An Introduction to Sufism

Fall 2016

Donna M. Brown

Abstract other currents of Islam. Non-traditional groups,3 found primarily in the West, require his article seeks to introduce the reader to no adherence to Islamic law (Shariah) or the T one of the world’s great spiritual cur- Muslim faith, and combine multiple traditions. rents—to Sufism or Tasawwuf, as it is known Even the term Sufi (Tasawwuf)4 has a wide in the Muslim world. The article draws primar- variety of meanings and interpretations based ily from classical or Islamic Sufi orders, and on different sources and traditions. Complicat- utilizes the terminology familiar to those or- ing the issue further is the fact that the inner, ders in an effort to provide a generally accept- oral and initiatic dimensions of Sufism are, ed overview of Sufi metaphysics, practices and especially in the traditional orders, veiled from methods. It touches intermittently upon Uni- the uninitiated. Therefore, a full explanation of versalist and non-Muslim Sufi orders, which Sufism in an article such as this will be neces- teach various classical Sufi philosophies and sarily incomplete. practices, but which represent an eclectic synthesis all their own. The article discusses Su- Broadly considered, Sufism can be held to be fism’s complex and controversial origins, the esoteric or inward dimension of Islam, th along with such pivotal concepts such as One- which began to develop in the 8 century and ness with God, the Unity of Existence and The which “was generated,” as the German professor of Divinity, F.A.D. Tholuck understood, Perfect Man. Also examined is the Sufi Path to 5 Union, which involves, among other things, “out of Muhammad’s own mysticism.” If, the purification of the carnal soul or lower na- however, Sufism is considered from an earlier ture, Sufi Gnosis, the Alchemy of the Heart historical and universalist perspective, Su- and the Invocation of God’s Beautiful Names. fism’s antecedents can be traced back to vari- An examination of the major way stations or ous religions in the pre-Islamic Middle East, milestones on the path back to the Divine i.e., to the “desert fathers” or mystics of Syria Presence is included. and Egypt, to the Essenes, the ancient Pythago- rean orders, and the mystery schools of the Sufism and its Origins Egyptians, Zoroastrians and the Pahlawan6 Think not that if thou passest away, the world religion in Iran. Therefore, before discussing will also be gone: A thousand candles have what Sufism is, or providing an outline of the burned out, yet the circle of Sufis remains. fundamentals of Sufi doctrine and methods from both traditional and non-traditional per- (Popular Sufi Saying) spectives, this article will touch upon the con- ufism is a vast, multifaceted path of spir- troversy surrounding the origins of Sufism. S itual advancement that can be difficult to ______define or simplify. There are many traditional Sufi orders, branches or paths (ṭarīqah), as About the Author well as a number of non-traditional Sufi Donna M. Brown is a long-time student and teach- groups, each with a particular emphasis. Tradi- er of esoteric philosophy. Her background includes tional Sufis, who make up the vast majority, a career in the arts and election to public office in mix conventional Islamic observances and dis- the District of Columbia. She has served as a Board ciplines, such as the mandatory call to daily Member for the Center for Visionary Leadership prayer (salat), with a broad range of additional and the School for Esoteric Studies where she continues as a commentator. Donna is also involved spiritual methods and practices. Sufis can be with a Universalist Sufi Order. associated with Sunni Islam,1 Shi'a Islam,2 or

Religious scholars and even Sufis themselves der Ināyati), a non-Muslim Sufi movement in disagree about the origins of Sufism. In the- the West, emphasized the multi-religious roots Mystical Dimension of Islam,7 Annie Marie of Sufism and sought to bring a message of Schimmel (1922–2003), turns to a well-known spiritual liberation to the West based on reli- parable from Rumi8 about a group of blind gious unity and the wisdom of all faiths.13 He men who each touch a different part of an ele- maintained that: “Every age of the world has phant to illustrate the difficulty in discussing seen awakened souls, and as it is impossible to Sufism and its origins. In the estimation of E. limit wisdom to any one period or place, so it H. Palmer (1840–1882), the Mid-East/Arab is impossible to date the origin of Sufism.”14 In specialist and explorer who helped unveil the Hazrat Khan’s distinctively western version of Sufi journey to God, Sufism was a kind of Sufism, the barriers of race, creed or religion “theosophical mysticism,” and a “development are eliminated, for Khan saw Sufism not as a of the primeval religion of the Aryan race.”9 religion, but more exactly as an experience and The Dutch scholar Reinhart Dozy (1820– “a way of life that enhances and fulfills every 1883), in his Essai sur l’histoire de religion.” “The Sufi, he said, “sees the truth in l’Islamisme, argued for the Indo-European ori- every religion.”15 gins of Sufism, which he reasoned came from Another influential popularizer of Sufism in Indian and Persian sources.10 the West was Idries Shah (1924 –1996). Shah, Helena Blavatsky (1831–1891) seems to have who claimed to be an emissary for the Central supported these views and maintained that Su- Asian Sufi tradition where Gurdjieff (1886 – fism’s linguistic roots relate to Sophia or Wis- 1949) allegedly obtained his teachings, said dom. In The Secret Doctrine she links Sufism that: “esoteric wisdom is independent of ‘mere to the now lost Chaldean Religion, which had religion’ and is often disguised in an ‘exoteric been translated into Arabic and preserved by religious’ form.”16 For Shah there was only 11 some Sufi initiates. She goes on to describe one truth, and he concluded that Sufism must Sufism as: be independent of Islam. He presented Sufism A mystical sect in Persia something like the as a universal form of wisdom, emphasized its Vedantins; though very strong in numbers, adaptive and dynamic nature and framed his none but very intelligent men join it. They teachings in Western psychological terms. claim, and very justly, the possession of the Others, such as Mehmet Sabeheddin, a con- esoteric philosophy and doctrine of true temporary researcher, writer and spiritual Mohammedanism. The Suffi (or Sofi) doc- teacher who focuses on the fluid and multi- trine is a good deal in touch with Theoso- faceted dimensions of Islam and Sufism says: phy, inasmuch as it preaches one universal creed, and outward respect and tolerance No one knows who the first Sufi was. Su- for every popular exoteric faith. It is also in fism is not a religion, and ultimately exists touch with Masonry. The Suffis have four above and beyond all labels. It is said Su- fism is older than Islam and that it really degrees and four stages of initiation: 1st, had no beginning, being just the latest probationary, with a strict outward ob- flowering—taking on the form of Islam— servance of Mussulman rites, the hidden of the ancient secret tradition stretching meaning of each ceremony and dogma be- back to Adam. ing explained to the candidate; 2nd, metaphysical training; 3rd, the “Wisdom” de- A Sufi tradition relates how “the seeds of gree, when the candidate is initiated into the Sufism were sown in the time of Adam, innermost nature of things; and 4th final fermented in the time of Noah, budded in Truth, when the Adept attains divine pow- the time of Abram, and began to develop in ers, and complete union with the One Uni- the time of Jesus, and produced pure wine versal Deity in ecstacy or Samâdhi.12 in the time of Muhammad.” The Prophet Muhammad and Jesus are revered as the Hazrat Inayat Khan (1882-1927), founder of greatest Sufis. Sufi Masters like Ibn ‘Arabî the Sufi Order International (now the Sufi Or-

and Suhrawardi studied Plato and Pythago- equivalent to the word “mysticism.” Mysti- ras declaring the Pagan sages to be Sufis.17 cism can be defined as experiential or intui- tive understanding of spiritual realities be- Similar beliefs are even held by a few tradi- yond intellectual understanding. Therefore, tional Sufi orders who perceived Sufism as “a mysticism can take religious forms (spiritu- phenomena that has accompanied Humanity al experiences of feeling close to God) or since the advent of self-consciousness.”18 Such non-religious forms (such as spiritual expe- an interpretation, however, fully embraces Is- riences involving nature or the cosmos). lam’s unmistakable contributions to Sufi The mysticism of Islam is a distinct form of thought and practice. religious mysticism that is called “ta- Numerous Western Oriental specialists have sawwuf” [The inward or esoteric dimension also claimed that Sufism is an innovation that of Islam that is both knowledge and action.] has its roots in Hinduism, Buddhism, Neo- in Arabic and a Muslim mystic is called a Platonism, or Christianity, but is not authenti- “sufi” (author’s brackets).23 cally Islamic. It is of interest to note here that In an article discussing arguments for and many Muslims, especially the ultra conserva- 24 against the non-Islamic origins of Sufism, tive “Salafi” movement within Sunni Islam, Mollie Magill traces the word “Sufi” (com- claim that Sufism is “a Trojan horse for unwar- monly meant to apply to those who wear ranted innovations that owe their origins “wool”), to the Arabic Soofa, meaning “purity to non-Muslim civilizations”19 such as those of heart and the shunning of material wealth in mentioned above. While the aforementioned 25 reaction to the Islamic conquests.” Magill pre-Islamic influences have been well docu- also notes that the word “‘Sufi” can be equated mented20 and will not be discussed in detail with Ahl al-suffā, translated as “people of the here, it must be remembered that Sufism, while bench,”’ and goes on to note that the “term not explicitly mentioned in the Qur’ān, is co- was given to the poor companions of the extensive with Islam. Titus Burckhardt (1908– 26 prophet; devoted individuals.” René Guénon 1984), an expert on Islam, who dedicated his (Sheikh Abdel Wahed Yahya), one of the great life to the study and exposition of the philoso- metaphysical luminaries who laid the ground- phia perennis, holds that Sufi masters only work for the Perennialist School of thought in borrowed from pre-Islamic inheritances “pro- the twentieth century, concluded that the term vided they were adequate for expressing those was a purely symbolic name, a sort of “cipher” truths which had to be made accessible to the whose true meaning is to be found in the ge- intellectually gifted men of their age and ideas matrical value of the letters that form the word which were already implicit in strict Sufi sym- “sufi,” which has the same numerical value as bolism in a succinct form.”21 He goes on to say the Arabic word al-Hikmatu’l-ilahiya or Di- that most of what shapes the Sufi spiritual 27 vine Wisdom. method is drawn from the Qur’ān and the Prophet’s teachings. Indeed, the majority of Kabir Helminski, a Sheikh of the Mevlevi Or- the worlds Sufis are Muslims who believe that der of Sufis that traces its inspiration to Sufism is largely inoperative without its rela- Jelaluddin Rumi, supports the assessment that tionship to Islam. As such, they would be hard Sufism is at heart Islamic mysticism, and that pressed to see Sufism as anything other than its serious study necessitates an appreciation of the inner dimension of Islam that had its be- the message of the Qur’ān and its messenger. ginnings in the period following the life of the Louis Massignon (1883–1952), an influential Prophet Muhammad. Catholic scholar of Islam, also states that: “It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, In a commentary on the Mevlevi Sufi Way,22 and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its the Rumi scholar, Ibrahim Gamard states that: 28 origin and its development.” To use the word “sufism” to mean a univer- Acclaimed scholars and Sufi’s such as Burck- sal spirituality that pre-dates Islam is to rob hardt, Henry Corbin (1903–1978), Martin the term of its meaning and to make it Lings (1909–2005), and Seeyed Hossein Nasr

(1933~), hold fast to the originality and au- der and/or to a combination of other and per- thenticity of Sufism as the central, most pow- haps older sources. Nevertheless, as Hazrat erful current of the Islamic Revelation. As Inayat Khan explains, the silsilah is of pivotal such, Sufism is perceived as an “an interioriza- significance in the work of virtually every tion and intensification of Islam,”29 and as “Is- genuine Sufi order where it serves as the pri- lam’s life-giving core.”30 This argument is mary conduit of divine influx and the Baraka bolstered by pointing to Sufism’s inherently (the stream of blessings from Allah), which Islamic philosophical foundations, to its essen- links the murshids (spiritual guides) of a par- tial Qur’ānic support, and to the many Sufi ticular order with “the combined spiritual scholars, systematizers, poets and mystics such power of their spiritual antecedents and with as Rabbi’a al-Adawiya (713–801), Al-Junayd the unseen transformative forces that transpire al Baghdadi (830–910 AD), Abu Sulayman al- behind the outward manifestation of the Darani (d. 830), Al-Ghazali (1058- 1111), and Chain.”33 Ibn al-’Arabî (1165–1240), to name only a In concluding this part of the discussion, it few, whose powerful influence shaped Sufism. should be noted that this article does not wish The aforementioned 20th century experts, to contribute to the controversy surrounding Burckhardt, Nasr, et al., along with a growing Sufism’s origins, nor does it attempt to settle number of modern scholars, insist that to deny the question as to its Islamic legitimacy. The Sufism’s relationship with Islam is to deprive author believes that it is important to it of its originality as well as its impetus.31 As acknowledge the universality or perennial na- Burckhardt maintains: ture of revelation and the idea that “Truth is The decisive argument in favor of the Mu- One” in essence, albeit clothed in a diversity of hammadan origin of Sufism lies … in Su- forms, while recognizing the fact that Sufism fism itself. If Sufic wisdom came from a has been and continues to be deeply and force- source outside of Islam, those who aspire to fully inspired by Islam. that wisdom—which is assuredly neither bookish or purely mental in its nature— What Is Sufism? could not rely on the symbolism of the See but One, say but One, know but One, Qur’ān for realizing that wisdom ever In this are summed up the roots and branches afresh, whereas in fact everything that of faith. forms an integral part of the spiritual meth- 34 od of Sufism is constantly and of necessity (Mahmud Shabistari) drawn out of the Qur’ān and from the ufism or Tasawuuf, like all esoteric teach- teachings of the Prophet.32 S ings, is concerned with the interior or inward journey toward God. In general terms, Furthermore, traditional Islamic and Sufi Sufism, which is described as “wisdom uncre- scholars point to the fact that Sufism has been ate,” can be defined as the actualization of di- passed down from certain Spiritual Masters to vine ethics or the attributes of God and as the their disciples in an unbroken chain (silsilah) path to the “center of the cosmic wheel.” More leading back to the Prophet himself. This chain evocatively, and to paraphrase Martin Lings of transmission is thought to have taken place (1909 -2005), Sufism is a Revelation that when Muhammad’s closest Companions flows from the great Ocean of Infinitude to the pledged to wage the “Greater Jihad” against shores of our finite world.35 Sufis are, by defi- their own inner enemies or lower self. Since nition, concerned with “the mysteries of the that time, a continuous chain of masters and Kingdom of Heaven,” the path back to the disciples has handed down the esoteric ritual Source36 and the inner spiritual states as op- and teachings lying at the heart of the Quranic posed to formal disciplines, such as exoteric Revelation from one generation to another. knowledge, theology or the law. Most Sufi’s,37 However, in the non-Muslim orders the chain however, do not dismiss Islamic disciplines, of transmission and authority is believed to rather they employ them as a foundation from lead back to the founder of their particular or-

72 Copyright © The Esoteric Quarterly, 2016. Fall 2016 which they can ultimately free themselves ture of humanity, and realize the Unity of Be- from the world of duality and the shackles of ing (Wahdat al-Wujūd) i.e., the belief that all the concrete mind.38 existence is One, a manifestation of the Divine Sufism can also be defined as a “science of the Reality from which all reality originates and to soul,” or as an initiatic path of self-purification which it will return; and 2) an effort to facili- and self-realization, which teaches that Allah tate recognition of the presence of love and or the Supreme Identity can be known and ex- wisdom in the world. Hence, the essential fea- perienced directly. The ultimate goal for Sufis tures of Sufism are the inward or direct experi- is tahwīd (the experience of oneness), the re- ence of unity with the Divine (Tahwīd), and its covery of the lost state of original unity with focus on the love and knowledge, or heart and God. S. H. Nasr, one of the great contemporary mind. This process commences with the strug- intellectual figures in Islamic history, explains gle against the ego and the nafs or passions of in an essay on “Sufism and the Integration of the carnal soul. Man,” that: But before discussing the various methods for …The whole program of Sufism…is to free experiencing unity with the God or Allah, it is man from the prison of multiplicity, to cure necessary to examine three pivotal Sufi con- him from hypocrisy and make him whole; cepts: Al-Insān al-Kāmal (the Perfect Man), for it is only in being whole that man can Tahwīd (union) and Wahdat al-Wujūd (the become holy.39 Unity of Being) in greater detail. Such a program, he maintains, involves the Fundamental Concepts integration of the body, mind and spirit, for “just as God is one, so man must become Tawhīd - Oneness whole in order to become one.”40 Hence, Su- Knowledge of the absolute Oneness of God fism addresses the structure of reality and (tawhid) is the goal; it is the most glorious man’s place in it. Sufi doctrine consists of of the sciences and the most illustrious of metaphysics, cosmology, psychology and es- the religious obligations. chatology. It combines both doctrine and (Sayyidna Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Naysaburi,)42 method into an integral spiritual tradition, that includes invocative and various meditative or ne of the defining themes of Sufism and contemplative practices.41 But, the goal of in- O the Qurānic Revelation, from both a tradi- tegration and union or oneness does not imply tionalist and Universalist perspective, is divine a disconnection or withdrawal from the outer Unity, as expressed in the shahāda or testimo- world; indeed one of the principle aims for all ny of faith, Lā ilāha illa’ Llāh (There is no Sufis is to make of the daily life a profound God but God).43 The testimony of faith holds spiritual practice. Tahwīd or union involves that God (Allah, literally Al-Ilāh “the God”) is regaining the state of human perfection that One (Al-ʾAḥad) and Single (Al-Wāḥid). was possessed before the Fall. Such a person The concept of God’s Oneness is also ex- has actualized all his divine potential and be- pressed by the Arabic word tawhīd (also trans- come the “Perfect Man” (Al Insān al-Kāmil) literated as tawheed, tauhid or tauheed), which and now serves as the perfect mirror in which emphasizes the unity and uniqueness of God as God’s qualities and attributes are reflected. creator and sustainer of the universe.44 Its ap- Sufis are also seekers after the Truth (al-Haqq) pearance and use in the Qur’ān gives it special who strive to selflessly experience and actual- credence, especially among strict, legalist in- ize Truth by the means of love—or an inner terpreters of Islam who hold that God exists as alchemy of the heart—based on inspiration, a a distinct entity, separated and existing inde- successive process of unveiling and a devotion pendently of the world. Such sober interpreta- to the Real. tions of tawhīd do not accept that there are any The core substance of Sufism might be de- intermediaries in the worship of God. scribed as: 1) the quest to understand the na-

Most classical Sufi’s, however, hold that ta- ferred to in feminine form and often spoken of whīd has several meanings. As Dr. Steven as “the Beloved.” The feminine aspect of God, Masood explains: tawhīd means: 1) belief in typified by such qualities as Mercy, Beauty the Unity of the One Being; 2) discipline of the and Wisdom, is seen as the non-creating, or subjective and objective life in the light of that metacosmic aspect. God as the Absolute, the belief; 3) the experience of union and fusion Creator and the Sustainer, is addressed in the with the Divine; and 4) a theosophical or phil- masculine form. Both masculine and feminine osophical conception of reality in the light of qualities are found in the nature of the Divine, the true mystical experience.45 He notes further which transcends the duality between them.49 that: Elsewhere, Nasr says that while creation or The first two senses are accepted by all manifestation expresses first as polarization Muslims. However, the third and fourth and then as a multiplicity, he notes that: “in senses are the particular teaching of Sufi Is- relation to Divine Unity, multiplicity is veil.”50 lam. For them Tawhid in the third sense is He goes on to say that Divine Substance em- to have the perception of the One Being braces “all the reverberations of the One in the through mystical experience. It is the high- mirror of the many which we call the world, or est experience of the unity of God. In the in fact the many worlds which at once hide and fourth sense, one loses his own identity and manifest the One.”51 becomes one with the One being.46 The Creator, in the Sufi view, is not removed In discussing the Sufi conception of God Haz- from creation; it is just that there is one pres- rat Inayat Khan explains that to a Sufi, ence everywhere, which expresses as diversity God and man are not two; the Sufi does not within the unity. This idea has been expressed consider God separate from himself. The in the following Sufi poem from the Persian Sufi's God is not in Heaven alone; He is Sufi master, Fakhruddin Iraqi (1239–1289). everywhere. He sees God in the unseen and Each image painted on the canvas of in the seen; he recognizes God both within Existence is the form of the Artist himself and without. Therefore there is no name Eternal Ocean spews forth-new waves. which is not the Name of God, and there is Waves we call them; but there is only the no form which is not the form of God, to sea.52 the eyes of the Sufi.47 Wahdat al-Wujūd - The Transcendent Sufi’s seek to explicitly associate themselves Unity of Existence with God—not to become Gods, but to unite completely their individual consciousness and Another doctrine that focuses on unity and the identity with God, whose existence is both idea that God and His creation are One is transcendent and immanent and therefore per- Wahdat al-Wujūd. This philosophical doctrine vasive and manifest throughout all creation. is highly complex and controversial— controversial because it would seem to imply S. H. Nasr, who comes from a long line of Su- fi’s, when speaking of the principle reality of that God is both one and many. Although its the One God, says in The Heart of Islam that advocates see it as a restatement of tahwīd in the advanced language and understanding of …His oneness (tawhīd) is “the axis around later Islamic history, some orthodox interpret- which all that is Islamic revolves. Allah is ers of Sufism surmise that Waḥdat al-Wujūd beyond all duality and relationality, beyond denies the sovereign will of God and tends to- differences of gender and of all qualities ward pantheism (all essences and manifesta- that distinguish beings from each other in tions are divine). They either reject the doc- 48 the world. trine as heresy outright, or else dismiss it as Allah or God is neither male nor female, for at misleading. the highest level, the One is both Absolute and But from a Sufi perspective, the concept of Infinite. Yet, in Sufism and Islam, the Divine Wahdat al-Wujūd is thought to be more or less Essence is seen as Infinite and is usually re-

74 Copyright © The Esoteric Quarterly, 2016. Fall 2016 synonymous with the highest expression creation is expressed in the following poem of tawhīd or the union,53 which is only attaina- from Rumi: ble by those who have achieved a lasting state I am dust particles in sunlight of spiritual annihilation or fana. Sufi doctrine I am the round sun. conceives the world as an emanation of Deity. To the bits of dust I say, Stay. In “so far as anything exists at all, it is exists as To the sun, Keep moving. a ray of His light.”54 I am morning mist, As the legendary Iranian Sufi Master Mansur And the breathing of evening. Al Halaji (858–922), maintained, Wahdat al- I am wind in the top of a grove, Wujūd does not imply that “everything is And surf on the cliff. God,” but rather “God is everything and in Mast, rudder, helmsman, and keel, everything,” while also “being beyond every- I am also the coral reef they founder on. thing.” Such statements, like those of Al Hala- I am a tree with a trained parrot in its ji, Ibn ‘Arabi and others are analogous to the branches. Silence, thought, and voice. Hindu Advaitic doctrine, which states that the The musical air coming through a flute, universe is one essential reality, and that all A spark of a stone, a flickering In metal. facets and aspects of the universe are ultimate- Both candle, And the moth crazy around it. ly an expression or appearance of that one real- Rose, and the nightingale Lost in the fra- ity. grance. While the two terms each imply the idea of I am all orders of being, the circling galaxy, Non-Duality and Unity or Oneness, there are The evolutionary intelligence, the lift, some distinctions between them. Tawhīd rep- And what isn’t. You who know resents the process of making one or the reali- Jelaluddin, You the one zation of God’s unity and uniqueness. There In all, say who I am. Say I are however, various levels and degrees of un- 56 ion or tahwīd. These include such things as the am You. realization of God’s attributes, his acts and his If tawhīd and Wahdat al-Wujūd are considered will. Wahdat al-Wujūd is tawhīd realized on a in theoretical terms or as a doctrine of faith, universal level. It implies a level of conscious both concepts are identical to that which is es- identification with God or Allah and can be poused in the Bhagavad-gita, where Krishna, understood as the permanent realization of all in speaking to Arjuna, reflects this view. “Hav- the levels or degrees of tahwīd. Such a station ing pervaded the universe with Myself, I re- is only achieved by the greatest of saints. main.”57 A famous Sufi mystic and poet, Ibn al-Fariīd And elsewhere, where Krishna explains: (1181–1235) who wrote about the lover’s longing for the Beloved describes the concept There is nothing else besides me, Arjuna. of the Unity of Being thus; Like clusters of yarn-beads by knots on a thread, all this is threaded on me. She (the Supreme Being) appeared in phenomena. They supposed that this phenome- Arjuna, I am sapidity in water, light of non was other than She, while it was she moon and sun, the sacred syllable OM in all who displayed herself therein. Vedas, sound in ether and manliness in men. There is naught but Thee in the whole world. Everything in the universe is Thy I am the subtle principle of odour in the Face that we see. In which every direction I earth, brilliance in fire, life in all beings and turn my eyes, there are Thou. Without the austerity in me of askesis. 55 Thee, there is nothing that there is. Arjuna, know me the eternal seed of all This same idea of the all-pervasive existence beings. I am the intelligence of the intel- of God (that God and his creation are one) in ligent and the glory of the glorious.58

Al-Insān al-Kāmil - The Universal Man guide for the earth-bound saints.62 The cosmic Qutb, derives his power from Allah or the One, One of the other significant concepts in Islamic and serves as the “Axis of the Universe” on a theology and Sufism is Al-Insān al-Kāmil (The 63 higher plane. Perfect or Universal Man) The term was ap- plied as an honorific title to describe the Although only a rare group of individuals can Prophet Muhammad, but it is also used to refer attain the level of the Perfect Man,64 Sufis be- to those who have been totally transformed, lieve that such an attainment is inherently pos- achieved perfection or faultlessness and be- sible for every human being. Therefore, Al- come a living manifestation of God or Allah. Insan al-Kamil is the ideal set before all Sufis, the prototypical human being who serves as a The notion of the perfect man in Sufism is perfect mirror reflecting the qualities and at- complex, due in large part to a number of dif- tributes of Divinity. As such, the concept of ferent “philosophies of perfection.” But the the Universal and Perfect Man plays an essen- doctrine is based on the premise that the pri- tial role in guiding Sufi’s toward their own mordial, archetypal man embodies within him- perfection and service as a light unto the self all of the divine attributes of the One Be- world. ing (as expressed in His 99 Names), but has fallen from his perfect state and now has a The Path to Union false sense of self, which separates him from his Universal Self. Sufis believe that it separa- Tazkiyat an-nafs - Purification and Aug- tion from God that is the cause of all suffering, mentation of the Self and that the ancient longing to return to the He travels with whoever looks for Him, Essence is present but veiled in every human 59 and having taken the seeker by the hand, He soul. Man’s purpose in life is to regain this arouses him to go in search of himself. lost unity by reabsorbing himself so complete- 65 ly into the One Being’s essence that no distinc- (Al -Ansari) tion of consciousness exists between them. He uccess on the Sufi Path is directly tied to then becomes the one “who has fully realized S purification as a preparation for the receipt his essential oneness with the Divine Being in of sacred knowledge. In broad terms the con- 60 whose likeness he is made.” Self-revelation cept of purification (tazkiyat an-nafs) is seen as of the One Being or God occurs thorough a the means to eliminate ego-centrality, negativi- series of stages and subjective experiences un- ty, base desire and weakness.66 Thus, Islamic til complete annihilation (fana) takes place and and Sufi psychological sciences (Ilm-al the individual becomes Al-Insan al-Kamil, or Nafsiat) involve an awareness of what is hid- 61 the “Perfect Man.” den deep within the self in order to rid oneself The perfect or Universal Man refers to one of any and all adulterants or obstacles to soul who has realized Union or the Supreme Identi- realization. The exercise of tazkiyat an-nafs ty. As such, he has unified the spiritual or met- can be described as a system of spiritual thera- aphysical and physical realms of existence in peutics designed to purify the lower self so that his own being. Such a one serves as an emi- one becomes a mirror reflecting the divine. nent spiritual meditator, a prophet, a Mahdi or To facilitate purification, different Sufi broth- Qutb (axis, pivot or pole) and is head of the erhoods may utilize various rites such as ad- saintly hierarchy. The Qutb or perfect man has herence to Islamic law, fasting, prayer, spiritu- a connection to God and passes on spiritual al retreat, meditation, dreams, poetry, music light and wisdom to the world. There are two and ritual movements and sacred turning or different conceptions of the Perfect Man, the dance. Spiritual poverty (faqr) is also one of pole or Qutb: a temporal and a cosmic Qutb. the cornerstones of Sufi spiritual practice and The temporal Qutb resides on earth and is an tazkiyat. While spiritual poverty can have a active agent in the world, but the cosmic number of different meanings, its innermost “pole” is manifested in the temporal “pole” as meaning can perhaps be best summed up in a a virtue. The temporal Qutb is the leader or quote from the 11th century Persian Sufi and

76 Copyright © The Esoteric Quarterly, 2016. Fall 2016 scholar, Ali-Hujwrir, who says: “the poor man helps the nafs to transform, and the spirit to is not he whose hand is empty of provisions, be enlivened, and similarly what transforms but he whose nature is empty of desires.”67 The the nafs, also has benefits for the heart and primary emphasis for nearly all Sufis is correct spirit, and so on.69 knowledge, disengagement from one’s own This idea is reflected in the dual meaning will, right motivation, correct actions and the tazkiyat an-nafs, which in addition to the idea opening and purity of the heart. The purifica- of purification or refinement, means augmenta- tion of the self is generally thought to involve: tion of the Self or Soul. Concurrent with the 1) Liberating oneself from the psychologi- act of purification of the nafs is the cultivation cal distortions and complexes that prevent of the Soul’s virtues, its stature and spiritual one from forming a healthy, integrated in- piety. dividuality in service to God and one’s fel- One of the key practices employed by Sufis to lowman. [This also involves cultivating the purify the nafs and cultivate the highest moral spiritual virtues (fadā’il) of the heart, such virtues is the constant recollection and con- as patience, compassion, tolerance, de- templation of Allah and his attributes. tachment, etc.] (Author’s brackets.) 2) Freeing oneself from the slavery to the Dhikr - Remembrance of God and The attractions of the world, all of which are Ninety-Nine Names of Allah secondary reflections of the qualities within I thought of you so often the heart. By seeing these attractions as That I completely became You. veils over one’s essential yearning for un- Little by little You drew near ion with the divine, the veils fall away and and slowly but slowly I passed away. the naked reality remains. (Javad Nurbakhsh)70 3) Transcending the veil that is the self and n the Qur’an the Prophet Muhammad in- its tyrannical selfishness. I voked God or Allah by a number of different 4) Devoting oneself and one’s attention to names in an effort to explain the metaphysical God or Allah; living in and through Allah, complexity of Divine Unity, God’s nature and in Haqiqah (essential truth), and in Love.68 His immanence or presence in creation. In re- sponse to this historical tradition, a practice However, some Sufi Orders believe that the purification of the nafs involves more than pu- arose involving the recitation (dhikr or zhkir) rification of the ego; hence, they outline six or and contemplation (fikr) of “God’s Ninety- more formal stages of purification (to be dis- Nine Beautiful Names.” Supported by a widely accepted hadith regarding the “Recitation of cussed later) along the path to exalted spiritual 71 development. This process of purification con- Names,” this act of remembrance and devo- cerns the development of the soul, and in- tion is practiced by various religious orders or brotherhoods throughout much of the Islamic volves an effort to eliminate anything that de- 72 flects from knowledge, love and service to world. Although some strict Muslims believe one’s fellowman, as well as complete surren- that there is no basis for the practice since it appears to contradict the shadaha73 or profes- der to God or Allah. sion of faith, i.e., “there is no God but God;” Although there are numerous ways to trans- recitation and meditation on the 99 Names ex- form the nafs, as Dr. Anab Whitehouse points ists as the quintessential component in classi- out: cal Sufism as well as Universal Sufism,74 These ways are overlapping, reinforcing which also places an emphasis on the evoca- and not mutually exclusive in the sense tive use of the Ninety-Nine Names of God or that, for instance, what helps the heart, Allah.

Muslim theologians and Sufis alike understand In some Sufi Orders, knowing and reciting the God’s 99 Names as sifat or attributes of Allah. Names of God as theurgic mantras or words of But they are careful to emphasize that the at- power, is a fundamental impetus for those who tributes of Allah “have no independent exist- are seeking to open the heart and connect with ence of their own” and “only exist as differen- the Divine. The practice, which is derived tiated aspects” of God or Allah; “they are nei- through initiatic knowledge, is based, in part, ther identical to nor distinct from the es- on the idea that sound and vibrations are the sence.”75 Rather, the Names are regarded as cause or basis of all manifestation and on the reflections of the divine belief that each letter of essence, the One Reali- No one knows who the first the Arabic script derives ty. Ibn ‘Arabî, the great Sufi was. Sufism is not a re- its power from its links to Arab Andalusian schol- “the four elements, to the ar, described them as ligion, and ultimately exists heavens and the lower the “outward signs of above and beyond all labels. worlds, to numbers and to the universe’s inner either light or dark- mysteries.”76 It is said Sufism is older than ness.”81 Each name is Islam and that it really had thought to be a unique, The practice of remem- living field of energy82 brance or dhikr (along no beginning, being just the with its own frequency with wazifa,77which latest flowering—taking on and light or color. involves the recitation Through the recitation and meditation on vari- the form of Islam—of the and contemplation of cer- ous Quranic phrases and ancient secret tradition tain names and sacred Prophetic supplica- stretching back to Adam. phrases, the sacred quali- tions), are a means by ties or attributes of Allah which the seeker is brought into the divine are revealed and unfolded in the life of the presence. As a form of ritual prayer or invoca- practitioner. More importantly, remembrance tion it helps focus the attention and allows the of Allah, one of the pillars of the Islamic and practitioner to know, evoke and develop the Sufi doctrine, can be fulfilled through the reci- different qualities or attributes of God or Al- tation and contemplation of God’s Beautiful lah. Thus the Names are a medium by which Names. one can come to understand something of the divine potential inherent in every soul.78 With respect to the Names themselves, Mus- lims and Sufis agree that the 99 Names of God The Ninety-Nine Names, in the words of Pir are really 100, excepting 1. Allah (the One), Zia Inayat Kahn, president of the Sufi Order being the Supreme Name that includes all the Ināyati, a Universalist order, are not just theo- others. There are, however, more than 99 logical abstractions. They are “sovereign rem- Names by which Allah is addressed in the edies for the ailing human heart.”)79 They are Qur’an and Sunnah,83 among other places. used for the purpose of psychological, mental Some scholars claim that Allah actually has and spiritual healing; for as the Qur‘an says: “ “three-thousand names: 1,000 known only by In the remembrance of Allah do hearts find the angels, 1,000 known by the prophets, who rest.” (Verse 13:28). The Names and phrases include Abraham, Moses and Jesus; the 300 of can be recited silently in the mind or said the Torah or Old Testament; the 300 of the aloud. They can also be sung and/or accompa- Psalms of David; the 300 of the New Testa- nied by various ritualized movements. As one ment; the 99 of the Koran; and, the 3000th commentator explains, the idea is to sound the name, the greatest name, Ism Allah al-azam, Name “until only silence reigns and the seek- the concealed name of the God’s Essence.”84 er’s ego is extinguished and only God remains. Others maintain t hat Allah has an infinite For true dhikr, as the saying goes, means for- number of names. Therefore, 99, the most getting the dhikr.”80

78 Copyright © The Esoteric Quarterly, 2016. Fall 2016 commonly used number, is merely a symbolic From above statements it becomes clear that figure depicting an unlimited quantity of at- Ma’rifa in Sufism is more than the attainment tributes or vibrations that reflect the multiplici- of divine knowledge. Ma’rifa or Gnosis im- ty of the Divine Essence. plies Self-realization and the transcendence of polarities or the opposites, access to and unifi- Ma‘rifa - Gnosis cation with the divine presence and being en- At the level of gnosis (marifa), there is raptured by reality of the Absolute One.91 For “no me and no you.” Sufis, this “knowing of God” is the very reason The individual realizes that all is God, that that humanity was created. This idea is ex- nothing and no one is separate from God. pressed in a saying from the prophetic tradition: “I was a hidden treasure and I loved to be This is the ultimate goal of Sufism. known, so I created the world.”92 85 (Robert Frager) But it is useful to point out that Islam and Su- As indicated earlier, one of Sufism’s foremost fism place a value on two kinds of knowledge, concerns is the pursuit of Gnosis (ma‘rifa), i.e., ma’rifa— knowledge that is related to which is the highest knowledge that an indi- God, and ilm— knowledge that has no appar- vidual can possess. Various writers, such as al ent spiritual meaning. But these two terms, Junayd86 and Ibn al-‘Arabî87 placed an empha- according to Abu-Yazīd, a 9th century Sufi sis on gnosis and believed that the essence of from Iran, are seen as synonymous, for to the One Being is “all knowledge.” Both be- know that God exists in the datum of manifes- lieved that there was no greater goal than hu- tation is to know that God alone is. God’s real- man gnosis or knowledge of Allah. “The goal,” ity transcends the world, but also mysteriously says John Gilchrist, a leading author on Islam, penetrates all things. “For whomever is close “is to attain a personal knowledge of the Di- to God (Al-Haqq) everything and every place vine Reality so that the knower and known are is God, for God is everywhere and every- one and there is no awareness of any distinc- thing.”93 88 tion of personality between them.” Ma‘rūf al- Another way of articulating this idea is to say Karkhī (d. 815), a Sufi saint, who is thought to that true gnosis surpasses limited, incomplete be the founder of the Sufi school of Bagdad, perspectives, without necessarily abolishing said that Sufism consists of “seizing upon Di- them, for ma’rifa is a perspective that includes vine Realities and forsaking all that comes 89 both the transcendent and the immanent. In from creatures.” another well-known hadith or saying, the The term ma’rifa, as Reza Shah Kazemi ex- Prophet Muhammad explains the goal and the plains, implies a paradox because the ultimate fruit of knowledge. “He who knows himself content of this knowledge radically transcends knows his Lord.” Elsewhere the Prophet stated the individual… that: “Seeking knowledge [of God or the Cos- mos] is incumbent upon every Muslim,” and In one respect it is a light that illumines and such knowledge should be sought far and clarifies, in another respect its very bril- wide, “even,” he says, “unto China.”94 liance dazzles, blinds and extinguishes the one who is designated as the knower. This Yet, one is advised not to acquire knowledge luminous knowledge that demands “un- for its own sake, as this feeds the ego or little knowing” is also a mode of being efface- self (nafs) and leads one away from the Divine ment; and it is the conjunction between per- Essence. Ibn al-‘Arabî, who developed a com- fect knowledge and pure being that defines plex theosophical system akin to that of Ploti- the ultimate degree of ma‘rifa. Since such a nus, thought that knowledge, even of the Cos- conjunction is only perfectly realized in the mos, could be a divergence, a veil or a blind if undifferentiated unity of the Absolute, it one did not recognize the Creator’s workings 95 follows that it can only be through the Ab- behind all outer appearances or signs. While solute that the individual can have access to the living realization of self-knowledge and ma‘rifa.90 God-knowledge is one of the Sufi’s principle

Copyright © The Esoteric Quarterly 79 The Esoteric Quarterly quests, the precedence given to true knowledge that which perceives the transcendent.99 Lings in Sufism, as Burckhardt explains, “in no way goes on to say: implies an emphasis on the mind at the ex- In virtue of being the centre of the body, the pense of the emotional faculties” 96 whose or- heart may be said to transcend the rest of gan is the heart and center of person’s being. the body, although substantially it consists Mahabba - Love of the same flesh and blood. In other words, while the body as a whole is “horizontal” in The union of the mind and intuition, which the sense that it is limited to its own plane brings about illumination, of existence, the heart has, in addition, a and the development which the Sufis seek, certain “verticality” for being the lower end is based upon love. of the “vertical” axis which passes from (Idries Shah)97 Divinity Itself through the centres of all the degrees of the Universes. If we use the im- The prominence of “Love” (hubb or mahabba) agery suggested by Jacob’s Ladder, which and the “Heart” (qalb) equals, and in some is none other than this axis, the bodily heart Sufi Orders, surpasses that of the knowledge or intellect. This is evidenced in the following will be the lowest rung and the ladder itself will represent the whole hierarchy of cen- quotes from the Qur’an, which teach that tres or “Hearts” one above the other. This “God’s mercy is greater than His wrath” and image is all the more adequate for repre- that “God's love is His supreme attribute.” In senting each centre as distinct from the oth- fact, Sufism is frequently called “the path of ers and yet, at the same time connected love” and “the religion of the heart.” In Islam with them. It is in virtue of this intercon- and in Sufism in particular, the heart carries a nection, through which the centres in the special importance. The heart is seen as the body are, as it were, merged into one, that seat of spiritual awareness. The heart is the the bodily heart receives Life from Divinity man’s innermost reality, the center of con- and floods the body with Life.100 sciousness and the true essence of human being. The following passage from the Qur’ān From these comments one can see why the (8:24) speaks to its significance in reminding heart in Sufism is often seen as synonymous us that: “Allah intervenes between man and his with the spark of Spirit, which has both a Di- heart.” vine and Created aspect. The heart is also re- Yunis Emre98 (1240–1320), one of the great garded as a solar symbol or inward Sun and a Turkish Sufi poets of love, maintained that manifestation of one of the 99 Names of Al- while reason and free will can link one to God, lah—al Nur—the essence of the all-pervading it is the purified heart, the seat of the soul and Light or luminosity. The following lines also the intellect, which can intuit God’s es- from a Persian mystical poem, speak to the sence. The heart, as Martin Lings held, can be importance of opening the Heart. “Split the atom’s heart and lo! Within it thou wilt find a found to be a synonym for the intellect, but in 101 the full sense of the Latin intellectus, meaning sun.”

The Winged Heart superimposed upon the Sun102

The heart is not only the source of vision or and one who is illuminated by His Beauty light, but also the endless font of love. The in the light of contemplation. great Sufi poets of love, like the female mystic There is a difference between one who Rabiah al-Adawiyah (d. 801), Emre and Rumi, meditates upon Divine acts and one who is believed that love dominates and determines amazed at the Divine Majesty; the one is a the Sufi’s inward and psychological states and follower of friendship [wanting what is is thus what defines the relationship between good for others], the other is a companion humans and God. Hazart Inayat Kahn explains of love. 107 (Author’s brackets) that: “Love draws us back to Love.”103 He goes on to say that: “The greatest principle of Su- Another Sufi theologian and poet, Maulanā fism is ‘Ishq Allah, Ma'bud Allah.’” (God is Jāmī (1414–1492), held that there are two love, lover, and beloved.) types of Sufis, the mystical and gnos- tic/prophetic: those who have annihilated the The Path of Love is the path that leads one self and are submerged in complete union with away from the bondage of the nafs or base self the Divine, but return to the shores of separa- to the freedom and wholeness of one’s divine tion to lead others to salvation; and those who nature, a nature that loves and serves all beings remain within “the Ocean of Unity, that never as manifestations of God. Love has an im- a news or trace comes to the shore of separa- mense transformative power and is one of the tion…and the sanctity of perfecting others is methods for achieving an inner alchemy by not entrusted to them.”108 which the Sufi rids him or her self of “everything-other-than-God.” The famous Anda- The first type can be likened to the Bodhisattva lusian Sufi, Ahmad ibn-al ‘Arīf (1088–1141), ideal in Buddhism, those who have achieved said that love is the “beginning of the valleys Enlightenment, but are motivated by compas- of extinction (fanā) and the hill from which sion to return to the world of samsara to aid there is a descent towards the stages of self- others on the path to Buddhahood. The second naughting…. In Sufism, the willful annihila- type are those who have achieved Enlighten- tion of the self—to die before you die104—and ment and have chosen not to return to the the resultant baqa (everlasting subsistence realms of incarnation and maya. through God), takes place when magnetic Maqāmāt or Stations on the Path power of the Spirit draws the soul to it and the loving heart lays down in the arms of the Be- As previously noted in the section on the puri- loved or God. fication of the lower self or nafs, classical Su- fism describes a series of spiritual milestones, But, as has been previously noted, the empha- states, stations and degrees along the path of sis in Sufism today tends to be on an intermin- return. Although Sufis make a distinction be- gling or synthesis of love and knowledge. As tween the stability of the stations (maqāmāt) Fakhrrudin ‘Araki (1213– 1289), one of the and ahwāl (the many temporary states of the great Sufi masters, poets and scholars held, soul), the focus here will be limited to the “Love is not juxtaposed to knowledge, It is permanent stations. realized knowledge.”105 Nevertheless there are Sufis who tend to place a focus on either one The various degrees or stations represent cu- or the other—either the mystical and ecstatic mulative and permanent stages or degrees in approach or sober, mental approach. This was self-awareness and spiritual development, especially the case in Sufism’s formative peri- which are attainable through sustained effort od, where as Schimmel points out, “Sufism and spiritual practice. 106 admitted a two-fold approach to God,” Each metaphysical degree or maqām exempli- which she illustrates with the following quotes fies the seeker’s level of initiatic attainment from Hujwīrī: and awareness of the spiritual subtleties behind There is a difference between one who is the world of outer form, his perception of burned by His Majesty in the fire of love, Truth, the meaning of life, especially one’s

Copyright © The Esoteric Quarterly 81 The Esoteric Quarterly own life purpose, and one’s attunement with Others give the following seven stations be- Divine Will. Hence, the maqām reflect the ginning with: 1) the nafs or the sensitive soul; dominant quality of the soul and signify where 2) the qalb or heart; 3) ‘aql or intellect; 4) rūh the seeker is “stationed” until he moves on to or spirit; 5) the sirr or secret of innermost the station that looms ahead. heart; 6) jafi (also khafi or that which is hid- 112 According to N. Hanif, the stations of wisdom, den; 7) al-afiā or true Being. as they are also called, “are degrees of penetra- According to William Chittick, Ibn ‘Arabî, tion into the divine unity,” considered by many to or Oneness of God.109 God and man are not two; be one of the world’s They mark progress on the Sufi does not consider greatest Muslim philos- the path of discipline and ophers, represented the attainment before the Sufi God separate from himself. various levels, states can achieve union with The Sufi's God is not in and stations as “the ac- God. Heaven alone; He is every- tualization of potential deiformity,”(likeness to There is no universally where. He sees God in the Deity).113 In Ibn accepted order or number ‘Arabî’s characteriza- of stations. Different unseen and in the seen; he tion, the stations corre- teachers and Sufi Orders recognizes God both within spond to one or more of have outlined the stations and without. Therefore there the divine archetypes or in a way that reflects their Names. Of special in- own experience and con- is no name which is not the terest in his philosophy ceptions of reality. Thus, Name of God, and there is no was the “Station of No some Sufis say there are 4 Station,” the station that stations, other list 6, or 7, form which is not the form of includes all the other and still others 40 or as God, to the eyes of the Sufi. stations and is, in one many as 100. Adding to sense, the final “Reality of Realities.” the complexity of the subject is the fact that some Sufis relate the maqāmāt to the heart, to Maqām lā Maqām -The Station of No various Lataif-e-sitta, the pyschospiritual or- Station gans or centers of perception in the heart and The Station of No Station pertains to the Per- or body, or to various classifications of fect Man who has come full circle in his evolu- knowledge. To complicate matters further, tionary growth and development and has there is, in some quarters, a continuous process achieved union or tawhīd, knowledge of the of modification and adjustment in the light of Real. Chittick portrays the Perfect Man stand- new understanding and experience on the path. ing in this station as the “human analogue of Such fluidity can be seen to be one of the Nondelimited Being, which assumes every hallmarks of the Sufi path given that Sufis, as delimitation without itself becoming lim- Helena Blavatsky says, have “no external, rit- 114 ited.” Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi (1210–1274), ualistic, and dogmatic religion.”110 For, “the one of the most influential Sufi thinkers, de- journey of the soul towards God, as S. H. Nasr scribes this station as the “exact middle” or explains, “includes too many imponderable “the point at the center of the circle of exist- elements to allow it to be reduced to a set ence.” The Station of No Station is also fana, scheme.”111 the ultimate goal – a dissolution of the Sufi’s Some Sufis, for example, view the stations as consciousness and identity through a total ab- the grounds for a spiritual life which deal with sorption in the love and knowledge of God. such considerations as: 1) tawba or repentance; Thus the Maqām lā Maqām is the highest level 2) wará or watchfulness; 3) zuhd or renuncia- of human perfection; it refers to one who ex- tion; 4) faqr or poverty (the absence of desire); presses all of the Divine attributes or potential- 5) şabr or patience; 6) tawakkul or trust; 7) ities of God and has come to understand the ridā or acceptance.

82 Copyright © The Esoteric Quarterly, 2016. Fall 2016 relationships within the Divine field that have nary language, which is to say that people hitherto been concealed by the veils of illusion. are blinded of the shining of its light. In fact of course, the light witnessed by human be- The Station of No Station is often described as ings is forever shinning in the darkness of an unknown station that exists outside of our the cosmos, it is only human capacity that limited conception of space and time and rep- prevents people from seeing it.118 resents liberation from the dual nature of existence. In the philosophy of Ibn ‘Arabī, the Sta- The Station of No Station exists outside of our tion of No Station, as previously stated, em- limited conception of space and time. It is the braces all the other stations. So as Anub place where there is a direct recognition of the Whitehouse explains, the Station of No Station Unity of the One. While the Station of No Sta- is “the zero degree” before the seeker has at- tion is thought to be the final station and the tained the first maqām, the final “terminus” or actualization of all of God’s Beautiful Names, station, and the place where the “two extremes in truth “there can be,” as Whitehouse main- meet and the serpent bites its own tail.”115 He tains, “no so set number of stages, states or goes on to say that every station is a no station stations,” for the Absolute Infinitude trans- until a new unimagined station presents itself: cends and encompasses even the transfinite numbers and infinities.119 The station of no station would … be the station where one no longer perceives that Conclusion which is lower as such, where everything is leveled by reference to what is higher, and his article explored the fundamentals of where it is revealed to us that all stations T Sufism, which Sufis themselves have are perfect at whatever degree they might claimed to be deeply complex. Indeed, Sufism be situated. The degrees disappear. The is multifaceted, diffuse and fluid, making it miracle is to see that God is to be found in nearly impossible to present a one-dimensional His totality at all degrees, at all stations model. There is a great spectrum of Sufi theory where he manifests, in all degrees of mani- and practice as well as a wide variety of Sufi festation, from the most radiant to the most orders: classical, reformed and interfaith or- obscure. … [where] every thing is a ders, which have been shaped within various maqām, the whole of life presents cultural, political and historical contexts. Fur- maqāms.116 thermore, “Sufism holds a secret,” which as Idries Shah says, “is only to be found in the The ascent to the Station of No Station is, in spirit and practice of the Work.” “Sufism,” Whitehouse’s opinion, an attempt to bring to- therefore, “cannot be understood by the intel- gether precreation, creation and de-creation lect alone, neither can it be understood from into a unity. It is the place where all points of the outside.”120 Nor is it possible to advance view are comprehended, where the ob- beyond a superficial grasp of the Sufi Path ject/subject disappears, where affirmation and without the guidance of a teacher who is one negation cease to exist and the still point gives 117 with the Beloved and connected to an unbro- entry into the Divine Essence. ken lineage of authentic Masters. The Station of No Station is further described In addition to Sufism’s complexity and dyna- as an unknown station. In his reading of Ibn mism, conflict and violence in the Middle East ‘Arabī, Chittick says that: and elsewhere, along with the media’s negative The Station of No Station brings together portrayal of Muslims, has cast a great pall over every quality in utter differentiation, pure everything Islamic. Nevertheless, Sufism, as unity, sheer consciousness, total freedom, this article has attempted to show, is one of the complete lack of delimitation and identity world’s great spiritual currents. with Real self-disclosers. The nature of Sufism is an ancient school of self-knowledge, consciousness experienced in this station of human development, a system with a diver- can only be expressed in analogies and sity of methods and disciplines designed to metaphors. It is utterly inaccessible to ordi- facilitate the realization of one’s identity with

Supreme Identity and one’s oneness with God. Sufism is both philosophical and experiential. cial leader as well as a close companion of the Some orders can be classified as “drunken.” Prophet. Sunni’s regard themselves as the or- These are Sufis who tend toward the “Heart thodox branch of Islam. For Sunnis, authority approach” and employ aesthetic and devotional is shared by all within the community (even if practices, such as the Invocation of Names, certain individuals have, in practice, claimed rhythmic movement, music and poetry as a special authority) Sunni Muslims may follow means of producing an ecstatic experience or one of several law schools named after their “state” in which the participant’s sense of self four founders or Imams. Source: New World is dissolved in the Presence. Such an approach Encyclopedia. can be contrasted with a more “sober” or intel- www.newworldencyclopedia.org/. 2 Shi'a Islam or Shi`ism is the second largest lectual approach, which emphasizes school within Islam. Shi'a Muslims also ad- knowledge, discernment and contemplation, here to the teachings of the Islam- and “fixity” on the Real. Many Sufi orders ic prophet Muhammad and his family. Shi'as acknowledge the need “to see with both eyes,” believe that the Imam must belong to the di- as Ibn ‘Arabi says; in other words, to seek an rect lineage of Muhammad through his daugh- all-important balance between the heart and ter Fatima and her husband (and Muhammad's head, plus right action. cousin), Ali ibn Abi Talib (Imam Ali, the fourth caliph), who the Muhammad appointed Sufism also has a decidedly inclusive and uni- as the sole interpreter of his spiritual legacy. versal nature. The core principles of Sufism Shi'as reject the first three caliphs as usurpers belong to the transcendent unity of truth and of Ali's Imamate. The theme of lineage and in- wisdom lying behind all the major faiths and fallibility of the Imam developed within Shi'a esoteric traditions. Like most spiritual paths, Islam, as well as the idea of a hidden Imam the Sufi Way encourages beautification and who will bring God's judgment in the Last mastery over the lower self along with the de- Days. There are several sub-divisions. The majority of Shi'a believe that the Imam is now velopment of qualities such as charity, service, “hidden” but will return as the Mahdi. Source: compassion, humility, honesty, detachment New World Encyclopedia, and wisdom. Thus, Sufism serves the function www.newworldencyclopedia.org/. of helping seekers to free themselves from the 3 It should be noted here that many classical or prison of the senses so that he or she becomes tradition Islamic Sufi’s view the Universalist a perfect mirror, which reflects the attributes of and Non-Muslim orders as quasi or pseudo Divinity. The ultimate goal on the Sufi path, as Sufis, since they are more or less disconnected S.H. Nasr says, is to lead the disciple from “the from the teachings of the Qur ‘an and Sharia particular to the Universal, from separation to or Islamic Law, which serves as the founda- Unity, from form to the supra-formal Es- tion of the classical Sufi Path. 4 The common exoteric explanation of Ta- sence,” to tawhīd and to “the truth that has al- 121 sawwuf means, “to wear wool.” From an eso- ways been and will always be.” teric perspective Tasawwuff implies Divine It is the author’s hope that this introductory Wisdom or Sophia based on an internal approach to Islam. paper will allow students of esoteric philoso- 5 phy and the other metaphysical traditions to Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, quoting F. A. D. Tholuck in his 1821 see Sufism as one of the world’s hidden treas- volume on Sufism (Chapel Hill. NC: Univer- ures and a profound exposition of the Perennial sity of North Carolina Press, 1975), 9. Wisdom and the Life of the Spirit. 6 The Pahlawan religion (champions) was one of the Persian religions that focused on chival- ry and etiquette around which the essence of 1 Sufism is shaped. See for example: Sufism in Sunni Islam is the largest denomination the Secret History of Persia, by Milad Milani. of Islam making up approximately 80% of the 7 Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Muslim population in the world. Sunni’s hold Islam, 3. that the Prophet Muhammad's first Caliph was 8 On one level, the widely diffused parable of his father-in-law Abu Bakr, a political and so- the blind men and an elephant is a story of a

group of blind men (or men in the dark) who practicalsufism.html (accessed March 21, were made to touch an elephant to learn what 2016). it is like. Each one feels a different part, but 20 See for example: Mystical Islam: An Introduc- only one part, such as the side or the tusk. tion to Sufism, by Julian Baldick, or Sufism: A They then compare notes and learn that they Global History, by Nile Green. are in complete disagreement. The story refers 21 Titus Burckhardt, Introduction to Sufi Doc- to one’s biases and the inability to see the trine, (reprint: 1959; Bloomington, Ind: World completed whole, as well as the problem of Wisdom, Inc., 2008), 5. assessing the world purely through the senses. 22 The Mevlevi/Mawlaw'īyya Order is Sufi order 9 E. H. Palmer, Oriental Mysticism: A Treatise in Konya, Turkey founded by Jalāl ad-Dīn on Sufistic and Unitarian Theosophy of the Muhammad Rūmī, the 13th century Persian Persians (1876; reprint; London: Luzac and poet and theologian. Co., 1969), 18. 23 I bid. 10 Atif Khalil and Shiraz Sheikh, in Sufism in 24 Mollie Magill, Discuss the Non-Islamic Ori- Western Scholarship: A Brief Overview, a pa- gins of Sufism, per made available through Academic.edu: https://molliemagill.wordpress.com/discuss- https://www.academia.edu/ (accessed March the-arguments-for-the-non-islamic-origins-of- 22, 2016). sufism (accessed February 14, 2016). 11 Helena P. Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine, 25 I bid. Vol. I (reprint: 1888; Pasadena, CA: Theo- 26 Ibid. sophical University Press, 1974), 288. 27 This system is based on the Abjad numerals, 12 Helena P. Blavatsky, The Theosophical Glos- which are a decimal numeral system in which sary (1930: reprint; London: The Theosophi- the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet are as- cal Publishing Society, 1892), 311. signed numerical values. They have been used 13 Hazart Inayat Kahn was an Indian classical in the Arabic-speaking world since before the musician who had been initiated into the 8th century Arabic numerals. In mod- Chrishti Sufi Order. In 1907, he was encour- ern Arabic, the word abjadīyah means “alpha- aged by his spiritual teacher, Shaykh Mu- bet.” The Qu’ran is also structured on an in- hammed Abu Hashim Madani to bring Su- genious mathematical formula, based primari- fism to the West (London). In so doing he ly on the number 7. Gematria plays an im- abandoned Islamic Sufism in favor of an portant role in Sufism. Many Sufi’s believe approach that did not emphasize Sufism’s that the numbers are part of the creative system by which all things in the cosmos were connection to Islam. created. 14 Inayat Khan. Quoted from Sufism in the un- 28 Louis Massingon, Essai sur les Origines du published papers from the Nekbakht Founda- Lexique Technique de la Mystique Musulmane tion. (Paris: Geuthner, 1954), 104. 15 The Life and Teachings of Hazrat Inayat 29 Professor John L. Esposito, The Oxford Ency- Khan, clopaedia of the Modern Islamic World (Ox- https://wahiduddin.net/hik/hik_origins.htm ford: ENG: Oxford University Press, 1995). (accessed March 21, 2016). 30 Ibid. 16 Idries Shah, The Sufis (reprint, 1964; London, 31 Martin Lings, What is Sufism (Lahore, Paki- UK: Octagon Press Ltd. 1999) 356. stan: Suhail Academy, 1983), 16. 17 Mehmet Sabeheddin, “The Secret Path: Sufi 32 Titus Burckhardt, An Introduction to Sufi Mystics and the Spiritual Quest,” in New Doctrine, 4. Dawn Magazine, No. 85, July-August 33 Hazrat Inayat Khan on “Silsila,” Who we are, 2004. www.newdawnmagazine.com (accessed from the “Sufi Order International.” March 22, 2016). http://www.centrum- 18 The Origins of Sufism: Pre & Post Islam: universel.com/silsilae.htm (accessed may 20, From a lecture by the Silsilah-e-Aaliya Mu- 2016). jummah Al Baharian Community. 34 Shaykh Mahmud Shabistari, Gulshan i raz: 19 Vincent Cornell, Practical Sufism: An Akbri- The Mystic Rose Garden (London: Forgotten an Foundation for Liberal Theology of Differ- Books, 2012), 84. ence, 35 Martin Lings, What is Sufism, 12. http://www.ibnarabisociety.org/articles/cornell

36 Ibid. ter-Spring, 1980), World Wisdom, Inc. 37 Universal Sufism, as noted in the text, does www.studiesincomparativereligion.com not strictly adhere to Islam law. However, (accessed May 7, 2016. they share many of the same practices, meth- 51 Ibid. ods and rites as the traditional orders. In con- 52 Fakhruddin Iraqi, Divine Flashes (trans: Wil- trast to the more traditional or Islamic orders, liam Chittick and Seeyed Hossein Nasr; Universal Sufism focuses on the importance Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1982), 69 of eliminating the boundaries that divide tradi- 53 For more detailed information see for exam- tional religions, and incorporates the “Wisdom ple: In Search of the Lost Heart: Explorations of all Faiths” into its beliefs and practices. in Islamic Thought, by William C. Chittick, 38 Eric Geoffroy, “Approaching Islam,” in Su- Mohammed Rustom, Atif Khalil. fism: Love and Wisdom, edited by Jean-Louis 54 Medhi Azminrazavi, Sufism and American Michon and Roger Gaetani (Bloomington, Literary Masters (Albany, New York: SUNY Ind., 2006), 50. Press, 2014), 154. 39 Seeyed Hossein Nasr, Sufi Essays (Chicago, 55 Ibnul Farid, Taiyyat ul Kubra, p. 245-46, as IL: ABC International Group, 1999), 43. quoted from the Shared Vision of Sufi and Yo- 40 Ibid. gic Vision 41 Ibid., 39. http://www.bahaistudies.net/asma/the_shared_ 42 Sayyidna Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Naysaburi, A besuties_of_sufi_&_yogic_vision.pdf (ac- Code of Conduct, tr.; Verena Klemm & Paul E. cessed April 11, 2016). Walker; The Journal of Shi'a Islamic Studies, 56 Coleman Barks, and John Moyne trans., The Volume 5, Issue 3, Summer 2012, 44. Essential Rumi (San Francisco: Harper- 43 Traditional Muslims repeat the shahāda: lā SanFrancisco, 1995), 275-6. ʾilāha ʾillā-llāh, muḥammadur-rasūlu-llāh 57 The Bhagavad Gita, trans. Annie Besant, 111. (There is no God but God. Muhammad is Available online at: God’s is messenger), five times a day, but https;//archive.org/details/bhagavadgt00besag Universal Sufism also rhythmically recites the oog (accessed May 7, 2016). first part of this phrase (lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāh) as 58 The Sirimad Bhagavad-Gita, trans., A part of the dhikr or Practice of Remembrance. Kaushik (New York: Hippocrene Books Inc., 44 The concept of tahwīd have long been used by U.S., 1998), Islamic reformers and activists as an organiz- 186. ing principle for human society and the basis 59 See The Doctrine of the Perfect Man (Al- of religious knowledge, history, metaphysics, Insan al-Kamil) and its Significance Today, aesthetics, and ethics, as well as social, eco- by Anisah Bagasra at: nomic, and world order. http://www.israinternational.com/the-perfect- 45 Dr. Steven Masood, Wahdat al-Wujūd: A man.html. Fundamental Doctrine in Sufism, 60 Reynold A. Nicholson, Studies in Islamic http://www.stevenmasood.org/article/wahdat- Mysticism (reprint 1921; Whitefish, MT: Kes- al-wujud-fundamental-doctrine-sufism (ac- singer Publishing, LLC, 2007), 78). This high- cessed May 7, 2016). ly recommended book is also available online 46 Ibid. at: http://sacred-texts.com/isl/siim/index.htm. 47 Hazrat Inayat Khan, “Prophets and Reli- 61 Ibid. gions,” The Unity of Religious Ideals, Vol. 9, 62 P. Bearman; P. Kunitzsch and F. From the Hazrat Inayat Khan Study Database Jong, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, www.hazrat-inayat- http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/ khan.org/php/views.php?h1=31&h2=14&h3= encyclopaedia-of-islam-2 (accessed May 21, 2 (accessed May 7, 2016). 2016). 48 Seeyed Hossein Nasr, The Heart of Islam: 63 Theja Gunawardhana, Theosophy an Islam Enduring Values for Humanity (New York: (Nugegoda: Theosophical Society of Sri HarperCollins Publishers, 2002), 3. Lanka, 1983). 78. 49 Ibid. 64 It is of interest to note that that the concept of 50 Seeyed Hossein Nasr, “The Male and Female the Universal or Perfect Man played a signifi- in the Islamic Perspective,” Studies in Com- cant role in the Rumi’s poems and that for parative Religion, Vol. 14, No. 1 & 2. (Win- Rumi, Shams al Din of Tabrizi was t he em-

bodiment of what he called the “Perfect Man.” 73 Shadhana is an essential Islamic creed declar- One of the few contemporary individuals who ing the oneness of God. lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāh, came to believe that he had attained the level There is no God but God. of al-insan al-kamil was the Iranian Shia Mus- 74 The Universalist Order is now the “Inayat lim religious leader, revolutionary, politician Khan Sufi Order” headed by Pir Inayat Khan. and the founder of the Islamic Republic of 75 Wali Ali Meyer, Bilal Hyde, Faisal Muqad- Iran, the Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ruhollah dam and Shaabda Kahn, Physicians of the Mūsavi Khomeini. Khomeini never publically Heart, A Sufi View of the Ninety-Nine Name of made such a claim, as it would have been con- Allah (San Francisco, CA: Sufi Ruhaniat In- sidered heretical, but he was preoccupied with ternational, 2001), 19. the concept of the perfect man. The belief not 76 As quoted in Essential Islam: A Comprehen- only formed the core of his writings, it was the sive Guide to Belief and Practice, by Diane impetus behind his desire, as Ted Thornton Morgan (Santa Barbara, CA: ABD-CLIO and numerous others have maintained, “to LLC, 2010), 10. guide society from multiplicity to unity, from 77 The word dhikr is the remembrance of God blasphemy to faith and from corruption to a through the rhythmic repetition of Names. The life of absolute perfection.” term wazifa refers to the recitation of various 65 As quoted in Love is a Fire by Llewellyn verses or phrases as means of going beyond Vaughan-Lee (Point Reyes Station, CA: The the divine quality or attributes of a specific Golden Sufi Center, 2000), 20. name. However, the meaning of these terms 66 Certain Sufi Orders claim that the nafs reside change in the various branches of Islam and in in the lower abdomen where they create a hot the different Sufi orders where the names are smoke or fog that is the source of all evil de- interchanged. sires and passions. If these desires are not con- 78 Wali Ali Meyer, Bilal Hyde, Faisal Muqad- trolled through spiritual disciplines, they es- dam and Shaabda Kahn, Physicians of the cape from the stomach area and enter into the Heart, A Sufi View of the Ninety-Nine Name of breast filling it with smoke. The light in the Allah, xvii. heart is obscured by this smoke and can no 79 As quoted in Physicians of the Heart, A Sufi longer illuminate the breast. See for example: View of the Ninety-Nine Name of Allah. A Sufi Work on the Stations of the Heart, 80 Dhikr – The Most Common Prayer f Islamic http://faculty.washington.edu/heer/stations.pdf Mystics. Online at: . (accessed May 1, 2016). http://www.holisticonline.com/Prayer/Spl_pra 67 Ali-Hujwiri, The Kashf al-Mahjub (The Reve- yers/hol_prayer_Dhikr.htm. (accessed June lation of the Veiled) of Ali b. 'Uthman al- 22, 2016). Jullabi Hujwiri, trans., by Reynold A. Nichol- 81 Roya Azul, The Magical Power of Arabic son (Gibb Memorial Trust, 2014), 25. Letters. Online at: 68 See for example: http://www.theartofislamichealing.com/the- http://www.rifai.org/sufism/english/the-art-of- magical-powers-of-arabic-letters. (accessed being/four-stages-for-the-purification-of-the- June 23, 2016). heart (accessed, April 1, 2016). 82 Ibid. 69 Dr. Anub Whitehouse, Sufi Amanesis: State, 83 Sunnah is the verbally transmitted record of Stations, Stages and Practices, January 4, the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent per- 2010. missions (or disapprovals) of the Islamic http://anabwhitehouse.blogspot.com/2010/01/ Prophet Muhammad, as well as various re- states-stations-stages-and-practice.html (ac- ports about Muhammad's companions. cessed May 11, 2016). 84 Shems Friedlander, Ninety-Nine Names of 70 Javad Nurbakhsh, In the Tavern of Ruins Allah (New York, NY: Harper & Row, 1993), (London: Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Publica- Foreward. tions, 1992). 85 Robert Frager, Heart, Self and Soul: The Sufi 71 The Hadith in question is from Jani-at- Psychology of Growth, Balance, and Harmo- Tirmidhi or Sunan at-Tirmidhi. ny (Wheaton, IL: Quest Books, 1999), 23. 72 Strict orthodox Sunni Muslim sects, such as 86 Abu al-Qasim ibn Muhammad Junayd, al- the Wahhabi disavow the practice. Baghdadi was one of the most celebrated of

the early Persian Sufi’s of Islam. He is central ness of the crescent moon to the light of the figure in the golden chain or lineage of spir- Sun, for it gradually receives the light, which itual masters and was an important figure in develops it until it becomes the full moon. the development of Sufi doctrine. Thus Crescent in the heart signifies that the 87 Muhyi-d-Dīn ibn ‘Arabī (d.1240), is consid- Heart is responsive to the light of God and ered to be one of most influential Muslim will be illuminated by the Sun. The explana- mystics, poets and philosophers, and was giv- tion of the Five-Pointed Star is a symbol of en the appellation ash-shaykh al-akbar “the the perfected Man or the God realized Man. greatest of spiritual masters.” The Sun is a symbol of the Spirit. The image 88 John Gilchrist, Muhammad and the Religion here is used in the Universal Sufi Orders. of Islam (Benoni: South Africa: Jesus to the 103 Hazrat Inayat Khan, “Dedication of the Uni- Muslims, 1986), 346. versal,” 1926. 89 Eric Geoffroy, “Approaching Sufism,” in: 104 The saying: “To die before you die,” is at- Sufism: Love and Wisdom, 57. tributed to the Prophet Muhammad. It is also a 90 Reza Shah Kazemi, “The Notion and Signifi- famous Zen saying. cance of Ma‘rifa in Sufism,” Journal of Islam- 105 As quoted from BuddhaNet in an article titled ic Studies 13:2 (London: Oxford Centre for Is- “ Sufi and Dzogchen Reflections,” lamic Studies, 2002), 155-181. http://www.buddhanet.net/index.html (ac- 91 Eunice Villaneda, “Ma’rifa and Gnosis: The cessed May 2, 2016.) System of Divine Knowledge in Sufism and 106 Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Valentinianism” in the Claremont Journal of Islam, 6. Religion, Vol. 3, Issue 2, (Long Beach, CA: 107 Al-Hujwiri, The Kashf Al-Mahjub (The Reve- California State University, 2014), 112. lation of the Veiled), trans., Reynold A. Ni- 92 This saying is from Hadith Qudsi, which are cholson (Gibb Memorial Trust, 2000), 367. were given in the Prophet Mummand’s own 108 Maulanā Jāmī, as paraphrased from the words. Schimmel’s Mystical Dimensions of Islam, p. 93 Muhyidden Ibn ‘Arabî, as quoted in “The No- 6. tion and Significance of Ma’rifa,”158. 109 N. Hanif, Biographical Encyclopaedia of Su- 94 From a well known Hadith or saying of the fis: Central Asia and Middle East (New Delhi: Prophet Muhammad. IND: Sarup Book Publishers Ltd., 2002), 469. 95 William C. Chittick, “Ibn ‘Arabī on the Bene- 110 Helena P. Blavatsky, “A Treatise on Sufism,” fit of Knowledge,” The Essential Sophia, Blavatsky Collected Writings, Vol. 4 (CD- WorldWisdom Inc., 2006. ROM; Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Publishing http://www.worldwisdom.com/public/viewpdf House, 1882), 162. /default.aspx?articlettle=Ibn_Arabi_on_the_B 111 Seeyed Hossein Nasr, Sufi Essays, 76. efit_of_Knowledge_by_William_Chittick.pdf 112 Seeyed Hossein Nasr, Sadr al-Dīn Sīrazī and (accessed April 2, 2016). his Transcendent Theosophy (Tehran, Iran: 96 Titus Burckhardt, An Introduction to Sufi Imperial Irianian Academy of Philosophy, Doctrine, 22. 1978), 58. 97 Idries Shah, The Sufi’s (London: Octagon 113 William Chittick, “Ibn Arabi,”The Stanford Press, 1964), 129. Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2014 Online at: 98 Yunis Emre, a Sufi dervish, was one of Tur- http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-arabi/ (ac- key’s most distinguished poets who exercised cessed June 30, 2016). a powerful influence of Turkish literature. 114 William Chittick, “Ibn Arabi,” The Stanford Emre was venerated as a Saint after his death. Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 99 Martin Lings, What is Sufism, 48. 115 Anub Whitehouse, Sufi Amanesis: State, Sta- 100 Ibid., 48-49. tions, Stages and Practices. 116 101 These lines are thought to be from Ba- Ibid. 117 ha‘u‘llah, The Seven Valleys. Ibid. 118 102 The symbol of the Sufi Path is a Heart with William C. Chittick, The Sufi Path of Wings superimposed upon the Sun. It depicts Knowledge: Ibn al-Arabi's Metaphysics of that the heart is medium between soul and Imagination (Albany: SUNY Press, 1989), 377. body, spirit and matter. The Wings are the 119 symbol of spiritual progress and aspira- Anub Whitehouse, Sufi Amanesis: State, Sta- tion. The Crescent represents the responsive- tions, Stages and Practices.

120 Idries Shaw, The Sufi’s (London: The Indries 121 Seeyed Hossein Nasr, Sufi Essays, 32. Shah Foundation, 1964), 20.