Cabinet makers (ziren 梓人) 85 20 Weapon-handle makers (luren 廬人) 92 21 Master-builders, builders, and carpenters ( jiangren 匠人) 95 22 Cartwrights (cheren 車人) 107 23 Bow makers (gongren 弓人) 110

Appendix 1: Original Chinese text Kaogong ji 考工記 (the Arti¼cers’ Record) 120 Appendix 2: A brief chronology of the dynasties in history of China 127 Appendix 3: The equivalence of Chinese weights and measures in metric units 128 Glossary of Chinese characters 132 Notes 141 Abbreviations and bibliography 189 Index 211 List of illustrations

Figure P.1 An inscription (the Kaogong ji is regarded as an encyclopedia of pre-imperial China) written by Qian Linzhao. xvi Figure B.1 The earliest edition of the Kaogong ji. xx Figure B.2 Zhouli [Rites of Zhou Dynasty] (SBCK edition). xxi Figure B.3 Le Tcheou-Li (a French translation of the Zhouli) translated by Édouard Biot. xxi Figure B.4 A Portrait of Zheng Xuan. xxii Figure B.5 A Portrait of Dai Zhen. xxii Figure 1.1 Inscriptions of baigong (the hundred artisans) and ju (carpenter’s square) on bronzes of the Western Zhou dynasty. 4 Figure 1.2 A late Qing representation of artisans at work managed by the ¼rst director Chui and his assistants. 5 Figure 1.3 A stone relief with scene of people weaving on a treadle-loom at the left, quilling on a quilling-wheel at the center, and throwing of silk thread on a spooling-reel at the right. 6 Figure 1.4 Line drawing of the décor on an inlaid bronze vase hu from the Warring States period. 6 Figure 1.5 Bronze shovel of the Wu state and bronze hoe of the Yue state. 7 Figure 1.6 Rock carving of the bow and carriage in Yin Mountain, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. 7 Figure 1.7 Sketch of the Han stone relief of Shen Nong. 8 Figure 1.8 A drawing of the sweet orange (left) and bitter-fruited orange (right). 8 Figure 1.9 Chinese crested mynah quyu. 9 Figure 1.10 Raccoon dog he. 9 Figure 1.11 Bronze knives. 10 Figure 1.12 Bronze axes of the Spring and Autumn period. 10 x List of illustrations Figure 1.13 Bronze swords of the Wu and Yue states. 11 Figure 1.14 China prior to the end of the Han dynasty. 12 Figure 1.15 A painted pottery plate showing an early dragon design. 12 Figure 1.16 A rubbing of the Han stone relief of Yu the Great holding a two-pronged digging implement. 13 Figure 1.17 A photograph of the ivory ruler of the Shang dynasty. 13 Figure 1.18 Reconstruction model of a Huixian vehicle. 14 Figure 1.19 Reconstruction of the chariot-halberd with the feather and the short lance with the feather. 15 Figure 1.20 Force diagram to show how the radius of a wheel on a slope affects the pulling force. 16 Figure 1.21 Carriage bolster. 16 Figure 1.22 Sketch of the type of horse-drawn chariot of the pre-imperial dynasty. 16 Figure 1.23 A drawing of bronze chariot no. 1, charioteer, and driven horse of the First Emperor mausoleum of the Qin dynasty. 17 Figure 2.1 A wheelwright’s shop of the Han dynasty on a stone relief. 18 Figure 2.2 Reconstruction of the Huixian vehicle no. 16. 19 Figure 2.3 Ancient compass and carpenter’s square. 21 Figure 2.4 Wooden balance and its bronze ring weights of the Warring States period. 22 Figure 2.5 The hub, pole, and ribs of the chariot umbrella. 23 Figure 3.1 Reconstruction of the chariot body and wheels of the vehicle no. 8 unearthed from the tomb of Zhao’s family in the ¼fth century BCE. 24 Figure 3.2 Reconstruction of a plain carriage in the early Warring States period. 25 Figure 4.1 Funerary pole with dragon-shaped head. 26 Figure 4.2 Force diagram to show how the pulling force of a large carriage is affected by the included angle a. 27 Figure 4.3 A parallel between the pole of the early Warring States period and the constellation “Zhu.” 28 Figure 4.4 The astronomical diagram with all the names of 28 xiu on the lacquer clothes-case lid. 29 Figure 4.5 A celestial chart used by astronomical of¼cials in the Eastern Han dynasty. 30 Figure 4.6 Carriage and ½ag scenes on pictorial bronzes. 30 Figure 5.1 Illustration of the massive, four-legged cauldron houmuwu ding. 32 List of illustrations xi Figure 5.2 Bronze mirror of the Warring States period. 32 Figure 5.3 Bronze mirror used to light ¼res of the Spring and Autumn period. 33 Figure 6.1 A bronze pen-knife of the Warring States period. 34 Figure 6.2 Three-prism shaped arrow heads of the Warring States period. 35 Figure 6.3 A reconstruction of spear ge. 35 Figure 6.4 An ancient spear ge made by Yang Zi. 36 Figure 6.5 A halberd with three spears ge and one outer point ci. 37 Figure 6.6 An illustration of halberd ji. 37 Figure 6.7 An illustration of the technical terms of a bronze sword. 38 Figure 6.8 Bronze sword of Zhougou, the King of Yue. 38 Figure 7.1 The Marquis Yi set-bells unearthed in 1978 from the tomb of the Marquis Yi of Zeng. 39 Figure 7.2 An illustration of a bronze bell yongzhong. 40 Figure 7.3 The technical terms of a shank bell yongzhong. 41 Figure 7.4 A diagram to illustrate the relationship of the ¼rst fundamental frequency to the length of xian of bells. 42 Figure 7.5 Holograms of the fundamental vibration modes of the M-3-2 bell of the Marquis Yi set bells excited by striking the main strike point zhenggu and the secondary strike point cegu. 42 Figure 7.6 Casting a ten-thousand-catty ding-tripod and an audience bell in the Tiangong kaiwu. 43 Figure 8.1 Cross-section of the standard measures of capacity. 44 Figure 8.2 Bronze standard measure of capacity of Xin Mang (Xin Mang jialiang). 45 Figure 8.3 Tentative drawing of the standard measure of capacity ( jialiang) of the Kaogong ji. 45 Figure 8.4 A standard measure of capacity (Zuolipo bodou) of the Jiang Qi system. 46 Figure 8.5 Mold for bell. 46 Figure 9.1 Reconstruction of armor of the Warring States period. 48 Figure 9.2 Bronze rhinoceros vessel zun of the late Shang dynasty. 49 Figure 9.3 Graphs and scripts of the wild animal si. 49 Figure 10.1 A drawing of the cogon tu. 51 Figure 11.1 Reconstruction of a hanging drum with the bird-shaped rack and tiger-shaped base. 53 xii List of illustrations Figure 11.2 A scene of rapping the drum and gong. 54 Figure 11.3 The hollow-trunk drum and the unusual clay instrument. 54 Figure 11.4 Illustrations of the drum gaogu. 55 Figure 11.5 A outline drawing of the furry dress of the Southern dynasty Emperor. 56 Figure 12.1 Illustration of the ceremonial clay vessel with incised glyphs. 58 Figure 12.2 Twelve insignia. 58 Figure 12.3 The Imperial robes decorated with various insignia. 59 Figure 13.1 Fabric-dyeing workshops (funeral terra-cotta) of the late Western Han dynasty. 60 Figure 14.1 A drawing of the chinaberry lian. 61 Figure 15.1 An illustration of cutting jade. 65 Figure 15.2 Ritual jade gui. 66 Figure 15.3 The gnomon biao and gnomon shadow template tugui being used to measure the sun’s shadow at noon on the summer solstice. 67 Figure 15.4 A jade vessel zan of the Warring States period. 68 Figure 15.5 A diagram of jade disc bi. 68 Figure 15.6 A Lu jade disc of the Warring States period. 69 Figure 15.7 Combined symbol guibi, used in sacri¼cing to the sun, moon, planets, and constellations of the Han dynasty. 70 Figure 15.8 Ritual jade tube cong engraved with shaman’s animals. 70 Figure 15.9 A diagram of jade tablet zhang. 71 Figure 15.10 Jade tablet zhang with teeth of the Erlitou culture. 72 Figure 15.11 Marble and jade symbols serving in the sacri¼ces to Earth. 72 Figure 15.12 Reconstruction of a lacquered tray of the Chu state. 73 Figure 15.13 Chinese chestnut and Chinese date. 73 Figure 15.14 Bronze ¼gure held a tablet zhang discovered from the pit no. 2 in Sanxingdui. 74 Figure 15.15 Illustration of a jade comb of the Zeng state. 74 Figure 16.1 An individual stone-chime teqing unearthed from a royal tomb of the Shang dynasty in Anyang. 75 Figure 16.2 Reconstruction of the Marquis Yi set of stone-chimes unearthed from the tomb of the Marquis Yi of Zeng. 75 Figure 16.3 An illustration of the color-painting stone-chime. 76 Figure 16.4 An illustration of the technical terms of a stone-chime. 76 List of illustrations xiii Figure 17.1 An illustration of the technical terms of an arrow. 77 Figure 17.2 Diagrams of the arrow-heads. 78 Figure 17.3 Scenes of the fowling arrow with ¼ne silk cord depicted on a Warring States period bronze hu. 78 Figure 17.4 Flight arrow diagram to show how the shaft spine affects the ½ight paths. 79 Figure 18.1 A Shang pottery steamer yan with a corded surface. 81 Figure 18.2 A pottery pen of the Erlitou culture. 81 Figure 18.3 A pottery zeng of the Qin dynasty. 82 Figure 18.4 A pottery li of the Chu state. 82 Figure 18.5 A proto-porcelain gui of the Western Zhou dynasty. 83 Figure 18.6 A proto-porcelain dou of the Western Zhou dynasty. 83 Figure 18.7 Rubbing tile depicting a Han period market scene collected from Xinfan in Sichuan province. 84 Figure 18.8 Shaping (lower) and polishing (upper) clayware with potter’s wheel. 84 Figure 19.1 The bronze human-shaped caryatid for supporting the bell set. 85 Figure 19.2 The two winged monster for supporting a set of stone-chimes. 86 Figure 19.3 Illustrations of lacquered wooden vessel shao. 87 Figure 19.4 A diagram of the vessel jue. 87 Figure 19.5 The “xiaochendan” zhi of the Western Zhou dynasty. 88 Figure 19.6 Bronze vessel Huang gu of the late Shang dynasty. 88 Figure 19.7 A lacquered wooden dou unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng. 89 Figure 19.8 An inlaid bronze dou of the Jin state. 89 Figure 19.9 Illustrations of the targets from designs decorating the bronze vessels in the Eastern Zhou dynasty. 90 Figure 19.10 A diagram of the target design. 91 Figure 19.11 Depiction of archery of the Warring States period. 91 Figure 20.1 Weapon handles of the Chu state. 92 Figure 20.2 Bronze lance and the sticks of combat shu. 93 Figure 21.1 An illustration of observing the directions by means of the sun shadow of a gnomon. 95 Figure 21.2 Draco, with Ursa Minor, as depicted in Urania’s Mirror, a set of constellation cards published in London c. 1825. 96 Figure 21.3 Idealized plan of the “state capital” as described in the Kaogong ji. 97 xiv List of illustrations Figure 21.4 Ground-plan of Chang’an of the Western Han dynasty. 98 Figure 21.5 Reconstructed ½oor plan of the Xia temple in Erlitou, Yanshi, Henan province. 98 Figure 21.6 A tentative plan of the late Xia palace with double-eave roof. 99 Figure 21.7 Reconstruction of the ming hall on the remnant design of a round lacquer ware. 99 Figure 21.8 Lacquered stool of Chu. 100 Figure 21.9 Palace plan described in the Kaogong ji. 100 Figure 21.10 Bronze si of Shang or Zhou. 101 Figure 21.11 Tentative reconstruction of siou. 102 Figure 21.12 An illustration of irrigation arrangement in the well-¼eld system. 102 Figure 21.13 Cross section diagram of a weir for running the unmoving water. 103 Figure 21.14 Cross section diagram of a water-drop on the inclined channel. 104 Figure 21.15 Tamped earth walling under construction. 104 Figure 21.16 Removable elongated box without top or bottom for tamping. 105 Figure 21.17 Semi-cylindrical tile with tile-nail of the Eastern Zhou period. 105 Figure 21.18 Design diagram of the roof frame. 105 Figure 21.19 A scene of tile-roofed house. 106 Figure 21.20 An illustration of funerary pottery granary. 106 Figure 22.1 A diagram of the ¼ve practical measures of angle. 107 Figure 22.2 Reconstruction of the digging implement lei. 108 Figure 22.3 Wooden model of an ox-drawn carriage of the Han dynasty. 108 Figure 22.4 Ram-drawn carriage in a stone relief of the Han dynasty. 109 Figure 23.1 An illustration of the technical terms of an ancient bow. 110 Figure 23.2 A tentative sketch of how a bow may have appeared strung and unstrung. 111 Figure 23.3 A drawing of the silkworm thorn zhe. 111 Figure 23.4 A drawing of the evergreen tree with slender leaf of a particular species yi. 112 Figure 23.5 A drawing of the wild mulberry yansang. 112 Figure 23.6 A drawing of the Chinese quince mugua. 113 Figure 23.7 Curve diagram to illustrate how the initial speed and directivity of the arrow is affected by the bow-height. 113 List of illustrations xv Figure 23.8 A nineteenth century painting showing a bow maker improving a bow. 115 Figure 23.9 Straightening the shaft of an arrow (top) and determining the pull of a bow with a steelyard (bottom). 117 Figure 23.10 Rubbing tile depicting a Han-period scene shooting at ½ying birds. 118 Figure 23.11 A lacquered leather shield of the Warring States period. 119 Preface

The twenty-¼rst century is what many have called The Paci¼c Century. A deeper understanding of China and its history of civilization is necessary not only for specialists, but also for all who will be impacted by the rapid changes occurring in China. A huge challenge in a rapidly evolving world is what China faces today in relation to what it experienced 2,500 years ago. All the factors that have established China’s greatness from the past into the present

Figure P.1 An inscription (the Kaogong ji is regarded as an encyclopedia of pre- imperial China) written by Qian Linzhao who headed the Association of History of Science and Technology in China from 1980 to 1984. From Jun Wenren (1996, front page). Preface xvii will continue to make China a dominant player in the developing Paci¼c world in the future. It is necessary to provide a full English translation of the greatest ancient Chinese treatise on science and technology for general English readers con- cerned with the broad scope of China’s history. Because the Kaogong ji (the Arti¼cers’ Record), dating from the ¼fth century BCE, is such a remarkable work, it has even come to the attention of the United Nations. In 1982, the United Nations Educational, Scienti¼c and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) requested that scholars in China prepare a modern Chinese translation of the text. Not only did UNESCO agree to provide funding for the project, but it also proposed to publish the modern Chinese version and to translate it into ¼ve languages of¼cially used at the United Nations.1 Unfortunately, such a grand idea has never come to fruition until this current volume. A few modern Chinese translations of the Kaogong ji had been published in the 1970s and the 1980s. Lin Yin’s 林尹 Zhouli jinzhu jinyi 周禮今註今譯 [Modern Translation and Annotation of Rites of the Zhou Dynasty] (1972), which is based on traditional exegesis, contains the ¼rst modern Chinese translation. This was followed in 1988 by my own Kaogong ji daodu 考工記導讀 [An Interpretative and Annotated Reading Guide to the Kaogong ji (Arti¼cers’ Record)], which includes updates on contemporary research in the history of science and technology and more recent archaeological discoveries.2 Other translations in modern Chinese appeared afterwards. This book is the ¼rst complete English translation of the Kaogong ji with annotations as well as background information to satisfy the demands of modern readers. The work covers virtually all the major crafts, and its annotations offer explanations of the related scienti¼c and historical background. The text, along with various illustrations, projects an inclusive and vivid picture of the ancient Chinese life. Based on two books, Kaogong ji daodu 考工記導讀 (1988) and Kaogong ji yizhu 考工記譯注 [Translation and Annotation of the Kaogong ji (Arti¼cers’ Record)] (2008), and several of my research papers on the Kaogong ji, with reference to the publications of other scholars in the related ¼elds, this new book is a result of further investigations. By collating the text carefully, I have tried to build the textual basis of my translation on the most reliable and most recent scholarly efforts on the Chinese original version. I have prepared my English translation with regard to:

(1) The basic text: Zhouli 周禮 [Rites of the Zhou Dynasty], SBCK edition. (2) Zhouli zhushu 周禮註疏 [Commentaries and Subcommentaries on Rites of the Zhou Dynasty], (1816) 1999, edited by Li Xueqin 李學勤. (3) Kaogong ji tu 考工記圖 [Illustrated Discussion of the “Arti¼cers’ Record”], (1756) 1955, compiled by Dai Zhen 戴震. (4) Kaogong chuangwu xiaoji 考工創物小記 [Brief Notes on the Speci¼cations in the “Arti¼cers’ Record”], (1803) 2008, compiled by Cheng Yaotian 程瑤田. xviii Preface (5) Zhouli zhengyi 周禮正義 [The Rites of the Zhou Dynasty, with Corrected Meanings], (1899) 1934, compiled by Sun Yirang 孫詒讓. (6) Le Tcheou-Li ou Rites des Tcheou (in the French edition), 1851, translated by Édouard Biot. (7) The Ceremonial Usages of the Chinese, B.C. 1121, as Prescribed in the “Institutes of the Chow Dynasty Strung as Pearls,” 1852, translated by William Raymond Gingell.3 (8) “The Wheelwright’s Art in Ancient China; I, The Invention of ‘Dishing’,” in Physis, 1959, compiled by Lu Gwei-Djen and others. (9) Science and Civilisation in China, 1959–94, compiled by Joseph Needham and others.4 (10) The Chinese Classics, 1893, translated by James Legge; Jade: A Study in Chinese Archaeology & Religion, 1912, compiled by Berthold Laufer; and the like are used as the annotated reference books.

Some comments should be given on the conventions used in this work.

A. The extant classic text of the Kaogong ji, which contains about 7,100 characters, is divided into two parts. I divide them into 23 sections in this work. All the titles for the sections, and numbering are recreated here in this work. B. Annotations for the English translation are provided in endnotes, which are at the back of the work, and the original Chinese text is provided in Appendix 1. C. Chinese technical terms are usually given in English translation. English terms are followed by their romanized forms with original Chinese characters in endnotes when necessary. Spellings of Chinese names, places, and proper technical terms follow the Hanyu Pinyin system, with the usual exceptions for those whose names follow other systems have been used by themselves and for spellings widely known prior to the 1980s: Yangtze River, Peking, and so forth. In some quotations, I switched to the Pinyin system from other systems such as Legge’s transliterations and the Wade-Giles system. D. The system of weights and measures was quite complex before the First Emperor of Qin standardized it. For the linear measure, one Chinese foot (chi 尺) ranged from about 19.7 cm to 23.1 cm in different states in the late Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. It has been common to translate the Chinese foot (chi 尺) to a foot and the Chinese inch (cun 寸) to an inch. Some scholars in the nineteenth century translated the Chinese foot into either a covid (Gingell 1852, 21) or a cubit (Morrison 1822, Part I, vol. II, 15; Legge [1893] 1971, 210). Recently, more and more scholars accept the romanized form chi 尺 for the Chinese foot (Cullen 1996, 224). Kaogong ji reads, “An average person is eight chi 尺 high.” Therefore, I prefer to use the romanized form chi 尺 for the Chinese foot. Furthermore, I chose the romanized form cun 寸 rather Preface xix than the inch for the Chinese inch. One cun, or a tenth of chi, is about 1.97 cm to 2.31 cm in the Warring States period. E. The extant text refers to the basic edition and other old editions that have been passed down to us. The original text refers to the basic edition without the collation. The initial, original text refers to the text before the Qin dynasty. It has long since been lost. F. In the English translation, parentheses ( ) denote words added to clarify the text, and brackets [ ] indicate collated results in the original text. In the original Chinese text, the characters with smaller font indicate collated results.

I am deeply indebted to many scholars for their relevant works, which have contributed to this book in numerous ways. I wish to express my deep memory to Professor Wang Jinguang 王錦光 (1920–2008) of Zhejiang Uni- versity, my supervisor, who introduced me into the ¼eld of the history of science and technology, including the study of the Kaogong ji;5 to Professor Qian Linzhao 錢臨照 (1906–1999) of University of Science and Technology of China, who not only wrote two ½yleaf inscriptions for the second and third editions of my Kaogong ji daodu, but gave me instruction and encouragement; and to Senior Editor Hu Daojing 胡道静 (1913–2003) of Shanghai Classics Publishing House, who recommended me as the author of the Kaogong ji daodu and invited me to write the Kaogong ji yizhu. I would like to thank a number of institutions, scholars, and friends for their kind assistance. The East Asia Library and the Art and Architecture Library at Stanford University, the East Asian Library at University of California, Berkeley, the East Asian History of Science Library at Needham Research Institute, the Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Library at San Jose State Univer- sity, and others have provided a wealth of materials for reference. The Institute of Archaeology CASS, the Hubei Provincial Museum, Shandong Provincial Museum, Wuwei City Museum, and others have provided their generous support and photographs. Mr. Richard Willems in Fresno, CA, read a draft of the English translation and gave me helpful suggestions at the beginning. I am most grateful to him for giving his time to this task. I wish to express my special appreciation to Professor James M. Hargett of University at Albany, State University of New York, who not only has given me encouragement and helpful suggestions, but has also been good enough to read the present work in manuscript form. To my wife Wang Yazeng and my daughter Yueyue goes my sincere gratitude for their continued support. Finally, I am cognizant of the fact that, in spite of my assiduous efforts, my translation may contain mistakes and omissions, wherefore any suggestions for emendations or elucidations from the reader will be most welcome. Background

Figure B.1 The earliest edition of the Kaogong ji. From Tang Kaicheng shibi shier jing 唐開成石壁十二經 [Twelve Classics Engraved in the Kaicheng Reign (836–840)], engraved in 837, printed in 1926. From Jun Wenren (1988, plate 10, Fig. 1).

The Kaogong ji 考工記 (Arti¼cers’ Record) is a landmark in the history of technology in ancient China. In his Science and Civilisation in China, Joseph Needham points out that “The most important document for the study of ancient Chinese technology is the Kaogong ji (Arti¼cers’ Record)” (Needham et al. 1965, vol. 4, part. 2, 11).1 Background xxi

Figure B.2 Zhouli 周禮 [Rites of Zhou Dynasty] (SBCK edition). From Jun Wenren (1993, Fig. 4). LE TCHEOU-LI

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Figure B.3 Le Tcheou-Li (a French translation of the Zhouli) translated by Édouard Biot. From Biot ( [1851] 1939). xxii Background

Figure B.4 A Portrait of Zheng Xuan 鄭玄, a well-known Han dynasty scholar and commentator on the Chinese classics including the Kaogong ji. The painting is preserved in the Cultural Building of Gaomi 高密, Shandong province. From Jun Wenren (1993, Fig. 5).

Figure B.5 A Portrait of Dai Zhen 戴震, a notable, versatile Qing dynasty scholar whose study of the Kaogong ji continues to be in½uential. From Jun Wenren (1988, Plate 11, Fig. 1). Background xxiii Origin and date In about 1046 BCE, Anyang 安陽, the capital of the Shang kingdom, fell to Zhou, a vassal state on the western frontier. In 771 BCE, the last king of the Western Zhou dynasty was killed in a rebellion. The crown prince, who was later enthroned as King Ping (Pingwang 平王), moved the capital of Zhou from Gaojing 鎬京 eastwards to Luoyi 洛邑. From then on, the Zhou dynasty became known as the Eastern Zhou. The era of Eastern Zhou is usually divided into the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE) and the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). During the ¼fth century BCE, i.e. from the end of the Spring and Autumn period to the beginning of the Warring States period, Chinese history witnessed a series of monumental changes. Politically, it saw the decline of the Zhou dynasty, individual states’ struggle for supremacy, and the rise of the seven powerful warring states. No less great were the cultural changes: cultures of various nationalities and different areas were interwoven and integrated. Time came when “a hundred schools contended.” Many schools of thought propagated their own beliefs and created an atmosphere that encouraged innovation and diversity. The extent of the in½uence exerted by these new thoughts and practices on Chinese culture is matched probably only by that of the introduction of modern Western civilization into China in the last 150 years. As the most in½uential and most widely read ancient arti¼cers’ record, the Kaogong ji stemmed from an of¼cial compilation of a powerful state of Qi in the ¼fth century BCE. It is believed that the Kaogong ji was once lost, but it was fortunately rediscovered later in the Han Dynasty. However, evidence inherent in the rediscovered version indicates that the new text did suffer certain loss of the original material.2 A Han scholar, perhaps Liu De 劉德, Prince Xian 獻 of Hojian 河間 (reigned 155–129 BCE), in the second century BCE incorporated the Kaogong ji into the Zhouli 周禮3 [the Rites of Zhou Dynasty] as the Zhouli’s ¼nal chapter, because the ultimate chapter of that work, Winter Ministry Dongguan 冬官, had been lost earlier. Thus, the style of the Kaogong ji varies slightly from that in the preceding ¼ve chapters (of the Zhouli). However, this has not affected the value of the Kaogong ji which, as part of the Zhouli, has remained in the Confucian canon for about two millennia. As to the date when the Kaogong ji was compiled, opinions have differed. It is thought, by Jiang Yong 江永 (1681–1762) in his Zhouli yiyi juyao 周禮疑義舉要 [Discussion of the Most Important Doubtful Matters in the Rites of the Zhou Dynasty], to be a work of the late Eastern Zhou dynasty, compiled by a person from the Qi state. He based the conclusion on the place and state names of the Eastern Zhou period and the Qi dialect expressions that he found in the text. In his Kaogong ji de niandai yu guobie 考工記的年代與國別 [An Investigation of the Date and State of the Kaogong ji], Guo Moruo 郭沫若 ( [1947] 1962, 385) indicates that the Kaogong ji was an of¼cial compilation of Qi in the late Spring and Autumn period. His xxiv Background conclusion is based on its mention of products or crafts of practically all the major states except Qi, its mention of six dialect expressions of Qi, and the identi¼cation of some terms of its weights and measures with those used in Qi. Yang Lien-sheng (1963, 103) says that its date has not been determined. He thinks that Guo’s date for the Kaogong ji—the Spring and Autumn period—is too early. Afterwards Chen Zhi 陳直 (1963) and Wang Qiming 汪啟明 (1992) found additional dialects of Qi in the Kaogong ji. Most scholars agree that the Kaogong ji was originally compiled in the Qi state. On closer investigation into the text in the Kaogong ji and on the recent archaeological evidence, a recent study has revealed that the Kaogong ji is in line with many archaeological discoveries of the ¼fth century BCE. Toward the later half of the Warring States period, although iron tools and the crossbow were already in use, the Kaogong ji does not mention them at all. I believe that it could not be a work later than the ¼fth century BCE, and its main body was most likely recorded at the early Warring States period in Qi.4 The original title of the text is also unclear. The division of the Scrutiny of Crafts under the bureau of manufactures (Shaofu 少府) in the Han dynasty was called “Kaogongshi 考工室” or “Kaogong 考工.” According to this tradition, the title of the Kaogong ji chapter of Zhouli was probably adopted in the Han dynasty and linked with the name of Kaogongshi.5

Content and value The Kaogong ji includes a wealth of valuable information, including a complete system of major artisans of various crafts attached to the royal court. It gives an enumeration and description of the technical details of their crafts, including the making of carriages, weapons (especially bows), vessels (especially standard measures), music instruments (especially bells, stone-chimes, and drums), the city plan and building code of the state capital, irrigation, art design, jade symbolism, business management, etc.. In each case the text describes in considerable detail the parts of the item in question. It gives the names and sizes of different types and speci¼es the artisan or craftsman responsible for each part or stage of the construction. It also involves the natural and applied sciences, such as the physics of motion, hydromechanics, acoustics, metallurgy, astronomy, mathematics, ecology, biological classi¼- cation, and sport psychology, as well as art design. The Kaogong ji provides abundant details with regard to science, technology, and manufacturing. Not only did the author of the Kaogong ji understand technical matters, but also paid great attention to his writing style. According to the Song scholar Chen Kui 陳騤 ( [1170] 1937, 20), the words of the Kaogong ji have three virtues: “The ¼rst one is that its words are solid and re¼ned (xiongjian er ya 雄健而雅); the second, authoritative and accurate (wanqu er jun 宛曲而峻); and the third, balanced and superb (zhengqi er chun 整齊而醇).” Thus, although the Kaogong ji is part of the Confucian canon, which challenged all students in ancient China, that is not to say the text has no appeal. It has served as Background xxv model for scholars and its in½uence has been widespread. The most famous example is the stone inscription of Qin, written by Prime Minister Li Si 李斯 (?–208 BCE), at Langxie tai 琅琊臺.6 Moreover, it preserves valuable cultural and social information. Even some sayings of Confucius, Laozi 老子, Mencius, Yanzi 晏子, Guanzi 管子, Zhuangzi 莊子, Xunzi 荀子 and the military theoreticians can also be veri¼ed in the Kaogong ji. Furthermore, in many places, the Kaogong ji links with the Zhoubi suanjing 周髀算經 [A Mathematical Classic of Zhou Gnomon], the ¼rst astronomical and mathematical work in ancient China. In the era when “a hundred schools contended,”7 another signi¼cant scienti¼c work, the Mojing 墨經 [the Mohist Canon], was composed by Mozi 墨子 (the ¼fth century BCE) and some later Mohists. Both the Kaogong ji and Mojing are brilliant works. Unfortunately, the scienti¼c tradition repre- sented by the Mojing was not absorbed into the mainstream of Chinese intellectual culture. Mohist logic seems to have been lost even before modern science came into China. Because the Kaogong ji was in line with the mainstream culture, in contrast with the Mojing, it was to have a profound in½uence on Chinese imperial society for more than 2,000 years. Of¼cial builders, for example, used it as a key reference, or builders’ code. The Song dynaty architect Li Jie 李誡 (or originally Li Cheng 李誠, ?–1110) expressed high respect for the Kaogong ji in his Yingzao fashi 營造法式 [Treatise on Architectural Methods] ( [1097] 1933). An early seventeenth century Chinese scholar identi¼ed the Kaogong ji as the origin of Chinese traditional craft and technologies.8 The modern Chinese scholar Qian Linzhao 錢臨照 says that the Kaogong ji was regarded as an encyclopedia of pre-imperial China.9 As one of the most venerable relics of the arti¼cers’ art in world literature, the in½uence of the book is evident in the past and the present, and will continue to exert this in½uence for centuries to come.

Editions and translations The earliest edition of the Zhouli is one among the Tang Kaicheng shibi shier jing 唐開成石壁十二經 [Twelve Classics Engraved in the Kaicheng Reign (836–840)], which was engraved in 837, and now preserved in the Beilin 碑林 (the Stone Forest), Xi’an 西安, Shaanxi 陝西 province. Its printed edition can be used for the collation rather than the basic edition. See Figure B.1. The Zhouli, including the Kaogong ji, ¼rst appeared in print as one of the Jiujing 九經 [the Nine Classics] for which Feng Dao 馮道 ordered wood blocks to be cut in 932. The project was ¼nished in 953. It has been lost in its entirety. One of the best-collated private editions of the Zhouli is the one that Yue Ke 岳珂 (1183–1240) included as part of the Jiujing 九經 [the Nine Classics], in what is known as the Xiangtai 相臺 print. The SBCK edition of the Zhouli is the photo-copied text based on the Ming copy of the Xiangtai print. See Figure B.2. I select the SBCK edition as the basic edition of the present work. xxvi Background Ruan Yuan’s 阮元 edition is known under the Shisan jing zhushu fu jiaokan ji 十三經註疏附校勘記 [The Thirteen Classics and the Commentaries and Subcommentaries with the Collation Notes Attached] (1815), which is, based on the Song Shihang ben 十行本, collated comprehensively with other editions. This is a well-known edition. Its Zhouli zhushu 周禮註疏, however, is not informative, according to the preface of Ruan Yuan himself. Therefore, Ruan Yuan’s edition should be used with the collation notes in Sun Yirang’s Shisan jing zhushu jiaokan ji 十三經註疏校勘記 [Collation Notes for the Thirteen Classics and the Commentaries and Subcommentaries]. The recent edition of Shisan jing zhushu: Zhouli zhushu 十三經註疏•周禮註疏, edited by Li Xueqin et al., was published in 1999. In Japan, Sheei published ShErai tsEshaku 周禮通釋 [An Interpretation of the Zhouli] of Honda Jird 本田二郎, which sets out the Chinese text with Kambun notation, a Japanese translation, and notes, in 1977–79. There is only one complete translation of the Zhouli, or the Kaogong ji, in a Western language: Le Tcheou-Li ou Rites des Tcheou, I-II, translated and annotated by Édouard Biot (1803–1850).10 This French translation was published in Paris by Imprimerie Nationale in 1851, with vol. 1-3 photo- graphically reproduced in Beiping 北平 by Wendiange 文典閣 in 1939 and reprinted in Taipei 臺北 by Ch’eng wen 成文 Publishing Company in 1969. Although widely quoted in academic circles, Biot’s translation, which obviously does not include the latest research results, is not considered fully faithful to the original Chinese text. In English, there is at present only partial translation of or excerpts from the Kaogong ji in the SCC, Gingell (1852), and other works.

Major commentaries and studies It is well known that the Kaogong ji is dif¼cult to understand because of its laconic style and use of many archaic words and early technical terms. A conventional practice used by the writer is to omit some parts of the sentence, which, while making the writing elegantly terse, inevitably increases its dif¼culty for modern readers. Although the content of the Kaogong ji is limited in scope, studies on the text by later generation scholars are surprisingly voluminous. Since the Han dynasty, many commentators have studied the Kaogong ji of Zhouli. Du Zichun 杜子春 of the Eastern Han was the ¼rst scholar whose name and commentary on the Zhouli remains in the written record. Zheng Xing 鄭興 (½. 30 CE), his son Zheng Zhong 鄭眾 (d. 83 CE), Jia Kui 賈逵 (30–101 CE), and Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 (127–200)11 are all known to have added notes to the work. Only Zheng Xuan’s commentary has survived to today, and notes by others were either lost or survive only in fragments in other texts. Zheng Xuan’s is the earliest complete commentary among the extant commentaries on the Kaogong ji or Zhouli. It includes some of the notes of the several early Han commentators. Another important commentary is the Background xxvii extended commentary shu 疏 compiled by Jia Gongyan 賈公彥 (the eighth century). These two, along with the Zhouli yinyi 周禮音義 of the Jingdian shiwen 經典釋文 [Explanation on the Zhouli text] compiled by Lu Deming 陸德明 (the sixth century), have proven to be extrememly useful to later generations. From the Tang to Song dynasty, commentaries on the Kaogong ji were compiled by Du Mu 杜牧 (the nineth century) of Tang and Chen Xiangdao 陳祥道 (the eleventh century), Lin Xiyi 林希逸 (the thirteenth century), and Zhao Pu 趙溥 (the thirteenth century) of Song. Most have been lost. From Song to Ming times, the principal extant commentaries are two works under the same title, the Kaogong ji jie 考工記解 [Analysis of the “Arti¼cers’ Record”], compiled separately by Lin Xiyi and Ming statesman Xu Guangqi 徐光啟 (1562–1633). These works re½ected the trend that study of the Kaogong ji was becoming independent of the Zhouli. Of the critical Qing scholarship on the Kaogong ji, ¼ve scholars of the school of Qian-Jia 乾嘉 reigns (1736–1820) should be mentioned. Jiang Yong took an unusual interest in the text of the Zhouli, and as a consequence wrote the Zhouli yiyi juyao, in which rich, inspirational opinions about the Kaogong ji were included, in addition to his distinctive comments about the author of the Kaogong ji. Though no original diagram for the Kaogong ji had come down to us, Dai Zhen 戴震,12 Jiang Yong’s outstanding disciple, produced a brilliant, critical analysis of technology and ¼fty-nine diagrams in his Kaogong ji tu 考工記圖 [Illustrated Discussion of the “Arti¼cers’ Record”] (1755). His achievement was followed by Cheng Yaotian 程瑤田 (1725–1814), another disciple of Jiang Yong, in his Kaogong chuangwu xiaoji 考工創物小記 [Brief Notes on the Speci¼cations in the “Arti¼cers’ Record”] (1803), a useful archaeological study of the Kaogong ji. Regarding the sinology of Qian-Jia reigns, Ruan Yuan (1764–1849), should be noted because of his informative collation notes in the Shisan jing zhushu fu jiaokan ji 十三經註疏附校勘記 (1816) and studies on the procedures of the wheelwrights and cartwrights. Among scholars of the late Qing dynasty, Sun Yirang 孫詒讓 (1848–1908), who compiled a collection of commentaries into the Zhouli zhengyi 周禮正義 in 86 chapters (1899), was the most proli¼c. The collective labors of all these scholars still have reference value today. While the ancient, traditional study of the Kaogong ji was mostly historical, in the twentieth century the study of the Kaogong ji entered something of a golden age with two exciting features. On one hand, the Chinese tradition of evidential research now has strong support from a series of archaeological discoveries. On the other hand, researchers use various methods in modern science and technology to analyze and interpret ancient records. For example, the researchers do chemical analysis on various samples to interpret the classical passage “six bronze-alloy proportions” jin you liuji 金有六齊. Of the important discoveries, which are closely related to the studies of the Kaogong ji, two examples should be noted in particular. xxviii Background The ¼rst is the excavations of the royal tombs at Huixian 輝縣, in Henan 河南 province in 1951. Xia Nai 夏鼐, Guo Baojun 郭寶鈞, and others excavated an entire park with nineteen vehicles from the Warring States period. Although the wooden parts had rotted away, by means of modern technology, they dissected the vehicles and reconstructed them successfully. More and more ancient chariots have since been reconstructed. Studies on the work of the wheelwrights and cartwrights has entered a new stage. As a result, along with the reconstruction of No. 16 among the Huixian vehicles, the invention of the dish-shaped wheel has been veri¼ed. The excavation of the tomb of the Marquis Yi 乙 of Zeng 曾, at Leigudun 擂鼓墩 in Suixian 隨縣, Hubei 湖北 province in 1978, is another example. The grave, excavated by Tan Weisi 譚維四 and others, was dated to 433 BCE or slightly later, close to the date of the Kaogong ji. Among its hundred and 14 bronze vessels, an amazing set of 64 bronze bells with the complete engraved inscription about the musical scales used at the time. This is the largest set of bells ever discovered. Interdisciplinary studies on the set of bronze bells and other cultural relics have yielded excellent results. The archaeological discoveries of the tomb of the Marquis Yi not only yielded weighty evidence for achievements at the zenith of the Bronze Age, but also provided direct evidence for studies of the Kaogong ji. For instance, among them are the bronze ¼gures for supporting the set of bells, the names of 28 xiu 宿 painted on a lacquer clothes-case lid, and manufacturing of hide-armors. Many articles related to the studies of the Kaogong ji have been published in the past few decades in China.13 Since 2000, more than a dozen doctoral dissertations and master theses have been focused on subjects derived from the Kaogong ji. It can be anticipated that the new research results will continue to appear. We have sketched the background necessary for understanding the arti¼cers’ records in ancient China. We will now turn to translation and annotation of the Kaogong ji. Part I This page intentionally left blank 1 Opening paragraphs1

The state (guo2) has six kinds of of¼cial duties, and the hundred artisans (baigong3) are under one head. There are those who sit idly to deliberate upon the Dao,4 and there are others who take action to execute it. Some artisans check external charac- teristics, such as the curvature and straight, and examine the internal quality (of natural objects)5, prepare the ¼ve raw materials (wucai6), and make instruments for people’s livelihood; others trade and circulate things rare and strange from the four corners (of the world), in order to make objects of value. Others again devote their strength to farming to augment the products of the earth. Still others process the silk and hemp and weave clothes from them. Now it is the king and grand dukes who sit idly to deliberate upon the Dao, while carrying it into execution is the responsibility of ministers and of¼cials. Examining the raw materials and making the practical instruments is the charge of the hundred artisans.7 Trade and circulation are the affairs of merchants and traders; tilling the soil belongs to the farmers, and weaving of silk and hemp is the duty of women workers.8 In the state of Yue,9 there are no special craftsmen of hoes (bo10) but every man knows how to make one. In the state of Yan,11 there are no special craftsmen of hide armor (han12) but every man knows how to make it. In the state of Qin,13 there are no special craftsmen of pikestaffs (lu14) but every man knows how to make them. Among the nomads Hu15 there are no special craftsmen of bow and chariot (gong che16) but all the men there are pro¼cient in the art. It is men of wisdom (zhizhe17) who invent tools and machines. The skillful men (qiaozhe18) maintain their traditions, and those who keep in the same line of occupation generation by generation are called artisans (gong19). All that is done by the hundred artisans are originally the creation of the sages. Smelting metal to make sharp, strong weapons, hardening clay to make vessels, fashioning chariots for going on land, and making boats for crossing water—all these arts are creations of the sages.20 When the seasons (shi21) of heaven are favorable, the qi22 (local in½uences) of the earth also are favorable, materials have their proper virtues (mei23), and the work of skillful workers is cunning (gong qiao24), then these four 4 Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology

CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTSCONTENTS

Figure 1.1 Inscriptions of baigong 百工 (the hundred artisans) and ju 矩 (carpenter’s square). (a) Oracle bone baigong of the Shang dynasty. From (detail, ZSKS 1980, 2525 (H65:2) ). (b) Inscriptions of baigong on cover of the “Ling fangyi” of the Zhou dynasty. From (detail, Guo Moruo ( [1957] 1999, Vol. 1, rubbing 3). (c) Bronze inscrip tional forms of ju of the Western Zhou period. From Rong Geng (1985, no. 0731). being all combined, perfection is attainable. But with suitable material and skilled workmen it still may happen that the product is not satisfactory; in this case, the season has not been propitious, or the favorable qi of the earth has not been successfully obtained. [Heaven has its seasons of production and destruction; trees and grasses have a time to live and a time to die. Even rocks crumble, and water freezes or ½ows. These are according to the natural seasons of heaven.]25 Take, for instance, the sweet-fruited orange ( ju26), when it is transplanted to the north of the Huai27 River, it turns into the bitter-fruited orange (zhi 28); the crested mynah (quyu29) could not live across the Ji30 River; and raccoon dogs or badgers (he31) die if they pass over the Wen32 River. This doubtless is from the effects of the qi of the earth. The knives of Zheng,33 the axes of Song,34 the pen-knives of Lu,35 and the double-edged swords of Wu36 and Yue are famous for their origin. In no other places, can one make these things so well. This is natural because of the qi of the earth. Opening paragraphs 5

Figure 1.2 A late Qing representation of artisans at work managed by the ¼rst director Chui and his assistants. From Sun Jianai et al. (1905, ch. 2, 33a). The caption: Chui 垂 was managing the hundred artisans. 6 Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology

Figure 1.3 A stone relief with scene of people weaving on a treadle-loom at the left, quilling on a quilling-wheel at the center, and throwing of silk thread on a spooling-reel at the right, unearthed in 1956 from the Han grave in Honglou 洪樓, Tongshan 銅山, Jiangsu province. After Ouyang Moyi (2001, 32, Fig. 31), by courtesy of Ouyang Moyi.

Figure 1.4 Line drawing of the décor on an inlaid bronze vase hu 壺 from the Warring States period, preserved in Shanghai Museum. Depictions show people engaged in such activities as warfare, hunting, boating, rituals, music making, picking of silkworm thorn leaves, bow making, archery, and food preparation. By courtesy of Shanghai Museum. Opening paragraphs 7

230 230

Figure 1.5 Bronze shovel of the Wu state and bronze hoe of the Yue state. (a) Bronze shovel unearthed in 1972 from a ¼fth century BCE tomb of Wu in Chengqiao 程橋, Liuhe 六合, Jiangsu province. Length 10.4 cm. Width 7 cm. After Jun Wenren (1988, Fig. 7a). (b) Bronze hoe of Yue. After Jun Wenren (1993, Fig. 1-2b).

Figure 1.6 Rock carving of the bow and carriage in Yin 陰 Mountain, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. From Jun Wenren (1988, Fig. 6). 8 Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology

Figure 1.7 Sketch of the Han stone relief of Shen Nong 神農, unearthed in 1956 from Miaoshan 苗山, Tongshan 銅山, Jiangsu province. Preserved in Xuzhou museum.

Figure 1.8 A drawing of the sweet orange (left) and bitter-fruited orange (right). Drawn by Wang Yazeng, based on Wu Qijun ( [1848] 1956, p. 746, 844). Opening paragraphs 9

Figure 1.9 Chinese crested mynah quyu 鸜鵒. After Chen Fuguan and Luo Shiyou et al. (1998, 112), by courtesy of Science Press.

Figure 1.10 Raccoon dog he 貉. Drawn by Wang Yazeng.

So also the best horn comes from the Yan state,37 the best bow-wood from Jing,38 the best arrow-bamboo from Fenhu,39 and the best copper and tin from Wu and Yue.40 These natural materials are in the front rank.41 Generally speaking, wood-working comprises seven operations; metal- working, six; treatment of leather, ¼ve; coloring, ¼ve; polishing, ¼ve; and modeling (bo)42 in clay, two. Woodwork includes the making of wheels (lunren), chariot-bodies (yuren), bows (gongren), pikestaffs (luren), house- building ( jiangren), cart-making (cheren), and cabinet-making with valuable woods (ziren).43 Metal-work includes forging (zhushi), smelting (yeshi), bell-founding ( fushi), making measures and containers (lishi), agricultural implements (duanshi), and swords (taoshi).44 Work with skins includes hand- ling (baoren), making hide-armor (hanren), drums (yunren), leather (weishi), and furs (qiushi).45 Coloring includes painting and embroidery in one or more colors (huahui), the dyeing of feathers (zhongshi), silk printing (kuangren), and silk cleaning (huangshi).46 Polishing includes the working of jade (yuren), the making of combs ( jieren), sculpture (diaoren), the cutting and testing of arrows (shiren), and the making of stone-chimes (qingshi).47 Modeling in clay includes the art of the potter (taoren) and the proto-porcelain maker ( fangren).48 10 Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 1.11 (a) Bronze knife of the late Shang dynasty unearthed in 1973 from Lingbao 靈寶, Henan province. Length 22.2 cm. After Henansheng bowu- guan et al. (1979, plate 7, Fig. 6), by courtesy of Kaogu (Archaeology). (b) A drawing of sharpening knife on bronze vessel hu, inlaid with copper, the Eastern Zhou period. From Jun Wenren (1993, Fig. 1-7a). (c) Rubbing of bronze inscription of the Fu Xing gui 父辛簋 shows a knife held by a person. From Rong Geng (1985, appendices A, no. 015); Jun Wenren (1993, Fig. 1-7b).

(a) (b)

Figure 1.12 Bronze axes of the Spring and Autumn period unearthed in 1973 from the Tonglushan 銅綠山, Daye 大冶, Hubei province. (a) Length 21 cm. (b) Length 26.4 cm. One corner was damaged. From Jun Wenren (1988, Fig. 13). Opening paragraphs 11

(a) (b)

Figure 1.13 Bronze swords of the Wu and Yue states. (a) Bronze sword of Guang 光, the King of Wu (r. 514–496 BCE), unearthed in 1964 from Zhiyu 峙峪 in Yuanping 原平, Shanxi province. Preserved in Shanxi museum. Length 50.7 cm. From Jun Wenren (1993, Fig. 1-9b). (b) Bronze sword of Gou Jian 勾踐, the King of Yue (r. 496–465 BCE), unearthed in 1965 from the tomb I, Wangshan 望山, Jiangling 江陵, Hubei province. Length 55.7 cm. Photo courtesy of Hubei Provincial Museum. 12 Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology

Youyushi (?) I I I I ------·---1 ca. 2180 BCE I I Xia(?) I I ca. 1600 BCE

Shang

1046 BCE

Western Zhou 771 BCE 770 BCE Spring and Autumn Period Eastern Zhou 476 BCE 475 BCE Warring States Period 221 BCE Qin Dynasty - 207 BCE 202 BCE Western Han - 9CE Xin interregnum - 23 CE 25 CE Eastern Han - 220 CE

Figure 1.14 China prior to the end of the Han dynasty.

Figure 1.15 A painted pottery plate showing an early dragon design, unearthed in 1978–80 from the relics of Taosi 陶寺, in Xiangfen 襄汾, Shanxi province. Height 8.8 cm. Diameter 37 cm. Bottom diameter 15 cm. After Gao Wei, and Li Jianmin (1983, plate 4, Fig. 1), by courtesy of Kaogu (Archaeology). Opening paragraphs 13

Figure 1.16 A rubbing of the Han stone relief of Yu the Great holding a two-pronged digging implement. From Wuliangci 武梁祠, Jiaxiang 嘉祥, Shandong province. From Feng Yunpeng and Feng Yunyuan (1821–1822, Shi suo 3, 1–9).

Figure 1.17 A photograph of the ivory ruler (chi 尺) of the Shang dynasty, said to be from the Yin ruins in Anyang 安陽, Henan province, preserved in Shanghai Museum. Marked on the rim are ten cun 寸 divisions each with ten fen 分 subdivisions. The ivory chi is 15.8 cm long. By courtesy of Shanghai Museum. 14 Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology Modeling in clay was the art most esteemed by the time of Youyushi49; the Xiahoushi50 gave ¼rst place to the art of irrigation works; the people of the Yin51 (Shang) dynasty preferred the art of wood making; and that of the Zhou52 dynasty set highest the work of chariot builders.53 Hence there was a multiplicity of workmen employed in their manufacture.54 Chariots were in abundance. On the chariot are six grades of height. The crosspiece (zhen55) at the body bottom is four chi56 high and is called the proportional number one. The spear-handle (gebi57) is six chi six cun long. Because it stands at an angle, it is four chi higher than the crosspiece and is termed the proportional number two. A man is eight chi in height; he is four chi higher than the spear and is called the proportional number three. The stick of combat (shu58) is one xun59 and four chi, or 12 chi, in length; it is four chi higher than the man and is termed the proportional number four. The chariot-halberd (cheji 60) is one chang61, or 16 chi, long; it is four chi higher than the shu and is called the proportional number ¼ve. The short lance (qiumao62) is one chang and four chi, or 20 chi, long; it is four chi higher than the halberd and is termed the proportional number six. Therefore, on the chariot are the six proportional numbers. When taking a general examination of the principles of chariot building, it must begin with the load upon the ground. Consequently, an examination of the chariots begins with the wheel. When taking a general examination of the principles of wheel making, it is desirable that the parts of the wheel should be solid, ¼rmly joined, and

Figure 1.18 Reconstruction model of a Huixian 輝縣 vehicle reconstructed by Xia Nai, Gou Baojun, and others, based on the excavation in 1950 at Liulige 琉璃閣 in Huixian 輝縣, Henan province. After (Jun Wenren 1993, Fig. 2-1). Opening paragraphs 15

(a) (b)

Figure 1.19 Reconstruction of the chariot-halberd with the feather (M2: 229) and the short lance with the feather (M2: 231), unearthed in 1987 from the Chu tomb II in Baoshan 包山, Jingmen 荊門, Hubei province, preserved in Hubei Provincial Museum. (a) Chariot-halberd, total length 370 cm. (b) Short lance, total length 390.8 cm. Drawn by the author, based on Hubeisheng Jingshan tielu kaogu dui (1991, Fig. 130-2, 3). well ¼t, and that the wheel should be exactly rounded, so that it should be light and ¼rm with the ground. If it is otherwise than solid and well joined, it would not be durable; and if it is not accurately rounded, it would not revolve quickly. If the wheels are too high, persons can ¼nd dif¼culty in getting into the carriage. If, on the other hand, they are too low, the horses have to work hard, as in ascending a slope.63 Therefore, the wheels of the battle chariot64 are six chi six cun in height; the wheels of the hunting coach65 (or hunting- carriage) are six chi three cun high; and the wheels of the royal carriage66 in common use are six chi six cun high.67 Those wheels, which are six chi six cun in height, have the hub-perforation (zhi 68) for the axle three chi three cun high,69 and the ½at bottom of the body of the chariot, with the bolster (bu70) placed on the top thereof, forms combined height of four chi from the ground. The men are in stature eight chi,71 and the steps for getting up and down require to be in due proportion.72 16 Ancient Chinese Encyclopedia of Technology

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Figure 1.20 Force diagram to show how the radius of a wheel on a slope affects the pulling force. From Jun Wenren (1993, Fig. 2-2).

Load a chariot body on the flat top ~Futu~~ Hold an axle Figure 1.21 Carriage bolster. From HQJJ 1829 (ch. 563, 22a).

CONTENTS6.Hand-bar CONTENTS CONTENTS?.Top-parapet stub

CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS11 .Pole CONTENTS12.Transverse bar

1.Felloe CONTENTS2.Spoke Figure 1.22 Sketch of the type of horse-drawn chariot of the pre-imperial dynasty, based on the descriptions and speci¼cations in the Kaogong ji and the archaeological evidence. Simpli¼ed diagram based on Sun Ji (1980), by courtesy of Kaogu (Archaeology). Opening paragraphs 17

Figure 1.23 A drawing of bronze chariot no. 1, charioteer, and driven horse, made to half life size, unearthed from the burial pit of the First Emperor mausoleum of the Qin dynasty in Shaanxi province in 1980.