The Relevance of Montessori Today: Meeting Human Needs-Principles to Practice

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TITLE The Relevance of Montessori Today: Meeting Human Needs-Principles to Practice. Proceeding of the AMI/USA National Conference (Bellevue, Washington, July 25-28, 1996). INSTITUTION American Montessori International of the United States, Inc., Rochester, NY. PUB DATE 1997-00-00 NOTE 108p. AVAILABLE FROM American Montessori International of the United States, Inc., 400 Alexander Street, Rochester, NY 14607;phone: 716-461-5920; fax: 461-0075; e-mail: [email protected] PUB TYPE Collected Works - Proceedings (021) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Classroom Techniques; Conferences; *Educational Improvement; Educational Research; Elementary Education;Learning Disabilities; *Montessori Method; Parent Teacher Conferences; Parent Teacher Cooperation; Physics; Program Evaluation; Public Education; Teaching Assistants;Teaching Methods IDENTIFIERS Montessori (Maria)

ABSTRACT This set of proceedings from the AssociationMontessori International (AMI/USA) 1996 conference contains theconference schedule and 20 presentations. The conference presentations are: (1) "The Dawning of Wisdom" (Montessori); (2) "The Support of Montessori Education to Human Potential" (Montanaro); (3) "Healthy Environment: Healthy Children: Healthy Culture" (Orion); (4) "Cosmic Education vs. the Public SchoolCurriculum--Are the Two at Variance?" (Stephenson); (5) "The Atrium: Silence, Simplicity, Movement, Symbol and Joy" (Kaiel); (6) "Family Star--A Montessori Grassroots Early Headstart Initiative" (Urioste); (7) "Beyond the Basic Needs: Nurturing the Full Potential of the Upper ElementaryChild" (Denton); (8) "Building the Elementary Program and Transitional Program Strategies"(Davidson); (9) "Practical Applications of Montessori in the Home"(Helfrich);(10) "An Approach to the Resolution of Conflicts in a Positive Way"(Dubovoy); (11) "Talking with Parents: Conferences and Communications"(Caudill); (12) "Dr. Maria Montessori--A Contemporary Educator?"(Stephenson);(13) "The Relevance of the 'Erdkinder' Vision" (Davis);(14) "Maria Montessori Envisioned Physics as Part of the Environment"(Gebhardt-Seele);(15) "Montessori Research: Recent Trends" (Boehnlein); (16) "Children atRisk" (Richardson);(17) "The Child in the Family" (Fernando);(18) "Working with Your Assistant" (Helfrich);(19) "Montessori in the 21st Century" (Lillard);and (20) "Classroom Management--The Path to Normalization"(Pritzker). (EV)

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The Relevanceo

MONTESSOIpu Today

Meeting Human Needs

Prbncip Prackee

July 25-28, 1996 PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY \/ t4t ktkoltA AMI TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) 1

Bellevue, Washington

r-----T--H)-- BESTrOPYAVAILABLE The Relevance of Montessori Today Meetiw giuman Needs Tfincipks to Practice

This book and any portion thereof may not be reproduced for any purpose, whether private or public, without the expressed written permission of the Association Montessori Internationale and the Association Montessori International of the United States Inc. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Conference Schedule 4 The Dawning of Wisdom 6 Renilde Montessori The Support of Montessori Education to Human Potential 9 Silvana Quattrocchi Montanaro, M.D. Healthy Environment: Healthy Children: Healthy Culture 14 Judi Orion Cosmic Education vs. the Public School Curriculum Are the Two at Variance? 16 Margaret E. Stephenson The Atrium: Silence, Simplicity, Movement, Symbol & Joy 20 Linda Kaiel Family Star A Montessori Grassroots Early Headstart Initiative 24 Martha Urioste, Ph.D. Beyond the Basic Needs: Nurturing the Full Potential of the Upper Elementary Child 30 Johnnie Denton Building the Elementary Program and Transitional Program Strategies 41 Peter Davidson Practical Life for Parents 44 M. Shannon Helfrich An Approach to the Resolution of Conflicts in a Positive Way 46 Silvia C. Dubovoy, Ph.D. Talking with Parents: Conferences and Communications 50 Carla Caudill Dr. Maria Montessori A Contemporary Educator? 53 Margaret E. Stephenson The Relevance of the Erdkinder Vision 59 Linda Davis Maria Montessori Envisioned Physics as Part of the Environment 64 Peter Gebhardt-Seele, Ph.D. Research: Objective Assessment of Montessori Implementation 71 Mary Maher Boehnlein, Ph.D. Children at Risk 84 Sylvia Richardson, M.D. The Child in the Family 90 Chulie Fernando Working with Your Assistant 96 M. Shannon Helfrich Montessori in the 21st Century 98 Paula Polk Lillard Classroom Management The Path to Normalization 101 Sue Pritzker 5 Conference Schedule

Thursday, July 25, 1996

7:00 p.m.8:30 p.m. The Dawning of Wisdom Renilde Montessori

Friday, July 26, 1996

9:00 a.m. - 10:15 a.m. The Support of Montessori Education to Human Potential Silvana Q. Montanaro, M.D. 10:45 a.m.12:00 noonSeminar Sessions + Healthy Environment: Healthy Children: Healthy Culture, Judi Orion + Classroom Management in a Primary Class Pathway to Normalization, Sue Pritzker Cosmic Education vs. the Public School CurriculumAre the Two at Variance?, Margaret E. Stephenson Administrators' Responsibilities to Their Staff,* Frank Kulle - The Atrium: Silence, Simplicity, Movement, Symbol & Joy, Linda Kaiel 2:00 p.m. 3:15 p.m. Seminar Sessions + Family Star A Montessori Grassroots Early Headstart Initiative, Martha Urioste, Ph.D. + We of Little FaithThe Unfolding of Mathematics,* Renilde Montessori & Monte Kenison + Beyond the Basic Needs: Nurturing the Full Potential of the Upper Elementary Child, Johnnie Denton + Building the Elementary Program and Transitional Program Strategies, Peter Davidson + Practical Life for Parents, M. Shannon Helfrich 3:45 p.m. 5:00 p.m. Seminar Sessions + Healthy Environment: Healthy Children: Healthy Culture, Judi Orion + Classroom Management in a Primary ClassPathway to Normalization, Sue Pritzker + An Approach to the Resolution of Conflicts in a Positive Way, Silvia C. Dubovoy, Ph.D. 4. Urban Issues Facing Administrators,* Alcillia Clifford-Williams Talking with Parents: Conferences and Communications, Carla Caudill

Saturday, July 27, 1996

9:00 a.m. - 10:30 a.m. Dr. Maria Montessori A Contemporary Educator? Margaret E. Stephenson 10:45 a.m.12:00 noonSeminar Sessions + The Relevance of the Erdkinder Vision, Linda Davis + Maria Montessori Envisioned Physics as Part of the Environment, Peter Gebhardt-Seele, Ph.D. + Research: Objective Assessment of Montessori Implementation, Mary Boehnlein, Ph.D. 4. Multicultural Offerings for the Classroom,* Marcellina Otii Building the Elementary Program and Transitional Program Strategies, Peter Davidson

4 6 Sunday, July 28, 1996

10:0012:00 noon Children at Risk Sylvia 0. Richardson, M.D. 2:00 p.m. 3:15 p.m. Seminar Sessions . The Relevance of the Erdkinder Vision, Linda Davis + What We Have Learned About the Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology of Language Development and How Montessori Assists the Linguistically At-Risk Child,* Sylvia 0. Richardson, M.D. + Multicultural Offerings for the Classroom, Marcellina Otii Research: Objective Assessment of Montessori Implementation, Mary Boehnlein, Ph.D. - The Child in the Family, Chulie Fernando 3:45 p.m.5:00 p.m. Seminar Sessions + The Cognizant Parent,* Silvana Q. Montanaro, M.D. + Working With Your Assistant, M. Shannon Helfrich + Beyond the Basic Needs: Nurturing the Full Potential of the Upper Elementary Child, Johnnie Denton + Making Your Voice Heard,* Frank Kulle + Working with Urban Parents Through Workshops and Conferences,* Alcillia Clifford-Williams 7:30 p.m. -9:30 p.m. Banquet Address Montessori in the 2Ist Century, Paula Polk Lillard

* Not available for this printing.

5 The Dawning of Wisdom Renilde Montessori

We have a theme: The Relevance ofthe realm of spirits. Alas, the spiritsters of their small cosmos, in adult so- Montessori Today. The fact whetherhave fled to the secret place where they ciety we need the three generations Montessori principles and practices arewithdraw, when we no longer look upthe children, the parents, and the relevant at this time, is not in question. and beyond to the wild skies, fleetinggrandparents become wise and accept- Unless we all believed this to be so, we clouds, sudden brilliant light and deep-ing in the matters of life. We also need would not be here. What is more, if weest dark; when we no longer allow our-all the history of our past generations were not absolutely convinced thatselves to be delighted by gleamingtheir art, literature and music, their Montessori pedagogy will become in-shafts of rain, enchanted by soft mistspower and their glory, their miseries creasingly relevant far into the future, and comforted by rainbows assuring usand errorsfor these are the givens of it would be futile to discuss the subject that our covenant with life is persistentwho we are. Most important is becom- at all. The importance of this gathering and eternal. ing adequate to contemplate the dis- and of the many more that will follow, In The Sibling Society, Robert Bly has tilled wisdom of our ancestors, for how in the coming years, is to confirm anda chilling description of the horizontalelse can we become decent and respect- anchor our convictionsto find a waysociety. "We begin to live a lateral life, able ancestors ourselves? together whereby, when called upon to catch glimpses out of the corners of our Then, the road to wisdom demands do so, we can respond, firmly and use-eyes, keep the TV set at eye level, watcha high degree of objectivity. fully on behalf of the children the scores move horizontally across the We learn by observing, and by do- This requires a measure of wisdom.screen. We see what's coming out of the ing. Unless, when we observe, we are It is difficult to achieve wisdom in asideview mirror. It seems like intimacy; capable of standing outside ourselves, time when as a human quality it is notmaybe not intimacy as much as prox-wisdom will elude us. When we ob- greatly sought after, nor valued. In fact,imity; maybe not proximity as much asserve, we take in the whole, then de- it might well be placed on the endan-sameness. When we see the millionstails in turn, then return to the whole. gered list. We far prefer knowledge -like ourselves all over the world, ourWe must learn to look upon ourselves factsbits of information, to wisdom.eyes meet uniformity, resemblance, in perspective, from a distance and see Knowledge is nice. It is an immedi-likenesses, rather than distinction and where we fit in the context of a unified ate, chunky word, useful, matter of fact, differences. Hope rises immediately forwhole, like children who send letters a burlap sack filled with firewood, and, the long-desired possibility of commu-to the person, the street, the city, the like firewood, to be burned and so pro-nity. And yet it would be foolish toprovince, the country, the continent, the vide ashes from which the phoenix ofoverlook the serious implications ofplanetary system, the galaxy, the uni- wisdom may emerge, and rise, andthis glance to the side, this tilt of the verse. soar, into the farthest reaches of thehead. 'Mass society, with its demand for It is convenient to see ourselves as human spirit. work without responsibility, creates apart of a species that has particular Wisdom is a lovely, peaceful word.gigantic army of rival siblings,' in Al-characteristics and to realize that in the It flows in calm and stately rhythm,exander Mitscherlich's words. Adultschildren these characteristics are all unperturbed, from ancient times intoregress toward adolescence; and ado-present, unadulterated, unsullied, pris- our own and our spirit reaches out tolescentsseeing thathave no desiretine. It is also sage to divorce ourselves see it off into the haze of unknown fu-to become adults. Few are able to imag- from personalities as central to our pur- tures. It is also a lovely, peaceful hu-ine any genuine life coming from thesuits, to cease to let our feelings guide man condition and the relevance ofvertical place - tradition, religion, de-us and instead to use our specifically Montessori is dependent on its attain-votion." human capacity for abstract thought; to ment. So, how do we achieve wisdom? think, to reason, to go beyond the im- We live in times of wizardrywiz- Here is a random selection randommediate and function in the realm of ardry of many types. Magic of myriadbecause we believe, with Ralph Waldoprinciples, ideas and ideals. forms and colorselusive, amazing,Emerson that "A foolish consistency is "We ought to strive for the supreme disconcerting - is perpetrated by wiz-the hobgoblin of little minds..." result of producing men who will be ards, witches and warlocks. There is, One of our convictions is that wehappy; always keeping clearly before however, a dearth of spirits and with-must reinstate the vertical plane. us the idea that the happy man is the out spirits wizardry is hilarious, but not In the same way that in our schoolsone who may be spared the effort of exhilarating. Hilarity is horizontalex- we need a three year age mix where the thinking himself, and dedicate all his hilaration takes us up and beyond toolder children become wise in the mat-energies, to the unlimited progress of

6 Renilde Montessori

human society. The preoccupation of Indeed, it is wise to remember that There is responsibility. From the time virtue, the voluntary sacrifice are in any first and foremost and above all, thethe child enters the Casa he is given the case forces turned back upon them-ultimate, salient characteristic of man-freedom and discipline which lead to selves, that expend upon the individualkind is its fundamental need to learn,responsibility, and the opportunity to energies that are lost to the world atand to go on learning, throughout life,assume responsibility for himself, for large; nevertheless, such standards ofthroughout time. others and for the environment. virtue are necessary for certain inferior "...from that moment I was totally In a trustworthy environment, as the types." (Maria Montessori - Pedagogi-committed to thinking about whatchild develops his will, joyful obedi- cal Anthropology) makes man what he is ... How did theence, the cornerstone of an interdepen- We must learn to see ourselves as in-hominids come to be the kind of mandent society, develops apace; it telligent beings. that I honor: dexterous, observant,burgeons and comes to full bloom. In one of his books Colin Turnbullthoughtful, passionate, able to manipu- Practical Life, Sensorial, Language speaks of the lullaby sung towards thelate in the mind the symbols of lan-and Math, if well understood and ap- end of her pregnancy by the youngguage and mathematics both, thepropriately presented, give keys for Pygmy mother to her unborn child. Shevisions of art and geometry and poetryawareness of our entire universe and wanders off to her favorite place in theand science? How did the ascent of manof our human condition; of nature and forest, perhaps near a stream; and astake him from those animal beginnings supranature. she sits in pleasant shade, quietlyto that rising enquiry into the workings The child's deeply rooted urge to splashing fresh water over her roundof nature, that rage for knowledge ofwork is encouraged, channeled and al- and comely belly, she sings a song cre-which these essays are one expres-lowed to thrive; and if a child is given ated for this child only, and none other. sion?" (Bronowski - The Ascent of Man)a sense of endless time, if there is not a In this song she tells the baby what "The human individual is equippeddemand for product, if each child's awaits it. If she be a girl, she will doto learn and go on learning prodi-pace and rhythm is respected, the pro- this in her lifeif he be a boy, he willgiously from birth to death, and this iscess of completing any task under- do that in his. The beauty of this mono-precisely what sets him or her aparttaken, of acquiring any ability, becomes logue is that she speaks to it as to anfrom all other known forms of life. Mana voyage of delight and discovery. intelligent being without experience,has at various times been defined as a Knowledge of oneself, acceptance of without knowledge, yet intelligent. building animal, a working animal, andoneself and of others are implicit in a Unless we see ourselves and accepta fighting animal, but all of these defi-cohesive social unit where each indi- ourselves, joyfully, as infinitesimal, in-nitions are incomplete and finally false.vidual functions independently, where finitely important, highly intelligentMan is a learning animal, and the es-mistakes are an affluent of interest bits in the grand pageant of life, wesence of the species is encoded in thatrather than a source of guilt, where all shall be like small monkeys clinging tosimple term." (George Leonard Mas-work in concert for the common good. the top of an empty flagpole. What atery) Rage for knowledgeBronowski's waste of our incredible, as yet unful- Let us return for a moment to ourmarvelously apt term one of the most filled potential. theme. Is Montessori relevant today? If, powerful passions of childhood "You are the culmination of an ex-perchance, we wish to recapture theMaria Montessori's equally marvelous travagant evolutionary journey. Yourpursuit of wisdom then, yes, Montes-expressionis seen, admitted and en- DNA contains more information thansori is relevant today, if only becausecouraged; exploration and adventure- all of the libraries in the world; infor- in the sane ecology of the Casa dei Bam-someness of the mind are celebrated, mation that goes back to the beginnings bini all elements are in place to allowthe spirit is prepared for soaring, the of life itself. Your brain is the most com- the children's innate wisdom to flour-heart for singing. plex entity in the known universe. Itsish and become an ineradicable con- There is depth and breadth and billions of twinkling neurons interactstruct of their personality. height to the children's experience; in ways so multitudinous and multi- There is observationthe child is the horizontality, verticality, and multidi- farious as to dwarf the capacity of anyultimate master of observation. In themensionality. computer ever yet devised or evenchild observation is a vital pursuit, the Is Montessori relevant? Indeed, yes. imagined. The best way to describefundamental ingredient of his self-con-Only now is its relevance beginning to your total creative capacity is to say thatstruction, the means whereby he ini-dawn because where there should be for all practical purposes it is infinite. tiates the cycle of thought, will andwisdom there are deserts encroaching "Whatever your age, your upbring-action necessary for the harmoniouswhere nothing will flourish, nothing ing, or your education, what you aregrowth of his body, mind and spirit. Inwill grow, nothing will live and the made of is mostly unused potential. Itthe Casa dei Bambini the habit of obser- human spirit, the magnificent, exhila- is your evolutionary destiny to usevation is encouraged, it is acknowl-rated, adventurous, tender spirit of our what is unused, to learn and keep onedged as an exigency as essential as species, will shrivel and die. When pas- learning for as long as you live." breathing.

7 The Dawning of Wisdom

sions become corrupt and foul we cannot last. Our planet's inhabitants are beginning to realize this and perhaps timidly, cautiously seek wisdom anew. We need not seek very farit is achingly simple. In recreating the vertical society, we may look for wisdom to the young child and the elders. There is a magic hour before sunrise and again after sunset when light is pure and casts no shadows. There is a time at the beginning of life when experience is pure and free of contraststhe magic light of early dawn and at the end, if life has been lived and the cycle is complete, it becomes again pure and free of contrasts, limpid as the magic light of approaching dusk. In the beginning there are no memories to haunt usin the end our ancient memories no longer cast haunt- ing shadows; they become clean and clear and create a landscape exquisitely alive with the pain and delight of all our days and all our nights. Wisdom will dawn when we allow ourselves to learn from those who live in the magic lightthe very young, and the very old. 4.

Renilde Montessori de Matute is Maria Montessori's youngest grandchild. She lived and traveled with her grandmother as a child, and in her late teens audited one of Dr. Montessori's courses. She attended Montessori schools whenever these were available and finished her secondary stud- iesinthe Montessori Lyceum of Amsterdam. Renilde Montessori married, had two sons, and worked for many years in varied fields of endeavor. In 1968 she joined the Montessori movement, first as personal assistant to her father, Mario Mon- tessori. She obtained her primary Montes- sori diploma from the Washington Montessori Institute in 1971 and has since then been dedicated to Montessori education as lecturer, trainer and AMI examiner. From 1989 to 1995 she was Director of Train- ing at the Foundation for Montessori Edu- cation in Toronto. In September of 1995, she became the General Secretary of the Asso- ciation Montessori Internationale (AMI).

8 1 0 The Support of Montessori Education to Human Potential Silvana Quattrocchi Montanaro, M.D.

Relevance, as I have learned throughFroebel started a kindergarten whereMontessori understood that the solu- a consultation with the Webster dictio-children, through playing, could ex- tion to their problems was not a medi- nary, means "the state or quality of be-press their creative activity. cal but a pedagogical one. So she ing important, pertinent". We wish to Both these men had wonderful ideaswanted to study the physiological apply this concept to Montessori edu-and tried to start a new path in educa-methods of Itard and Seguin and, fol- cation so we are here to ask ourselvestion. They saw the gold in the child but lowing their experiences, prepared if her lifetime work is still important to-did not know how to get it out. Theymany materials. The good results of her day, how this work meets the humansaw education as a process of human- teaching made immediately evident needs and how its principles have beenization that must be in harmony with that better educational strategies could translated into practice. It is a challeng-the laws of life in order to make it pos-help other children even more. Of ing conference because each of us, insible to have a better humanity. Cer-course, a new teacher was also neces- our everyday work, certainly has (andtainly, in their schools, children have sary, a teacher with great scientific inwill continue to have) moments of in-been much happier than before, butterest and preparation, the spirit of ner reflection during which the valid-these schools were not offering a bet- sacrifice of the true scientist plus a spiri- ity of our work is reconsidered. ter development to the human poten-tual disposition. This was her role all As my first answer I chose a title for tial. That is why, at that meeting, it was through the many years she spent with this paper which is an affirmation: The recognized that they were not alive to- sick children. But such a teacher must Montessori education gives support to the day. operate in a different environment human potential! I would like also to af- When Montessori arrived somethingwhere children, free from immobility, firm from the very beginning that, atnew happened. She had a scientificsilence and rewards, and with appro- present, we do not know of any otherpreparation and did not think of be-priate materials could manifest them- "method"' capable of supporting so coming an educator. She wanted to cure selves. well the human potential all along itsphysically and mentally sick children Education as a great transforming development from birth (and even be-and in doing so she learned that theforce for humanity is clearly stated in fore birth) through maturity. only therapy was the use of a scientific The Discovery of the Child. But an affirmation such as this canpedagogy. The second period of Montessori's sound like an "act of faith" and it is true Montessori wanted to be a doctorlife is from 1907 to 1952. It is the period that I have this faith but it is not a blind and became an educator under specialthat starts with the first Casa dei Bam- one, so it is necessary to explain why Icircumstances. Looking at her life webini where the methods and materials have it and where this faith comes from.can distinguish two very different pe-she had studied and tested could, even- Montessori is alive today while otherriods. tually, be used with normal children. educators are only remembered. The first one, running from 1896 This Casa "is a two year experiment Iohann Heinrich Pestalozzi started(when, on the 10th of July, she obtainedwhich represents the work of three doc- his work at the end of the eighteenthher medical degree) to 1907. These were tors ... This work started at the time of century, in the time of the Enlighten-ten years of hard professional work and the French Revolution and sums up my ment which brought a new vision ofintense study. She studied anthropol- ten years study to the 40 years of Itard human life in the intellectual, politicalogy, philosophy and natural sciences and Seguin."4 and social aspects. This vision also in-while, at the same time, she was di- The Casa, whose initial goal was just volved pedagogy. He was thinking ofrectly working with mentally sick chil- to assist poor children, became a labo- what we call today "integral develop-dren and preparing teachers for them.'ratory of scientific pedagogy where the ment" underlining the necessity of edu-About this activity Montessori talks inchildren's characteristics appeared and cating simultaneously the head The Discovery of the Child: "I was present the secret of childhood was revealed. (intellect), the hand (practical work)and taught the children directly fromThese important discoveries oriented and the heart (emotions). He recog-8:00 am to 7:00 pm without interrup-Montessori's work in the field of edu- nized also the great importance of the tion. These years of practice are my firstcation for the rest of her life. She be- mother during the first years. and true title in pedagogy!"3 came the defender of the children's In 1837 Friedrich Wilhelm August During her work with these childrenhuman potential and of their right to

11 9 The Support of Montessori Education to Human Potential develop freely in a prepared environ-in people who suffer from illusions, soEducation and Peace. Her vision of the ment. these teachers enter the school and be-problem is universalfrom the school The first book is The Method of Scien- gin to carry out their contradictions. (Casa dei Bambini and elementary) to the tific Pedagogy, written in 1909, follow-They do the easiest thingrepress, family (Child in the Family) to the uni- ing the two year experiment and command, destroy! Destruction is eas-versethere will be no peace in our intense personal work in the Casa. From ily and quickly done, whether the struc-world without children's "normaliza- this first book the theory and practiceture is simple or complex; anyone can tion!" go hand in hand and support eachdo it! But how difficult it is to con- Human beings, with great effort, other. The "educational truth about thestruct."7 The repression of the adult onhave produced the civilization, the child was awaited and desired from allthe child is responsible for the wrong"supernature" and have reached a level humanity, parents and teachers."5 in our life. We must always go back tosuperior to biology. We have reached It is important to notice the part ofinfancy in order to find the roots ofthe "plateau" but we are now afraid of the title which says "applied to thehuman deviations. the place where we are and we feel in- Children's House" because such a sci- In 1916 we have the Self-education incapable of controlling our technology. entific pedagogy can work only in aElementary School (editors note: Ad-A type of education is needed that can scientifically prepared environment vanced Method, Vol. I and II in English).develop sufficient human potential so where there is freedom for choosing theThis book is the demonstration that thethat we can "enter a third dimension;" activity, time to repeat it and the possi-principles discovered in the Casa dei"... A new world for a new human be- bility of personal control of error. ThisBambini, (natural interest in learning, ing this is what is necessary ... This is a special school shows the strict relation- polarization of attention, desire of rep-century of miracles ... we are proceed- ship between body and mind: also the etition in the work, possibility of self-ing towards a higher level ... the new children's health improved as if theydiscipline) can be applied and canchildren are destined to the conquer of had received better food or had beencontinue in the second plane of devel- the infinite." 9 exposed to good air and sunshine! opment. The teacher as a scientist needs "The peace (that, with the economi- Until psychology and pedagogyan interior change and a special prepa-cal justice, is in this moment one of our studied the repressed child, nothing ration. greatest problems) needs two things: a could appear and it was useless to try The Child in the Family was first pub- new human being, a better human be- to change the bench or the blackboard!lished in 1923 (Germany). The prin-ing; then an environment without lim- The Montessori scientific pedagogyciples discovered in the Casa must beits in front of the infinite human looks at the problems and solves themapplied in the home. The physical hy-desire."1° in order to remove the obstacles of thegiene is very important and can save Montessori's idea of a global nation environment that are responsible forthe body but the Montessori education(today we talk of a global village and the deviations in the human being. It issaves the mind. The principles given toof a global brain) provides us with a a transforming science! parents in this book are cornerstones incosmic, peaceful horizon in which a "There are two psychic personalitiesthe protection and support of the hu-development according to the laws of in the child: one that is natural and cre-man potential since birth. life becomes possible. This is not a vi- ative, therefore normal and superior, "The most important is: to respectsionary idea because the possibility of and one that is forced and inferior, re-any kind of the children's reasonablepeace and collaboration of human be- sulting in a battle in which the weakactivity and try to understand it. Theings has been proved possible in the are attacked by the strong. A new im-second one is: to follow as much as Casa dei Bambini. age of the child has emerged from thispossible the children's desire of activ- In 1936 we have The Secret of Child- discovery, which has been a beam ofity; not to serve them but to educate tohood, a very special book of evolutive light to guide us on the road of a newindependence. The third one is: to beand educational psychology. "In these education. The child demonstrates,very careful in our relationship withchapters we find the scientific, philo- along with his innocence, courage andchildren because they are very8 sensi-sophical, political and religious soul of faith in himself, and is endowed with ative to the external influences." Montessori (a four-leafed clover). moral force that also has a social direc- The conflict between children andTeachers should read a chapter each tion. At the same time, those defectsadults starts at the very beginning of day like a breviario!"11 that one struggled in vain to discour-life and it is due to the lack of knowl- In 1939 From Childhood to Adolescence age with educationthat is misbehav-edge of the child's true nature. Therewas published. ior, destructiveness, lying, shyness, fearhas been a philosophical and religious The Montessori educational project and, in general, all those that are con-view of infancy but not a scientific onedoes not stop with elementary school tingent upon the posture of defense until Montessori. but is completed with the third plane have disappeared."6 Between 1932 and 1939 Montessoriof development. It is important to em- ...you cannot develop by repres-talks in different places against war andphasize that when she writes this book sion. Unluckily logic does not functionher lectures are published in the bookshe is almost 70! The great points of the

10 12 Silvana Quattrocchi Montanaro, MD book are that the school of this periodthe challenges of the environment. Ex-duces development and this is not more must be for all and must not yet pushperience must be passed, it is necessarytrue for the little ones of preschool age to a profession. Its goal is the forma-to learn how to respond appropriately.than it is for the junior, middle, and tion of the person. This school mustIn order to do so it is necessary to un-upper school children."13 provide the broadest frame of reference derstand the meaning of what happens So it is the relationship of the human in which to live the human life. Onlyin the environment. And any time wepotential with the environment and the later will it be decided what to chooseneed to learn it is important to have atype of environment that will make the as a job. Montessori calls this educationteacher, a facilitator who will save usdifference. The quality and quantity of "dilatatrice" in The Formation of Man. time allowing to progress rapidly be-the process of humanization (equal to Only when the human beings havecause we have a very short period towhat we can get out and use in a hu- incarnated such a cosmic vision in theirlive. The possibility for learning is in-man way) is linked to the special envi- life will it be possible to reach the free-trinsic to the subject but without theronment that only adults who possess dom, equality and brotherhood that arehelp of the environment the humana love for life and knowledge of life can the aspirations of humanity and thepotential cannot unfold. prepare. guidelines of life itself. If education The human potential can now be The last book of Montessori is, also takes care of the different types ofquantified with the help of neurophysi- in 1949, The Formation of Man. In it Mon- minds at work in the different planesologythe enormous amount of cellstessori talks about the prejudices toof development, we can see the absor-of our nervous systems. These neuronswards children and the social powers bent mind take in the environment, theare in the billions and each of us brings family and societythat impede hu- mind with imagination and abstractionthis richness into the world at birth.man development. take in the macrocosm and the con-Montessori calls it "human great inner The OMBIUS14 is the omnipresent or- structive erdkinder mind capable ofpowers". ganization which destroys children's dealing with all sciences and history At the beginning of the fully revisedhuman potential in the name of good. and of putting them together. In this Italian version of The Absorbent Mind itOpen violence against children is evi- way we can find our right place in theis said: "This book is one of the links indent now at any level and in every coun- universal environment. the unfolding chain of our thought, andtry. Children are still the forgotten In 1948, Montessori revised the 1909to the movement to which we belong,citizens because they lack political power book and gave it the new title The Dis-for the defense of those great innerbut Montessori was hoping that parents, covery of the Child. Here are her 40 years powers which children possess." Thosewho have this power, could eventually of scientific education, during whichpowers and their "peculiar psychic na-group together in their defense. the principles have been tested in anyture ... points out a new path to the In the International Congress in San type of environment, producing alwayseducator... The child's true construc-Remo, also in 1949, entitled, The Impor- the same responses in the children. tive energy, a dynamic power, has re- tance of the Child in the Reconstruction of "The child discovered by Montessorimained unnoticed for thousands ofthe World, Montessori gives wonderful proved to be active, competent and ca-years... From the earliest dawn oflectures while at the same time, com- pable of educating himself in an appro-man's life on earth, these energies have plaining that "Non hanno capito niente! priate environment." been repressed and nullified... Today(They have understood nothing!)" In 1948 To Educate the Human Poten-we are beginning to see the value of Her discoveries have been refused tial is also published; "human beingsthese ungathered fruits, more preciousand criticized by the scientific world must become capable and willing tothan gold, for they are man's own spirit. and by other great contemporary edu- bring further the life's project." The first two years of life open newcators both in the USA and in Europe In 1949, The Absorbent Mind. There ishorizons before us for here we may see (Kilpatrick, Dewey, Claparede, Decroly, a "cohesive society" where each humanthe laws of psychic construction hith-etc.). Her vision produced too great a being is necessary. There is interdepen-erto unknown. It is the child himselfshift in education putting all the impor- dency of everything and everyone. (Wewho presents us with these revela-tance on the child with the adult as the talk no more now of a pyramid but of ations... By the age of three the childhumble servant of life. Montessori was net where each knot is equally indis-has already laid down the foundationsnot only rejecting current education, of his personality as a human being ... pensable!) but she was showing how to change it We have to consider the specialat three a child is already a man."12 starting from the knowledge of the places of humans in evolution. Their The unfolding of the human poten-child. She always went from principles necessity of a special time after birth fortial is the process of humanization. "...a to practice. completing the development startednatural process which develops spon- And at the end of The Absorbent during the internal pregnancy. Thistaneously in the human being ... it isMind's first chapter Montessori gives additional time is crucial for acquiringacquired in virtues of experiences in the us the hopeful vision of the child the character of our species and for be-environment ... individual activity is"guided by his inward teacher, who coming able to successfully confrontthe one factor that stimulates and pro-

11 BEST COPYAVAILABLE 13 The Support of Montessori Education to Human Potential labors indefatigably in joy and happi-psychological mystery... a work of for-supports our evolution during all the nessfollowing a precise timetable mation which brings out the immenseplanes of development. It is up to us, at the work of constructing that great-potentialities with which children, thethe Montessorians who witness every est marvel of the Universe, the humansons (and the fathers) of men, are en-day the good results of such education, being ... able to direct and mold thedowed."18 to continue to bring the benefit of her future of mankind."15 In the book written by Prof. Scocchera, long work to all children for the sup- This vision is based on the knowl-an Italian Montessori scholar, it is said: port of the human potential now and edge of the laws of life that "cannot be"the liberation of children is not just ain the future because "Nothing can be ignored. We must act in conformitypedagogical or political problem be-achieved in the adult's world if we do with them, for they proclaim the rightscause it supposes the psychologicalnot operate first in the child's one."2° of man which are universal and com-change of the adults. Their desire of "The first years of life are the most mon to all." dominion on children has not only ex-important ones." Childhood is the most The discovery of the laws of life areternal and historical causes, it is in theirprecious time of our development. followed by practical solutions for anyhearts forever. The conflict cannot beFrom Montessori we have received all plan of development. Montessori de-solved through the struggles necessarythe theoretical and practical guidelines voted all the second period of her lifefor the economical and social transfor-that can enable us to transform every to this task. These discoveries and thesemations; the solution of this conflicthome, Infant Community and Casa dei solutions are what gives the greatestdepends from the adults who must rec-Bambini into environments that are an relevance to Montessori education to-ognize the millenary error towards the"aid to life". The lifework of Montes- day and in the future. Following thechildren... Only with a change of thesori has given light to the education of laws of life in children's developmentmental attitude we will be able to rec-this century and will continue to be a we can support the human potential.ognize the psychic child."19 lighthouse for mankind in the future. "Man himself becomes the center of I continue to wonder at all the knowl- Next January it will be 90 years since education and we must never forgetedge we have put together during thisthe San Lorenzo Casa dei Bambini started that...his mental growth begins atcentury. It seems that humanity neededand the opportunity given to Montes- birth and pursues it with greatest in-a good boost in order to enter the thirdsori to verify her observations. We can tensity during the first three years ofmillennium better equipped, with aall benefit from her discoveries. life."16 better and wider understanding about Nothing new has been said here but Following these laws the "educationourselves, our planet and the universewe have tried to review together the of the newly born becomes suddenlybut, especially, about what should befoundation of our work. I can say to of the first importance" and we dis-our participation in the project of life. you and with you, that Montessori is cover how much can be done for chil- At the end of a century with aston-relevant today even more than before dren from the very beginning. Adeleishing technological changes which putand it is for humanity the only hope of Costa Gnocchi, who did the first 3-6in our hands a lot of power, we area better future. Montessori is a woman course in 1909 with the help ofcalled to follow this global transforma-whose relevance in science, pedagogy, Montessori's suggestions, started thetion for directing it in the good way.political and social fields is still to be school for Assistants to Infancy. In do-This turning point requires human be-fully understood and recognized. ing so she gave an answer to the preoc-ings capable of understanding and per- cupations of Montessori about the firstforming their cosmic mission. This can NOTES years of life and provided "suggestionsbe achieved with the education Mont- 1 It is true that the word method should for making practical provisions foressori offered to humanity. not be used because Montessori herself, in this."17Also, a training for parenthood, She has been so much ahead of her the preface of The Discovery of the Child, says that "her work is more the result than the that Montessori held to be necessary,time and still is. We have not yet recog- started. creation of a new educational method." Also nized her principles and have not yet in The Formation of Man it is said that the word The human potential must be de-put them fully into practice. In this spe- method should be substituted with "help to fended, and this is what Montessori didcial century of the human history Mon- the conquest of human personality's inde- all her life, "proclaiming a revolutiontessori stands as one of the mostpendence, a means for liberating it from ...the final revolution" for a new edu-relevant persons. Her method of self- oppression and old prejudices on education. cation. education offers to the children the pos-It is the defense of the child, the scientific "This education, understood as helpsibility of using their potential without recognition of his nature, the proclamation the destructive repression that has en- of his rights..." (p. 11-12). "To help the life, to life; an education from birth (and this is the fundamental principle." (p. 24) before) feeds a peaceful revolution anddangered humanity for such a long 2 She was also very active in the social unites all in a common aim...moth-time. problems: the 20th of September of this year ers, fathers, politicians ... help the deli- Montessori's universal vision, prin- will be one hundred years of her participa- cate work of formation which the childciples and practice are still ahead of tion, as Italian representative, in the Berlin's carries on in the depth of a profoundtime. They offer a global education that Congress for the political and social rights

12 14 Silvana Quattrocchi Montanaro, MD of women. There were 500 participants and Montessori had a great personal success. 3 M. Montessori, The Discovery of the Child. Chapter II. 4 M. Montessori, The Method of Scien- tific Pedagogy. 5 Many thanks to Prof. A. Scocchera for the inspiring vision of Montessori's life and work. Workshop in Rome, December, 1994. 6 M. Montessori, The Child in the Fam- ily. Avon Books, p. 152-3. 7 M. Montessori, How to Educate the Human Potential. 8 M. Montessori, The Child in the Family. 9 M. Montessori, How to Educate the Human Potential. 10 A. Scocchera, Rome, December, 1994 workshop. A. Scocchera, ibidem. 12M. Montessori, The Absorbent Mind. Delta, New York, 1967, p. 3-7. 13Ibidem, p. 8. 14 M. Montessori, The Formation of Man. 15M. Montessori, The Absorbent Mind. p. 12. 16Ibidem, p. 8. 17Ibidem, p. 12. 15Ibidem, p. 17. 19A. Scocchera, Maria Montessori. La Nuova Italia, Firenze, 1990. 20M. Montessori, Education and Peace.

Silvana Q. Montanaro, M.D., gained her degree in Medicine and Surgery with a spe- cialty in Psychiatry from the University of Rome. In 1955 she joined the staff of the Rome Montessori School for Assistants to Infancy, where she taught mental hygiene, child neu- ropsychiatry, nutrition and obstetrics. Dr. Montanaro cofounded the Italian Medical Institute for the Study of Relaxation's Phe- nomena and States of Consciousness. She serves as a trainer in Respiratory Autogenic Training (R.A.T.) and works in clinics and hospitals to prepare couples to nurture children under the age of three. Dr. Montanaro is currently the Director of Training for the Assistants to Infancy course in Rome and serves on the board of directors of AMI. She has also been the Director of Training for the AMI Assistants to Infancy courses in London and Mexico City and was responsible for bringing this toddler training to the United AVAILAEILL States, first in Houston, Texas and then in BESTCOPY Denver, Colorado.

13 Healthy Environments, Healthy Children, Healthy Culture Judi Orion

As Dr. Montanaro mentioned in herment, Costa Gnocchi outlined the fol- skills, experience, trust in children keynote this morning, we are in a cri- lowing steps in one's professional train- and belief in our approach to chil- sis on this planet; we see many behav-ing: dren. ioral characteristics that are unpleasant, To study and attain a very deep Analyzing movements requires first difficult to live with. We must remem- knowledge of the developmental of all the understanding of why this ber the advice given by Dr. Maria stages of childhood. is important. Once the importance of Montessori years ago, that if we really To develop the ability to recognize this is accepted, the ability to analyze want to make changes in our society, those stages in children. movements comes fairly easily. Once we must begin with the youngest mem- To study and come to a profound a series of movements are analyzed, bers. understanding of the purpose of all they must be practiced so the se- In Montessori education we put the equipment in the environment. quence appears to a child as a fluid enormous effort and priority into cre- To learn how to transform any "mis- dance of actions, not stilted "step- ating a beautiful environment for chil- take" into a learning opportunity. pause-step" movements. dren; we study which materials are Respecting the child's appeal to appropriate for which stage of devel- To learn to speak in a soft, calm, clearly articulated voice. "help me to do it myself." For some opment and those materials are in- of us this requires an extremely deep cluded in the environment. Creating a To cultivate the ability to look at any sequence of movements and analyze level of trust and belief in a child's beautiful environment is one of the gifts abilities. Sometimes it even requires of Montessori educators to the field of those movements into a series of steps. sitting on one's hands to prevent our- education. selves from interfering! It also re- But a beautiful environment is only To be willing to step back and let the quires understanding how to create the first step. child work by him or herself. To re- an environment that children can spect the child's plea of "help me to I'd like to focus this presentation on use, down to the smallest detail. If an do it myself." the role of the adult more specifically environment works against a child, the preparation of the adult. For any- To develop observation skills. then no child will be able to function one working with children under the To respect, in all circumstances, the independently, to help himself. age of three it is imperative to under- educational rules established for the To develop observational skills. The stand that the adult plays a critical role community. distinction between "what I see" and in the child's psychological develop- Let's examine these aspects of train- "what I feel about what I see" begins ment. Without a strong psychologicaling and consider practical implications in the observation training aspect of base, the child's use of a beautifullyin our work with children. the Montessori course. To be an ob- prepared environment will be compro- Studying the developmental stages jective observer is not an innate skill; mised. So we come to understand that of childhood occurs in our Montes- it is a skill that requires lots of prac- how we approach children and use the sori training course. Some students tice and commitment. It requires be- environment is more important than arrive to Montessori with other ex- ing willing to listen to one's what we do with the environment. perience in early childhood educa- judgments about others. It requires Following World War II Adele Costa tion that have also prepared them being humble. Gnocchi, in collaboration with Dr. with this knowledge. Respect of educational rules. What Montessori, created environments for Recognizing the stages of develop- kind of rules could we have for a children under three years of age and ment in children is something that group of children under three years? then began the process of creating a comes with experience but comes "Here we sit to eat." "We don't bite training course for adults to work with relatively easily with children under people." "We run outside." "When these children. This work began in three whose developmental changes you take work from a shelf, it is your 1947. occur so dramatically. work until you return it to the shelf." From the beginning, Costa Gnocchi Studying and understanding the Very simple rules consistently but insisted that adults planning to work purpose of the materials also comes gently enforced allow children to ar- with such young children must un- with Montessori training but contin- rive at a point of trusting that these dergo two types of trainingprofes- ues in our work with children. rules can be relied on. sional and personal / spiritual. Transforming mistakes into learning The professional training in prepara- In speaking of professional develop- opportunities requires observationaltion for working with children under

14 I 6 Judi Orion

three is the easiest aspect of our work;sists in leaving the child free to act ac-ent has left? some of it is accomplished easily incording to his natural tendencies." Often we have our own agenda re- Montessori training. Other aspects of The second reads, "The first aim ofgarding the child's activity for the professional training are ongoing butthe prepared environment is, as far asmorning and therefore fail to take into are not difficult; they just require thepossible, to render the growing childconsideration the child's need for time passage of time and the accumulationindependent of the adult. That is, it is aand space to make the transition. One of and reflection on experience. place where he can do things for him-way of honoring a toddler's needs is The spiritual or personal preparation self, live his own life, without the im-to accept that each child will make her that one undergoes is more challeng-mediate help of adults." transition the way she needs to if given ing for most people. It requires reflec- When training to work with 3-6 yearthe time and space to do so. By doing tion. It requires the willingness to knowolds, it is much easier to think of pre-this we give the child the possibility of ourselves. It requires accepting ourparing an environment in which theentering that calm, sacred place from faults as well as our strengths. It re-children can be free to develop, to pur-which she can follow her intuited de- quires a willingness to put judgmentsue their own developmental needsvelopmental needs within an appropri- aside. It requires introspection. It re-without constant "helpful" interferenceately prepared environment. This quires developing incredible humility. from adults. When trying to apply thisenvironment must have an adult who Costa Gnocchi outlined three simple information to children under three itis herself healthy psychologically, who requirements: becomes even more of a challenge. Atdoes not need to be needed by the children, who can give of herself as much To trust that every child is a carrierleast three year olds can use language ego support as each child needs to fur- of great human potential. to create space around themselves ther their secure development. In speaking of children having greatwhereas the toddler may not yet have language at his disposal. When the adult can arrive to that potential requires that each and every calm, secure, unhurried place, then day we look at each child as a new hu- What does it mean to "leave a tod- man being; that we forget the trials ofdler free" to develop? It certainly doeschildren can be given the time and the previous day, reserve judgmentnot mean abandoning a toddler to her space to allow their true nature to un- about what a child will or will not do own devices. It does not mean allow-fold. They develop into secure, ad- justed, happy, healthy children. With and look forward to the glimpse of an- ing a toddler to function without lim- children given this opportunity from other facet of each child's potential. its; limits give structure, parameters in which to develop. We try to followthe beginning, allowed to continue in To have a deep respect for each childMontessori's advice of "following a their Montessori education, I think we as a unique individual. child" but we are unclear about thehave a good chance at seeing a change Treating children as unique individu-meaning of this when applied to tod-in the adults of the future. I think we als is sometimes a challenge. We speakdlers. A friend, familiar with the wayswill see adults who consider the needs of "our children", "the children underof toddlers, recommended followingof humankind, society, and their planet. two", the "threes", etc. We tend to men-the soul of the toddlerthat grounded,I think we will have an opportunity to tally group children and categorizeearthy, very wise aspectbut not nec-participate in great transformations. them by age, ability, sex, behavior, etc. essarily the spirit of the toddler whichBut the transformation must first begin We must train ourselves to see eachis everywhere. with the adults who work with the chil- child individually, treat them as indi- Perhaps the secret lies in understand-dren. viduals and accept their individualing the developmental needs of the tod- characteristics and gifts to humanity. dler, including the need for clear limits, To be a servant to life unfolding. knowing how to prepare a functioning To be a servant to life unfolding re-environment for toddlers and coming Judi Orion is an AMI teacher trainer and to a deep level of trust in their abilities. examiner at the Primary and Assistants to quires untold humility. It requires that Infancy levels. She attended the first Assis- daily we acknowledge that each child Let's take one practical situation and tants to Infancy course in Rome in 1980-81, "knows" what is needed for his /hertry to apply these ideas to a day-to-day and is currently the Director of Training for own development. It requires to trustsituation. The situation is the transitionthe Montessori Institute's Assistants to In- each child and follow their unfolding. from home to schoolarrival at school. fancy program in Denver, Colorado. Judi It does not mean not being willing to Do we give the child as much time served as co-director with Dr. Silvana Mon- set limits, not correct behaviors. as she needs to make the transition? Do tanaro at the Assistants to Infancy course in Osaka, Japan. In addition to her work at the There are two quotes from Dr. Mon-we allow the parent to quickly undressInfant /Toddler level, Ms. Orion has also tessori I would like to share. The firstthe child and deposit her into the class- directed a primary level course in Cincin- one reads, "The preparation of the en-room? Do we rush the child into an ac- nati, Ohio. vironment, and of the things (objects intivity before the child is ready? Do we the environment) is the first external actprovide an area for this transition of a deeper transformation which con-within view of the teacher after the par-

17 15 Cosmic Eilucation vs. The Public School Curriculum- Are the Two at Variance? Margaret E. Stephenson

The question of the title of this talkknowledge of what this list containsmation, they had to be able to sit and must obviously raise other questions.comes from and is imported from. Howlisten in order to receive the dose. An This was one of the reasons for thedoes the public school instructor know interesting question might be to try to questioning title. I hope the questionswhat to give? Are there any guides?find out what type of tests resulted in raised will linger long in our minds,What are the public school textbooksthe setting of the various ages in dif- and as the summer draws to a close andfor? Do they contain the informationferent countries. Why could we sit still the school year begins again, will causewith which to fulfill the lists? What ifa year earlier in the United Kingdom us to reflect long and hard on what wethere were no textbooks? How wouldthan you could in the United States and are doing and why we are doing it. the instructors know what to teach? two years earlier than in Scandinavia? You know better than I the public If there are textbooks, we have an- And then there is the measuring up school curriculum in the United States.other question. How much of what theyof the information which brought about Probably the majority of you are itscontain has to be given at any one time?the measured syllabus and curriculum. products. I am therefore not going toDo we have to divide the content of a This meant a time frame. So was go into a detailed description of it. Iftextbook into portions to be served atbrought about the length of a year's traditional educators were asked whatany one time? Who measures the por-schooling, the length of a week's was the aim and purpose of their pro-tions? We all know that individuals re-schooling, the length of a day's school- gram in schools, they would doubtlessquire different sized portions of food ing, the length of a period of instruc- answer that it was to send out peopledo individuals' minds require different tion in the day and the measure of what who were literate in the use of theirportions of information? was given in each period. own language in communication; who What about the times of the servings? And so we have universal public in- were numerate and could cope withAre these set by the server? Does thisstruction. But do we have educated so- figures and numerical transactions;mean that a schedule has to be drawncieties, composed of universally who knew something about the natu-up and notice given that such and sucheducated individuals able to think logi- ral environment in which they were liv-a serving is to be offered at such andcally, to reason? Maybe we have ques- ingthat the earth had mountains andsuch a time? What about those nottions about the efficiency of universal rivers upon it, and that their countryready to be served at the set time? Canpublic instruction and its ability to cre- had some of these and they knew theirthey attend at some other time? If not,ate thinking individuals. names and where they were located; do they miss out completely? Or must that there were plants and trees and What of Cosmic Education? Is it a they be coerced into coming at the timesvariance with the public school curricu- flowers and grasses clothing the earth set? Suppose they still do not want tolum? What is its aim and purpose and and they knew some of these and their come? Can rewards and punishmentsare they so different from what public names; that the people of their country be brought into play? Good marks andeducators professes? had a history and they knew some ofbad marks given? In the introduction to her book, To the facts and the characters that had We may all recognize that these prob- developed this history; that there had Educate the Human Potential, Dr. Mont- lems arose with the onset of the idea ofessori states: "We claim that the aver- been other societies with a history be-universal education with Napoleon's fore their own, some of them a long age boy or girl of twelve years who has decision that all the French should bebeen educated till then at one of our time ago, and some other societies with educated, and that this was necessary a contemporary history. schools knows at least as much as the if he was to conquer the world. Thisfinished high school product of several Some public school educators might meant the setting of the age when com-years' seniority, and the achievement add that they hoped to send out people pulsory education should begin. Thishas been at no cost of pain or distor- with some knowledge of music, of arts became six in the United States, five intion to body or mind. Rather are our and crafts, some with a knowledge of the United Kingdom, seven inpupils equipped in their whole being physics and chemistry, of mechanics Scandinavia. Interesting! What was itfor the adventure of life, accustomed and engineering. This may sound like based on? It seemed obvious to thoseto the free exercise of will and judg- a list. I would ask youis this what it entrusted with the administration ofment, illuminated by imagination and is? Are syllabi and curricula lists? compulsory education that if childrenenthusiasm. Only such pupils can ex- I would also ask you where thewere to be administered doses of infor-ercise rightly the duties of citizens in a

16 18 Margaret E. Stephenson civilized commonwealth." This is thethe child to be interested when interest The Stage- Nothingness, darkness, significant conclusion. can only arise from within? It is only unimaginable, cold of freezing inten- Do you think that public school edu-duty and fatigue which can be induced sity, chaos. cators would quarrel with this aimfrom without, never interest!" (To Edu- The Actors The lead: God, the Guid- stated by Dr. Montessori for children cate the Human Potential, pp. 8,9) ing Unconscious, the Great Spirit of from Montessori schools? So if the aims ,Have we any questions to ask our- law and order. are the same, what is different in Cos-selves from these words of Dr. Mont- The supporting cast: Air and water, the mic Education? essori about Cosmic Education? sun, the earth, chemical elements. Again in To Educate the Human Poten- "The Cosmic Plan can be presented Act II tial, Dr. Montessori gives a picture:... as athrilling tale." Is that what we "...the Cosmic Plan can be presentedare doing? Telling a tale? Making itThe coming of life on earth, to bring to the child, as a thrilling tale of the thrilling? "Thrilling tale." Really! back order from the chaos that had threatened to return. earth we live in, its many changes "...That life might appear on the through slow ages when water was stage to play its part in the great drama The Stage -The earth, its land and Nature's chief toiler for accomplish-'stage-. "...to play its part." "...great water. ment of her purposes, how land and seadrama." The Actors The lead: Life, a tiny blob fought for supremacy and how equi- What are we talking about? Surely of jelly. librium of elements was achieved, thatthe child has tests to pass! "Thrilling The supporting cast: Plants, insects, Life might appear on the stage to playtale," "the stage," "to play its part", amphibians, reptiles, fishes, birds, its part in the great drama." "great drama." This is not the usual lan- mammals, human beings. Before going further with a discus-guage of education. It would almost Act III sion of Cosmic Education, I should like seem as if the elementary MontessoriThe coming of human beings, to com- to draw attention to some of Dr. class is meant to be participating in the- plete creation. Montessori's directives. We need to be ater! The StageThe prepared environment reminded, perhaps, that the elementary I would suggest that that is exactly training courses do not, or should not, of the world, with its furnishings of what Dr. Montessori envisaged Cosmic plants and animals. make up their own methods to give toEducation as being. Her son, Mario the students of their courses. What hasMontessori, said that Dr. Montessori The ActorsThe lead: Intellect and will. Dr. Montessori to offer to teachers inbecame a "storyteller of the truth." She The supporting cast: Human beings. their classes? meant Cosmic Education to be the re- Act IV "All other factors however sink intocounting of a drama, the Story of theThe story of language - one of the two insignificance beside the importance ofUniverse, and of our role, yours and stories that human beings wrote them- feeding the hungry intelligence andmine, within it. If it is the unfolding ofselves, in order to communicate their opening vast fields of knowledge to a drama, it entails the setting of a stage, ideas to one another. eager exploration.., we have learntthe entrances of actors and actresses, from him (the child) certain fundamen- The Stage -The need to cooperate as the playing of their parts, their exits and societies. tal principles of psychology. One is thatthe setting up of the next act. Drama the child must learn by his own indi-surely means story. And if the drama The Actors The lead: Intellect and the vidual activity, being given a mentalis to do with an immensity such as the hand. freedom to take what he needs, and notUniverse, it cannot but mean story af- The supporting cast: The makers of the to be questioned in his choice. Ourter story after story, as there is such a alphabet. teaching must only answer the mentalbewildering and extensive cast of char- Act V needs of the child, never dictate them... acters to introduce. The story of numbers the other story He must have absolute freedom of What are the acts in this drama? Youhuman beings wrote by themselves. choice..." (To Educate the Human Poten-know them, though some of you may tial, pp. 6,7) The Stage The need to invent in or- have forgotten them and therefore the der to construct the material and "It is certainly necessary to central- children do not get to go to the theater spiritual territories. ize the interest of the child, but theof Universe with you. Perhaps we usual methods today are not effectiveshould remind ourselves of them, so The Actors The lead: Intellect and will and the hand. to that end. How can the mind of athat we do not deprive the children any growing individual continue to be in-longer. The supporting cast: The inventors of terested if all our teaching be around mathematics. one particular subject of limited scope Act I I have not counted how many stories and is confined to the transmission ofThe coming into being of the Uni-there are already, to be given in the such small details of knowledge as heverse, the Story of God withoutGreat Lessons, if we give them as is able to memorize? How can we forceHands. drama. And what a different picture

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 19 17 Cosmic Education vs. The Public School Curriculum Are the Two at Variance? from the public school textbooks. what work has to be done that dayEducation, also counseled us not to for- And so we have the acts of the by each group. get that the children have to be able to drama, of the Cosmos, each of which Divide the subjects within Cosmicfit into the society of their times, and sets a stage, brings on the actors, tells Education into what is for first years,its requirements. There is absolutely no us something of their story. And then, second years, third years. If you arereason why a child exposed to Cosmic as with any play, the acts have their in first year, you may not go to a les- Education should have any difficulty scenes within them. So we have the son being given to second years, andin fitting into traditional education scenes, telling the stories of the sup- so on. when he has to make that move. porting actors and all helping to bring At the beginning of the day, get the Dr. Montessori has told us, in To Edu- the child to a realization of the won- children to write a list of what they cate the Human Potential, "We claim that der, the mystery, the magic, that is the are going to work on that day. the average boy or girl of twelve years Universe, and all that belongs to it. Forget about stories, the childrenwho has been educated till then at one It is because we involve the child in have assignments to do and tests toof our schools knows at least as much this wondrous story, making him aware pass. as the finished high school product of of the environment that was prepared Remember that the children have toseveral years' seniority, and the achievement has been at no cost of pain for the coming of his own species, and do spelling tests, conduct inquests on showing him what other human beings and dissection of any book they mayor distortion to body or mind". have contributed to the continuance of read. Had Dr. Montessori any advice or the story, that he is led eventually, Dr. Remind the children that reading isguidance to help the teacher give the Montessori said, to ask, "What am I? not for enjoyment, it is for compre-children the vision inherent in Cosmic What role have I to play in this marvel- hension. Education, the freedom to explore any- ous Universe?" where and in any order and at any time Also use work sheets, SRA Reading So this is Cosmic Educationnoth- the components of Cosmic Education, booklets, Spaulding spelling, Greatand at the same time, enable the child ing but story after story after story af- Books, Writing Workshops, job ter story. Story of the service of all to to fulfill the requirements of the public all others. All children love stories if sheets, assignment sheets. school? they are told engagingly, if they are part If any of this is going on in your class, Dr. Montessori did give us advice of the teller, if the teller enjoys tellingyou will be doing a good job in ensur-and guidance on this matter. We all them. Where do we find the stories? Ining that you are not at variance withheard it presented in our elementary our albums. Have we not got the Greatpublic schools. course. We have all got it in our albums. Lesson and the Key Lessons there? Does this type of program appear toWe have, therefore, no excuse for re- Does it appear as if Cosmic Educa-be at variance with Cosmic Education,verting to traditional methods of teach- tion and the public school are at vari-even if it is therefore not at varianceing. Why, then, are we doing so? Are ance? On the surface and from theirwith the public school? If it is at vari-we just cowards, have we no faith, is approach to education, it would seemance with Cosmic Education, why is itthe answer just as simple as that we so. Is there any way they will not be?being done in Montessori schools? cannot teach? And therefore, should Can we make them not at variance? Is it because we have no faith in Mon-not be in Montessori schools, but take What about doing the following intessori? up some other work. Is the answer that the class? Is it because we have no faith in Cos-we do not want to give Cosmic Educa- Tell the children they must alwaysmic Education? tion? start the day with language and Is it because we cannot do Cosmic But let us look at Dr. Montessori's mathematics and do a requiredEducation? guides to us, remind ourselves of them, amount of work in each of these sub- Is it because of parental pressure and and see if they are so difficult to imple- jects before being free to do anythingwe are afraid? ment. else. Whatever the reason, we are depriv-I. FirstThe child's individual diary Complete a workbook assignmenting the children of the opportunity ofof his work, or daily journal, or what- each day. being exposed to the challenge that isever you may wish to call it. After a lesson from the teacher, doCosmic Education. I am tempted to This is a daily, dated and timed, be- assigned work on it, always. think that we, the adults, want to feelginning and ending times, of the les- Use prepared cards for examples forsecure. A syllabus gives us ready madesons the child was given, the other language and mathematics work, al-doses of knowledge that we can takework he has done, during each daily waysthe children should neverwithout effort on our part and admin-morning and afternoon session. It is, make up their own examples. Theyister at a given prearranged time to pre- therefore, a daily record of the work the might come up with something theyarranged children. child has done. It is not a list, written cannot do. Maybe we have forgotten that Dr.at the beginning of the day, of what the Write on the board each morningMontessori, when giving us Cosmicchild intends to work at. It should not

18 2 0 Margaret E. Stephenson be, either, a list given him by the teacher At the same meeting the teacher and room a place of excitement and won- of what he is expected to do that day.child look at the child's work, discussder, a place which will allow the el- The only way it is going to be of use isit, make decisions about anything thatementary child to become, as Dr. if it is a record of the child's work done, needs taking care of. In this way theMontessori said he could be, "a hope and / or the lessons given to him, each child is helped to take responsibility forand promise for the future". day. his own work but he is not assessed The responsibility is yours. What is The importance of this record. without his input and collaboration.your answer going to be to the ques- It helps the child become responsibleAnd the needs of the public school re- tion of the future of Dr. Montessori's for his own work, for what he does. Itquirements are taken care of, withoutMontessori in the United States; to the helps him discipline himself to work.recourse to workbooks and test cards, question of whether Cosmic Education It helps him begin to become respon- and time set aside to do nothing but thewill have a chance to influence the el- sible for his use of his time. public school curriculum. ementary children in this country? The diaries themselves. III. The requirements of the public Cosmic Education can be done, oth- It is absolutely essential that the dia- school curriculum. erwise Dr. Montessori would not have ries are kept in very attractive small The yearly requirements of the pub- proposed it. It is being done, in a few notebooks. The children cannot be ex- lic school curriculum should be avail-classes around the countrylucky the pected to respect any of their work if itable to the children, so that they canchildren of those teachers! Have you has to be done in unattractive note-check for themselves as to how they are the will to do it also, if you are not al- books, on unattractive paper. If theredoing, in the every subject and makeready doing so? + is no money to buy the notebooks,sure for themselves that they are not school fund-raising money should befalling behind, according to their age used. level. The teacher must also be aware of where each child is. It is the joint re- Margaret E. Stephenson studied with Dr. II. The regular meeting with the child. sponsibility of the child and the teacherMaria Montesori for many years and, in 1960, It is essential that teacher and childto make sure that, when the child haswas commissioned by the Montessori fam- meet regularly. During the first year of to move to public school from the Mon- ily to travel to the United States as a teacher the child's work in the elementary class, trainer for the Whitby School in Connecti- tessori school, he is prepared for thatcut. In 1962 an AMI training center was the meetings should be once a week. move. As the child gets more used to regulat- opened in Washington, DC with Margaret With the guides given us by Dr. Mon- Stephenson as its Director of Training. Miss ing his own work, this may be changed tessori, which, if we use them, ensureStephenson was the Director of Training at to once a fortnight. Towards the end of that the child will be prepared for pub- The Montessori Institute of Milwaukee, Inc. the child's stay in the elementary class- from 1989 to 1995 and continues to lecture at room, the meetings could become lic school, we can give the child the freedom of Cosmic Education. this center. She currently remains involved monthly. But always the individual's with Montessori as an AMI lecturer, teacher need should be monitored some chil- Cosmic Education is designed to af- trainer, and examiner. She is also a member dren may always need a weekly ford the elementary child a vision of the of the Sponsoring Committee and is quali- checkup. Universe and of his personal role fied to direct AMI primary and elementary within it. If we are not allowing the courses. Purpose. child the possibility of sharing in this At the meeting the child should have vision, why are we pretending to be with him his diary and the work doneMontessori teachers? Are we not able during the week. The teacher looks to participate in that vision? with the child at the diary, comment- The poet tells us: ing on the timing of the various record- ings, asking the child what happened And some take the high road, if there is a long gap between ending and some take the low. of one activity and the beginning of And in between, on the misty flats, another, discussing with the child the the rest plod, to and fro. absence, especially if it is a continuing What a picture that word plod gives absence of any subject, discussing with us! How sad it is! How joyless. Perhaps the child his progress with any project we have questions to ask ourselves. engaged in, noting how the child isWhere do I stand? And where am I go- doing with anything the public school ing to stand? requires, for example, correct spelling, Have you managed to make Cosmic knowledge of multiplication tables, ar-Education not at variance with the pub- ranging with the child what he will dolic school curriculum? And are you with gaps and public school require- comfortable with that? Or would you ments. like to make of your elementary class-

19 21 The Atrium: Silence, Simplicity, Movement, Symbol and Joy Linda Kaiel

It is interesting to note that for theproper. In early churches, this atriumserves children at work... the silence many centuries which humans havespace became the place where convertswhich follows a productive work cycle lived on this planet, it took the obser-were introduced to the tenets of theis often the natural fruit of a period of vations of Dr. Maria Montessori to giftfaith. At the Easter vigil they were bap-concentration. The indirect aim of the us with the educational insights wetized into the community and into fullwork is linking the child to other skills presume today. "Seeing what was al-membership in the church. Visitinghis /her body will need in its growth ready there, with new eyes," her keenchurches in Rome today, one can tac-and development. A simple example, observations as a scientific observer intilely experience the "faith of our fa-the grasping of the knobbed cylinders the areas of human growth and devel-thers and mothers" in the atriums which with three fingers, is an indirect prepa- opment, led to what has come to bebear witness to their faith journey. ration for writing (being able to hold a called, the century of the child. Today I Today I would like to share with youpencil). The work in the atrium gives would like to share with you the workthe simple elements which reflect the the child the skills to create silence and of two other women who have fol-essence of an atrium. This September Ithen to use this silence as a place for lowed in Montessori's footsteps, andwill begin my twelfth year with stu-reflection on the Word from Scripture who have looked at the developmentdents who attend the Franciscan Mon-which was shared in a group setting or of the human person in relation to whattessori Earth School, and come to thein an individual lesson. The youngest Montessori terms, "the spiritual needsatrium on a weekly basis. My reflections children have a great capacity to move of humans." These women are Giannaare the fruit of this time spent with thebetween the worlds of transcendent Gobbi, who worked with Dr. Montes-children, the rich content of lecturesand immanent, and they are the natu- sori, and Sofia Cavalletti, a Scriptureshared by Sofia Cavalletti, Giannaral age to share the riches of the Incar- scholar. Together in the city of Rome,Gobbi, and others who do this work, nation. They want to know more about since the early fifties, they have pio-and from my work with adults whothis divine presence which touches neered a method of religious education,seek to be formed in this work so thattheir life and calls them by name (as in a process which has come to be called,they can serve as catechists with chil-the parable of the Good Shepherd.) The Catechesis of the Good Shepherd. This dren in parish, school, or home settings. Sometimes at the close of an atrium process for children ages 3 through 12 Silence session, I choose to read a story to a invites the child to experience and form gathering of children, while a few are an authentic, faithful relationship with Those of us who are Montessori pro- still putting their work away, and be- God. The Catechesis is grounded infessionals have seen with what delightfore it is time to line up and return to scriptural and liturgical study, framedchildren participate in the "silencetheir classroom. One day I read the pic- by Montessori's principles of humangame." Here they are given an oppor-ture book, Jesus Stills the Storm, the story development. It allows children to heartunity to control their bodies to produceof how even the wind and waves the Gospel through sensorially rich ma-silence. Those of us who are mothersobeyed Jesus when they were out on terials which represent essential proc-have watched with delight as our childthe lake and a squall came up. A differ- lamations of the Christian message. Thediscovers a hand, its capacity to bend, ent kind of storm was raging in one of task of the adult is to prepare the sa-its attachment to "me!" As concentra-the five-year-old boys. He was strug- cred space called the atrium, where chil-tion is born in the human person, andgling with some issues of identity, sexu- dren can respond to this invitation. Theallowed that fertile space to grow, theality, power, frustration. Sometimes atrium is a place of community andrich soil where this takes place is si-during the work period he would steal worship rather than a classroom forlence. And so this holds true for our re-a piece of someone else's work and then academic study. It is a place to be withlationship with the sacred, therun off with it to get some attention. As and enjoy God, listen to the Word, and transcendent. The silence one seeks and he was able to gain more fine motor to pray. Designed to reflect the beautyencounters in an atrium is a fertile si-control, he began to copy some of the of creation, as well as God's abidinglence of encounter. Here the child hasBaptism materials to make a small love, the atrium has a colorful history.come to meet someone, to be invitedbooklet. When it came time to make a In early Roman homes, the courtyardinto a life-enriching relationship, to lis-cover for the booklet, he spent a long or entry was called the atrium. Earlyten and to reflect on the Word. time on the cover, very intent on his Christian basilicas took their structure Before my work as a catechist, I wasdrawing. When it was finished he from civic buildings, which always hada guide in a children's house classroom.brought it to me and said, "Do you an atrium, to link the life of the streetAs one becomes a Montessori profes-know what it is, Linda?" He had drawn with the specific task of the buildingsional, writes album pages, and ob-a simple sketch of the boat on those

20 2 2 Linda Kaiel raging waters, and had written BEboy came and requested that we write,content of Scripture be enfleshed in STILL in bold letters. "the red sea, the black sea" next to thepractical materials which the child appropriate areas. A simple white sheet could move. There is the movement of Be still of paper, a basket of crayons, a tray of the child from shelf to mat or table to For each of us this is an invitation tothree watercolor paints and the richset up the work, be it a Kingdom par- be in God's presence. The space where content of Scripture and meditation to able, an Infancy Narrative diorama, the we are can be a space of sacred encoun- reflect upon... What response will Iliturgical calendar, or map of the land ter, a fruitful space to be empty and al-make? of Israel. During all of this movement, low the Word to take root there, a space There is simplicity in the use of lan-as well as in creating the setting for a for reflection, a space for growth, a guage as well, in how the children are diorama, there is time for the child to space for listening. greeted as they enter the atrium space, reflect on the Scripture content, on their Simplicity in the length of time and the content ofown encounter and presence in this rev- The first year I faced the challenge ofa meditation on Scripture, in the qual-elation. Each child brings their own setting up the atrium environment, withity of a presentation, in a communaldignity and personality to this relation- its areas for liturgical work, as well ascelebration such as Pentecost, and theship. One six-year-old girl, after setting the historical life of Jesus (Infancy Nar-changing of the colors in the prayerup the nativity scene on her rug with ratives and geography materials of thecorner appropriate to each liturgicalsome flourish, said in an excited tone, land of Israel) one idea kept recurringseason. Always these actions serve as a "Quick, Baby Jesus, hide under the in my mind. Keep this space simple.backdrop or as scenery does in a play,straw. King Herod is looking for you!" How much clutter can I imagine in aso that the principal actors, God (theShe had heard the story of the flight into simple home in Nazareth? With whatdivine presence) and the child, can beEgypt and the element of danger. simple images did Jesus choose to share about the principal action in the drama, All of the work which leads to the the wealth of the Kingdom of God inthat of developing and nurturing a re-capacity to play the silence game, as his parables?...a mustard seed, alationship, one with the other. well as the work of walking on the line woman baking bread, a precious pearl, And this manifests itself in verywhich are done in the Montessori class- a hidden treasure, a man sowing a field,simple ways, as one young boy mar-room, find a natural expression in the a s'hepherd caring for his flock. Inveled at the bloom on a red geraniumatrium. Here I am silent to hear Some- choosing to set up a diorama for an In-which he had watered the week before. one speak. Here I am silent to listen as fancy Narrative story, the AnnunciationWhere did that flower come from? Wasothers share of their faith in this loving (the Scripture story where the angelhis care a part of that mysterious God. Here I am able to walk in proces- Gabriel comes to ask Mary to be thegrowth and blossoming? All of thesion, carrying candle, or plant, or statue mother of Jesus), ... it was importantwork of practical life becomes a prayerof the Good Shepherd to prepare the to keep Mary's home a humble dwell-in itself, as the littlest ones exert con-prayer corner. Often I watch the "bee- ing and the figures of Mary and thetrol over limbs, pouring water, filling hive" activity of the littlest ones as they angel unadorned. Each work that thethe cruets for Mass, walking in proces-work in the expression area, set up children manipulate should leadsion, carrying a lit candle, snuffing arugwork, water the plants, and move deeper into the mystery of the Scrip-candle, folding an Altar cloth, andthroughout the spaceand then ob- ture, not distract with unnecessary de-washing plant leaves near the prayerserve the fruit of that movement when tail. corner. 'Tis a Gift to be Simple' is an oldthey transition to lower elementary, Even in the work used for our prac-Shaker hymn. and reach the stage of hand control where they carefully copy maxims, or tical life, I tried as much as possible toMovement avoid the plastic patina of our century excerpts of psalms and prayers. Each What a wealth Dr. Montessori shared and to choose the timelessness of clay with deep concentration and centered with us in focusing on the small child's and fabric, the touch of wood, the use thought creating a near monastic atmo- need for movement! She observed how of baskets to hold paper supplies, and sphere for a period of time. We have the human body takes in informationseen all the necessary movement which simple pitchers as water containers. Artat certain developmental planes, and expression is an important area in the has brought us to this place. then provided an environment which atrium, because it provides a "canvas" Occasionally Sofia speaks of the was structured to meet those develop-"scandal of the incarnation". This tak- on which children can reflect what theymental needs. The atrium attempts to have seen, what they have experienced, ing on of human flesh by the divine, do this for the child. One of the adages what they have heard. One girl chose this becoming one "like us in all things I recall from my own Montessori train- to do a dove's eye view of the stable but sin", as one of the eucharistic another boying was, "Never give more to the eyeprayers proclaims. Movement is such scene in Bethlehem and the ear than you give to the hand." sketched the Magi as they traveled fol- a part of what it is to be a human per- lowing the mysterious star. After much What Gianna Gobbi realized early onson, it is comforting to know that the furious coloring and an accompanyingin the development of this particular movement itself can be a form of praise self-absorbed conversation, a youngcatechesis, was the need that the rich and prayer and presence. The smallest

21 The Atrium: Silence, Simplicity, Movement, Symbol & Joy

children are comfortable in this knowl-of dough, the delight of one who hasJoy edge, as are those very ones who arefound a treasure, and the joy of one This is perhaps the element or qual- physically or mentally challenged (spe-who has been called by name. Childrenity of the life we share in the atrium cially-abled). The parable of the Foundhave the amazing capacity to move towhich touches me most deeply as a cat- Sheep speaks to their heart as does thethe heart of this invitation, to be in re-echist. It is with some trepidation and parable of the Good Shepherd. We had lationship with the divine, and to makea good portion of humility that I do this one student in the children's house whotheir own unique response. Symbolswork, and I feel richly blessed to be able was always "on the move". He would, become those physical signs, where theto share this work with so many chil- with great speed and not a great dealheart of the mystery is held and appro- dren. It is refreshing to hear the words of concentration, take out all the lessons priated. Children learn to recognize the of Scripture season after season, always he knew in rapid-fire fashion, one af-symbols of their faith community andwith varying nuances of meaning be- ter another, but staying with nothingthe gestures and responses that are acause of who I am, and who I am belong enough to become engaged. Untilpart of their journeying as the peoplecoming, and who I am called to be. one day the parable of the Found Sheep of God. One of the realities that we share with spoke to his need. As soon as the les- Each year in our atrium we celebratethe older students is a long reflective son was over he began to work withthe feast of Passover with a Seder mealperiod on the Kingdom of God. This the sheepfold, walking that sheepwith the students who are in the lowerbegins with Kingdom parables at the down the path 'til it wandered off andand upper elementary classes. In theprimary level, and continues with the became lost. Over and over the shep- weeks preceding this time we retell thestudy of timeliness, the focus on cre- herd would climb down to take thatstory of Moses and the exodus fromation, redemption and parousia (when sheep joyfully on his shoulder. Forbondage in Egypt. We remember thethe kingdom reaches perfect fulfillment forty-five minutes the child worked,plagues, and all of the Hebrew pre-"God will be all in all"), and then a look who had never been able to work withscriptions for preparing for the exodusat the plan of God as it has been lived anything for longer than five minutes(the preparing of the lamb, eating whilethroughout history (the history of sal- up to that time. Here movement is able standing and dressed for a journey, thevation). As we reflect on each of these to link the reality (essential message)marking of the door with the lamb'sthere is always that capacity of won- of the scripture with his own experi-blood...). When the actual time comesder. How did early humans feel as they ence, crying out to be "found". for each group to partake of the meallooked up at a night sky, illuminated and say the Hebrew prayers, the Jew-by stars? And what about the gifts of Symbol ish concept of "the memorial" invitesbirdsong, an exquisite flower, the touch In the text, The Way of Response, Mar- us to pray with Hebrews throughoutof cool water? How many gifts there tin Buber, shares that "by creating sym-the world, in every generation, each are in this kingdom. Who has prepared bols, the mind comprehends what is in person must look upon himself as if hethem? And for whom have they been itself incomprehensible: thus, in sym-personally had come out of Egypt. Ascreated, called into being? bol and adage, the illimitable God re- it is said, "He brought us out from there This capacity of reflection, so strong veals Himself..." that he might lead us to, and give us,in the youngest of children, gives them What Sofia and Gianna have man-the land which he pledged to our fa- the ability to simply "be" in God's pres- aged to do in a clear direct manner inthers." ence. They are able to enjoy the gift by this particular catechesis, is take the We are not just remembering this being, not so much as in doing, or mak- symbols of the church ( light, water,event, but, in a tangible way, the pasting an active response. Those adults bread and wine, etc.) and proclaim theis made present. This also takes placewho use centering prayer to bring their essential quality of each to life as it isin the study of liturgy. At the eucharist,body and mind to that place of being lived in the faith community. Each ofthe Paschal meal, we proclaim, "Christin God's presence, recognize that the the eucharistic gestures holds a treasurehas died, Christ is risen, Christ will littlest ones in the purity of their enjoy- of faith, not only the faith of those income again." The past is made presentment have chosen the better part (as in whose footsteps we follow, but a proc- and touches the future. At the eucharist, the Scripture story of Martha and her lamation of our own faith in this divinewe stand not only at the table with sister Mary; Luke 10: 38-42). person, an invitation into the very lifeJesus, at the foot of the Cross, and at In the first course I attended with the Trinity enjoys. the tomb with the astonished women,Sofia, she mentioned the book, Sacred In the parable method, the hearer ofwe also stand in the presence of thoseSign by Romano Guardini. Last sum- the Word is invited into the content ofwho have gone before us in the faithmer I was able to hold that little book the story and invited to reflect on theand those who jubilantly praise God'sin my hand, and this year was able to beauty of the precious pearl, the mys-glory for all eternity. These events areread more of this man and his work in terious power and capacity for growthlifted out of time, and symbol allowsthe text, Romano Guardini, Proclaiming found in a tiny mustard seed, the slowus to be present "as the illimitable God the Sacred in a Modern World. One sec- growth of the leaven working in a massreveals Himself..." tion asks the question, Are we capable

22 24 Linda Kaiel

of a genuine liturgical act? "The essence of liturgy is an encounter with God through Jesus Christ. ...Are we capable of this?" Guardini writes: "The more we think about these long-familiar things the clearer does their meaning grow. Things we have done thousands of times, if we only look into them more deeply, will disclose to us their beauty. If we listen, they will speak... We must learn how to see, how to hear, how to do things the right way... Regarded thus, they yield to us their essential nature... Under the simplest exteriors lie the great mysteries." Martin Buber, in sharing about hallowing, speaks of this need to reverence all of creation. "Hallowing enables the body to fulfill the meaning for which it was created." When children respond to the Word as it is proclaimed to them in the atrium setting, all of their movements, their choice of work, the simplicity of their uttered prayers and written responses, their art expression, their recognition of symbol, their silence in a meditation, all are elements of recognition of the gift and a delight in the joy of being in the presence of One who demands no greater response.

Linda Kaiel received her AMI primary diploma from the Washington Montessori In- stitute. She also holds certificates for the 3-6, 6-8, and 9-12 levels in the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd, having studied under Sofia Cavalletti, Gianna Gobbi and others in the United States and Canada. Mrs. Kaiel is currently a catechist at the Franciscan Montes- sori Earth School in Portland, Oregon, working with students aged 3-12 years, and serves on the Board of the Catechesis. She continues with consultation and formation work to mentor adults in bringing the Cat- echesis of the Good Shepherd to Australia.

25 23 Family Star Martha M. Urioste, Ph.D.

The Family Star 0-3 Early Head Start For Family Star, the challenge is thatthe nation, the Montessori focus in the Project funded by Washington D.C.of continuing to promote the originalpublic sector has been weakened by now has been in existence since Sep-vision of empowering neighborhoodlocal citywide thrusts toward a return tember 30, 1995. For those who are un-women with the AMI Montessori 0-3to neighborhood schools. aware of the Family Star history, theretraining, diploma, and employment; Quite unexpectedly, on November 9, is a packet of information which can betraining neighborhood women as Mon- 1995, while the Family Star Early Head sent regarding the specifics of the Fam-tessori assistants in the 0-3 classrooms,Start program was being presented to ily Star Montessori Infant Parent Edu-and also of providing 0-3 children fromMontessori colleagues at a NAMTA ca tion Center for 0-3 children innortheast Denver and at large with aconference in Cincinnati, Ohio, the Denver, Colorado. quality Montessori 0-3 center basedDenver Public Schools' Board of Edu- Last year, Family Star Education Di-child development model which pro-cation made a decision during their rector, Lereen Castellano urged thevides them with an opportunity to ap- working session that the Mitchell Mon- Family Star board to consider expan-ply for and enter into the successfultessori School program would be sion and soon thereafter, the Family Denver Public School Montesssori Pro-moved to Southeast Denver Bradley Star leadership gathered a group ofgram for children who are ages 3-12.School in order to make way and space writers to develop a proposal whichThis continuous educational experi-for returning students to northeast would be sent to the National Earlyence has been one of a kind in an innerDenver. This decision was made pub- Head Start Office in Washington, D.C.city in the nation for the past five years. lic by way of the local newspapers and In August, 1995, Family Star hosted the Now, with the financial assistance ofconcerned Montessori leaders from Early Head Start visitors from Wash-the federal government, Family StarDenver, Colorado called to inform ington in order to confirm that Familywill be able to expand its staff devel-"Cincinnati" of the latest develop- Star was indeed a project worthy ofopment vision and also to expand itsments. This decision created a need for funding and furthermore, that the com-location to another part of the city. Inthe Denver Mitchell principal, CDM, munity supported the Family Staraddition, Family Star will be able toMitchell Montessorians and the Fam- project. On September 30, 1995, theprovide the AMI Montessori 0-3 childily Star leadership to carefully discuss good news arrived. development principles to children ofthe ramifications of such a move. Dur- The start up funding package for the75 families in greatest need who fit theing the initial meetings with concerned first year, September, 1995 through Sep-poverty criteria. Current plans also in-Montessori staff members, it became tember, 1996 was $880,000. The follow- clude a local research model being de-clear that Dr. Maria Montessori's origi- up funding package has been set forveloped with the help of Dr. Emde andnal vision and future action in the San $810,000 for the following four years.his associates of the University of Colo-Lorenzo piazza in Rome, Italy was Included in the funding package is arado Medical Center. similar to the northeast Denver vision. request for significant line items which Family Star will follow the requiredTherefore, any future action would be include renovation, staff development,national 0-3 Early Head Start guidelinesin keeping with Montessori values personnel and salaries, local research and implement the "four cornerstones"which would nurture, support, protect, and evaluation, in addition to other linewhich are child development, staff devel-and embody all children in an urban items which are common to most op-opment, parent development, and commu-setting such as northeast Denver. Fur- erational practices of a nonprofit orga- nity development. Family Star will bethermore, Montessorians who pre- nization such as Family Star. required to report progress to Washing- ferred or were drawn to work in a This Early Head Start project is oneton, D.C. four times a year. Each reportpublic school in an urban setting such of seventeen pilot projects in the nationwill follow a specific format and attachas northeast Denver would have to designed to develop an effective 0-3the quarterly budget report as well. stand firm in their belief system of how early childhood education model dur- Between September 30, 1995 and Julybest to serve all of the children at the ing the next five years. This model is25, 1996 major national, regional, andMitchell Montessori School. particularly important because it fo- local events have impacted Family Star Between November, 1995 and March, cuses on 0-3 children who qualify fordirectly and indirectly. Some events1996, Mitchell Montessori School and the "poverty criteria" within the "in-have had a positive effect; others haveFamily Star were significantly im- ner city" and also because it is the onlybeen major challenges. Specifically,pacted by the end of the Denver Public Early Head Start Montessori centerwith the end of the court order in Den-School desegregation court order. The based model in the country. ver, Colorado and other major cities ofboard decision to move the Mitchell

24 26 Martha Urioste, Ph.D.

Montessori School to another location of the Northeast Denver Concernedtives from the 68 national Head Start in the city raised philosophical and lo- Citizens Group. This group consisted programs which included the seven- gistical issues for Family Star. The most of Family Star and Mitchell Montes-teen new 0-3 pilot project programs. significant impact to the Early Head sori School families and commuMty Specific technical assistance included Start Project was that no longer would leaders who were committed to thea partnership with Management Part- there be a priority for Family Star to "Save Mitchell" movement to keep ners and accounting firms specializing provide the appropriate educational the school in the northeast neighbor-in non-profit fiscal management. Man- transition opportunity for 0-3 gradu- hood. This group worked closelyagement Partners installed a comput- ates of the program. with the Mitchell Montessori Col-erized financial management program laborative Decision Making Commit- Major Issues which will aid Family Star in tracking tee and on December 7, 1995, Family every fiscal aspect of the program. They Physical separation of Family Star and Star board member Honoria Neihaushave provided sound advice, loaded Mitchell Montessori presented information to DPS Board past records, and trained the Family For years, Mitchell Montessori proof Education about the Family Star / Star administrative assistant to use the vided Family Star with in-kind Mont- Mitchell partnership. system. essori expertise and needed space. Between January and March, 1996, The physical separation of the Mon- Family Star Montessori directresses in- Family Star Board of Directors, em-tessori public school from Northeast teracted with Mitchell on a daily basis, ployees, and families attended BoardDenver created a ripple effect which taking infants through the school on of Education meetings, met with thealso impacted on the final decision to strollers, using Mitchell's playground Mayor and the Mayor's Educationexpand Family Star to another location equipment, and often using facilities Director, met with the Board of Edu-in the city. After many efforts to obtain collaboratively for educational activi- cation President, and walked the a new site in the northeast community, ties. Many times, children from 80205 neighborhood for signaturesit became clear that a Family Star ex- Mitchell Montessori came over to Fam- on "Save Mitchell" petitions. pansion to north Denver would be ily Star to read to children as part of more cost efficient and would also be community service. These formal andOutcomes more accessible to another needy popu- January 21: Board of Education rejec- informal activities developed strong lation in the city. To date, the renovation of initial Mitchell Montessori bonds and a promise of continuous tion project has been delayed and it is Montessori education for children ages School proposal to maintain thelikely that the new Family Star site 0-12. Montessori program at Mitchelldoors will be opening in mid to late Philosophical disruption of the ongoing School. September, 1996. Such delays have relationship between Family Star andFebruary 8: Mayor's recommendationbeen approved by the national Head Mitchell Montessori School to the Board of Education to requestStart headquarters. With the national funding of the that the Northeast Denver Con- Changes continued to challenge Early Head Start program, Family Star cerned Citizens Group be allowed toFamily Star as Mrs. Alicia Sheridan, present an educational plan to main- had every intention of identifying 0-3 Executive Director, informed the Fam- infants and toddlers from the satellite tain the Montessori program atily Star board that she would be leav- Mitchell School. sixteen boundaries of northeast Denver. ing Denver due to personal and family These satellite sixteen boundaries wereFebruary 20: Board of Education rejec-responsibilities. Family Star then re- used by the school district to give chil- tion of the Northeast Denver Con-cruited over 80 applicants for the ex- dren priority into the Mitchell Montes- cerned Citizens Group plan andecutive director position and selected sori program at the age of three.With decision to move the Montessori Mrs. Elizabeth Thompson as of March financial assistance from the Early School to southwest Denver at25, 1996. Among Elizabeth's past expe- Head Start, younger siblings from Denison School. riences was her successful launch and Mitchell Montessori could and would March orientation sessions were held leadership of the City Year Americorps also have priority to enroll as Earlywith Family Star board members, em-Program in Chicago, Illinois. Among Head Start infants and toddlers at Fam-ployees, families, and community lead- the reasons for hiring Elizabeth were ily Star and then automatically con-ers to explain changes in the Earlyher strengths in areas of Family Star's tinue at Mitchell Montessori, therebyHead Start program design. future focus on fundraising and build- providing them with a continuous During this period of time, Familying of strong and permanent infrastruc- Montessori experience for ages 0-12. Star personnel had an opportunity totures. The Denver Public Schools' Board ofreceive technical assistance and new in- Due to time constraints and other Education decision on November 9,formation and knowledge at local, re-local issues, Family Star did not apply 1995 to move the Montessori pro-gional, and national meetings. Thefor the local research grant. Soon there- gram from Mitchell Elementarynational meeting in Washington, D.C. after, Washington, D.C. contacted Fam- School forced the Family Star Boardwas most inspirational in that Familyily Star, indicating an interest in of Directors to assist in the creationStar was able to meet with representa-providing Family Star with a research

BEST COPY AVMLABLE 25 9 7 Family Star opportunity in order to determine the information about the prenatal time-be trained in a one time only year long effectiveness of a Montessori center- line focusing on emotional, physicaltraining with the completion occurring based infant-parent education model in and physiological changes for theduring the summer months of 1996. the 0-3 Early Head Start funding cycle. mother and child for the first threeUnique has been the opportunity to Dr. Robert Emde, local researcher for years of life; select eleven finalists from a pool of the Family Futures Project and mem- stress management during preg-over 50 interested applicants. Unique ber of the faculty, psychiatry, Univer- nancy; also is the fact that the eleven partici- sity of Colorado School of Medicine, is the importance of the intentionalpants have had an opportunity to study now in the process of applying for na- birth; with other participants from all over tional moneys which would assist him the physical and psychological needsthe world during the summer months, and his team in local research of iden- of the mother and baby after birth, 1996. tified children of 75 families. This po- bonding and attachment, and the Accomplishments between Novem- tentialresearch opportunityis newborn's self-regulating process; ber and July, 1996, include the incred- extremely important to the Montessori iblededication,determination, community given that Dr. Ethde has nutrition; preparing the home environment; persistence and action of Family Star always been involved in the emotional, board members, employees, parents, social, and moral development of an introduction of the Montessoriand friends to alter the original plans youngsters and the interplay of rela- philosophy; for the project. As a result, Family Star tionship between the adult and the completion of a family plan identi-was able to shift priorities and change youngster. In addition, the local re- fying needs for continued educationstructures accordingly, with additional search project will also highlight the or pre-employment training; this willsupport from the national Early Head uniqueness of the 0-3 Montessori train- enable the Family Star women toStart program managers and technical ing and the characteristics of 0-3 Mon- plan for options to attain self-suffi-advisors. tessori child development which set it ciency after the baby is born. The Family Star/Mitchell Montessori aside from other daycare opportunities. The staff will also conduct home vis-connection was keenly highlighted this The research model is restrictive inits during this period to ensure thepast year as the Board of Education, the sense that all identified infants mustfoundation for a strong relationship isparents, the northeast Denver commu- be admitted to the infant nido sites be-being constructed and to provide tech-nity, and the community at large real- tween January, 1996 and September,nical assistance for preparing the homeized the national importance of the 1997. The current research model in-environment. Addressing issues andcontinuous Montessori 0-12 model in cludes twenty unborn infants of preg-the needs of participants in a more in-Denver as well as the overall impact the nant women, and 56 infants who entertimate manner will be key to buildingfive year Early Head Start model will at ages two months through tenthe women's self-confidence and tohave on 75 additional families and their months. Because of the tight timelineeasing the transition to the Early Head children. Start experience. for entry of the infants as well as a lim- Family Star employees were kept in- ited number of infant sites, Family Star The other 58 infants and toddlers will formed on a regular basis about the may have to forgo the original inte-be enrolled into the infant and toddlercontinuing changes at Family Star and grated model of "head start" childrenrooms with Montessori trainedthe importance of their leadership role and "other" children. Family Star willdirectresses and directors over the nextand responsibility during this time. It be notified by September, 1996 aboutfour years. Of course, during this time,became increasingly apparent that the the opportunity to be included in suchstaff development, child development,neighborhood women employed at a model. In the meantime, the newlyfamily development, and community Family Star had accepted the challenge hired Family Coordinator and Bilingualdevelopment will occur according toand increased their commitment to Early Head Start guidelines. Assistant have begun their active pub- manage the Family Star Center during licity of the opening of Family Star in With great anticipation, Family Starthis time of tumultuous change in the the new Family Star site at 22nd andemployees, board members, parents, northeast community, at Mitchell Mon- Federal. and supporters await the opening cel-tessori School, and at Family Star. ebration of the new Family Star at 22nd The twenty unborn children and Community empowerment was re- their pregnant mothers will be involved and Federal. Approximately eleven new AMI Montessori directors andvitalized in a very profound and dy- in a "Du las" Program and infant-par- namic way. ent classroom. A Montessori directressdirectresses will have graduated from Family Star has reported the major and a trained assistant will meet withThe Montessori Institute 0-3 training in twenty pregnant women, some ofDenver, Colorado. Due to national 0-3"problems" to the national Head Start whom will be teens, twice a week forfunding, Family Star was able to con- office, as is required of all of the 68 programs in the country on a quarterly half day sessions which will include thetract with The Montessori Institute to basis. following: identify the eleven finalists who would

26 28 Martha Urioste, Ph.D.

Obviously, impetus to end desegre-Denison Montessori Public School willone must ponder, share, and explain the gation in Denver is a major "problem"be the only school to offer an educa-importance of Dr. Maria Montessori's given that Family Star has alwaystional opportunity for identified threeBulb model of the comparative analy- prided itself as a culturally and socio-year olds. sis between traditional education and economically diverse inner-city infant- While implementing the Montessori the continuous Montessori educational parent Montessori center. The local3-12 in the public school is very chal-model of 0-24. Our children's futures research model, as implemented, willlenging, the opportunity to create aare at stake. be a departure of the integrated modelsuccessful national 0-3 Early Head Start It is about children, our youngest citi- and will provide Family Star with valu-Montessori model is a miracle. It is thezens of the world for whom we must able information about the possibilitieslatest miracle. There have been others. prepare the way. Let it be known that to prepare a certain group of children It is a miracle to realize that... eleventhe federal government has chosen to appropriately with the Montessori cen-years ago, Montessori education waseducate the children in greatest need ter based model. At the same time,accepted as the curriculum whichat the most important time of their Family Star has every intention of con-would successfully desegregate an in- lives. tinuing with the integrated model, onener-city public school in northeast Den- Family Star is a very challenging way or the other. ver; the Montessori community ismodel. In the truest sense of the word, The physical separation between theresponsible for this miracle. the Family Star board must support the 0-3 and 3-12 Montessori private and It is a miracle that... shortly thereaf- "neighborhood women" to "do it for public partnership will pose new chal- ter, an abandoned crack house was con-themselves, their families, and their lenges as Family Star continues to pro- verted into a Montessori infant-parentchildren". Only then can a new chap- mote the importance and necessity ofeducation center for thirty infants and ter be written among the chapters of the a continuous Montessori 0-12 cycle fortoddlers from the surrounding neigh-book entitled: The Pedagogy of the Op- the infants and toddlers of the seventy- borhood and at large; many peoplepressed. five identified families. Northeast Den- were committed to this project includ- One would think that with the new ver Family Star, North Denver Family ing Judi Orion, Dr. Silvana Montanaro,moneys from Washington, D.C. all Star, and Southwest Denver DenisonDavid Kahn, Elizabeth Hall, Paula and would be well. This couldn't be farther Montessori Public School will have toPaul Biwer, Paul Czaja, and others fromfrom the truth. As a program expands, envision new ways to maintain their the Montessori community. so does the need for additional support connection. It is a miracle that...the neighbor- structures, especially in a time of op- The physical separation of Familyhood women, and in particular, position. Star at 33rd and Marion and the newMarcellina Otii and Lereen Castellano, At this time, my request from the Family Star at 22nd and Federal willhave nurtured the Family Star Centerwonderful Montessori family is that necessitate new organizational struc-during a period of time when changesthose who are interested, please partici- tures in the expansion to a new popu-have been relentless and there has beenpate in this next national miracle by lation of infants and toddlers who area need to rise above toward expansiondoing the following: primarily Hispanic, Chicano, Mexicanor extinction. It is their dedication and Send encouraging cards and notes to American, and Spanish-speaking. the deep knowing that they, in their Family Star, 1331 East 33rd Ave., Den- Needless to say, desegregation intransformation, are the reason for the ver, Colorado 80205; Attention: transformation for the many who will Denver is over. Restructuring of neigh- Lereen Castellano, Education Direc- follow. borhood communities and schools will tor. begin in late August, 1996. Magnet And now itis time for more Volunteer to lend Family Star a name miracles..,and for the type of action schools and schools of choice will be and title which can serve as a national Dr. Maria Montessori would have rec- options for interested parents. advisory committee for the national ommended and insisted upon. There are days when one wonders Family Star letterhead. During those periods of time when how Montessori education can con- Send letters of support to Family Star, the challenges seem the greatest and the tinue to survive, much less thrive, un- same address, so that they can be for- opposition appears to be the most for- der such changing conditions. It warded to the national Early Head appears that the opposition to the edu- midable, one must remember Dr. Montessori's trials and tribulations. If Start headquarters in Washington, cational needs of the young child of age D.C. three and four is so prevalent. The ma-Dr. Maria Montessori could endure an jority of children in neighborhoodexodus from Italy, exile in Spain and Lobby influential policy makers on schools will begin their educational India, it is certainly possible to survive the need for the child development experience at the age of five. In addi-a move to north and southwest Den- of our 0-3 infants and toddlers as well tion, Colorado preschool Project Early ver. as the support necessary for their Childhood programs will be initiated If physical separation threatens our mothers and fathers. The Declaration in identified schools for four year olds. continuous Montessori 0-12 focus, then of Children's Rights begins with in-

27 29 Family Star

fants and toddlers. energy was always flowing out fromANTICIPATED RESULTS AND Focus on creative new computer con- the Omega and empowering us as well BENEFITS nections, local, regional, and na-as leading us forward through love and tional, regardless of our physicalillumination." He believed that "the Benefits to Children separation; let us strengthen our psy-universe is an evolution, that evolutionChildren who participate in Family Star chological connection. is toward Spirit ... that the Spirit ful-will benefit in the following ways: Send all contributions to Family Star, fills itself in a Personal God...that the For 8-10 hours each day, they will be c /o 1331 East 33rd Avenue, Denver,supreme personality is the Universal in an environment which promotes Colorado 80205; Attention: ElizabethChrist." Thus, Pierre Teilhard de maximum social, emotional, physi- Thompson, Executive Director. ThisChardin, when asked by Dr. Jean Hous- cal and cognitive development. request is particularly important inton, "what about you?" responded by They will enter school able to concen- order to maintain our local programsaying that he was a "pilgrim for the trate and ready to learn. future". and our continued focus on the cul- The school readiness for Spanish- turally and socio-economically di- Dr. Maria Montessori, in her book speaking children and children with verse needs of our community. Education and Peace is said to have re- disabilities will be particularly in- Thank Judi Orion, Dr. Silvanamarked that we would be entering the creased. Montanaro, David Kahn, the Biwers, century of miracles. If we will continue to recall the original "call" in 1907 and Over their educational careers, these and Paul Czaja for their willingness children will have an increased op- to take the initial risk for the sake ofthe children of San Lorenzo, we can remind ourselves of Dr. Montessori's portunity to succeed. infants and toddlers. They will become children who can Collectively, we can and will makevision to reach out to all children, particularly those in the greatest of need. think for themselves and do for this national miracle happen. Within themselves. the next five years, the Family Star bea- Family Star and the Denison Mont- essori Public School have been cata- In brief, they will thrive and experi- con will shine bright and envelop the ence the joy of learning. 75 homes of the identified families andpulted from their local potential to the children in northeast and north Den-potency of the larger life. Benefits to Families ver. Then we will be able to truly re- The evolutionary pull toward the port that when there is a will, there is afuture has had Spirit lead Family StarFamilies who are part of Family Star way; when there are the necessary fi-and the Montessori public schoolwill receive the following benefits: nancial resources, all children will reachmovement in Denver through miracle They will become part of a nurtur- their full potential. All children, regard-after miracle. ing community which will be a re- less of their color, language back- It now appears that the Family Star source to them in bringing about the ground, and environmental conditions0-3 and Denison Montessori School changes in their lives which will en- can, with an early head start, have themovement must transcend the local able them to thrive. opportunity to continue with otherreality, just as it did five and ten years Some parents will receive training Montessori Ambassadors of Peace dur-ago. and become members of the Family ing the ages of three through twelve. The Family Star 0-3 movement is Star staff, and all will become volun- In closing, I would like to share withlooking for miracle makers who are teers or participants in the work and you an expansion of the thought, of cre-willing to become miracle literate, pil- activity of the center. ating miracles.., individual and collec-grims of the future, who are willing to They will be able to stabilize their tive. Dr. Jean Houston urges us to "Joinbreak with the past, to create the next lives in the areas they identify: hous- the potentials of our local lives to thestep toward the Omega Point. ing, health, safety, nutrition, educa- potency' of the larger life that dwells If you have this yearning to be intion, employment, etc. within us all, to see the universe as mi- cluded as a miracle literate pilgrim of They will learn as their children raculousand in so doing, becomethe future, please refer to the sugges- learn: they will learn more about miracle literate." tions already made in this paper or cre- themselves, more about meeting the Dr. Jean Houston was influencedate any other suggestions and actions needs of their children, and more during her adolescent period by Pierrewhich come to your mind. about being an active member of a Teilhard de Chardin, who in his final Sincere thanks to AMI /USA for this community. visits with her, shared that we are all opportunity to share the "good news".Benefits to the Community "involved in the lure of becoming and we are a part of an evolutionary pro-Please call or write to: The community will benefit in both the cess in which we are being drawn to- Dr. Martha M. Urioste, presenter short term and the long term: ward something called The Omega 1-303-745-1517 Family Star's Early Head Start pro- 9901 East Evans Ave., # 16 A Point, the goal of evolution." He be- gram will fill a very immediate need Denver, CO 80231 lieved that the physical and spiritual in the communitythe lack of child

28 30 Martha Urioste, Ph.D.

care services for infants and toddlers. Family Star has been and will continue to be a central player in the re- vitalization of a blighted area in the city. The neighborhood will look and feel more alive. Members of the community will contribute to the economic well-being of the community through their employment at Family Star and through education and training they receive as a result of their involvement with Family Star. Family Star's presence in the neighborhood places value on the children of the neighborhood. This brings hope to a community.

Martha M. Urioste, Ph.D., has extensive experience as a teacher, counselor, administrator and university professor. Her educational background includes a B.A. in Education from Loretto Heights College; an M.A. in Spanish from Middlebury College; and M.Ed. in Guidance and Counseling from Texas Technological College; and a Ph.D. in Administration, Guidance & Coun- seling and Multicultural Education from the University of Colorado in Boulder. Dr. Urioste is currently the principal of Mitchell Montessori Elementary School in Denver, Colorado, as well as Cofounder and Presi- dent of Family Star, a nonprofit parent education center which received a substantial national grant for The Early Head Start 0-3 initiative.

29 31 Beyond the 2 asic Needs: Nurturing the Full Potential of the Upper Elementary Child Johnnie Denton

"Education as it is commonly re-let me make a disclaimer. The ideas putused all its precious gifts in satisfying garded encourages individuals to goforth in this paper do not apply to thethem: our intellect, our will, our ability their own way and pursue their ownupper elementary alone, but to the en-to love, and our hands. personal interests. Schoolchildren aretire second plane of development. Discussion of the Spiritual Needs taught not to help one another, not toHowever, I am focusing on the upper with Upper Elementary Children prompt their classmates who don'telementary, because the role of the know the answers, but to concernteacher does change somewhat in From the time that humans first ap- themselves only with getting promotedworking with the older children. Let me peared on the earth, they have been at the end of the year and to win prizesnote two differences right away. Weusing their gifts, not just to build up a in competition with fellow pupils. Andteachers of the 9 to 12 year olds do notphysical territory of houses, roads, these poor, selfish little creatures, whoget to open the door onto the universeclothing stores and so forth, but also a experimental psychology has provedfor the children. That was done whenspiritual territory which has spread are mentally exhausted, find them-they first received the Great Lessons ataround the globe. What gifts am I talk- selves in later life like separate grainsthe age of six. However, there is a trade-ing about? The gifts of intellect, will, of sand in the desert; each one is iso-off, because the older children haveability to love and our marvelous hands. lated from his neighbor, and all of themacquired a great deal of knowledge and are barren. If a storm comes up, theseskill, and in a sense they are ready for Let's concentrate right now on our little human particles possessed of noeven more exciting adventures. spiritual needs and how people have life-giving spirituality are caught up in satisfied them. the gusts and form a deadly whirlwind. The Fundamental Spiritual Needs In considering religion, think of all An education capable of saving hu- Besides the circles on the Fundamen-the temples, mosques, country manity is no small undertaking; it in-tal Needs Chart that depict the physi-churches, cathedrals and shrines in the volves the spiritual development ofcal needs of food, clothing, shelter,world! Think of all the sacred scrolls man, the enhancement of his value astransportation and defense, there areand books, and all the objects of wor- an individual, and the preparation ofthree circles representing our spiritualship that have been created. Why? young people to understand the timesneeds. These are labeled Culture/ Art,These are a product of our intellect. Our in which they live... Education pointsReligion, and Vanity. We need the arts, ideas about God, or gods, or about re- the way to a new world to conquer: thewhich help us express ourselves andligious ceremonies all spring from our world of the human spirit." (Mariamake tangible our culture. We need re-intellects grappling with the experience Montessori, Education and Peace, pp. 34 ligion to guide our actions and to giveof the numinous. "Numinous" refers to 35) us another way of perceiving andsomething that is deeply spiritual or It is about this world of the humanknowing reality. Finally, we have a needmystical. For example, astronomy does spirit and its conquest that I wish tofor vanity; perhaps a phrase richer innot fully define our relationship with speak. When I chose the title for thismeaning is "Personal Beauty." As hu-the universe. When we look at the night paper, I was thinking of the relevancemans we have a need for personalsky in all its grandeur, we are con- of an education that addresses the spiri-beauty. This refers to the care we givefronted with an experience that tran- tual nature of the human being. I wasto our physical bodies and also to thescends our normal experiences. We thinking of Maria Montessori's Funda-care we give our inner being, or in otherbegin to think about this mystery. Reli- mental Needs Chart. How does it ap-words, our self-esteem and sense ofgion is the way in which our reasoning ply not merely to the curriculum, butmorality. I like to think of the mirrorminds wrap themselves around this to the child himself? Let's take anotherwithin this circle on the chart as a sym-experience. When people make up a look at this chart and think about itsbol of personal reflection, a reflectiontheology, which is a set of beliefs about implications for the child, for his meet-of both our inner and outer selves, theGod, they do this with their intellects. ing his own spiritual needs. way in which we come to know ourThey create religion as a way of think- Before noting the ways in which thepersonal beauty. ing about the mysteries of the universe. human spirit is nurtured in an upper In discussing these spiritual needs What about the fine arts? These have elementary class, which I will do inwith upper elementary children, it is in-their origin in human emotions, such both philosophical and practical terms, teresting to note that humanity hasas love, which beg to be expressed. In a

30 32 Johnnie Denton way, we want to make our feelings con- translated, this means "a realm of re-... and so on! These receding images crete. When we draw, paint, sculpt,flection, of creativity, and of the feltfascinated me. I probably spent more dance, sing or act, we do so, becauseunion of souls." time contemplating the cover of that we have been given the gift of feelings. Humans are part of the biosphere, book than I did practicing the music in- Think of all the things that humansbut in creating another layer, theside! Nine to twelve is the age in which have created to express our emotions, noosphere, they truly changed the earth.the potential exists for the children to things such as paintings, musical in-Why? This is the only sphere which islook upon themselves in a new way. struments, ballet studios, museums,conscious of its existence. The hydro-The vision of infinity which we give the amphitheaters, concert halls... sphere does not know it exists. The riv- children in exploring the geometry Here's something else to consider.ers go on taking silt to the oceans,materials and charts, has a possible Our spiritual territory is more than all thunder claps from the clouds, and raincounterpart in this vision of the Fun- the things we have been thinking aboutfalls onto the ground, but they are notdamental Needs Chart, in that we are that are in the world today. It has beenconscious of what they are doing. We reflecting on the fact that we are human built up over the ages. Think of thehumans have consciousness. Think forbeings who can reflect on our reflec- kivas, the pyramids, ... I'm sure youa minute about the time line of life. Thetions. can think of many things that have be-evolution of animals tends to move to-Exploring the Human Spirit and its come a part of the spiritual history ofwards ever greater nervous systemsPotential people. Now here is the third spiritualand brain power. And with the advent need. It says "Vanity." See the mirrorof humans, this brain power reached a It has been said that we are not hu- on the chart? I like to call this circle per- new height. We are the creatures thatman beings trying to have a spiritual sonal beauty. I can think of some build- bring consciousness to the universe. Weexperience. We are spiritual beings try- ings and other places that humans havedo not merely think. We think abouting to have a human experience. This created for the enhancement of theirthinking! We have a new realm of ex-is an interesting turn of phrase, and it personal beauty. I'm sure you're think-istence. We can think, be creative, andis in the trying to have a human expe- ing of some now... But there is more tofeel interconnected. And so, we haverience that I believe Maria Montessori our personal beauty than our bodies. Iinvented a vast spiritual territory. Wehelps us all. am thinking of our sense of right andhave done this not with our hands Let me tell you a story. wrong, our morality or behavior. Whatalone, but with our intellect, will, and Recently I asked the children in my is good behavior, anyway? And thereemotions. class what is meant by the 3 R's, the is something else, too, that we should + + + + fundamentals of education. Without a think about. Do you have morality if second's pause, the first word was you know what is good, or do you only With such a lesson, centered aroundchimed by several children at once: become a moral person if you act onthe spiritual needs on the Fundamen-"Responsibility!" what is good?... Yes,morality is nottal Needs Chart, we raise the children's Waiting a bit for the traditional 3 R's, just a list of acceptable behaviors! It isawareness to the fact that they areand hearing no reply, I decided to go aware, and that their awareness takes our actions. Do we humans have a gift with this response, and wrote the word to help us with our behavior? Yes, wedifferent forms. Mentioning Teilhard deon the board. Since my job entails fos- have will. It is our will that causes us to Chardin's concept of the noospheretering the reasoning mind, I wanted to take action. We must will ourselves to makes a link with the idea of cosmic task, see what the children would come up which I will discuss in greater depth do what is good. with. The next answer followed easily, later. When the children look at this Satisfying our spiritual needs is im- too: "Respect." chart the second time around in upper portant, because we are human beings, Yes, everyone agreed that these two and what makes us human, besides ourelementary, they may get a greater sense that they are looking at them-things, respect and responsibility, are chromosome count, is that we possess fundamental. A long pause ensued, mind and spirit. A paleontologist fromselves while also reflecting on human- and one child piped up with "Recess," France, who lived at about the sameity. At the same time that they are which, after only a brief discussion, was time as Maria Montessori, wrote a bookconsidering the vast spiritual territory scratched from the list. called The Phenomenon of Man. He said created by humanity, namely all of hu- that when human beings came on theman culture, they are also capable of Another child suggested "Reality," earth, they created a new sphere. Weturning these ideas back in on them-but a peer said, "No, that isn't it, be- know about the lithosphere, the hydro-selves as individuals. I am reminded ofcause we study things in this class that sphere, the atmosphere, and the bio-a book of piano music I had as a child. aren't real, like myths and legends." sphere. He called this new layer theOn the cover was a fawn holding aThe children were really trying hard noosphere. This is how he described thebook in its mouth. Upon closer inspec-now to come up with the third defini- noosphere in French: "une sphere de lation, that book was revealed to be thetive "R", and the situation approached réflexion, de l'invention consciente, desame book with a fawn on its cover, and the level of desperation I had seen some l'union sentie des dines." Roughlyit too was holding a book in its mouth,months before, when I posed the prob-

33 31 BEST COPYAVAILABLE Beyond the Basic Needs: Nurturing the Full Potential of the Upper Elementary Child lemoftheseven bridgesofways in which we govern ourselves inmense proportions. Do they contain Koenigsberg to them, and they wantedthe school and the community as theour spiritual energy? Some people are to solve it themselves. real fundamentals of education. talking these days about a life force, Finally one child said, "How about We live in a society in which dispos-though they cannot isolate it in bio- being ready?" To this another replied,able items, such as packaging materi-chemical terms. There is even specula- "Yes, Readiness." Everyone agreed thatals, plastic utensils, and disposabletion that this life force is God within this must be the third R, because youdiapers, have become the norm. We liveus. What I find particularly fascinating can't learn anything unless you'rein a world in which visual images, suchis the fact that new discoveries in phys- ready. as photographs of people ravaged byics and new ideas in theology are caus- "Besides," someone said, "everyonemalnutrition or war, can be easily eradi-ing paradigm shifts in both disciplines. has to be ready together for somecated from our field of vision by theScience and religion seem to be con- things, like taking our bows after a play. push of a remote-control button. Theverging. Remember what happened when somechildren have understood correctly that Of course, the idea of a life force is people forgot the bowing order lastthe most important lessons we cannot new. And Maria Montessori year at the dress rehearsal, and theylearn are those having to do with re-worked with this concept in develop- weren't ready to bow on time... Andsponsibility for the prepared environ-ing her ideas. In describing "The Bulb" some of the primary classes were there!ment and respect for one another. Andchart of the four planes of develop- And it was taking forever?" There wasthey are correct in identifying the im-ment, Mr. Grazzini writes: "A bulb, in a clear consensus about the importanceportance of readiness. In a lecture en-other words, encapsulates the power of of readiness. titled The Need for Universal Accord sogrowth, of expansionthat is to say, When I told the children what the that Man may be Morally Trained to De-the irresistible force of life. This leads fend Humanity, Dr. Montessori stated traditional 3 R's are, they were some- us immediately to the idea of life as en- what disappointed, as they had beenthe following: "Contemporary man, theergy and to the idea of the child as the victim of his time, must become the in discovering the frustrating finiteness bearer of 'precious energies that tend master of his era. If men were prepared of the number seven and its implica- to manifest themselves with irrepress- for their conditions of life, they wouldible force.' " (The NAMTA Journal, Vol. tion to crossing those bridges ofbe in a position to control events rather Koenigsberg. Of course, they read, 21, No. 2, Spring 1996; quoted passage than becoming the helpless victims ofwithin this passage is from a lecture write and do arithmetic, but they likedthem, and they would be well on their their list better. I had broached this sub- given by Maria Montessori in 1951.) way to social health rather than being Just for fun, let's play a game. When ject in the first place, because standard-overwhelmed by a continuous series of ized testing was approaching, and I we lead elementary children to dis- crises and afflictions." (recorded in Edu-cover that there are various kinds of wanted to talk to the children about cation and Peace, p. 75) preparing themselves for the event. I nouns in our language, we ask them to wanted to suggest that they apply a bit We stand on the brink of several plan-fetch abstractions for us. Let's play the more energy to those testable acquisi- etary disasters: overpopulation, starva-abstract noun game for a minute (in the tions of education, such as punctuationtion, depletion of non-renewableabstract, of course!). Think about where and finding averages. As is often theenergy sources, and ecological devas-you can find these things: creativity, case when I intend to impart a fewtation. In fact, people in many parts ofsensitivity, and devotion. I'd like you our world are already experiencing words of advice, I became the learner. to bring these things to me on a golden these disasters in a very personal way. Naturally I was delighted with this les- platter, for they certainly deserve it. Go Yet for most of us in America, the wolf son, and it helped to evoke some ideas get them and bring them to me! is only at the door, and we refuse to act. about the subject of this conference, The Even if you could shrink yourself and I wonder if we will be ready when he Relevance of Montessori Today: Meeting go inside another person, the task blows the door down? Yes, thewould be impossible, for at present we Human Needs. It is apropos that the col- children's 3 R's are the real core cur- have no map for these human posses- lective wisdom of these nine to twelvericulum, and this must give us hope. year olds points to responsibility, re- sions. Even the finest neurosurgeon Maria Montessori said, "Our goal is notcould not extract them for us. Yet we spect and readiness as the real stuff ofso much the imparting of knowledge education, and that physical realityas the unveiling and developing ofknow they exist. The children know they exist, too, and will always try to does not totally encapsulate whatspiritual energy." (Maria Montessori: A bring one of their friends back to the school is about. While it is true that the Centenary Anthology, p. 47) first two concepts the children chose, lesson as the embodiment of one of responsibility and respect, play aWhat.constitutes "spiritual energy"? these traits. They must be somewhere prominent role in our class rules, and Contemplate for a moment the won-inside us when we are born, waiting to while it is also true that we often fallder of the human being. Our brains,be developed. Think of all the admi- short of living up to them, still I thinkwhich are not terribly remarkable in ap- rable qualities of your friends and col- it is significant that the children see thepearance, are treasure chests of im- leagues. Perhaps these are some of the

32 34 Johnnie Denton fruits of spiritual energy or life force. nature" to which Montessori referred,remains for us is to provide the work One of the pleasures of being a Mon-are the potentialities of children, thespace and the periods of uninterrupted tessori teacher, for me, lies in the aware- raw materials with which they con-time for this fabulous construction to ness that I am working with thestruct themselves. They are the possibletake place. And then, of course, there mystery of human potential. Although talents and character traits that springis another element to our nurturing this paper deals with satisfying thefrom within, from our multiple intelli-their potential. We must provide aids, spiritual needs, it is important to re-gences, as well as from our will andthe ones suited to the age of the chil- member that our total human potentialemotions. Furthermore, a listing ofdren. them would always be incomplete at is even greater. We have only to look at The Path to Aiding Human Potential the Olympics to see the glorious capa- any point in time, because with each bilities of the human body. And isn't itnew human being there exists the pos- In helping upper elementary chil- also true that the unity of body and lifesibility of a new big bang, a new anddren, it is important to remember three force is such that we cannot really sepa-expanding creation. Children do notpsychological characteristics they pos- rate them? Athletic skill is certainly notmerely explode into reading. They ex-sess for aiding their self-construction. a matter of muscle mass and bone struc- plode into being! First, they have a reasoning mind, an ture alone, but of determination, self- Speaking of explosions, did youintellect that is no longer satisfied to confidence, and many other componentsknow that four years ago some scien-know the facts of the world, but rather of a spiritual nature. tists were able to determine the tem-is hungry to explore how these facts are In an address to the UNESCO Gen-perature of the universe when it wasrelated and what their import or mean- eral Assembly in 1950, Maria Montes-only a baby, i.e., when it was justing is. Second, elementary children sori said, "Not merely children, but300,000 years old? They discovered thatpossess a great imagination, which al- young people as a whole are undoubt-the hydrogen and helium gases werelows them to explore the world beyond edly full of energy and resources, toso glowingly hot that it would taketheir immediate circumstances. And fi- which we have paid insufficient atten- them a billion years to cool enough tonally, elementary children have a great tion. We, who have always concen- condense into stars. They were also abledesire for social interaction, often trated on the problem of teaching and to determine that at that time somecalled a "herd instinct," which allows transmitting our knowledge to youngsmall temperature bumps existedthem to explore the workings of soci- people, never seem to have thoughtwhich were one-thousandth of one per-ety, both their own and the one outside that, conversely, we have so much tocent hotter than other regions, whichthe school. learn from them, so much of the hid-means that the universe was denser in Now let us turn to the practicalities den resources of human nature itself.some places than others. Robert Morrisof educating this human spirit. This We should be ever on the lookout forexplains the importance of this discov-may sound like an oxymoron. Is there what young people, through their livesery in his book, Cosmic Questions: Ga- any practical way to call forth the spiri- and activities, have to teach us in thislactic Halos, Cold Dark Matter, and thetual natures of upper elementary chil- way." End of Time: "Without such gravita-dren? Yes, there is: cosmic education. While in Bergamo taking elementarytional seeds the universe would neverBoth the curriculum itself and its imple- training, I remember feeling at a cer-have contained anything but diffusementation help children to develop tain point that I had hit the mother lode,gas. If there hadn't been high-densitytheir spiritual energies. Of course, the so to speak. Here was an educationalregions when the universe was verychildren already have had three years philosophy which espoused authenticyoung, then the present-day universeof cosmic education as a foundation at education. It calls children in the depthswould have no stars, no galaxies, andthis point. Let's review what this of their being to become themselves, to almost certainly no life." (p. 6) means. unwrap their personal and unique gifts Could it be that the potentials of chil- Cosmic education really has two fac- and share them with the world. Thisdren are like these seeds of the uni-ets. On the one hand, it is the way in opens up new possibilities for theverse? They may not be obvious orwhich we present the majesties and teacher, too. Far beyond society's de-seem significant. They may lie hiddenmysteries of the universe to the chil- mands that we teach reading, writing,and undetected for a long time. If wedren. I do not mean to equate cosmic and arithmetic, we labor in the class-want to help children fully experienceeducation with cosmology, although rooms to help children become totallylife and become whole, we must con-that is always a subset of cosmic edu- human. We wait and watch for new po-tinue to be vigilant in our observations,cation. Rather, the approach is holistic, tentials to be realized in each child, andand we must continue to expect thator cosmic, in its plan. The stories and we nurture them. This is important,more and more human potential willlessons we present to the children con- because children are not determined,reveal itself to us. cern all aspects of human knowledge, not limited. Of course, adults are never Children enter our classrooms andand they always give a vision of the totally determined either, but childrenour lives with all the potential neces-whole. There is particular emphasis are almost purely made of possibility,sary to make themselves into the finest given to humanity. In The Child, Society and the "hidden resources of humanand most whole people possible. Whatand the World, Dr. Montessori gives us

35 33 Beyond the Basic Needs: Nurturing the Full Potential of the Upper Elementary Child the following overview of cosmic edu-nally comes onto the stage, walkingwell as oceans and even through the cation: "In the universal syllabus ofupright: the human being. These ani-wide spaces of the atmosphere. Human studies to which the new generationsmals have an amazing brain, and be-intelligence has become almost all- must apply themselves, all the items ofcause they walk on two limbs, they canpowerful and today has arrived at a culture must be concerned as differentuse their hands. I wonder if these crea- point where it can dominate the ener- aspects of the knowledge of the worldtures have a role to play in the dramagies of the world and penetrate the and the cosmos. Astronomy, geogra-of the universe? Could they be like most intimate secrets of life. (The Child, phy, geology, biology, physics, chemis-other creatures, making a contribution Society, and the World, pp. 111 - 112) try are but details of one whole. It iswithout knowing it? Another aspect of cosmic education their relation to one another that urges Children who have come throughwhich we must continue to stress in the interest from a center towards its rami-our lower elementary program haveupper elementary is the importance of fications. There is besides this the otherhad a taste of the whole history of thethe lives of people who have come be- part which concerns the directing of theuniverse, and they have been intro-fore us. Not only do we read and tell consciousness towards humanity. Theduced to the greatness and uniquenesschildren the stories of great people, but cosmic construction of human societyof humankind. Let us then bring thewe emphasize the contributions of must be the core of the study of historyupper elementary children to a newcountless others, whose identities we and sociology. How can we appreciatepoint of consciousness. will never even know. Surely one of humanity if we do not consider first of An interesting aspect of human evo-Maria Montessori's greatest gifts to el- all its merits, its creative efforts, its obe- lution is that as a species, Homo sapiens ementary children is the profound dience to cosmic laws that have uncon-has not differentiated to the point ofsense of gratitude to humanity which sciously urged society towards ancreating new species, as butterflies, forarises in the children the day they truly effective union that today unites theexample, have. While we have di-understand our human legacy. "...An whole of humanity in one vital aspect?"verged to form races or subspecies, weinfinite number of heroes have (pp. 111 - 112) remain as one interbreeding unit. How-struggled to render knowledge possible. In addition to giving the cosmic vi- ever, culture diversifies us. Some of usAll that we study today depends upon sion of the inter-connectedness of allhave houses that are made of paper;some individual discovery no matter things, including humanity, a secondsome have sod on our roofs; some livehow great or how small. There is no aspect of cosmic education is its empha- in multi-level dwellings of glass anddetail of a geographical map which is sis on the cosmic task of each living orbrick; others have dirt floors. Our burialnot based on the effort and heroism of non-living part of the universe. Begin-practices include mummification, cre-explorers who for the most part remain ning with the elements of the nascentmation, and burial under the floor of aunknown. The alphabet, writing math- universe, such as the sun, water, andcathedral. The ways in which we ex-ematics, printing, and everything that wind, Dr. Montessori weaves a cosmicpress ourselves vary from haiku toforms the means of our culture are due tale full of intense drama and pag-stream of consciousness, from impres-to a series of efforts of individuals eantry. Each actor in this cast of billionssionist painting to scrimshaw, from thewhose names in the majority of cases makes a contribution to the whole. Themusic of a gamelan orchestra in Indo-are forgotten. ... An ardent admiration corals and mollusks with shells save the nesia to that of a lone flute in Peru.towards this prodigious humanity seas from destruction by the overabun-Since the lower elementary childrenmust be the fundamental sentiment of dance of noxious calcium carbonate. have investigated some of these differ- the new generations. They must feel the The first land plants nobly raise theirences, the point can be made with thepride and privilege of belonging to hu- heads above water. Happy to breatheolder children that this is the point at manity. (The Child, Society, and the World, in all that delicious carbon dioxide, theywhich the Fundamental Needs Chartpp. 111 - 112) are unaware that they are preparing theand the time lines converge. Our cul- Children who enter the upper el- atmosphere for animals. The first voicetures are the way in which we continue ementary, having received the Great on earth was not that of a human be-to evolve. Dr. Montessori spoke theseLessons in lower elementary, know that ing. It carried over the aspirant sounds words in India in 1946: "And man him- the elements of the physical universe of the wind and the crashing waves. self, in building that which we call civi- prepared the way for life on Earth and Who was this diva? The frog! Imaginelization, multiplied his powers to thethat many life forms prepared the way her singing in the moonlight! The rep-point that he overcame all the limita-for us. They know about the invention tiles are the first great terrestrial cru-tions of nature and rose above the con-of language and math. What then do saders, venturing far from their oldditions that were his at the moment ofwe present to these children to strike swimming holes and inventing a hard-his first appearance upon the earth. Hetheir imaginations? More stories of shelled egg to incubate their babies.to whom nature had given only twodrama and passion! We must sow all These creatures all contributed to thefeet to walk upon, can today cross thethe seeds of truth that we can. The up- advancement of life, although theyearth by mechanical means whichper elementary is the time to capitalize were unaware of this fact. As the taletransport him from one end to theon the knowledge and skills which the unfolds, another marvelous animal fi-other, passing through continents aschildren have already attained in their

34 3 6 Johnnie Denton previous three years of cosmic educa-a part of the whole, it is sufficient to4. They begin to gain a new perspec- tion. In her book, From Childhood to Ado- choose any one detail which will then tive on themselves as human beings. lescence, Dr. Montessori makes thesebecome a point of departure in the They are better able to understand suggestions, which I find to be particu-study of the whole." (p. 40) their responsibilities and to see them- larly helpful in working with upper el- For more ideas of details to present, selves as proprietors of two minds: ementary children. reread From Childhood to Adolescence the freedom-loving, choice-making Enthrall the child and To Educate the Human Potential. mind, viz., our will, and the reasoning mind or intellect. "When the child was very small it was Introduce philosophy enough to call him by name for him to turn "By determining the correlation be-Ten Guidelines for Nurturing the around. Now we must appeal to his soul. tween things with the child, andFull Potential of 9 to 12 Year Olds To speak to him is not enough for this; it is thereby obeying an essential impulse This is a list of things I have learned necessary to interest him. What he learnsof the human mind, we create a phi-about helping children unveil their full must be interesting, must be fascinating. losophy for him. And why may not thepotential. I have learned these things ...The interest increases in proportion tochild philosophize? Since the humanover the years, from my training, from the gain in knowledge." (p. 36) mind is mathematical and philosophic, the children and from other teachers, We, as teachers, can never stop study-we try, in reasonable proportions, toas I have attempted to implement cos- ing ourselves! turn it toward mathematics and phi-mic education in an upper elementary losophy." (p. 93) environment. What I have compiled Appeal to the imagination and be A good source of stories about phi- precise here is a kind of top ten "To Do" list! losophy is Sophie's World by Jostein Create an atmosphere of collabora- "Imagination is the great power of this age. Gaarder. A configuration of reality must spring from tive scholarship the imagination. It is necessary therefore 9 - 12: The Golden Age of Intellectual Help the children create and main- to be strictly precise. Exactness, as a nu-and Social Exploration tain an atmosphere of serious shared meral and as all that makes up mathemat- Following Dr. Montessori's sugges-work in the classroom. An addendum ics, will serve to build that configuration tions, it is possible to continue urgingto our 3 class rules says, " ... and work, of reality. Now what is it that strikes the the older elementary children towardswork, work!" Children must know that imagination? Above all, grandeur and, next ever greater discoveries. In relation tothe expectations for them are high. Af- mystery" (p. 37) the spiritual effect these discoveriester all, they are human beings, and so Numbers, really large ones and reallyhave on the children, we must keep inthey have great abilities. There is no small ones, are useful in our tales of truth. mind this aphorism: The greater the con- time to dilly-dally during the work pe- tinent of knowledge, the longer the shore of riods. The class should have a feeling Remember that the imagination is amystery. It seems to me that 9 12 is theof Santa's workshop, in the sense that creative force golden age of exploration in intellectual there is excitement about the work and "Imagination was not given man forand social terms. I can think of four rea-collaboration in accomplishing it. the simple pleasure of fantasizing anysons for this: A few years ago I taught my students more than were the four characteristics1. These students have the backgroundthe song, "The Wabash Cannonball," common to man (language, religion, of the Great Lessons given in the which is about a train. The next day, one death rites, and arts) given to let him lower elementary, and they can be-boy brought to class four or five books live on contemplation. Imagination gin to ponder their elements afreshon trains. He immediately enlisted the does not become great until man, given as new details are added. What is the help of a friend with well-developed the courage and strength, uses it to cre- meaning of all these dramas? artistic skills, and the two began work- ate. If this does not occur, the imagina- 2. They now have more knowledgeing on a project on trains with the stated tion addresses itself only to a spirit with which to make connectionsintent of writing about every train that wandering in emptiness. Obstacles among all the disciplines. Nine tohad ever existed. For several days the abound in the world. But man's spiri- twelves are consummate sleuths, andreports poured forth, and then one day tual life gives him strength to surmount their detective work can be carrieda blank tape showed up, too. The boys them to accomplish his task." (p. 37) out in all areas of the sciences, hu-wanted to record their reports, first in Encourage the children to create. "I manities, and the fine arts. As theyChinese and then in English. They also wonder what you could do with this explore, and as their own individualwanted to make a recording of the song information to make something or to talents and social selves emerge, theas an interlude. The project was taking share it with others?" connections can be very creative and on the appearance of a grand eulogy Begin with a detail which can gen- dynamic. for the American iron horse! They erate a whole 3. They have a larger vocabulary, moreasked if I would accompany them, and "It is understood that one is obliged to life experiences and therefore moreif I would invite other children to sing begin by the study of a detail. But since capacity for humor, which is indis-with them, because they did not think nothing exists that does not constitute pensable in the classroom. a duet would be sufficient, considering

35 3 7 BEST COPYMAKABLE Beyond the Basic Needs: Nurturing the Full Potential of the Upper Elementary Child the proposed length and serious naturechanges in social behavior are best af-words. That is, they may have a ques- of the report. Others did join in, andfected by the children and not dictated tion about where an animal lives, but after the singing, another child joinedby the adults, we must appeal to thethey don't think of looking up the their ranks on the report-writing! Thechildren's reasoning minds to solve thewords range or habitat in the index. next day another child brought her vio-problem. "It's 11:00 and I don't seeTherefore it is helpful to review the lin, and this led to rather intense jammuch progress on your chart. What dochildren's questions with them and as- sessions! One project can thus lead toyou think is causing the difficulty?" The sist them in making up a list of key others as the children's interest devel-children will usually be able to definewords to look up. ops. The key word here is interest. Wethis, at least after some discussion. Also, as the children get older, they want the children to be more than cu-"Hmm, I wonder if any of you has ashould get wiser about choosing their rious about a topic. We want to fostersolution to this problem?" If no oneresources. When doing projects on re- genuine interest. One parent told medoes, it is incumbent upon the adult tocent history, for example, they should that while her daughter was doing re-ask leading questions until the childrenlook for primary source material when- search on the heart, she slept with hercome up with an acceptable solution,ever possible. As more information be- books at night. whenever possible. Remember that wecomes available over computers, it Of course, there will be problems thatare not merely "dealing with" thesebecomes even more important to read arise, such as the wanderers. Whenlittle herds of children. We are aidingwith a questioning mind and consider children are wandering around thetheir social development. And groupthe source. Material that is available room, we sometimes respond with,work is the great normalizer for chil-over the internet has not undergone the "Where is your work? Go get to it!" Indren of this age! scrutiny of a publisher. some instances this works, but often,4. Build research skills Use note-taking skills. Since the chil- more help is needed. I was amused by Since research is the basis of the up-dren may be interviewing people, they a cartoon I saw, in which the characterper elementary work, we must giveneed to be taught how to write fast. was reading the instructions on a pack-careful consideration to the aids weTeach various kinds of abbreviations, age of microwave popcorn. His re-give the children to do this work. Al- e.g., sponse was, "Six minutes! Who hasthough the children have already been a. symbols: & , # , > , w / time for that?" We all feel this waydoing research for three years, it is still b. first syllable: gov. = government sometimes, so it is necessary to remindhelpful to present a clear outline of the c. initials: C.W. = Civil War ourselves that our real agenda is thenormal progression of the work. d. omit vowels: rdg. = reading children and helping them awaken Begin with questions. If the children These abbreviations can be used their spiritual energies. A child who isare not starting their work from the his- when taking notes from a book also. wandering aimlessly is obviously nottory question charts or the biologyRemind the children that they will have feeling energized and may not knowquestions, have them formulate theirto reconstitute these words later, so why this is the case. Three opportuni-questions and at times even write them"Don't abbreviate to oblivion." ties present themselves to the teacherdown. The point is this: the purpose of Taking notes on slips of paper facili- at this point: doing research is to answer our ques-tates tabletop "word processing" later. Take time to look the child in the eyes tions, not just to write a report. This In our class, we use colored strips of and talk to him. does not mean that incidental informa- regular-weight paper 1 1 / 2 x 8 1 / 2 Invite the child to the next lesson you tion cannot be used, but it gives us a inches. have planned to give. clear idea of the "hunt" we're going on. While taking notes, children some- Appeal to the child's moral and so- Gather resources. Most children enter- times say they cannot write something cial self. For example: "Maybe youing the upper elementary have been ex- in their own words. This usually has can help me out. I see that you haveposed to the idea of using more thanone of three meanings: been walking around the classroom. one source to find information about a1. They are not imaging when they are I haven't taken much time to observesubject. For those who haven't, this is reading. "Read this again, and this today. Have you noticed anythingthe time to get them to do so. time I want you to try to form a pic- that needs to be done in the class Teach the children to use the library ture in your head like a movie when now?" Such a question can open theor arrange for local librarians to con- you read!" child's mind to the possibility ofduct a thorough "tour." Encourage the2. They don't know which words are helping other children or making anparents to take the children to the li- important. Teach the children to look improvement in the environment. Orbrary on a regular basis. With the for "gold" or "glue." "Gold" refers it may simply stimulate him toamount of research that goes on in the to significant facts and ideas. We choose some other work or to verbal-upper elementary, this is very impor- need to write down only the essen- ize what the problem might be. tant. tial material. Sometimes a particular grouping is In finding materials, children some-3. They are not reading large-enough not mutually beneficial. Realizing thattimes need help with synonyms or key chunks. "Read at least two para-

36 08 Johnnie Denton

graphs, close the book, and then Encourage class self-direction cal members of the group that wanted write down notes. You can look backthrough class meetings to play tennis finally spoke up, and to see if you got those 'golden' words The goal is for the class be self-man-eventually it was decided that they and numerals right." aging. Weekly meetings allow the chil-would write a letter and meet with the Get organized and write the rough draft. dren to plan class projects and findhead of our school first. Within a week When the children have finished tak-solutions to problems they are experi-the children had their tennis courts. ing notes, they organize the slips ofencing. In our class a child decorates The two most important aims in the paper into categories, which will be-an area on the chalkboard with theclass meetings are to hear all sides of come paragraphs, usually choosing aword "Agenda" at the top, and the chil-an issue, i.e., to be inclusive, and to fo- few notes with high interest for the in-dren are free to write any items belowcus on solutions rather than on the troductory paragraph. They order theit that they wish to discuss at the nextproblems themselves. notes for each paragraph, and write themeeting. Next to each topic, the chil-+ Be open to the possible dren who wrote it sign their initials. rough draft. We can help them further One of the things I have learned from improve their writing by teaching themThen they are called upon during the meeting to discuss their ideas. Thebeing a Montessori teacher is to be open to develop topic sentences and use tran- to the children's suggestions. I am sition words effectively. meetings are run by a president, vice president, and secretary who aremuch more ready to say "Yes" than I Edit before writing the final copy. It is used to be. One group of children important for the children to edit theirelected by the children for a term of one month. It is productive to teach the chil-wanted to write a play this year based own work as much as possible. To fa- on the story of The Twelve Dancing Prin- cilitate this, the teacher can use a mar-dren the basics of parliamentary procedure for conducting the meeting. cesses. Naturally I wanted them to gin code. Rather than writing on the write, but I had a growing feeling that The children learn very valuable les- child's work or circling mistakes, place I should somehow redirect their efforts, sons from these meetings. Perhaps the a one-letter code in the margin on the because I wondered whether these chil- line in which a mistake occurs. Themost valuable are that group decisionsdren had the maturity to complete a are usually better than individual deci- child can then go back, look for the er- project of such magnitude. A great deal rors, and correct them. The followingsions, and that social harmony is a pro-of conversation during the morning cess. Problems are not always solved in letters indicate mistakes of various work time was centered on casting the one meeting. For example, basketball kinds: C for capitalization, S for spell- ten princesses (since twelve were not ing, P for punctuation, R for run-on, Fwas a frequent agenda item this spring. available) and what costumes they There were concerns of gender bias, abil- for fragment, G for grammar, W for would wear. Finally I suggested that missing, duplicated, or inappropriateity bias, referee bias, and players quit-they complete the script at home. I word, and ? for sense. After the child ting. Over a series of weeks the children worked on these problems both on thethought this would be the end of it, but has made corrections, the teacher and much to my amazement they finished child together can go over the editingcourt and during the class meetings. Some solutions were only temporary or the script and even invited a profes- before the child makes the final copy. led to other problems. However, thesional actor to come to the class to give + Learn and use the magic words group process was very successful inthem some acting tips. By the day of The most powerful linguistic tool angenerating solutions and trying them. his arrival, the children had already organized themselves; they had chosen upper elementary teacher has is con- Usually very little adult intervention tained in two small words: "I wonder!" directors, created set and costume de- is necessary at these meetings. At onesigns and memorized most of their These words appeal to both the child'smeeting this spring a child brought up reasoning mind and his imagination, lines. The effort was laudable, and I had the idea of playing tennis during recess. not recognized all that potential! and that is what makes them magic. He had noticed that the high school ten- There are several kinds of circum-nis courts, which are adjacent to our Another thing I have learned over the stances in which these words can beplayground are rarely used during ouryears is that I need to be open to my used. They are effective in promptingoutdoor time. Several other childrenown growth and potential for change children to find a solution to a socialimmediately dismissed the idea, say-as well. A few years ago, I became problem, as well as in helping childrening that not enough children were in-aware of the conversations I was hav- realize there is more to discover in theirterested in tennis, and besides theing with myself on the way home from research. Also, when a child is justprincipal of the high school wouldschool in the car. They centered on all about to reach abstraction with a par-never agree. There was a moment ofthe things that had gone wrong that ticular mathematical operation or tosilence, in which everyone seemed today, and all the things I had not accom- arrive at a conclusion based on data hebe wondering whether the issue wasplished. These thoughts were draining has been gathering in a science experi-dead. When the president announcedmy energy, so I began to list all the ment, a simple "I wonder whetherthe next agenda item, I asked if he wasthings that went right, no matter how there is a pattern here?" may help thecertain that all sides had been heard.small, and I no longer allow worry in child to discover it. He called for other ideas. The less vo-the car with me.

37 3 9 Beyond the Basic Needs: Nurturing the Full Potential of the Upper Elementary Child

+ Foster the class society, possible exception of scenery for plays,ers we must dedicate ourselves to con- particularly through the fine arts they have a class "art gallery" outsidetinuously improving our own skills in The upper elementary class is a soci-the classroom in the form of a large the fine arts. ety in which the children are practic-bulletin board. They are responsible for Get the children out into the ing how to live together. Throughoutplanning the exhibits and for changingworld through "going out" history, people have organized them-them. Sometimes they act as docents when the younger children come to Cosmic education cannot be accom- selves in order to meet their needs, both plished within the walls of the class- visit the gallery. physical and spiritual. The goals of the room. If we truly want the children to upper elementary class community are Participating in musical ensembles isunderstand human society and fulfill similar, and so both economic and cul-very important to upper elementarytheir potential within it, we must en- tural work results from the filling ofchildren, too. Singing is often a whole-courage them to leave the nest and start these needs. class activity. By this age, there are gen-flying. Here is another opportunity to Class Economics: Children like to doerally some children who have decideduse those magic words. When children projects in which they can raise moneythey cannot sing and are tone-deaf. Iexpress interest in a particular field of for the class or for other people. For ex-will admit that I often fear this, too, instudy, we say, "I wonder if someone at ample, they have art sales and use thethe same way that I worried over chil-the university knows about that? I won- money to buy more art supplies or sci- dren who were not reading by age six,der where we might go to get more in- ence equipment. Last year they charged when I taught lower elementary. How-formation?" admission and asked for additionalever, there is hope for children who have not learned to match pitches at Of course, going out is not about es- donations to their production of A Com- caping the classroom, so children who this age, and that hope is built into our edy of Errors. These funds were sent to do not exhibit a genuine interest in pur- an organization which helps orphansbodies. I have asked various groups of children this question, "What do yousuing a particular study should not in Romania. The process by which the participate. children decide how to make moneythink is the most important organ in the and how to spend it is, of course, asbody for singing?" The first response Children need very careful guidance valuable as the money they raise. from a group of primary children was,in planning these outings. I often have the children write down what they will Class Culture: Several activities come "The heart!" and the first upper elementary response was, "The vocalsay in making telephone inquiries. to mind here: art projects and perfor- "What are the first words you will say mances. What we want the children tochords." Actually the most important organ for singing is the ear. And luck-in introducing yourself? These are very experience is a sense of belonging and important. What are the questions you contributing to a group. Activities in ily we have two of them. We must train ourselves to listen very carefully. have for the person answering the which the whole class is involved are phone? Do you know the school's A few words about specialists: It is best therefore very important. Plays and phone number and address in case he not to have specialists. If possible, the musical performances are an obvious or she needs to get back in touch with way in which everyone can take part.assistant should be a native-speaker of another language. And as for the fineyou? What words might you say at the Those who may not wish to go on stage end of the conversation?" The adult can work the lights or participate in aarts, we should teach them ourselves, with the help of guest lecturers. Theredriver or drivers should also be briefed musical ensemble offstage. It is gener- about expectations and responsibilities. ally the case in our class, however, thatis often pressure by parents placed on a shy nine-year-old doesn't remain that the administration to hire specialists. Following these outings, the children way! Through putting on their ownWe need to support the administrationcan share what they learned with their productions, the children truly learnin explaining to the parents the reasonclassmates, and I encourage them to the meaning of group effort, and therewhy specialists are not an "enrich-write thank-you notes. Several years is almost no feeling that surpasses thatment" to our program. What makes ourago the children even struck up a cor- of having taken part in some groupprogram unsurpassable is cosmic edu-respondence with a docent at a mu- project that was very strenuousandcation. However, we cannot offer it toseum in another town, and several succeeding! A tremendous amount ofthe children if the work day is cut upmuseum guides have said that they had organization is involved in such ainto puzzle pieces. never received such notes before! project, from figuring out how to block The fine arts are particularly impor-+ Model communication as a skill different scenes to preparing the play-tant to the social development of theand an art bill to setting up prop tables backstagechildren. The work that children are We all know the importance of lan- correctly. And keeping everything run-willing to do to "polish" a performance guage development in the first years of ning smoothly during the play is an artis truly impressive, and we must en- life. However, it is equally true that lan- in itself. courage the children to continuouslyguage plays a significant role in the Although the children do not usually improve their skills in music and drama lives of older children and adults. I produce whole-class artwork, with theproduction. This means that as teach-know of a German professor who re-

38 40 Johnnie Denton cently had a heart transplant. He had4. Recognize that joy is the ultimate Concluding Remarks been waiting for over a year to have theresponse to existence. Celebrate! The life of the children in the upper surgery and had been in tremendous Celebration is an absolutely essentialelementary is built on shared experi- pain. When a friend asked him whatpart of our jobs, and it can happenences. This means having the opportu- kept him going during this time, he re- spontaneously as a response to our feel-nity to work on a common research plied, "Grammar!" ings or thoughts about life. What wequestion, to ponder the meaning of a Written and oral communicationwant to do is celebrate with the chil-piece of literature, or to test a hypoth- skills are essential for the human race.dren what it means to be human, andesis by designing an experiment. It Among other things, language is thethus aware. means coaching one another on facts veil that separates us from violence. Sometimes the children break intoor lines in a play. It means figuring out Therefore we must continue to teachsong spontaneously. At other times,how to gather information and arrange the beauty and potential of language. when it gets dark outside as a stormtrips. In short, it means learning to- Foreign languages are particularlyapproaches, the children often ask together what the human mind and spirit appealing to the children and help turn off the lights and read a scary story.are capable of doing. them really learn their own language.We light candles and "huddle" together The social aspect of this work is its A few years ago, I began teaching Latinaround the lights and the words. Thishallmark. What we are really nurtur- in the class, and the children werehas become almost a class ritual! ing in these children is personhood learning Spanish from my assistant. In This spring on a trip "up east" the rather than individuality. An individual addition, I had brought in German andolder children and I sat beside Edgaris distinguished by being set apart. A French books, which the children wereAllan Poe's grave at dusk to read oneperson, however, assumes an identity eager to try to read. One day a buddingof his stories and a poem. This may notthrough relationships with others. herpetologist and entomologist in thesound like a celebration, but there was On a recent trip to Charlottesville, class asked me when I was going toa feeling of connecting to something el- Virginia, with the oldest children in the bring in some Portuguese books. Whenemental in human emotions there. Chil-class, I was struck by this irony: Tho- I replied that I hadn't thought of that,dren at this age are beginning tomas Jefferson was the principle author he was completely dismayed. "Anyonephilosophize, as Montessori said. Theyof the Declaration of Independence, who wants to be a biologist needs towant to think about what constitutes eviland yet he borrowed money to buy know Portuguese, because most of theas well as what qualifies as being good. slaves. He came to believe that slavery world's species of living things live in Sometimes celebrations can bewas wrong. Yet he was unwilling to free Brazil!" planned, and often they can come to-his own slaves, feeling that he treated An essential verbal communicationgether rather quickly. For example, Dr.them well and knowing the extent of skill to teach the children is to make "I" Montessori's birthday, U.N. Day, Earthhis debt. He expressed hopes that the statements. Rather than saying, "YouDay, and the equinoxes, (and the win-next generation would solve the prob- made me mad...," it is more effectiveter solstice, if school is in session then)lem of slavery. to say, "I felt really mad..." Grace andcan provide a cause for a celebration. Freedom and responsibility enjoy an courtesy lessons often spring from con- This past fall, the equinox arrivedinteresting relationship. Maria Montes- versations that missed the mark. Imi-with fog and cool weather, whichsori realized that we cannot become tate in a humorous way how not toprompted a response. With a mere sug-responsible unless we are free, and we communicate! gestion to the children that we couldcannot become free unless we are re- Allow the children to do service do something to mark the day, theysponsible. What we want for all chil- work began to search for poems and learned dren is that they develop both. We want them to realize their full potential to be Many upper elementary children like a short song to which they added working in a primary or infant environ-rhythm instruments and bells. Wefree, and we want them to realize their ment or in the school office. Theirfound some material in the closet that full potential to be responsible. The ultimate responsibility lies in making free weekly forty-five minute session helpsreminded us of fall colors, and the chil- them connect with the school commu-dren made headbands and wrist- andchoices. nity and see what an adult's job actu-ankle-bracelets, to which some children There is a school of thought about ally entails. After talking to the teachers attached hastily-strung garlands of fallsystems theory which says that living of the younger children and the officeleaves. Several groups of children be-systems are self-organizing or autono- staff about possible positions, I ask thecame troubadours and made arrange-mous. This notion presupposes that life students to fill out a job application,ments to share this five minuteis inherently creative. By continually stating their qualifications for the ser- celebration around the school. On othercreating newness, life evolves. This idea vice and the reasons they would like tooccasions we have gone outside to getof self-organization can be applied to do this work. We post a schedule ofmore familiar with the trees, danceddifferent levels of life, e.g., to cells, to a these weekly jobs, and the children areourselves in and out of spirals, and layfamily, to society, and to the Earth it- responsible for getting to them on time.down to gaze up at the leaves and sky.self as a living system.

39 Beyond the Basic Needs: Nurturing the Full Potential of the Upper Elementary Child

To the upper elementary childrento which today humanity clings, urged who are very social creatures, weby the supreme appeal of seeking its present cosmic education, and we hopeown salvation. But how to attain this if they come to learn that humankind isnot through a direct preparation of the not a mere parasite on the planet. Is itnew generation, i.e., through educa- possible then to marry the ideas of cos- tion? (The Child, Society and the World, mic task and self-organization? Hu-pp. 109110) manity is the most powerful cosmic agent. As a living system, could we also become the most self-organized, the most creative? Johnnie Denton received her AMI el- Considering the fact that we haveementary diploma from Bergamo in 1981 consciousness, what are the possibili- and has directed an upper elementary class ties? Thomas Jefferson, who gave birth at Post Oak School for eight years. She also to the American ideal that all men are has seven years' lower elementary experience in the public Montessori program in created equal, was himself not able toHouston. She holds a bachelor's degree in live up to this ideal. Could it be thatbiology and a master's degree in applied none of us can achieve our full poten- linguistics from the University of Texas at tial without others? Don't we all have Austin and has studied music in Austria. to act together to realize our cosmic Prior to her Montessori training she taught task? at an American high school in Switzerland and was a member of the Peace Corps in If we were to choose ten people toSierra Leone. Johnnie has served on the build a house, it would be best not to board of AMI/EAA and on the AMI task do so randomly, for what would hap- force established in 1990. pen if none of them were carpenters or plumbers? In our world we have great diversity of people and cultures, yet we have not recognized the tremendous potential present in that diversity. As a global society we must learn to inte- grate and network. We are the caretakers and horticulturists of the world, but we must all work together, recognizing the particular gifts of each one of us to help our garden grow. As children work together in our upper elementary classes, they begin to recognize their personal strengths and potentialities, and they also have the experience of accomplishing a group goal through serious group effort. This can be a significant and life-shaping experience. One thing still evades the intelligence of humanity and that is the consciousness of their terrestrial destiny and of the fact that the whole of humanity is so intimately united that it forms but one organized energy... From the extreme dangers of our days the vision is born of the necessity that men should with their conscious will and with their sentiment, seek to find the adaptation to present conditions, thus forming one universal harmonious society. This is the aspiration

40 Building the Elementary Program and Transitional Program Strategies Peter Davidson

In the Spring '95 NAMTA Journal,change. The teacher begins the yearlack of challenge, rude classmates, etc., David Kahn presented a model forwondering what she'll do without littlebut in their more articulate moments, looking at the evolution of a school inJason or Nicole when they graduate,one metaphor emerges again and a way similar to that of an individual.but by springtime, is quite ready to letagain. "I brought Emily back because I The expansion of a school to includethem go. The cooperative, angelic, care- saw the light (fire, spark) going out." It classes for the elementary years wasful child you could always count on tois my belief that the greater the oppor- noted as a significant plateau in thatmodel gracious and courteous behav- tunity children have to build their foun- evolution. I would add that the addi-ior has been replaced by this louddation, strengthen their character and tion of many elementary programs tochangeling who questions the limits give reign to their true nature, the stron- an already thriving nationwide com-and chafes at the very nature of the pri-ger and more inextinguishable that fire munity of primary programs is a sig-mary environment. Their capacity forwill be. nificant step in the evolution of thework does not diminish, nor their joy I don't think children ever really lose Montessori movement in the U.S. as ain it; but they need bigger projects, athat spark even if circumstances take whole. I have been asked to speak onbroader horizon, more opportunity tothem away from a Montessori environ- behalf of that expansion, to define itswork out their social relations, and to ment after their kindergarten year. I do importance to a school and to describeknow the "whys" rather than thesee, however, a tremendous strength- means for making such a transition fea-"whats" of this bigger world. ening which occurs as a result of exer- sible. In so doing I speak not as an ex- Whereas the Montessori primarycising will and natural love of learning pert, but from my 16 years ofmust take into account the sensitiveon the conscious level operating in the administering our school as it evolvedperiods and absorbent mind of the firstsecond plane. from one primary class of nine studentsplane, the elementary must stimulate I don't recommend that people ask to a six classroom school serving 170the imagination, challenge the reasontheir children what school they want students from age three throughand allow expression to the develop-to attend at age five, but the experience twelve. It hasn't been easy, but whating social being of the second. The greatof one parent who did makes for a re- worthwhile endeavor is? Certainly thelessons stretch the child's imaginationvealing story. Her five-year-old chose benefits have far exceeded the difficul- to the farthest reaches of space and to go to the local public school. After a ties. time. The cooperative nature of thefew months the mother observed that You may ask yourself, why expandwork and the safe forum offered byher daughter wasn't thriving in the new into elementary at all? If you, yourclass meetings acknowledges the devel-environment, and put the choice to her board and staff have realized first-rateopment of the social being. The mate-again. In true Montessori fashion, little children's house environments, whyrials and approach call for theMaegan asked if she could retire to her add a new layer of complexity to anconsistent use of reason, thought androom to ponder the question and list already daunting task? The answer isjudgment, both in exploring the uni-the pros and cons of each situation. that after three years of effort, yoursverse and in evaluating one's own per-After a few minutes she returned and and theirs, your graduating five-year-formance. The curriculum does no lessannounced that she'd like to go back olds deserve an environment thatthan challenge each child to discoverto Montessori. When, a few hours later speaks to their needs, responds to their his or her cosmic purpose: their contri-the curious mother came upon a sheet curiosity, and allows them to continuebution to their family, their society andof paper in her daughter's room, she to fully exercise their wills, skills, con-their world. saw that Maegan had made two col- centration, self-reliance, respect for oth- It's not that children won't surviveumns. The one on the left was headed ers and joy of learning. To offer themwithout Montessori elementary, but"good things about public school" and anything less seems a waste. that a great opportunity is lost. the right "good things about Montes- It is because the nature and charac- About a third of our students go to a sori." The left side included such things teristics of the child change that wetraditional first grade after Montessorias cafeteria, school bus and tetherball. need a different but no less carefully primary, but many of them come backOn the right was but a single word: prepared environment. Any primaryafter a year or two. The parents givework. Needless to say, we found room teacher will tell you that toward the end various reasons for their dissatisfactionto take this little girl back (and also of their third year in the class, childrenwith traditional school: boredom andneedless to sayI erected a tetherball

41 BEST COPYAVAILA Building the Elementary Program and Transitional Program Strategies pole that weekend). venture, and one that can safely belong-term solution. In the meantime What we allow in Montessori is thenavigated with careful planning and you'll need to network tirelessly, adver- opportunity for children to do theirforesight. tise and then hope that you can attract work, and no nobler or more significant It has often been said that there arethe right person. The quality of your task exists. This is the number one rea-three main ingredients to a Montessoriwork environment as dictated by your son to expand into the elementaryclassroom: the environment, the guide,level of philosophical integrity may be years: to let children during this timeandmost importantlythe childrenthe single most attractive quality of of unparalleled intellectual and socialthemselves. To this list I would add ayour program to these very committed capacity simply do their work. fourth ingredient: the parents. To de-and idealistic individuals. There are other benefits to offeringvelop a successful strategy for expan- This brings us to the most important an elementary program as well. Itsion, one must carefully look at each offactor: the children. If you have done strengthens the commitment of the par-these factors. your job, you should have a group of ents. Part of this is due, I think, to the First, the environment. It has beenchildren with three years of primary greater seriousness with which parentsmy experience that elementary childrenwho are ready to take full advantage tend to regard elementary education,need more space: more than 50 squareof the rich opportunity a Montessori but partly also to longevity. Sometimes feet per child as opposed to 40 for theelementary environment offers. In my a person must hear the same truth overprimary. There are also some differentexperience, however, unless a good and over again before it finally startskinds of spaces required both within90% of your elementary class have this to sink in. Without an elementary pro-and without the classroom: big spacesstrong Montessori background, it will gram it's not just wonderful childrenfor spreading out big work; privatebe difficult for the teacher to allow the you lose after your years of hard work, nooks for the settling of differences, orkind of freedom that a successful Mon- but their parents as well. It's not untilthe casting and organizing of a play;tessori elementary demands. This may their oldest child is five or six that mostsinks, counters and cooking areas forprovide a nice alternative to public parents in our school really understandsnack and meal preparation and sci- school but falls far short of what Mon- Montessori and become invested in theence experiments; a large outdoortessori can offer. school. Once they are involved on thatspace for exploring nature, for imagi- Projecting enrollment can be very deeper level, they do more to supportnative play such as building shelters ortricky in those early years. Be prepared fundraising and show a greater com-carving microcosms of river systems. for a sizable margin of error and the mitment to annual giving. The cost of equipping this environ-resultant lean year or two until you The presence of an elementary classment is roughly comparable to that ofbecome established. It is important to can strengthen the entire program fromequipping a primary though not all ofresist the temptation to accept a higher top to bottom. No longer are you ait need be purchased at once. Depend-percentage of children with no Mont- "pre-school" preparing children foring upon how quickly your program essori background just because they are public school first grade (and perhapsgrows, you may start out with thepaying customers. The short-term fi- losing a healthy percentage to publicteacher's handmade materials and cer-nancial gain must be measured against school kindergarten). Primary teacherstain key books and Montessori appa-your responsibility to those children present the advanced work with re-ra tus, collect what you need for and the class as a whole, as well as the newed enthusiasm knowing that thepractical life and experiments, and add risk of teacher burnout. children will be allowed to use theirnew equipment as your group matures Historically, it has taken 2-3 primary skills the following year rather thanand requires it. classes to support enrollment in one putting these interests on the shelf un- Finding the second ingredient, theelementary class. The typical elemen- til some later grade when the tradi-teacher, can be a greater challenge. Itary start-up class probably consists of tional curriculum gets around to it.chose not to begin an elementary pro-7-10 six-year-olds and ideally some Teachers are inspired to present all ofgram until I had just the right, fully-seven-year-old transfers from a Mont- their albums. qualified person in hand. The firstessori elementary in another town (or Of course there are inherent prob-teacher is critical to the program's suc- possibly children returning after a year lems with expansion into elementarycess since he/ she not only provides theof public school). as well. It is not so much like addingenvironment for the children but be- Our strategy was somewhat differ- another class as adding a new level ofcomes the very embodiment of Mont-ent. For one year we had a larger, team- complexity, parent concern and staffingessori elementary to your parents andtaught primary class and invited difficulty. Judging the right time to ex-communi ty. children who would have "graduated" pand is also difficult. Schools that ex- We're just beginning to close the gapto remain. This allowed us to start our pand too soon or too quickly can sufferbetween demand for trained elemen-lower elementary a year later with six setbacks in program quality and finan-tary teachers and the supply. Support- and seven-year olds as well as a few cial stability from which it can takeing AMI, your nearest training center eight-year-old transfers. This three year years to recover. Still it is a worthwhileand sponsoring trainees may be theage span proved a great boon to the

42 4 4 Peter Davidson teacher in that first year and a boost to the program as a whole. We've used a similar strategy successfully when expanding the number of classes or levels offered and have had the additional benefit of accommodat- ing several teachers who were new mothers and didn't want full-time responsibility for a classroom for a year. This leaves but one ingredient for successful expansion into the elementary to discuss: the parents. Primary parents are impressed and surprised by their children's acquisition of skills, knowledge and self-confidence. When their child turns six, however, they begin to have performance expectations in earnest. Parents have much more detailed recollections of their elementary years than of preschool and that familiarity, in this case, breeds comfort rather than contempt. Despite their protestations to the contrary, in their heart of hearts parents often find traditional methods and curriculum comfortable and quantifiable while Montessori asks for faith. As a result, well-meaning parents can unwittingly sabotage an incipient Montessori elementary program. Both teacher and administrator must resist pressure from the parents and even from within themselves to compromise Montessori with workbooks, testing, homework, spe- cialty classes, etc. that interrupt the children's work cycle. As I learned from little Maegan many years ago, the special gift we offer the child is this chance to work.

Peter Davidson completed his AMI primary training in 1976. During the past 20 years he has been a primary teacher, a course assistant at the Montessori Institute Northwest and currently serves as the Ad- ministrator of the Montessori School of Beaverton in Oregon. Mr. Davidson has also acted as a presenter for NAMTA and is a past president of both the Oregon Montes- sori Society and the Federation of Indepen- dent Schools.

43 Practical Applications of Montessori in the Home M. Shaimon Helfrich

As most of us who are parents of chil- sori philosophy of life that can be ap-us? This same attitude of persistence dren in Montessori programs discover, plied to our life with children. Weexists for all challenges in the life of the our children can teach us a lot. Childrenmight call these philosophical attitudes.child. It is only after experiencing the who have developed new skills andThese could include such attitudes as:negative recriminations after making a made new discoveries have a great de-1) respect for life and nature's built-inmistake that children develop an atti- sire to apply those skills and discover-pattern for unfolding development, 2)tude that mistakes must be bad, some- ies in their everyday life. In fact, all ofa friendliness with error which allowsthing to be avoided or covered up at their life is one comprehensive wholeus all to acknowledge our human frail-all costs. This does not imply that we within which they exist. All skills andties and developing levels of skill, 3) thecan't assist the child in developing his/ knowledge become a part of theirfreedom to use all the skills and capaci-her level of skill, but this can best be evolving personalities. The challengeties we have even though they may notdone through modeling specific move- for us, as parents, is to provide an en-yet be perfected, generally called func-ments for the child. In dealing with the vironment within which these childrentional independence. Any or all of these inevitable consequences of error can experience continuity and supportthree can provide a basis for our rela-(spilled milk, wet pants, etc.), we best for their growth and development. tionship with our child. They are atti-serve the child by calmly and respect- It is important to begin our discus-tudes used to create a psychologicalfully providing the help to resolve the sion with a few clarifications aboutenvironment for the child. problem. (A sponge, a dry set of what we can't attempt to do at home. Let's look at these first. Respect forclothes.) First and foremost, we cannot recreatelife can translate into speaking to our Freedom to apply newly acquired the Montessori classroom environmentchild in a respectful manner, avoidingskills, freedom to act on one's own be- in our homes. Our homes are placesphrases that demean or undermine thehalf is the battle cry of the young child. designed to accommodate the needs ofbudding self-esteem. It can mean listen- I have two posters that I like to put up both adults and children. The Montes-ing intently to the child's communica-during the year for my students to pon- sori environment is designed specifi-tions and responding in ways thatder. One says, "Help me to do it by cally to meet the needs of a definedstimulate a true dialogue with the child.myself" the second says, "as soon as in- group of children, as such, the Mont-The young child is just learning the independence has been reached, the adult who essori environment consists of moretricacies of personal communication keeps on helping becomes an obstacle." than just a willing child and a set ofand delights in practicing these skillsStimulating and encouraging func- "neat" teaching materials. Even morewith anyone they meet. Through ourtional independence is an essential asso the child cannot learn from the ma-communications, we can be sensitive topect of a Montessori approach. This terials through mere exposure. Thisproviding a language rich environ-brings us to the part that most of us re- could be likened to sitting in front of ament. Children delight in knowing theally came to hear. What can we do at locked box without a key. In the samenames of all the objects they encounterhome? I will share with you some ap- vein, the trained Montessori guide actsin daily life as well as the vocabulary plications that I discovered in life with as the key to unlocking the box. S / heused to describe activities and pro-my own son, who is now 12 years of is the professional prepared with ancesses they are engaged in. Specific andage. But I firmly believe that all of you understanding of child developmentaccurate vocabulary is a true gift fromhave a wealth of collective wisdom and the nature and design of the mate-us to the child. from which we can all benefit. A good rials through which they can meet the Friendliness with error is a challengeway to assess what we can do in our developmental needs of the child. Infor all of us. We are programmed tohomes is to go room by room, decid- addition, a true Montessori experienceexpect something close to perfectioning on those adaptations or accommo- includes the social dynamic of the childwithin ourselves and in those arounddations that we feel comfortable with interacting with children of other simi-us. However, if we really observe ourand that are consistent with our family lar agesolder children there to assistchild, we see modeled for us a greatsituation. and to be models for the younger chil-acceptance of error as a natural part of dren; younger children learninglife. Think of the young child just learn- Let's begin in the child's own bed- through observation of older childrening to walkdo they give up if theyroom. Here are some examples of and gaining a vision of the work that islose their balance and fall? Do they stopthings you can do simply and without yet to come in their life experience. practicing walking because they aren'tmuch cost. So with this said, what can we do?too secure in this skill yet, or do they Allow children to dress themselves There are many aspects of the Montes-persevere with a tenacity that astounds even when clothes don't match and

44 46 M. Shannon Helfrich

aren't lined up exactly. It is impor- What about the common living ar- tant in terms of clothing, to chooseeas? How can we allow the child a way to be near the other members of the M. Shannon Helfrich, M.S., current Ex- items that lend themselves to inde- ecutive Director of the Montessori Institute pendence. Think of the type of andfamily and feel like this is their placeNorthwest, is a lecturer, consultant, exam- positioning of fasteners and whethertoo? Having books, puzzles and simple iner and trainer for AMI. She has been in- this allows your child to handle them games that are either solely for thevolved in the field of Montessori education independently. child's independent play or interactive since 1971 and has extensive background in Arrange clothing in drawers so it iswith other family members can provide the Children's House environment. Ms. Helfrich holds an AMI primary diploma, a accessible to the child, ready activities. Some parents feel a need to "child proof" these commonB.S. in elementary Education from Provide a sleeping place that allows areas, yet most children readily learnDickinson State University and an M.S. in children freedom to lie down and get Educational Psychology from the Univer- to handle art pieces, and special books sity of Wisconsin. Ms. Helfrich's articles up as they respond to their ownor artifacts with respect when this needs. have been published in AMI's Communica- proper handling is modeled for them. tions, the NAMTA Journal, and the Oregon Place a rod low in the closet to en-It inspires them to control their move- Montessori Association's Forza Vitale. courage the child to take responsibil- ments. ity for hanging up their own clothes. This also allows the opportunity for The bathroom also lends itself to in- the child to apply skills with a vari-dependence. A small secure stool ety of fasteners found on clothing. serves as a platform for children at the sink or the toilet. A towel hung low Provide hooks for coats, sweaters,enough for them to easily reach encour- and jackets as an alternative, so theages the washing and wiping of hands. child can be independent. Placing the child's toys on a long Even the outdoors can be a space in shelf instead of in a toy box. One ofwhich we apply a Montessori ap- the important characteristics of theproach. young child is a love of order. This is Allow the child who can walk, to best described by the statement, a walk, but acknowledge and adapt to place for everything and everything in their pace. its place. This sense of external order Provide small easily accessible gar- provides a basis for security of the dens or planter boxes so the child child and is also the basis for the de- may participate in simple gardening velopment of internal mental order. activities. This also necessitates atten- This is very difficult to do with a toy tion to the size of the gardening tools. box. It can also be very discouraging Many companies now make child for a child to not be able to find the sized implements meant for real ac- objects of desire within the chaos of tivity. the box. These ideas just scratch the surface Now let's move to the kitchen andof the ideas of things that can be done. eating area. There are a great varietyThe bottom line is to always be sensi- of activities that the child enjoys. tive to the developing skills of the child. From very early on in life, the child Use smaller sized utensils (pitchers,desires an active participation in life, serving pieces, plates, glasses, etc.) to especially the life of the family. We, as allow the child to be independent inparents, are the most important facili- pouring his milk, fixing his cereal,tators and models for the child. Our serving his own food. homes can be places wherein the child Allow the child to participate in thefeels comfortable, accepted and sup- life of the family at a level appropri-ported in their process of growth and ate to their age and skill. It isn't al-development. 4. ways the most efficient or tidiest manner to set the table, wash and peel the carrots, or do the dishes, but participation by the child helps them experience a sense of community through actively contributing to that community.

45 4 7 Conflict Resolution An Approach to the Resolution of Conflicts ina Positive Way Silvia C. Dubovoy

During the past decade an importantferences on this topic. Conflict is not afor me to see the power of children in part of human relations and organiza-simple aspect of life; as a matter of factchanging attitudes. Situations and the tion development training has beenit is a very complex one and one thatresolution of conflicts was seen as a "win to win" conflict. The purpose ofoccurs frequently. However, I truly be- growth experience and a part of the this training has been to deal with in-lieve that if we deal with the very es-process of becoming a person. terpersonal differences in cooperativesence of the conflict in a very factual In many ways I think that Rogers has and collaborative ways so that mutu-and open way, conflict can be treatedbeen for adults what Montessori has ally acceptable solutions can be devel-positively. been for children. Both knew the im- oped and no one will "lose". This is It is my intention to explore the pro-portance of &prepared environment in very difficult to achieve because itcess of attempting to resolve conflictswhich respect for the personality of the seems unnatural for most people. Hu-through self-understanding and dia-other was the main object of their edu- man beings have been conditioned forlogue with others. An open mind cancation. Acceptance, empathetic under- years to react to conflict situations asconstructively address differences, in-standing and unconditional love were battles to be won rather than as prob-equalities and diversity, while commit- the necessary conditions for the adult lems to be solved. ting itself to personal integrity in every to learn about herself./himself. These Montessori believed that battles startaspect of life. We cannot avoid prob-same aspects are conditions for the pos- with the repression of the child's de-lems but we can learn to solve them insibility of a child for self-construction. velopment by the almighty powerfula positive way for all involved. As we know now, Dr. Montessori, in adult. Conflict starts with the struggle There are four main aspects to con-her knowledge and understanding of to "teach" the child what is "good andsider: the secret of childhood, was much ahead bad" behavior in a battle between the What is conflict? of her time. Her book, Education and strong and the weak. In Montessori's How you can approach it; Peace, explains with an extraordinary words: "When we...studied the new- What to do in the face of conflict, and insight, how children learn war very born child... We were deeply moved at How to understand and resolve aearly in their lives. War and conflict the discovery of a real and awesome conflict in a positive way. start between the adult and the child, conflict, a ceaseless war, that confronts It was through my work with Carlbetween the strong and the weak, and the child from the very day he is bornRogers that a deepening and under-I quote: "No new understanding of the and is part of his life all during his for- standing of the nature of conflicts camemany changes in the human situation mative years... The adult defeats theabout. He was extremely interested inthat are unfavorable to children has child; and once the child reaches adult-this topic, not only as a psychothera-penetrated the minds of mature human hood the characteristic signs of thepist working with patients within thebeings. The age-old, superficial notion peace that is only an aftermath of warperson-centered approach, but in con-that the development of the individual destruction on one hand and painfulflicts among large groups and commu- is uniform and progressive remains un- adjustment on the otherremain withnities with respect to religion, ethnicchanged, and the mistaken idea that the him for the rest of his life."1 and ideological differences. He wasadult must mold the child in the pat- Socialization in the world is based onalso involved in many other situations tern that society wishes still holds sway. competition, winners are rewarded andwhich were a blend of hate, bitternessThis gross, time-hallowed misconcep- losers are punished or ignored. It isand death. tion is the source of the primary con- very difficult for adults to turn off the During my work with Carl Rogers in flict, even war, between human beings win-lose competitive attitude whendifferent settings, there was always awho by all rights should love and cher- faced with conflicts even though theypoint at which people who hated eachish one another, parents and children, have seen that, in a prepared environ-other were able to talk and understandteacher and pupils."2 ment collaboration is much more fruit-each other's views or positions. This The situation is much more serious ful. special aspect was always called forthtoday than at any time in the past. The Today we encounter the words "con-by a personal dialogue which involvedconfusion created by all kinds of disci- flict" and "resolution" everywhere.their children. By also being involvedplinary methods and the absence of There are workshops, books and con- with Montessori education, it was easyguidelines, has increased the damage

46 4 3 Silvia C. Dubovoy

on the children of today. The lack of fore, conflicting differences in values,together. We come into conflict with oth- understanding between freedom andneeds and emotional disposition can beers because of parts of ourselves that discipline in parents and even in soci-regarded as natural events that breakwe, like the opponent, are uncon- ety, has created a chaos in the manner the order. When a conflict appears it issciously upset about. Everyone con- children, adolescents and adults be-unavoidable and it can bring back or-cerned must consider the conflicting have in their lives. Conflicts are muchder into our lives. sides as two inner parts of themselves more painful and damaging than be- People are different in fundamentalthat are asking for an individual resolu- fore. ways. All of us want different things; tion. What is conflict? we have different values, needs, ends, When the conflict is approached and expectations and impulses. And ofprocessed correctly, it may be an oppor- In books and dictionaries, conflict iscourse, our behavior and attitudes aretunity to achieve greater awareness, usually associated with problems,guided by our wants and beliefs. How-intimacy, self-growth, true peacemak- fights, pain, fear, destruction, loss, con-ever, we want to make all those nearby,ing and community. Conflict can be a troversy, disagreement, hate and war.especially the children, just like our-dance of energy to restore order. A con- It has always been seen as a negativeselves. flict cannot always be fully resolved; occurrence. It brings a breakdown in time has to help its resolution. communication and carries suspicion Man has to create a balance between and mistrust. When conflict appears,being alike and being different. In someHow can you approach it? way man becomes human by living perceptions about the other person or In a workshop which was held at a among human beings. He needs to the situation are distorted, as a way to conference by the Association for Hu- adapt to the time, place and culture in cope with the problem. There is a rigid manistic Psychology in San Francisco which he is born. Freud called it "civi-about twenty years ago, Jordan Paul, conviction and belief in each one of thelization and its discontents". At the parties involved that "I am right and Ph.D. and Margaret Paul, Ph.D. pre- same time, being different is the child's you are wrong". sented a diagram with the Paths through way of being psychologically born. For Conflict which made a deep impression Many times hate, envy, jealousy, need the child to have his own will is equiva- on me. Some years later and after many and desires are the cause of conflict,lent to have his own self. He constructs which originates because of them. It workshops with many good ideas, they himself and separates from his motherpublished a book in 1983 called Do I happens because people differ with oneto establish his own individual identity. another over a small or large issue. Have to Give Up Me to be Loved by You?,3 While the child is growing and cre-which has been a very popular book. When power is involved there is pun-ating himself he struggles for his inde- ishment and even killing. Conflict Having attended the workshop and pendence. This struggle is the mainworked through my notes, I studied manifests itself as pride, anger, ideo-element in the process of separation logical/ethnic differences, generational and analyzed that very first diagram to that breaks the order established by thesee how it could be useful in any kind gaps and points of view. The adage "ifadult and with it brings conflict. Con- you wanf peace prepare for war" gives of conflict. It is extremely useful and I flict is not an event but a process. Dif- decided to use part of it to show you an idea how people are ready to fightferences bring conflict when we try to to achieve peace. how you can approach conflict. mold the other into our own likeness. There are two ways to approach con- Conflict itself resolves the tensionThe child's personality can be distorted between contrasts. It is a way of achiev- flict: positively or negatively. The nega- and deviated and all involved pay thetive form comes from an intent to ing some kind of unity, even if it beprice with more problems sooner or through the annihilation of one of the protect yourself against pain and fear. later. To attempt to change an adult isA person can become closed and avoid conflicting parties. As an analogy, it isan impossible task. The blueprint, the like a violent symptom of a disease personal responsibility for feelings, pattern on his /her personality, is estab-behavior and consequences. This path which represents the effort of the or-lished in the first six years of life. takes three attitudes: indifference, con- ganism to free itself of disturbances and If we take this idea into consideration damages caused by them. It is designed trol and compliance. we may see that conflict can be seen as When you choose to be indifferent, to resolve divergent dualism. a positive aspect of a relationship, that In other terms, conflict could be seen you withdraw from or resist the rela- is, if we can accept our differences and tionship physically and emotionally. as the force created by two contradic-their validity for both parties. We need tory psycho-emotional interests. It isto learn how to approach a conflict, to In control, there is an attempt to try the opposition of mutually exclusivetake it as a sign and symptom of atten-to change the other by means of disap- impulses, desires or tendencies, withintion and as a learning opportunityproval, or by instilling fear or guilt. oneself and with others. It is an out-about ourselves and the other. With compliance you give up your- growth of the diversity that character- A natural way to engage in a conflictself out of fear of disapproval or con- izes our thoughts, belief system, goals,is not to win, but to understand, to col- flict. motivations and expectations. There- laborate and to create a better relationship By choosing any of these attitudes the

47 BEST COPYAVAILABLE el 9 Conflict Resolution An Approach to the Resolution of Conflicts in a Positive Way consequences are very damaging be-understanding and lack of knowledgewhat we want or are able to do. Con- cause they bring distance, powercreate conflicts. flict needs to be taken as a message to struggles, pain, fighting, boredom, lack understand ourselves and others. What to do in the face of conflict? of fun and joy, deadness and a feeling In many ways, we come back to a There are some steps that I was able of being unloved and unloving. The Montessori statement on freedom and to observe during the confrontations in conflict is not resolved and occurs again discipline. We are free to make our own and again using different protectivegroups while working with Carl Rogers and that might help you to-choices with responsibility and disci- circles, meaning that both persons in- pline. Self-control and self-knowledge volved in the conflict choose behaviorswards a positive, open and non-defensive approach to conflict: offers the opportunity to understand such as: indifference /indifference, in ourselves and others. which both persons can be together but Develop the ability to listen actively. they ignore each other; control/ indif- This is one of the most difficult partsConclusion ference, in which one person tries to because you need to get rid of pre- In conclusion, I would like to empha- control and the other is indifferent; in conceived ideas, judgments and besize that conflict offers the opportunity control/ control, both persons fight for free of anger, resentment or hostilityto learn from oneself and from others. the power to control each other, and the to really be able to listen to the other. If you choose to understand rather than last one is control / compliance, when Acknowledge feelings without blam- avoid conflict, then it becomes useful one person uses all his power to con- ing or demanding. Recognize youras a doorway to both self-discovery and trol and the other complies out of fear feelings and the feelings of the othercommunity. When we approach it as a or pain. with an attitude of acceptance. Anlearning experience it acts as a prime This protective path comes from authentic and clear acceptance of themotivator for positive change and childhood when we are expected to other. "I accept you as a person al-growth. When we are non-defensive choose between being oneself or being though I disagree with the action." and open to conflict the shift in our be- loved. Parents and teachers manipulate Find common points of agreement.havior and attitude is no longer de- children, consciously and uncon- Look for that human essence that isstructive, but creates an atmosphere of sciously through love: "If you do what common to all. In my experience,acceptance and understanding that fos- I want, I love you; if you don't, I don't whenever two people who wereters a different outcome. Conflict is a love you". It seems easy to escape con- against each other talked about theirkey to opening a road into ourselves. frontation and avoid pain through the children or personal intimate issues, Footnotes negative attitudes. they were able to meet on a different emotional and affective level. 1 M. Montessori, Education and Peace, p. 15. However, there is a positive way to 2 M. Montessori, Education and Peace, p. 16. approach conflict: when a conflict ap- Use "I" statements. In conflicts, most 3 Paul, Jordan & Paul, Margaret. Do I Have pears there can be an intent to learn people tend to blame the other. to Give Up Me to be Loved by You? Minnesota: from it. One can resolve to be open and "You..." Hazelden, 1983. non-defensive and to assume personal Try to avoid the past. Circumstances Bibliography responsibility for feelings, behavior and might have modified the conflict and consequences. By being open and non- if we refer to the past, the process of Campbell, Susan M. Beyond the Power Struggle. defensive, you learn truths about your- growth might be impaired. California: Impact Publishers, 1984. self and about others. There is a process Bring out the situation or action, Coloroso, Barbara. Kids Are Worth It. Toronto: of exploration in which you have to be Somerville, 1995. never the person. The other has a Dreikurs, Rudolf. Children: The Challenge. New willing to suffer temporary pain or fear chance to save face, to recognize a York: Hawthorn, 1964. brought about by the gained knowl- mistake or to accept responsibility. Fromm, Erich. On Disobedience and Other Es- edge of your true self and that of oth- Find alternatives together. says. New York: Seabury Press, 1981. ers. The exploration can take you to Marc, Robert. Managing Conflict. From the In- different areas such as your childhood, How to understand and resolve a con- side Out... San Diego: Pfeiffer & Co. 1982. reenact fears, expectations, protectionsflict in a positive way Montessori, Maria. Education and Peace. Chi- and responsibilities. The consequence cago: Regnery. 1972. The first conflict that we have is Paul, Jordan & Paul, Margaret. Do I Have to Give of a creative and constructive attitudewithin ourselves. There is a conflict Up Me to be Loved by You? Minnesota: towards conflict can result in positivebetween our needs and our desires. We Hazelden, 1983. and loving relationships and in per-manipulate ourselves to believe in Rogers, Carl. On Becoming a Person. Boston: sonal freedom and growth. things that we think we need or desire, Houghton Mifflin, 1961. In this manner, conflict can be seenbased on social influences. Conflict Rogers, Carl. Carl Rogers on Personal Power. arises when our wishes, needs and de- New York: Delacorte, 1977. not as an event but as a process that Rogers, Carl. A Way of Being. Boston: Houghton continues all through our lives. In eachsires conflict with those of others. We Mifflin, 1980. conflict there is always an educationalare desperately looking for freedom to Satir, Virginia. Peoplanaking. Palo Alto. Science value. Nature creates differences, mis-do what we please and do not know & Behavior Books, 1972.

48 5 0 Silvia C. Dubovoy

Weeks, Dudley. The Eight Essential Steps to Con- flict Resolution. New York: Putnam, 1992.

Silvia Dubovoy, Ph.D., has been active in Montessori work since 1965, first as a parent, then as a member of the board of directors and coordinator of the first Montessori school in Mexico City. Ms. Dubovoy is an AMI primary trainer, holds an AMI Special Education diploma, has worked as a lecturer and assistant trainer from 1985-1989, and as Director of Training at the AMI training center in Mexico City and co-director of The Foundation for Montessori Education in Toronto. She holds an M.A. and a Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of Barcelona and is currently the Director of Training for the Montessori Institute of San Diego in La Jolla, California.

51 49 Parent Conferencesnd Communications Carla Caudill

This presentation germinated fromhe states, "Observation, loving, exact,New World. When you discuss Montes- requests of teachers and administratorsmodest (i.e. humble), continuous andsori pedagogical theory, be sure to re- for help with parent conferences andspecially objective (this does not con-late those concepts to the children. the area of "parent education" i.e. tradict its loving character, but preciselyMake sure that you mention basics such parent relations. I would like to ac-makes it true) is the cornerstone of Dr.as the planes of development, human knowledge their input as well as theMontessori's work of art." needs and tendencies, psychological contributions made by AMI trainers, With these two references, you willcharacteristics, the mixed age range, consultants, and colleagues. I wouldbe well equipped to hone your obser-typical class size, curriculum areas, especially like to thank Kathy Biehl, anvation skills! materials for discovery and auto-edu- elementary directress and marriage cation, the premise of 'help me do it by and family therapist whose presenta-Parent Communications myself', cosmic education, erdkinder tion on Parent Conferences at the 1991 Successful parent conferences are the possibilities are endless! built on a positive relationship between AMI-EAA Summer Conference pro- Parent Conferences vided me with specific guidelines. Also,you and the parentsregular commu- as an AMI /USA school consultant, Inication among school staff and parents With the above brief discussions of would like to thank all of you who haveis essential. Just as preparing and main-observation and parent communications, we're ready now to look at par- welcomed me into your school commu-taining the environment are your respon- nities and shared your programs, ideassibilities, so is effective communicationent conferences. There are two general and concerns. with parents. Think of parent relationstypes of conferencesdevelopmental and problem-oriented. Most schools To overview our time together here,as part of the social /psychological environment that you prepare. Positive,schedule one or two developmental we are going to be addressing three conferences each year. Problem-ori- areas: observation, parent communication productive communications foster community within the school, enablingented conferences are held on an as- and parent conferences. The first two ar- needed basis. eas are the "shoulders", so let's beginyou and the parents to better meet the In either event, your existing relation- there. needs of the children. Planning, preparing, and carryingship with the parents affects the out- Observation out school-wide parent programs arecome of every conference; thus, the Having recently visited my dentistadministrative functions which requireimportance of establishing and build- for a check-up, I've come to the con-support and participation from theing solid communication with parents clusion that observation is like flossing.teaching staff. Each school must estab-cannot be overstated. Keep this in mind It can be difficult to establish as a dailylish procedures which work for them,as you plan your parent education pro- habit, but it's worth the effort! Take thebut there are some general guidelinesgrams, and remember to always allow time, make the time to develop a regu-to remember. time for parents to express their inter- lar daily routine. Soon you'll wonder ests and concerns about their children First, for school-wide meetings, es-at these meetings. This often occurs how you ever managed without it! tablish a regular time and place, and Indeed, we all know that Dr. Mont- during a socializing period, and you distribute this schedule as part of theshould be prepared to chat with par- essori insisted on observation as theschool calendar at the beginning of the basis for effectively linking the child ents as a part of your work with their school year. As you plan the programs,children. and the environment; it is certainly ainclude a variety of formats such as prerequisite for parent conferences.slide shows, videos, a lecture by an The general goals of parent conferences are as follows: There is a distinction between observa-outside 'expert', staff panel discussions, tion and record keeping, both of whichopportunities for parents to work with To help parents appreciate their child are necessary on a regular basis. Ithe materials, an evening or afternoon more, would like to recommend to you anOpen House, a grandparents' day at To learn more about the child (both article on this topic by Hilla Patell inschool, a panel of school graduates re- parents and educator), AMI Communications [1992, #4], which turning to discuss their transition, pot- To build a trusting, partner relation- superbly defines, describes and elabo-luck suppers, dessert carry-ins, holiday ship. rates on Observation. celebrations, student performances, Specifically, we want to help adults Also, please treat yourself to the study group discussions. As you select(parents and educators) gain insight booklet by A.M. Joosten with the sametopics, consider using the AMI / USAand understand the relevance of Mon- title (Observation, India, 1965) in which parenting supplement, Parenting for atessori principles in the development

50 5 2 Carla Caudill and behavior of our children. strengths and weaknesses; conference so that you may prepare. If Let's talk now about your, prepara- Aim to build the parents' apprecia-you do not know their concern, gather tion for conferences. As mentioned, tion of the child; anecdotes, observation notes, and in- parent education programs play a piv- Prepare and organize your paper-formation about the child as part of otal role here. First, consider the prepa- work for each conference; your preparation. ration of the parents. How much do Arrange seating in an open, non-con- In either instance, follow the Conflict they know about Montessori educa- frontational manner. Remember to Resolution Model: tion? What are their preconceived ideas use adult-size chairs! 1. Identify the problem clearly. It is about what goes on in the school? What Conferences generally can be sched-most important to establish your joint are their observations? What do theyuled to last for approximately twentyconcerns and goals. want? Be realistic about parents; don'tminutes. When the day arrives: 2. Evaluate the solutions / options. underestimate them. Begin promptly and stay on time. If 3. Select the solution / option with Before the school year starts, your the parents are late, use the remain-parents and teacher establishing their first contact with parents is to meet with der of their time and re-schedule an-respective roles and responsibilities. incoming children and their parents. other conference. This maybe a brief exchange with re- Greet the parents at the door and in-Before the conference: turning families, but plan to spend dicate seating. Document the problem, the steps some time with new families. Begin on a personal note, expressing taken in class, and their results. Most schools have a "back-to-school" care for the child. It is important to Establish a reasonable goal for the orientation meeting, which is a good allow time for the parents to talk and conference. Pick one thing to work time to give an illustrative description to ask their questions. on, not necessarily the most trouble- of the planes of development. You When you speak about the child, some, buy the most remedy-able. might use this meeting as a "teaser" for emphasize the child's strengths; be Ask the administrator (or another upcoming parent meetings, as you frank about difficulties; use emotion- staff member) to sit in. Let the par- briefly review the school calendar. At ally neutral language. ents know this person will be present. this orientation meeting, be sure to state Allow wrap-up time to summarize; Review your presentation with this the teachers' availability (for example, re-schedule more time if it is needed. person before the conference. parents may call the school office dur- Usher parents out. If the conference is at the end of the ing the day to request a phone call from Make notes for yourself before begin- school day, allow time to tidy the the teacher; ask parents not to expect a room and collect your thoughts. conference during drop-off or pick-up ning the next conference. times; routine calls taken at home one As far as selecting a format for infor-During the conference: night per week, etc.) Whatever yourmation to communicate to parents, use Begin with a positive anecdote. Ap- choices, establish and communicate a a checklist or narrative style form; ad- proach the problem optimistically, procedure for parents to contact you. dress the areas of social / emotional de- reviewing the problem and the ac- After the first week of school, makevelopment, physical development, and tions of the adults. Keep an open at- it a point to have a brief, informal chatacademic/ cognitive development. Be titude, so that the parents can be their with each parent to build your relation-specific and use precise language. It best. ship. Continue to do this throughoutmay be helpful to write down several Stay calm and non-defensive even if the year, by note, phone call, or in-per- anecdotes to share for each area. Com- you are attacked by the parents. son, emphasizing the positive, andmunicate the child's behavior, not your Should the conference become con- sharing anecdotes or information. opinions! If you plan to show the par- frontational, end it and re-schedule ents samples of the child's work, orga- it. When the time comes for scheduled conferences, prepare yourself and thenize that in advance. Describe your Set boundary expectations for the environment! Conferences are usuallyhopes for the child's accomplishments, meeting. Begin from the parents' per- held in the classroom. If certain daysshort-term and long-term. spective. Describe the difficulty non- are set aside for developmental confer- For problem-oriented conferences, the judgmentally. ences, include the children in prepar-following guidelines may be useful. If Find out who the parents consider ing the environment; for example, they this is a teacher-initiated conference, the responsible for the problem. The can assist in cleaning, arranging flow-parents should already be aware of child? Teacher? Another child? ers, perhaps setting aside some workyour concern through informal con- Find out what has been/ is being they want their parents to see. Briefly tacts. Your goal is to communicate the done at home. discuss with the children what the con-problem and to make a plan, with the Look for 'invitations' for advice from ferences are about. parents, for its resolution. (This is an the parents. To prepare yourself: adults only conference.) Work for mutual responsibility and Review your goals for the child; If this is a parent-initiated conference, cooperation in generating solutions / Frankly appreciate the child'stry to find out their concern before the options.

BEST COPYAVAILABLE 51 53 Parent Conferences and Communications

Agree and state what the parents will do, what the teacher will do. Review and summarize these agree- ments. Should you find it necessary to make a referral to another professional, emphasize that this is for evaluation. Remember that some parents may in- terpret your recommendations, for example for mental health intervention, as an assault on their characters or parenting skills. Be careful to emphasize that the referral process is simply a request to bring in another form of professional expertise to bear on a child's needs. Should the evaluation result in a rec- ommendation for treatment, maintain communication with the treating professional so that the symptoms which led to the original concern can be addressed therapeutically, and so that the communication between therapist and school maximizes the opportunity for a positive outcome. I hope these general guidelines will be helpful to you in your specific situations. Thank you for your attention. Today and tomorrow, let us all work together for the children. 4.

Carla Caudill received her AMI primary diploma from the Montessori Institute of Atlanta in 1972 and her AMI elementary diploma from the Washington Montessori Institute in 1977. Ms. Caudill founded the Meramec Montessori Children's Center in Yorktown, Indiana in 1972, where she served as the administrator until 1982. She is a founding member of AMI / EAA and a former editor of Family Life magazine. Ms. Caudill currently serves as an AMI consultant and as a member of the AMI / USA Board of Directors.

52 5 4 Dr. Maria Montessori A Contemporanj Educator? Margaret E. Stephenson

January 6th, 1997, six months away,basic skills of reading, writing and Remember this was said by Dr. Mon- will be the ninetieth anniversary of thearithmetic. As for knowledge as to howtessori in 1948. It is still being said in inauguration of a project in Rome, un-human beings have built up and devel-the AMI Training Courses for Montes- dertaken by a woman doctor, the firstoped ancient societies and the presentsori Teachers in 1996. The study of the in Italy, for underprivileged children. ones, this is, for the most part unrecog- child is still being practiced by authen- The woman was Dr. Maria Montessori,nized as important and untaught intically trained Montessori teachers, the project was the first Casa dei Bam-most schools. On the other hand, therewho are following the guide of Dr. bini. The children's parents were poor,is much discussion and concern aboutMaria Montessori's Montessori, almost illiterate, in some cases criminal, givencurriculum and syllabus, of how theseninety years after she undertook the new homes by a philanthropic build-can be divided and what of them same study in 1907. ing society. The parents were oftenshould be taught in what years, dur- Why was it that Dr. Montessori took away from home all day, the childrening the period of schooling. And eventhis study of the child as the core of her left unsupervised. So they were gath-more importantly to a great manywork and of the principles of education ered together, entrusted to Dr. Montes-people, how can this syllabus and cur-she taught, rather than the study of sori, who gave them their House ofriculum be tested to find out whethercurriculum and syllabus? Surely as so- Children in the basement of the newor not it has been learnt, and by whatciety became more and more complex, housing block. She has said, "The aim age. And should anything be done, oras knowledge increased as the years of collecting them was not for purposesnot, about any of these matters? Thiswent on, it should have become more of instruction." Why do we then seetype of debate has gone on, since firstand more important that the children Children's Houses and Montessorithe education of children became ain school should be taught more and schools still being set up all around thequestion engaging society. more, and that their syllabus and cur- world? Why are there still organized In the Inaugural Lecture of the Mon-riculum should increase. Montessori Conferences and Interna-tessori Training Course, held in Poona, In Dr. Michael Gross' important doc- tional Congresses? Who was Dr. Maria in 1948, Dr. Montessori remarked astoral thesis, entitled Montessori's Con- Montessori that her name should be re-follows: "Today educa tion (wha t iscept of Personality, he writes this: "The membered and her work honored? Forcalled education) is still largely thereconstruction of a humane society is what? What was it that had its originpassing on of information. It is staticcontingent upon the strength and uni- that January day in 1907, the Feast ofand stagnant. It fails its purpose if itfication of the human personality, the the Epiphany of Our Lord? theremains on the same old level, if it doesfull elaboration of which depends upon Epiphany, the Manifestation of Jesusnot move with the needs of the time.a method of education rooted in the Christ to the Gentiles. Was there a mani-Mere information imparted is nothing.laws of development" (p. 61). He con- festation, and to an audience not readyIt is the cultivation of the values thattinues: "Montessori spoke repeatedly for it, that day in 1907? Was there aare hidden in the human personality of the need totally to develop one's per- manifestation, and if so, of what, that that is of importance and urgentlysonality. In The Child in the Church she makes me ask whether Dr. Maria Mon-needed today. The mere transmissiondefines the aim of education as "...a tessori can be called a contemporaryof a greater amount of information can- educator? I contend that there was total development of the personality, a not help much. It is the cultivation ofharmonious growth of all the potenti- manifest, at the Inauguration of the first the personality itself, of man himselfalities of the child, physical and men- Casa dei Bambini and that there has been that is necessary... This cannot be done a daily manifestation since then and tal, according to the laws of its being." by education as it is conceived and (p. 41) will be the same manifestation, untilpracticed today... It is the study of man, this world and time are no more, ofthe study of psychic man that must be In an address to the International something that made and has contin-undertaken... So the beginning of psy-School of Philosophy in Amersfoort ued to make, Dr. Maria Montessori achic man, the child, must be studied. given in December, 1937, Dr. Montes- contender for the title of contemporary...This is our new task: to go and studysori spoke of her vision of the salvation educator ever since 1907. this human energy in a scientific fash-of mankind through the development Books about education are being ion from its beginning, from its concep-of the human personality. She said then: written yearly, standards of educationtion; to study scientifically this energy"Education is indispensable not to fos- in schools form matter for much dis-as other energies in the world have beenter material progress but to save hu- cussion; in your country and in minestudied, from their origin, from theirmanity and all our efforts must be children are leaving school without thesource and to aim at their application." directed toward helping the inner man

53 5 5 Dr. Maria Montessori A Contemporary Educator?

form himself rather than fightinglizations, of all times. It is this, I believe, needs of the present day, let alone those against the outside world." (Educationthat Dr. Montessori saw, through herof the next century. and Peace p. 122-4) observations of the children of the Casa What exactly is it that Dr. Montessori It is this, her constantly stated aim ofdei Bambini, of 1907, and that she con- provided for the child, all through the education which, I believe, and pro-tinued to see, through her on-going ob- years of her working with him? What pose, entitles Dr. Montessori to be con-servations, until her death. It is thiswere the stimuli she considered essen- sidered a contemporary educator. Withvision she left as her legacy, to the As-tial? And is there any way they can be this aim, I also believe that she wouldsociation Montessori Internationale, aconsidered proof that she should be have been, and will be, a contemporary legacy she left to her son, Mario, andthought of as a contemporary educa- educator, at any time in human history.which is continued by the AMI, trans-tor? She asked that the child be given And why? Because her subject, her ob-mitted to its Trainers, to its Committeesliberty in a prepared environment. She ject, her curriculum, her syllabus, herand carried on unchanged in every au- said that the task of the child was the aim of education was, and still is, thethentic AMI Course and classroom. "formation of man, orientated to his unchanging human being, one in his Dr. Gross says that: "The concept ofenvironment, adapted to his time, place essence, in his transcendent nature,personality and its organization is theand culture." She reminded us that we from his inception on earth, to theessence of the Montessori Method... cannot make a man good, we can only present time, and on until time is noPersonality has been defined, accord-help him to make himself. more. ing to Montessori's writings, as the to- What was the prepared environment The study of man is and always willtality of one's potentialities." (p. 93-94)which Dr. Montessori said must be be, the same study. Man in his essen-If this is so, Dr. Montessori is indisput-given the child for his formation? She tial nature, the species human being, isably, a contemporary educator, as hertold us it was the world"Let us give unchanging, otherwise another speciesstudy is always of someone who is con- the world to the small child." At first would have taken over from him, in the temporary. The child is continually en-hearing, this seems an absurd sugges- tide of history. Dr. Montessori's vision tering our society he is therefore alwaystion. The world is a vastness of enor- of the true aim of education is one ofpresent for our study. He does notmous complexity, surely too vast for the the proofs of her genius and the onechange, as do curriculum and syllabus,child' s mind to encompass. But the which makes her always a contempo- with the latest fashion. He is always fash-world is always contemporary to the rary educator. ionable, always there unchanging, andchild and Dr. Montessori envisaged a Syllabus and curriculum change withopen to our observations. way of giving it to him. She realized time, change with Departments of Edu- But if the "concept of personality andhow it could be made available to ev- cation, change with fashion and pho-its organization is the essence of theery child as he entered it at birth and bia, change with the need to write and Montessori Method" how did Dr. Mon-spent his life within it. be published, change with govern- tessori envisage the organization com- One of Dr. Montessori's great contri- ments, change with the need to allaying about? Had she any practicalbutions of the subject to child study was the fears of society, change with prepar-guidelines for those interested in study- that of the human tendencies. This is a ing workers for business, industry anding the child? Dr. Gross tells us principle of human development commerce, change with the need to be essence of education, according towhich adds to the list of reasons as to elected and re-elected, change with theMontessori, is to provide stimuli appro-why she should be thought of as a con- urge to add Ph.D. to one's name. And priate for the optimum development oftemporary educator. The human ten- so schools have changed through thean individual's total personality. Bydencies are contemporary, were and ages, and children have had to sufferproviding the child with an atmospherewill always be contemporary as long those changes. But the child in his es-of liberty and after carefully observing as the human being is in existence. The sence, the object of education, has nothim, Montessori was able to develophuman tendencies are innate in man. changed. The same laws which guidedsuch stimuli." They are the characteristics, the propen- his development as a child of the first But once again, we have to remind sities, which allowed the human being, human families on earth, are the sameourselves, Dr. Montessori's work withfrom his first inception on earth, to be- laws that guide the development of thethe Children's House began in 1907,come aware of his environment, to most sophisticated nation's child today. and she died in 1952. Even though welearn and understand it, to conquer it And will be the same laws guiding themay accept that the object of her workfor his use, and to rise above it. This development of all the children of theis a contemporary child and his devel-environment, for the human beings future. There is no prehistoric child, noopment, and that the laws governingwho first entered it, was an unknown. child of Cave Men, no Renaissancethis do not change, surely the stimuliThese first human beings, therefore, child, no child of the Industrial Revo- she provided so many years ago, musthad to be given powers which would lution, no child of the computer age.by now be out-dated and old-fash-allow them to know the unknown. There is only the child, of all ages, ofioned. The materials of the early yearsThese powers were the human tenden- all peoples, of all nations, cultures, civi-of this century surely cannot fit thecies, given to all human beings. Each

54 5 6 Margaret E. Stephenson child, as he is born, enters, as did thecolors and they were incarnated instates and nations. These societies, very first human being, an environ-three pairs of primary colored tabletsstates, nations, according to their geo- ment, created for him but unknown toin the First Color Box. There are stillgraphical and biological environments, him. If he was to live his life securelyonly three primary colors. There werehad made ways of life distinct one from within it, he had to have a way of mak-three dimensions in 1907; these are stillanother. As time went on and life being a knowledge of it. This way wasonly three. Dr. Montessori's sensorialcame easier to live, they had each de- through the human tendencies. Dr.materials for the incarnation of theveloped art and leisure pursuits and Montessori's realization of this, enabledqualities of the world were contempo-had decorated their lives with differ- her to give the child a way of adaptingrary in 1907they are still contempo-ent customs and ideals. Into each of himself to his environment and beingrary. these societies had been born children secure within it. It was this realization But in order that the human tenden-who had, through the tendencies of of the human tendencies which al-cies may operate fully to allow the childtheir human nature, explored the envi- lowed Dr. Montessori to say that weto make his own knowledge of theronment and the life into which they must give the world to the small childqualities of the world he inhabits, hehad been born. These children continue and enabled her to find a way to do this. needs to have a symbol for those quali-to be born, continue to enter an envi- If the world were to be given the child,ties, so that he can know what they are ronment prepared for them by history, and his human tendencies to be al-without having the materials present tobut an environment which is unknown lowed to operate upon it, so that heembody them. And so Dr. Montessorito them when they enter it.It is in or- might learn it and know it, the worldgave the child language, for his experi- der that it may become known and had to be made accessible to the child.ences with the materials. The languagetherefore conquered, that the nature of How could its vastness, its complexity,given was the contemporary symbolman was given the human tendencies. be made available? How could it befor the qualitythat symbol is still con-It is by the operation of the human ten- made to fit within the confines of thetemporary and is still given, to crystal-dencies that man becomes adapted to Children's House? lize the experience of the qualityhis environment, which means to be Dr. Montessori "incarnated" theincarnated by the material. secure within it, because it has become world in the prepared environment of But as well as the qualities of theknown. the Children's House and allowed free- world, there were its geographical and It was this realization of human na- dom to the child's human tendenciesbiological features to be explored andture, of what it is and of what its task is to become operative within this envi-symbolized in language. For this, in-in die Cosmos, that gave Dr. Montes- ronment. She realized that the worldstead of sensorial material to be ma-sori the purpose of her work. It was this was color, size, dimension, shape: itnipulated and then symbolized inunderstanding of man that enabled her was sound, taste, touch, perfume: itlanguage, Dr. Montessori provided theto say that her work was "to give aid was carpeted with grass, trees, flowers: children with pictures and models,to life". It is this aim that makes Dr. it was decorated with insects, butter-with plant and animal specimens, toMontessori a contemporary educator, flies, birds: it was walked on by ani- show individual characteristics. Therelevant to all times in human history. mals, great and small: it was watered language in these cases, as well as en-Aid to life means aid to the life of a hu- by rain, and snow, by rivers and lakes:riching the vocabulary of the child withman being who is always contempo- it was plain and plateau, mountain and name, also added to it with story. Thisrary, because he is always born into his hill, volcano and glacier: it was sun and language was always real and contem-own time and place and has to become moon, night and day, and stars. And porary, not fanciful and fashionable noradapted to it, secure within it and this world was inhabited by beings just according to the mood of the momentknowledgeable of it. This is brought like the child, who had made a life to in educational jargon. about through the operation of his hu- be lived, as he had to live his life, from As well as geographical and biologi-man tendencies which are always rel- the first moment of their inception on cal features, as well as being furnishedevant and contemporary since they are earth. with plant and animal life, the worldcharacteristics of a nature which has The sensorial material Dr. Montes- had been enriched with somethingbeen, is, and will be unchangeable and sori made for the environment of thegreater than any of these. Human lifetherefore relevant and contemporary. Casa dei Bambini incarnated the quali- had been created to complete the world The life of human beings through the ties of the world, and gave the child the and human life had been given twoages is given to the child in the pre- chance to explore its colors, dimen-unique gifts, not granted to anythingpared environment of the Casa dei Bam- sions, shapes, sounds, tastes, touch and else on earth. These two gifts were in-bini through picture, name and story- smells: its language, its biological and tellect and will, in other words, reasongiven as were the nomenclature mate- human life, its music and art, its workand love. With these two gifts, humanrials for the objects of his environment, and play. These qualities, this life, were beings had developed their lives onthe biology and geography of the present to the world in 1907. They are earth and through the ages had formedworld. It is by exploring the world of still the same qualities of the world insocieties for cooperation, societieshis own species, through language, that 1997. In 1907, there were three primarywhich in the course of time had becomethe child in the Casa dei Bambini be-

55 5 Dr. Maria Montessori A Contemporary Educator? comes aware of the way human life hasdisappeared from contemporary life soExercises of Practical Life to the chil- been lived and is being lived. perhaps to claim them for Montessoridren in 1907? Are Montessori teachers But Dr. Montessori put into the pre- could be to condemn her principles andrelevant today if they still continue to pared environment other stimuli for thepractice as irrelevant. give the Exercises of Practical Life to the child which would allow him to ex- But should these actions and acts ofchildren in their classes? Was Dr. Mon- plore the life of human society. grace and courtesy be irrelevant to to-tessori not only relevant in 1907, but A group of activities called The Exer-day? St. Francis de Sales spoke of cour- beyond her time? Is she not only a rel- cises of Practical Life was a very early tesy as the fine flower of charity. We hear evant and contemporary educator to- part of the environment prepared fortoday a lot about love, of all kinds, andday, but also beyond her time? the children of the first Casa dei Bam-of all manner of people and things. Sup- When she spoke, as she did in the bini in San Lorenzo. If this environmentposing we stopped talking so much1930's about Education and Peace, she was to be the Children's House, to careabout love and practiced it instead.had in mind the child's potential to be for it and learn to use it respectfully and Supposing everywhere the Exercises ofan agent for change. If the child can be responsibly would help the children'sGrace and Courtesy became a majorhelped to develop control of himself, realization of it as theirs. So Dr. Mont-part of education. We might end upof his impulses, emotions, actions, then essori gave them dust clothes, soap,with fewer Ph.D.'s but with a more civi-we may hope that the adults they be- scrubbing brushes and water for clean-lized humanity. And therefore a soci-come will be able to be in charge of ing, brushes for sweeping up, polishety more relevant to the times in whichthemselves and human society become and clothes for furniture and metal ob-we live if we wish to make of that soci- an agent for peace. However, Dr. jects. The children were shown how toety of humanity one which can live inMontessori's work for children was not use these objects and became interestedpeace with and acceptance of everyone.confined to the young child, the child in caring for their own environment. But the Exercises of Practical Lifein the Casa dei Bambini; from her medi- Care of the environment, conservationhave a deeper and more significantcal and psychological training, she of it, "Greens" and "Greenpeace" arepurpose than merely to learn to care for spoke of the task of the child as "the names and slogans which these daysthe environment, for oneself and forformation of man, orientated to his en- often lead to protest and disturbances.others. Hidden within them lie thevironment, adapted to his time, place Perhaps Dr. Montessori was not only"stimuli appropriate for the optimumand culture." This task of formation contemporary in 1907, and also now, asdevelopment of an individual's totalwas to progress through what Dr. Mon- Exercises of Practical Life are still partpersonality." (Gross, p. 9) With regard tessori called the four planes of develop- of Montessori school activities, but mayto the Exercises of Practical Life, Dr.ment. These four planes were each be before her time. What might happenMontessori has remarked that "to doroughly of six years' length, taking the if these activities were also part of tradi-an action gracefully, it is not enough tochild from birth to twenty-four years tional education? Maybe "Greenpeace"do it with a smile on one's face." Theof age, which Dr. Montessori concluded and the "Greens" would no longer beExercises of Practical Life, because ofshould be the stage of the mature adult. needed. what they are and of the way they areEach of these planes showed distinct The Exercises of Practical Life include presented to the child, allow for thepsychological characteristics, so each other activities besides those of caringpossibility of perfecting the action. needed its own significant prepared en- for the environment. The child himselfThere is no correct or incorrect way ofvironment, its own work, its own pre- is a part of the environment and there-carrying out the Exercises of Practicalpared adult, to guide the formation. fore needs to know how to care for him-Lifethere is a way of doing them more The four planes fall into two patterns self. He learns in the Casa dei Bambiniand more perfectly. This requires moreone, the first and the third planes re- how to deal with getting in and out ofand more control of the action, but, and sembled one another, as did the second his clothes, how to fasten and unfastenthis is where the significance lies, con- and the fourth planes. Two, the first and them, how to look after his personaltrol exercised by the child himself, onthe second planes complemented one appearance, how to respect himself,himselfself-control, not a control ex-another, and formed the stage of child- and how to comport himself as a mem-ercised and commanded by someonehood, the first plane beginning it, and ber of a civilized society. This is the wayelse. the second completing it. In the same to help the child realize his own human Is self-control a relevant issue for ourway, the third and fourth planes dignity. times? Looking around at society, iscomplemented one another, the third But the child is a member of society,self-control a valued characteristic? Ifbeginning the stage of adulthood, the since he is not living on a desert islandnot, and there is plenty of evidence infourth completing it. and therefore needs to know how tonews reports and on television and We have looked cursorily at some of live in a society. Within the Exercisesnewspaper pictures to say not, shouldDr. Montessori's principles and prac- of Practical Life are the Exercises called it be? If it continues to be neglected intice for the child in the First Plane and those of "Grace and Courtesy." These society, where will society end? Was Dr.wondered whether with these in mind qualities would seem to have almostMontessori relevant, when she gave theshe could be considered relevant as an

56 Margaret E. Stephenson educator to present times and thoughtconcern themselves only with gettingnatural resources, ecological research of as a contemporary educator. promoted at the end of the year and toare subjects of much discussion and We would need also to consider herwin prizes in competition with fellowstudy. Cosmic education has a great claims as contemporary in relation topupils..." "An education capable ofdeal to offer in making the child of the the education of the child at the Sec-saving humanity is no small undertak-Second Plane aware of his responsibil- ond Plane. What did she propose foring; it involves the spiritual develop-ity not only for himself but for the Uni- the older child, the child from six toment of man, the enhancement of hisverse of which he is a part. The Great twelve years of age? What about a pre-value as an individual and the prepa-Stories which Dr. Montessori gave the pared environment? Was it to remain aration of young people to understandolder child to introduce him to the cre- closed, secure place like the Casa deithe times in which they live." "...Menation of the Universe, the laws, direc- Bambini, the room and its furnishingscan no longer remain ignorant of theirtives and order which governed the fitted to the size and strength of theown natures and the world in whichelements of which it was composed, its small child who would there explorethey live. Education points the way tofurnishings of plants and animals, its the world, incarnated in the speciala new world to conquer: the world ofpeopling with human beings, their con- materials? Dr. Montessori's studies ofthe human spirit." (Education and Peace, tinuing story in which the child has his the psychological characteristics of thepp. 34-35) Cosmic Education is still theown part to play, show Dr. Montessori four planes had enabled her to realizeprogram for the children of the Secondas more than just a contemporary edu- that the older child needed a wider en-Plane in Montessori schools. Is this pro-cator. They show her in advance of her vironment. In the First Plane, the child'sgram, and is Dr. Montessori, still rel-time when she began to speak of Cos- task had been to form the individualevant? Should this still be the theme formic Education and the advantages it self. At the Second Plane the child hadcontemporary education in schoolswould bring to the schooling of chil- to take his individual self and begin towhich bear Dr. Montessori's name? dren. In this time of great concern, for prepare it to enter a wider society of Dr. Brian Swimme, a contemporaryhumanity and for our world, has Dr. other human beings and to learn howspecialist in mathematical cosmologyMontessori something to offer educa- to belong to that wider society. So thesays this in his book, The Universe is ation that is relevant and contemporary? Casa dei Bambini would not suffice forGreen Dragon, "...the human species is But we have said that Dr. Montessori this. the youngest, freshest, most innovative,recognized that the formation of man The second-plane child needs anewest species of all the advanced lifefrom birth to adulthood went through double environmentthe classroomforms on the planet. We have only justfour different stages. We have dealt and society outside it, because the childarrived. If we can remain resilient, if weonly with the first two, very important now needs to learn about the societycan continue our questioning, our de-stages, it is true, as they lay the foun- which he will have to enter and to be-veloping, our hoping, if we can live indation for the progression to maturity. come one with, if he is to live his lifeawe and in the depths of wonder, weHad Dr. Montessori anything to offer amongst other individuals. But whatwill continue moving into the only pro-to the child of the Third Plane and any- did Dr. Montessori envisage this oldercess that now mattersour authenticthing to say as to what the mature adult child doing, in his prepared environ-maturation as a species. It is in this wayshould be? ment of the classroom, and the environ-and only in this way that we will en- From her observations of the child at ment of society? She had said "Give theable the earth to bloom once again." (p. all the stages of his formation, from her world to the small child" and we have 19) realization of the part played by the considered how this could be done. So Dr. Montessori believed that Cosmicpsychological characteristics of the four now, Dr. Montessori asked what wasEducation for the child of the Secondplanes, and also the significant but left for the older child"only the Uni-Plane would enable him to arrive at themostly overlooked part played in the verse. The Universe is an imposing re-ultimate question for himself at thisconstruction of man by his human ten- ality and an answer to all questions."stage: "Who am I? Have I a role to playdencies, Dr. Montessori formulated a And so she proposed for the second-in this wondrous Universe?" plan which, she thought, would meet the plane child what she called Cosmic Edu- Father Thomas Berry is author of Theneeds of the adolescent, the human be- cation and first spoke about it in 1935Dream of the Earth and co-author with ing of the Third Plane. She recognized in London. Brian Swimme of The Universe Story.that he showed, as did the child of the In an address given in CopenhagenFather Berry's vision fosters a rap-First Plane, individual characteristics in 1937, she said, "Education as it isprochement between science and reli-that the first-plane child had to form commonly regarded encourages indi-gion with both working together tohimself as an individual, before he could viduals to go their own way and pur-build a more equitable society and avisualize, at the Second Plane, himself sue their own personal interests. Schoolmore sustainable world. as a member of society and fit himself children are taught not to help one an- More and more people are becominginto it. He showed the same need at the other, not to prompt their classmatesconcerned about the natural world and Third Plane. He was now forming him- that do not know the answers, but tolife on our planet. Conservation ofself as an individual adultthe child

57 1 ABLE BEST COPY AV 59 Dr. Maria Montessori A Contemporary Educator? of the First and Second Planes shouldspeech of adolescents, if we do not see have been completed. If the humanit in their abysmal ignorance of any- Margaret E. Stephenson studied with Dr. being was to become a responsiblething to do with geography, biology, Maria Montesori for many years and, in 1960, adult, the third-plane child had to behistory, if it is not apparent in their was commissioned by the Montessori fam- given the opportunities, the environ-dress, their lack of marmers and cour- ily to travel to the United States as a teacher ment, the activities, which would fittesy, their eating habits, their lack of trainer for the Whitby School in Connecti- him to take a responsible role in the life culture, if we do not see it exhibited incut. In 1962 an AMI training center was of adult humanity. The adolescentperson we see it on television, in the opened in Washington, DC with Margaret needed an environment, activities,pictures and reading in the newspa-Stephenson as its Director of Training. Miss studies, which would lead him to andpers. And we have the statistics ofStephenson was the Director of Training at prepare him for, an independent adult The Montessori Institute of Milwaukee, Inc. crime, of the number of shootings com- from 1989 to 1995 and continues to lecture at life, a life in which his reason wouldmitted by teenagers. this center. She currently remains involved enable him to make responsible judg- Can this picture be changed? Dr. with Montessori as an AMI lecturer, teacher ments, where his reason would guideMontessori many years ago told us that trainer, and examiner. She is also a member his emotions, where his formed will"the child is both a hope and a promiseof the Sponsoring Committee and is quali- would enable him to make the rightfor the future." This hope, this prom- fied to direct AMI primary and elementary choices for himself and for those forise, comes to human society each day, courses. whom he had become responsible. all over the world. What have we done, Unfortunately Dr. Montessori did notwhat are we still doing, with this con- live long enough to carry out her ideas tinual hope, this continual promise? for the adolescent. Since her death, no Can we lay aside the prejudice that country has been foresighted enoughwhat Dr. Maria Montessori did and to see that her ideas for the adolescentsaid was all right for those poor Italian were the only ones that should guidechildren of 1907, but we are almost in how we educate them. True, there have the year 2000, the space age, the com- been "nibbles" at the plan, much dis-puter age, the age of Internet, fax ma- cussion of it but nowhere in the worldchines, of e-mail, and she is not has it been put into practice. relevant? If it could be put into operation, I have attempted to show that she is could Dr. Montessori then be consid-relevant, perhaps even more relevant ered as a relevant educator for the hightoday than ever, because what she school? Is her plan necessary for ado-showed us was not a method of educa- lescents? To give them a boardingtion, not a system of teaching and learn- school in the country, to give them theing, not a curriculum and syllabus responsibility of running their ownenshrined in textbook and teachers' les- hostel, though under adult supervisionsons, not tests and works, report forms and guided teachings, to give them aand diplomas, degrees and honors. plan of studies based on agricultureWhat she revealed to those who would and how it enabled the earliest humanobserve and listen was Everyman. beings to come to cooperation as soci- Everyman holds within himself and eties, of how machines changed soci-herself a system of learning, a curricu- ety and the benefits they bestowed andlum and syllabus, his or her own tests the dangers they posed, to take advan-and marks, his or her own achieved tage of the characteristics of this plane,results in life. Dr. Montessori spoke which is the age of vocation, ofabout the secret of childhood, and of how apostolate, of service, to bring to a re- to educate the human potential. I contend alization what the answer is to thethat she should be considered a con- question of the Second Plane's cosmictemporary educator, because she gave explorer, "Who am I? Have I a role tous a way of unlocking the secret of play in this Universe?" childhood, of educating the human We see a picture of present society allpotential. These are contemporary around us. If we do not see it in thethroughout history, because they are flesh, in school, park, sports field, if we the property of the human being, who do not hear it in the "language of thewas, is, and always will be contempo- grunt", as the United Kingdom's Min-rary in time. * ister of Education has described the

58 g 0 The Relevance of the Erdkinder Vision Linda Davis

My experience with adolescents ismunity, "going out," extending theirhands) within our culture. limited primarily two years of an ado-learning experience beyond the walls Most of you have heard these ideas lescent program in a Montessori school.of the classroom, exploring the life ofbefore, have perhaps read Dr. I may share observations from thattheir culture. Montessori's two-part essay, Erdkinder, work, but the ideas that I present here We can see wonderful programs forin which she describes these compo- today are those of Maria Montessori.adolescents being led by dedicatednents. Like many, including me at one Why? Because when I tried to imple-Montessorians. What we don't see is antime, you may have thought, "How ment a bit of what she described forerdkinder, the prepared environmentimpractical. Expensive to begin with. adolescents (in the form of short staysthat Dr. Montessori described for ado-Who on earth is going to send their on farms) what I saw there convinced lescents. twelve year olds away to live. And a me that the erdkinder she described is Here's what we don't see: farm? In our culture? Clearly Dr. Mon- the prepared environment for adoles- A farm; a farm where adolescentstessori didn't get this one quite right. cents that will best aid their develop- Let's just pick and choose from these ment. live and work. ideas and see what we can put to- During her life Maria Montessori A shop; a shop where the studentsgether." developed or at least described envi- sell what they have grown on the farm, and things that have been made by I wonderwhat sort of reaction ronments that would serve the charac- might Dr. Montessori have gotten if she teristics of developing lives from birththemselves and others. had come to a group of parents with through university. Environments that A small hotel; perhaps a sort of bedthe fully developed Children's House would allow each person to thrive and& breakfast, run by the students andplan before the opening of that first construct him or herself to be unique available to their parents and othersChildren's House. Would they have and yet function within and contribute who want to visit them on the farm. believed a description of how the chil- to society. A collection of machinery; machines dren would function in that environ- Today, as we approach the 1st cen-that the students can take apart, study,ment? Perhaps she would have been tury anniversary of the opening of theput back together, and use. asked to compromise on some of the first Children's Houseless than The place and opportunity for cre-more extreme points. Those sensorial eleven years away we can go to anyative work; plays, making music,materials, for example. They're awfully of the inhabited continents and see ex-drawing, working with clay. expensive. Perhaps we could do with- amples of these environments for chil- Adults; houseparents who live without them. And how about just two or dren from birth to age twelve. We canthe students. Teachers who live on thethree days per week. Should those little see tiny toddlers cutting bananas, put- erdkinder, and some who don't. Techni-ones really be away from their moth- ting them on plates, and serving themcal instructors who help with the run-ers every day? And how about a re- at tables that are just their size. We can ning of the businesses and who teachfreshing recess in the middle of the see three year olds, who have moved the mechanics of farming. Other adultsmorning. We all know that three hours up to sharp knives, cleaning and slic- friends, relatives of the students whois much too long for small children to ing carrots, perhaps assisted by a more work without a break. experienced six year old classmate. Inassist with the running of these various enterprises. Listen to what she did have: "...not a this same room we can see three to six penny for toys or equipment of any year olds reading; creating their own And work; manual work and intellectual work. The opportunity to workkind...no money for meals..." but "...a stories with the moveable alphabet; dis- room, provisions for one supervising covering how to add, subtract, multi-with their heads and their hands. Meaningful work with adults. Workadults, and fifty wild children ranging ply, and divide; and all in an from ages two to six." (Kramer, p. 111) environment that is calm but alive withthat gives practical experience. (If you joy. We can see that calm and that joyknow any adolescents, you know that As Montessorians we come from a on the faces of the children. We can go the question "Why do I need to learntradition of the seemingly impossible. into an elementary classroom and seethis?" is as common as the "How?" andBut these questions about the erdkinder and hearclusters of children decid-"Why?" of the elementary child.) Work exist and need to be dealt with. Let's ing who will do what on a research re-that does more than serve their indi-start with the big onethis residential port, or debating whether a noun is vidual needs. Work that helps them un-idea. Even if you could find families collective or materialor perhaps notderstand and respect the role of workthat would allow their children to live see them, as they are out in the corn-(work with both the head and theaway from home, would it be healthy?

59 The Relevance of the Erdkinder Vision

First, let's look at why Montessorispent an average of five minutes alonebecause they are learning about civili- advocated this. In her analysis of theeach day with dad, forty minutes withzation through its origin in agricul- stages of development of children, shemom, and one hour with both. (Scales, ture." (Montessori, p. 107) They're not pointed out how similar the agesp. 42) And doing what in most cases, Iin the country to have a lovely board- twelve to fifteen are to the first threewonder? Parents bugging to get home-ing school experience, although the years of life. The most obvious similar-work done, or to take out the garbage?peace and quiet of the country is imity is the phenomenal physical changes,Or perhaps having one of those famousportant for them. They're not there to which call for a degree of protection forone-sided adolescent-parent conversa-be full-time agricultural workers. these beings who are changing so dra-tions. One of my former students whoThey're not there to be completely cut matically. Is this comparison of the twowas a high school sophomore at theoff from the world. Remember, she age groups a view unique to Montes-time told me that she "really talked" tocalled for moral and spiritual protec- sori? Here's a quote from Today's Chil-her mom about one time a month, andtion and the opportunity to learn about dren, by David Hamburg, who wasthe other adolescents who were theresociety. They are there to learn about president of the Carnegie Foundationagreed that was normal. human society from its simplest origins when their influential Turning Points How are they spending the rest of- the production and exchange of agri- report was released. "In many waystheir time, when they aren't in school?cultural products. Our current society they resemble a larger version of tod-Hanging out at the mall? Watching TV?may be based more on the production dlers - having the newly acquired ca-When the group of adolescents Iand exchange of ideas and services than pacity to get into all sorts of novel andworked with went away for two weeks,on farm products, but it's still produc- risky situations, but all too little judg-they and the parents reported findingtion and exchange, which is at the foun- ment and information on which to basethe time they spent together in the daydation of human society. decisions about how to handle them-or two after their return the most satis- Randall White of New York Univer- selves." (p. 183) fying time they had together for sev-sity is quoted on this subject in Leaky Look at how we organize our liveseral months. I also saw the shift inand Lewin's book, Origins Reconsidered: around children in the first three years.relationships when the students pre- "In the modern world we tend to think Infants need nighttime feedings andpared a very elegant meal for their par-of exchange, or trade, as a purely eco- diaper changes. There's babyproofingents and served themmuch as theynomic transaction. But in most small- the house when they begin to crawl.would have the opportunity to servescale societies it operates as a vehicle their parents in the erdkinder bed & Attention to their physical needs re- of social obligation... Obligations are quires constant attention. Maternitybreakfast when they visit. Truly sepa-social bonds capable of tying together rating not from their parents but fromdifferent social groups." (p. 324) leaves are granted because our culture their role as a child. has recognized the demands that the The "different social groups" would early months of life place on families. There's much more to say on the resi-come together in the shop, which Mon- Does that mean that we need "adoles-dential aspect of erdkinder, but let'stessori said would be like the medieval cent leaves"? Time off for parents tomove on to other considerations. Whymarket which served as a social center. give time and attention to their teen-a farm? Are we preparing them to beShe also compared it to the aquarium agers? farmers? No. Montessori states thatand terrarium, which are models of the quite clearly in her essay. My reactionbiol6gical world. The shop would be a Montessori also points out the differ-when I first read these ideas in the earlymodel of the economic world. ences between the two age groups. 1970's was that Montessori had antici- In the primary class we give the Adolescence is a time of "...transition pated the "back to the land" movement. physical qualities of the world in the from the child who has to live in a fam-We should all move to small, self-suffi-sensorial materials. Now we give the ily, to the man who has to live in soci- cient homesteads, and this was a wayessence of the human society that they ety." (Erdkinder, p. 98) That's not to sayto begin. Are we taking them to a farmare preparing to enter. Just as the three that they have to completely separateso they can get their hands in the dirt?dimensions as experienced by the pink from their parents and move on outIs there some inherent developmentaltower will always be relevant, so will into the world without any family sup-need to dig and plant? Erdkinder doesbe the erdkinder. But ultimately, there is port at the ripe old age of twelve. Butmean "earth children" in German. I as-one reason why this model will be rel- they do need to separate from their role sumed so, and was wildly disap-evant far into the future; "...the only as a child within the family, to begin to pointed when the adolescents I workedsure guide for education is the very per- take on a new role. They still need pro-with didn't show a strong propensity sonality of the children to be educated." tection and guidance, which they re-for working with the soil. I worried that (Montessori, p. 97) Those universal ceive in the erdkinderperhaps morethey had been negatively affected bypsychological characteristics of each protection than they get at home. their life in an urban environment. Thenage group unchanging over time, the What happens if they do stay at I returned to the Erdkinder essay, and Isame all over the world. But is adoles- home? A study done in the 1980's infound itthe reason for the farm. "We cence the same time of development Chicago found typical adolescentshave called these children the Erdkinder today that it was 50 or 100 years ago?

60 Linda Davis

What about these physically mature ten Physical Activity ning of the program, would have to year olds that we see and all the statis- Scales says that adolescents have acome from the adults. Montessori was tics about sexual maturity beingstrong need for physical activity be-clear about the need for a strong set of reached at a younger and younger age? cause they "experience very rapid andstandards for everyone on the erdkinder. Montessori made the distinction be-uneven physical development." Mon-It would be co-educational, and the tween the physical and psychologicaltessori advocated a country setting forhouseparents would be significant in sides of adolescent development. Simi-adolescents in part so they could eas-guiding the students morally. I had larly, current adolescent developmentily walk, swim, and get other physicalsome help in describing why these draws distinctions between these typesexercise. She also spoke of the impor-kinds of rules are needed when Miss of development. One particularly con-tance of a healthy diet, clean air, andStephenson visited us during our last cise source that I found is a book calledsunshine. farm trip. The students were sitting around talking with her during a Restructuring the Middle School, by Sally+ Creative Expression and Donald Clark. In their summary of brunch at which she was our guest. current thought in adolescent develop- Scales also cites the need adolescentsThey were describing in remarkably ment, they defined three areas ofhave for creative expressions. He saysarticulate terms what they thought change in development: biological, cog-that they "need opportunities to ex-Montessori had done for them. This nitive/psychological, and social. Thepress to the external world who theyhad gone on for some time when she research that they summarize agreesare on the inside, be that in music, writ-asked them what they didn't like about ing, sports, art, cooking, or making up that while biological changes are occur- their experiences surely there must be games for younger children to play." (p. ring on average five years earlier than something! One of the girls then ex- they did 100 years ago, there is no in-14) Montessori identified a tendencyplained that they didn't like it that I toward creative work as one of the pri- dication that the psychological and so- sometimes didn't trust them. Just the cial changes have accelerated. Amary characteristics of adolescents. Anight before they had wanted to all strong element in the erdkinder environ- sexually mature ten year old still has sleep together in the living room boys ment is the place and opportunity for the cognitive and social development and girls togetherand I said "no." It creative work. of a ten year old. Much of what we all was obvious to them that indicated a recognize as adolescent characteristics+ Structure and Clear Limits lack of trust on my part. Miss Stephen- son calmly explained that there are two and write off as hormones are in fact Scales explains the importance of giv- often related to other aspects of devel- kinds of rules in life: rules to stop ing adolescents structure and clear lim-people from doing bad things, and opment, including dramatic changes inits. "Explicit boundaries help define the rules to just help us regulate ourselves. the structure of the brain. areas in which they may legitimately Traffic lights, for example, are there to It may be unnerving to have childrenseek freedom to explore." "...they re-help us in regulating our lives. Yes, I quire structure and guidance in setting in our nine to twelve classes who are thought, what a wonderful way to ex- sexually mature, but they are still chil-clear limits that involve them in theplain limits to these students, who at process of decision making." (p. 13) dren, and we must honor their devel- this time in their lives will need some opmental needs by not pushing them Does this sound familiar? Explora-of those traffic lights. on too soon as so many middle schooltion within a prepared environment? programs are now doing, starting withFreedom and responsibility? As in any Positive social interaction with sixth and even fifth grade instead ofMontessori prepared environment,adults and peers seventh. some of the structure and limits would Getting back to Peter Scales and his Getting back to our "only sure guide" emerge naturally, and she warnedlist of characteristics, he also says that for putting together a program, how doagainst having too many rules, whichadolescents must have the opportunity Dr. Montessori's ideas about the devel-would interfere with that process. Forfor positive social interaction with opmental characteristics of adolescentsexample, when my group lived awaypeersand adults. They have a "need compare to current theorists? Manyfor two weeks we had a system that re-for caring relationships with adults lists and sources of current thought onquired the students to write on a gro-who like and respect them and who adolescent development are avail-cery list any food items we would beserve as role models and advisors." (p. able, but I've chosen to use Seven Keyneeding. If you mixed the last of the13) He goes on to explain that, "Young Developmental Characteristics of Earlyorange juice, you needed to write "or-adolescents begin the task, not of sepa- Adolescence as listed in the booklet Aange juice" on the grocery list. One stu-rating from parents so much as differ- Portrait of Young Adolescents in thedent consistently didn'tbut just forentiating and distancing from parents 1990's. This was written by Peterthe first week. Having to face his irri-enough to establish a personal identity. Scales for the Center for Early Ado-tatedand thirstyclassmates soonGilligan describes the task as finding lescence at the University of Northhelped him remember to record foodout how to have attachments with oth- Carolina, a research center whichon the grocery list. ers without losing oneself in the pro- unfortunately no longer exists. Some limits, especially at the begin-cess." (p. 16) Having attachments to

CQ The Relevance of the Erdkinder Vision

others without losing oneself in thejustice, make up what she labeled "thethe barns, to being able to actually ster- processmuch more difficult to domost noble characteristics that wouldilize the cows' teats and apply the milk- with your own parents than with otherprepare a man to be social." (p. 101)ing machines. They understood the adults. Without the development of both ofimportance of doing this rightthe in- In the two years that I worked withthese, the most serious individual andspector from the purchasing dairy had adolescents, the biggest surprise to mesocial problems that we see can de-just been around and was a reminder was their desire for relationships withvelop. (Note that once again Montes-that people would be buying and adults. In our times on the farm, theysorideals with both personaldrinking this milk. To them it was quite actively sought out adults in a varietydevelopment and the development ofan honor to be able to take part in the of ways for interaction and discussion.society as interrelated.) actual milking. And when an outbreak It seemed particularly significant to me4. Meaningful participation in of flu struck the adult workers, there that when I asked them what kind offamilies, school and communities were a few days where they were do- work they preferred to do, the response ing a significant amount of the work. (given by one girl and agreed to by the Scales' next characteristic of adoles-You probably assume that had a posi- cents is the need to participate mean- others) is that it's not what you do but tive effect on their sense of themselves. what adults you do it with. ingfully in families, schools, andIt did, but it also affected the workers. communities. They "require exposureThe owner of the farm said she had Again from David Hamburg'sto situations in which they can use their Today's Children: "Today, adolescents' never seen their morale so high as it skills to solve real-life problems" andwas after having these kids come in and information comes largely from the"need to participate in the activities that media and unrelated peers, and much show respect for them and the work shape their lives." (p. 14) He goes on tothat they did. of it clashes with parental expectations.say "...although preoccupation with Most early adolescents yearn to beself is common in the age group, over- One reason the students can begin to adults without actually understandingemphasizing that aspect of develop- look at broader social concerns and be- what adults do and are. ...one of thement rather than the need for gin to see where one can play one's role most important things we can do forattachments with others may preventin society is that young adolescents are adolescents is to give them a clearerus from seeing the desire and reality of"cognitively improving their ability to view of constructive adults roles andyoung adolescents' giving to others andsense group and community needs." what it means to be a respected adults."bettering their communities." (p. 16)(Scales, p. 45) They have an increasing (p. 183) "...it may be true that most young ado-ability to think big thoughts, made pos- As I read that quotation, I'm think-lescents worry a lot about their looks,sible by physiological changes in the ing of Renilde Montessori's talk thebut sizable numbers also worry aboutbrain. This was explained to me quite other night and her reference to The Sib- hunger and other social problems, andclearly by two girls in my class, who ling Society. Think of the effect on ado- many do something about that con- told me that they could feel their brains lescents if they see and interact withcern." (p. 17) "...young adolescents cangetting bigger; that they noticed that adults who are trying to act like ado- lead others, meaningfully participate inthey could have thoughts that just lescents! I think this is a real danger forthe working of their schools and com-months before they were incapable of adults who work with students of thismunities, and develop excellent ideashaving. They also observed that these age group. In Scales' book, he makesthat solve social problems." (p. 17) expanded thoughts were changing reference to polls conducted in Chicago their relationships with adults, who What Montessori told us is certainlywere often threatened by their ad- and Minnesota that showed that mostconsistent with this, but I think she of- vanced thinking and arguingskills. young people think that adults havefers an even broader and deeper view. negative images of them. Even parentsShe said that achieving economic inde-4. Competence and achievement "underestimate by factors of three topendence is a primary developmental This fits in with Scales' developmen- five the extent to which their youngtask for adolescents. Remember thattal characteristic, that adolescents need adolescent sons and daughters are con-economic means more than the ex-to experience competence and achieve- cerned with important national andchange of money. This is their way ofment. They "need to find out what they world issues." (Scales, p. 43) It is nobecoming part of the society aroundare good at doing." They "...can be wonder adolescents feel that manythem. Just as they don't play at cuttingpainfully self-conscious and self-criti- adults have negative opinions of them.carrots in the primary, they don't playcal and are vulnerable to bouts of low Montessori gives a significant guide-at becoming members of society as ado-self-esteem, so they require many var- line for working with adolescents inlescents. They need real experiences. ied opportunities to be successful and Erdkinder when she says to treat them This affects not only the students, buthave their accomplishments recog- with more respect than they mightthose who come into contact with them. nized by others." (p. 14) seem to deserve. This part of the de-In our dairy farm experience, the stu- He warns that there is much talk velopment of their sense of personaldents had to work their way up fromabout the need to raise self-esteem, but dignity, which along with a sense ofthe most menial tasks, e.g., cleaning out that we often don't distinguish between

62 R4 Linda Davis self-worth (the belief in one's unique form so far does not represent a funda- lina: Center for Early Adolescence, Uni- value) and self-efficacy (the belief inmental change in outlook and structure versity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, ones' ability to accomplish objectives). so much as it represents add-ons to a 1991. "Self-worth might be increased byphilosophy and curriculum well-suited chanting 'I am somebody' but no chantto the 19th century." (p. 38) Does this will raise self-efficacy, the sense thatsound like the "better bench and black- one's actions can have an impact on theboard" to which Dr. Montanaro re- Linda Davis holds a B.A. in Psychology real world. Opportunities must be pro- ferred in her talk? Scales goes on toand an M.A. in Child Development. Ms. vided for young people to have thatcriticize efforts to keep teens in school, Davis has 25 years of Montessori experience with children aged 2 to 15, including work impact, to reach a little bit beyond theirwhether they are based on punishmentwith emotionally disturbed children, the grasp." (Scales p. 45) Compare this toor reward, as assuming that everythingapplication of Montessori concepts in a tra- what Montessori said in Erdkinder: "The the school is doing is fine; poor perfor- ditional day care setting and school admin- feeling of independence must be boundmance is the students' fault. istration. She worked closely with Margaret to the power to be self-sufficient, not a What is the fundamental change that Stephenson in the development of a pro- vague form of liberty deducted fromis so badly needed? I think it's the gram for adolescents in the Chicago area. the help afforded by the gratuitous be-erdkinder. In her talk on the first nightMs. Davis is currently the administrator of Two Rivers Montessori School in Portland, nevolence of others." (p. 102) of this conference, Renilde Montessori Oregon. Opportunities for self-definition compared the first and last years of life to the times just before dawn and just Scales gives one more characteristic after sunset. There is still light, but it is the need to have opportunities fora "magic light" that casts no shadow. self-definition. They "require time to What a beautiful image. It occurred to reflect upon the new reactions they re-me that there is one other time of day ceive from others and to construct awhen light is cast in such a way that consistent self-image from the many there can be no shadownoon, the different mirrors in which they view break between the morning light and themselves." (p. 14) afternoon and evening light. Perhaps Reflection. Meditation. Those wereadolescence is the noon of life, another Montessori's words for what adoles-time of magic light. cents need. Once again, I think she I'll close with these words of Maria takes us one step further. Self-definition Montessori from Erdkinder: "It is nec- is not an end in itself. It empowers theessary to consider not only the active individual to take his or her place in occupations but the need for solitude society, to find one's "cosmic task." Inand quiet, which are essential for the healthy development it leads to what development of the hidden treasures of Montessori called "valorization,"the soul. In the soul of the adolescent, which is self-confidence combined withgreat values are hidden...and in the knowledge of one's own capacities, minds of these boys and girls there lies used to help one adapt to society. That's all our hope of future progress and the adapt, not adjust. To adjust implies changing oneself to fit in. To adaptjudgment of ourselves and our times. (p.113-114) means to find the place that fits you. Here we are, more than 40 years after Dr. Montessori's death, even more SOURCES years since she wrote in Erdkinder, inClark, Sally and Donald. Restructuring the which she said: "The need for reform Middle School. Albany, New York: State in secondary teaching which makes it- University of New York Press, 1994. self so urgently felt poses not only an Hamburg, M.D., David A. Today's Children educational problem but also a human New York: Random House, 1992. and social problem, which may be Kramer, Rita. Maria Montessori. New York: summed up in this way: the schools, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1976. such as they are today, are not adapted Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin. Origins Re- to the needs of the adolescent or to the considered. New York: Doubleday, 1992. age in which we live." (p. 95) Montessori, Maria. From Childhood to Ado- lescence. New York: Schocken Books, 1973. Has that changed? Another quote Scales, Peter C. A Portrait of Young Adoles- from Peter Scales: "Most education re- cents in the 1990's. Carrboro, North Caro-

REST COPYAVAILABLE 63 5 Maria Montessori Envisioned Physicsas Part of the Environment Peter Gebhardt-Seele, Ph.D.

The Issue lectern: levers, pulleys, inclined planes, riod, or frustrated in its vital needs, the Today's teacher training for the Mon- etc. But that does not mean the laws aremind of the child becomes artificially tessori class of the 612 year olds in-limited to that kind of apparatus. dulled, henceforth to resist imparted cludes simple science experiments in In summarizing we may say, phys-knowledge. Interest will no longer be the geography curriculum, but no con-ics is the science of the laws governingthere if the seed be sown too late, but sistent physics curriculum. all matter and energy in the cosmos. at six years of age all items of culture are received enthusiastically, and later Maria Montessori, however, did en- Physics in Cosmic Education vision physics as part of the environ- these seeds will expand and grow. If ment in the elementary class and, in Cosmic Education is the great planasked how many seeds may be sown, suitable form, in the Casa dei Bambini. for the elementary class. Maria Mont-my answer is: 'As many as possible!'"2 essori pronounced the plan of cosmic Recently I had a chance to introduce The Science of Physics education in a lecture in 1935. One of physics to adolescents and I recognized The etymology of physics, from thethe aspects of cosmic education is, give what a difference there is from the same Greek through the Latin language, goes the whole universe to the child. Don't pro- work in the elementary class, which I back to the verb phueinto bring forth,vide a collection of subject matter, but to make grow. The noun phusis thengive a vision of the whole, a vision ofhad done previously. While elementary means nature, all that is brought forth.the order and harmony throughout thechildren take to it with enthusiasm, So physics is the science of everythingcosmos. Cosmos, the Greek word, hasadolescents are, at best, polite listeners. in nature, in the cosmos, in reality. the connotation of the total universe,This experience confirms to me: we may not push physics into the adoles- However physics is not a descriptivenot just as a pile of rubble, not just a science like botany, counting all thechaotic entity, but the total universe in cent level. It is elementary work. At the adolescent level it is too late. That is plants and classifying them as the plantorder, in harmony. Harmony and order kingdom. Physics deals with the laws,in nature was a phenomenon which thewhat Montessori says in her text the inner workings of nature. Greek philosophers pondered intensely quoted. At six years of age is the time when children express keen interest in Physics may not be confused withand the concept of cosmos encapsulates that philosophy. physics. At high school age their inter- technology. Technology, yes, is apply- est is somewhere else. ing those laws. If you operate an auto- Maria Montessori, in To Educate the mobile or a nuclear bomb, these laws Human Potential, first published in 1948, The Idea of the Cosmic Task are made to function in a way the de-writes about the elementary child: Another aspect of cosmic education signing engineer has planned. But that"...there is an unusual demand on theis what Montessori called the cosmic is not the subject of the science of phys-part of the child to know the reasons oftask: every bit in the universe has a task. ics. things. Knowledge can be best givenIn To Educate the Human Potential she Physics is concerned with the law it-where there is eagerness to learn, so thiswrites about "the Cosmic Plan in which self, no matter what human beings later is the period when the seed of every-all, consciously and unconsciously, on do with it. thing can be sown..."1 I might stressserve the great Purpose of Life."3 In Physics also is not just the science ofthe word everything, because here wefurther parts of this text Montessori dead matter as it is frequently seen.are considering something which, sogives examples of such cosmic tasks, Animals and plants, too, follow phys-far, hasn't been counted as our elemen-coral cleaning the water of excess cal- ics laws. Our heartbeat follows phys-tary curriculum. cium, plants preparing the oxygen to ics laws, our bloodstream does, the I might also stress the notion that theenable animal life, bees taking care of chemistry in our body does. Everychild wants to know the reasons ofpollination, etc. All these she sees as atom in my nose follows these laws and things. Physics studies the reasons ofservants to harmony in nature. of course not only in the nose. But whenall matter and energy. Human beings, too, have a cosmic we set up experiments in order to verify The text continues: "...when the seedtask. They, however, are not guided by these laws, plants and animals are tooof everything can be sown, the child'sbuilt-in programs or instincts. Human complex. To isolate the phenomena tomind being like a fertile field, ready tobeings need to be guided by their own be studied, we use simple apparatus,receive what will germinate into cul-intellect. Mario Montessori, Jr. in Edu- as you see on display here next to theture. But if neglected during this pe-cation for Human Development, says:

64 R 6 Peter Gebhhardt-Seele, Ph.D.

"This is what Maria Montessori calledhave known this as acutely as we donately, here is not the place to discuss the cosmic task of man: to continue thetoday. We must admire how she andit in detail. Such discussion is provided work of creation... Man does not haveher son and grandson, like visionaries, in my article in Communications [1994, built in programming as does thesaw the problems. They also saw that 2/3] 8. salmon (when it migrates up the river,it could only be through the human Maria Montessori recognized that a timely image in Seattle!). He (man)being, and through educating the hu-you can't just take for granted that there must program himself, through con-man being, that we would overcomeis law in nature. But it indeed turns out scious effort. It is obvious today thatthe crisis. to be the basis of all harmony and there- man desperately needs the intelligence So Maria Montessori sees the prob- fore is so interesting to the children. The to use his power to change things con-lem with the man-made environment, study of physics deals with those laws. structively. This is his only hope, if hebut her conclusion is not to bar it from is to maintain his self-made environ-the class environment. She rather em-Follow the Child ment in a condition that may permitphasizes its challenge to humans and Montessori profoundly counsels us human life to evolve toward a digni-she advises to introduce the children toto follow the child. She was well aware fied existence for everyone. This canthat moral challenge. that children may exhibit deviations or only be achieved with the aid of edu- To deal with a moral challenge is onlyinterests which are superficial and not cation."4 possible if one understands the factualconnected with the needs of the grow- The Threat to Our World world. When we deal with the worlding mind. So, "following the child" is not always easy. The real needs and For the self-made environment Mariabeing threatened we have to under- interests revealed themselves to Maria Montessori coined the term Sopra Natu-stand how all is linked together. Why ral, which in English might be trans-has the explosion in Chernobyl beenMontessori by the phenomenon of nor- lated as Supranature. It has nothing tosuch a disaster? Because for centuries, malization. Whenever an inner urge, a do with super or superior, it just de-or maybe millennia, that place will not real need, was satisfied, the child would scribes the part of the world which hu-be inhabitable again. If similar disas-exhibit an extraordinary calm, happy man beings had made on top of nature. ters happen in more places, this earthand satisfied demeanor. Sopra means "on top". Supranature iswill not be available for our grandchil- For our question it would then be the world constructed by man. dren. Why are the climate and weathernecessary to observe children in this Maria Montessori was very muchpattern changing with catastrophicspecific way. My own experience aware of the fact that supranature isconsequences on sea levels, floods,would verify that, if you introduce now part of the total world. And shestorms and draughts? One cause is thephysics studies in an elementary class, was aware of the danger connectedchange in the atmosphere brought the children respond to it like bees to a with it. In From Childhood to Adolescence, about by carbon dioxide exhaust fromcake. Children seem to have a strong she writes: "With machines civilizationcars, homes and factories. If we keepurge, feeling "this is dealing with the has given a power to man far superiorburning the amount of carbon fuel asinner workings of my world, this is to his own. But in order to develop theis done now, the world may not be awhat I need to know, and this is fun for work of civilization, man must developlivable place for our grandchildren. me". If you look at these materials (dis- too. The ailment, of which our time is To act upon these problems means toplayed here), you may imagine chil- suffering, comes from a disturbed equi-understand them first. To act as a re-dren being immediately drawn to librium which results from differentsponsible citizen means to understandmanipulate, to explore its potential. development rhythms of man and ma-what the politicians are talking about. We may need more experience as an chines."5 This was written about fifty All Particles Follow Physics Laws answer to the question, whether this ex- years ago. Today we experienced the ploration indeed leads to normaliza- threat of machines such as nuclear We have discussed how physics pro-tion. But we may also consider how bombs or Chernobyl power stations.vides key concepts about the innerMontessori shows us the inner urge of The text goes on: "The machine's de-workings of the cosmos. Those are thechildren to master their own environ- velopment was accelerated, while hephysics laws. The story God Who Hasment, their own culture, their own (the human being) ought to rule overNo Hands in its last line summarizes:world surrounding them. Physics pro- it... We must teach the youngsters our"...the earth and all the elements andvides topics which have to do with their task on earth. But this power, which iscompounds of which it is composed,life: Elementary children are keenly as they fulfill their task, whisper with given to men by the machine, has to aware that it is important to them. They one voice: 'Lord thy will be done.'"7 give him new duties, an ever higher de- have a much keener sense for this than veloped morale."6 So, as early as in the first days of thewe do as adults. These words have an anxious ring inelementary class Montessori brings in our times. We know today that ourthis idea of a law in nature, of a pro-Full Equipment grandchildren may not have a worldfound inner will in all matter, to follow In To Educate the Human Potential, to live in, if we continue to act as wethe same procedures. This metaphorMaria Montessori says about the age of act now. Maria Montessori may notitself is an intriguing topic. Unfortu- 612 years: "In this more advanced

65 S7 Maria Montessori Envisioned Physics as Part of the Environment period we continue to afford childrencluded in that list, marked by an aster-view. But if you want to understand the opportunity to learn through theisk. The static mechanics experimentswhy it is doing so, you might be lost. activity of the hand especially in me-Simple Machines'', as displayed hereThis is a toy, it is supposed to create chanics and physics (!). For instance thebefore the audience, are listed too, curiosity, and for this it is fine. But the children learn the laws of pressure andmarked by two asterisks. laws creating that phenomenon are not tension by being asked to build an arch The list is not meant to be a physicsisolated. Several laws work together of stones so placed as to hold together textbook. It merely tries to provide aand they are not easily understood in without need of cement".9 selection and a classification for thethis complex setting. Some may still have that arch in theirteacher. It certainly shows the magni- Try to set up apparatus which isolate classes or training centers. It used to be tude of the task: eleven sections, eachlaws. Offer activities where one concept part of the primary training: smallwith a rich selection of key concepts to is clearly experienced, i.e., where eyes wooden blocks which can be set up likebe explored. It also provides some hintsand hands have a clear impression of a roman arch holding up without glueof materials to be used. If the scientificone law only. through the secret known in architec-terms and formulas of the key concepts Another example: equilibrium might ture since ancient times. The text goesprovoke discomfort in the reader, thebe explored by standing on one leg, but on: "By building bridges, aeroplanes,lists of materials certainly show thatit certainly is easier studied with a le- railroads (calculating the curvature),implementation of all this is not beyond ver like the one on display here. This they become familiar with the prin-an elementary child. one is set up to show a one to two rela- ciples of statics and dynamics as part tionship. The lengths of the arms are of the daily school routine, whereverDidactic Considerations The didactic principles for presenting2dm and ldm, a 2:1 relationship. The our method is properly applied with weights are 100g and 200g, a 1:2 rela- full equipment".1° physics, as developed here, are derived tionship. For 200g there are two Please note that even then Maria from our geography experiments, a substantial part in elementaty teacher training. weights of 100g each instead of just a Montessori had that threatening finger: thicker 200g piece. This is done to iso- Do you have the full equipment, is it Why are these experiments listed inlate the phenomenon which you want properly applied?! And she countsthe geography album? They help the the children to explore to create a clear among full equipment these thingschild understand the earth and how itsimpression of the equilibrium and its which deal with statics and dynamicsfeatures came to be as they are today. numerical relationships. and likely all of the other physics con-The earth could not be understood cepts. without knowing a few physics laws.Provide Impressions, Big and But these laws may as well be of inter-Simple We may ask, why then is it not implemented? est beyond geography and be studied Compare the geography charts. They in the wider context of physics. are big. They are meant to be held in The elementary curriculum was de- The didactic principles followed in thefront of the child, not to be held up in veloped in the first half of this century. classical experiments may help to imple-front of the whole class. Why are they The people working on it received their ment a series of physics exploration. so big? To impress. And why are they high school education in the late part so simple? For the same reason. We of the last century. The school then wasProvide Keys may consider the same ideas here too. designed by adults who built their It is not recommended simply to pro-Physics kits for children are not recom- minds in the first part of the last cen-cure books or kits of "physics for kids",mended; the apparatus is too small, it tury, and physics was not around at that providing activities that produce won-breaks easily, it is not accurate enough time. Physics was not in the high school drous effects but do not really help theas soon as the child comes to measur- curriculum and it was not recognized aschild to understand. Maria Montessoriing and calculating. These kits fre- an important ingredient in education. warns us not to clutter the classroomquently use the same set-up for A Physics Curriculum with just amusing materials, but to se-demonstrating different phenomena. lect exploration of key concepts. Keys We have developed several reasons So the pieces are more complicated and are ideas which children need to fur- for which physics should be part of the that clutters the impression. ther explore on their own. They are con- Fortunately there is apparatus second plane of development, whencepts needed to understand more the mind awakes to reasoning, to re- readily available, offered for high sponsibility in this world and all itscomplex issues. school physics. It is meant for demon- workings. What are the contents ofIsolate Concepts strating to a whole class, but it is just physics, those which we will put before Let me, as an example, describe afine for our children to manipulate it the child in the prepared environment? giro: a wheel is supported by a framethemselves. It is available at science The lists on pages 67-68 attempt towith a string to pull which makes thesupply houses at a price level familiar provide the scope of this curriculum.wheel spin fast. Now you can put theto Montessorians when they buy the The geography experiments in ourframe on the tip of a pencil and it will present elementary curriculum are in-stay in any positionquite a striking ...con't. on page 69

66 Peter Gebhhardt-Seele, Ph.D.

Key Concepts in the Physical Sciences 4. Heat This is an attempt to sort out key concepts for presentation in the Materials: elementary class. Not each concept is meant to be advanced to the thermometer, thermos, Joule's Calorimeter, immersion calculating level, some of them may merely be experienced in a sen- heater, alcohol burner sorial way. But even with this cautioning remark, the scientific terms Concepts: temperature (measuring)* in their bare brevity and especially the formulas may look scary to a melting* teacher who may not have the most friendly recollection of physics vaporizing* in high school. Unfortunately this is not the time and space to spell thermal expansion out each of these concepts into the simple reality they describe in heat capacity such short terms. It should be stressed that these concepts can be specific heat" (calories necessary to heat lg by 1°C; water: 1) experienced with experiments simple enough for 6-12 year old chil- heat as energy (forms of energy, changes), dren. For many of them, apparatus is readily available at science (1 cal = 4.185 J = 418.5 Ncm) supply houses. law of conservation of energy Concepts not considered for the elementary class are still listed in transfer of heat (conduction, convection, radiation*) order to keep the discussion open. Not included: sublimation, heat of fusion and vaporization, entropy, 2nd One asterisk (*) marks concepts introduced by geography experi- law of thermodynamics ments. Two asterisks ("*) mark concepts for which teaching units are included in the set of experiment cards Simple Machines. They are an example of the ease with which experiments can be offered to children, once the scientific terms are translated into the reality of pulley 5. Liquids, gases and strings. Materials: air pump, manometer, steam kettle, ship, gas balloon, hot 1. Matter air balloon Materials: Concepts: see the Geography Command Cards pressure (p = F /A) Concepts: Pascal Principle (pressure on bottom proportional to states of matter (properties, changes)* depth only),* atmospheric pressure* kinds of matter: volume & pressure (Boyle's Law)", (p x V = const.), elements (if you increase pressure on a gas, it shrinks in compounds* volume) mixture* volume & temperature (Guy-Lussac's Law)*, solutions* (Vt = Vo x 'T/273.2; T = temperature in ° K), (see 11. Chemistry) (if you heat a gas it expands) buoyancy (Archimedes' principle) viscosity* Not included: 2. Static Mechanics mechanics of the weather, kinetic gas theory*, surface Materials: tension (soap bubble), capillarity", friction in liquids or weights, scales gases, fluids in motion (pressure at airplane wing) simple machines: lever, pulley, inclined plane, friction board Concepts: 6. Sound & Waves (vibration & acoustics) gravity," mass, force (weight)** composition of forces"* Materials: torque** (T = F x 1) pendulum, spring and mass, wave basin, monochord, equilibrium"* organ pipe, siren center of gravity Concepts: work** (VV = F x d) period, amplitude, frequency, wave length energy (forms of energy, law of conservation of E),"" wave motion (E = F x d) wave speed power** (P = W/ t) stationary waves friction** resonance elasticity* interference density proper frequency sound waves music and sound (pitch, harmony) Not included: 3. Dynamic Mechanics (force and motion) torsion pendulum, intensity, loudness Materials: acceleration carriage, acceleration timer, skateboard Concepts: velocity (v = d / t) acceleration (a = dv /dt), (F = m x a) inertia action and reaction kinetic energy (E = m x v2/2) Not included: momentum, impulse, circular motion (gyro), centrifugal force", collision of masses

67 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 6 9 Maria Montessori Envisioned Physics as Part of the Environment

7. Light (optics) 10. Atoms (nuclear physics) Materials: Materials: light source, mirror (flat, concave), prism, lens, optical atom model, chart of elements bench, ray box, camera obscura Concepts: Concepts: Bohr's atom model, parts (nucleus, proton, neutron, nature of light electron, ion, isotope) reflection: forces, binding energy plane mirror nuclear charge and atomic number spherical mirror object / image / focus chemical behavior virtual/real- image system of elements (Periodic Table) refraction: radioactivity angle of incidence & angle of refraction radiation total internal refraction emission of light color fission diffraction on slit fusion interference of coherent waves (destructive, constructive) Not included: Not included: nuclear equation, radiation measurements, accelerators luminous flux, intensity, illuminance, photometry, index of refraction, lens power, lenses in contact, aberration, formulas for diffraction 11. Chemistry Materials: 8. Magnetism chemicals, glassware, molecule models Materials: Concepts: magnets, compass needle, iron filings element, compound*, chemical reaction* Concepts: acid, base, saft nature of magnetism acid-base reactions magnetic field, sources of magnetic fields, field lines (closed) oxidation magnetic force" (covalent, ionic) magnetic materials valences (more s. electricity) Chart of Elements and Chemical Properties Not included: carbon compounds (organic chemistry) field strength, flux, energy in magnetic fields chemical equations energy and chemical reaction Not included: 9. Electricity details in organic chemistry, amounts in chemical reactions Materials: electroscope, plastic rod and cloth, pith balls, battery, transformer, lamp, switch, wire, a-meter, v-meter, capacitor, resistor, coil, electrodes and container The following sections are added for the sake of completeness and Concepts: as a base of discussion. They contain concepts frequently used in Electrostatic: modern society, science fiction and environmental discussions and electric charge (Q in coulomb) which are crucial in shaping a modern view of the world. But these repelling/attracting charges concepts are difficult to explore on a sensorial level in the lower electric field, field lines (end in charge) electric potential, voltage, (U in volt) elementary class. electric energy (W = Q x U) + capacitor Electric Currents: electric circuit, current, (I in ampere) 12. Relativity electromotive forces (EMF) (battery, coil), (U in volt) Concepts: resistance (depends on material: resistivity /thickness/ Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity: all motion is length), (R in Ohm) Ohm'slaw (U = I x R, or : I = U/R) relative, speed of light is constant for each observer electric power (P in watt: P = U x I) Consequences: electric work (W = P x t) The mass of a given object varies for each observer conversion of units according to his speed currents in circuits (parallel, series, junction rule, loop rule) So does the length (length contraction) electrolysis No speed can exceed the speed of light volta element Mass and energy are related (E=mc2) Currents and Magnetism: Time is different for different observers (time dilation) magnetic field around a current Simultaneity depends on speed resulting force (magnitude, direction, hand-rule) The velocity of a bullet is not exactly the sum of its speed motor relative to the gun and the speed of the gun induced EMF self-inductance, Lenz's Law generator alternating current transformer 13. Quantum Physics Not included: Concepts: Coulomb's Law, electric field strength, energy in capaci- Light wave as particle, particles of matter as waves, the tor, resistance depending on temperature, internal inadequacy of human imagination in subatomic resistance, Faraday's Law in electrolysis, electrochemical dimensions. equivalent, circuits with inductance and capacitor, details of alternating currents (amplitude, phase, effective current, power-factor), reactance, impedance, resonance in circuits

68 70 Peter Gebhhardt-Seele, Ph.D. trinomial cube or the grammar boxes.There is no need to talk about numbers,broomstick and a bottle. However, in These high school or college demonstra- fractions and ratios. the elementary class you want the chil- tion materials are big, sturdy, accurate Presentations must be planned ac-dren to proceed to measuring and cal- and provide clear impressions. cording to these principles. culating. With household items, precise measuring is impossible. There are too Provide Manipulative and Sensorial Activity Cards many imponderabilities, too many in- Opportunities Unfortunately there is no teacheraccuracies. We need apparatus that is As Montessorians we know the se-training for physics. To present theas accurate as possible, that eliminates cret of aiding young elementary chil- materials in the way the checkerboardside-effects, such as friction, dead dren to study difficult concepts such as is presented, i.e., every step lectured inweight, etc. the distributive law or the analysis of adetail with an album produced, a train- sentence. The secret is to provide ma- ing for all the eleven sections outlinedFormulas nipulative and sensorial opportunities. on the enclosed list would certainly Physics exploration will not be com- The same is true in physics. The chalk-take more time than is available inplete without arriving at measuring and-blackboard approach of high workshops or conferences. In this situ-and calculating, finally using physics school is a sin against a wonderful and ation I have produced a set of activityformulas. Mathematics is an integral exciting science. A child needs to pullcards.12 Their purpose is both to assistpart of physics. That does not mean this the string from a pulley with her ownthe child and the teacher. is so at the beginning. If sensorial phys- hand. She needs to feel the change in In principle I would not suggest hav-ics exploration is set up for six-year- force, she needs to set it up in order to ing the classroom saturated with com-olds, they may wait one or two years deeply understand the arrangement.mand cards. They take away theuntil starting to measure and calculate, The big and sturdy equipment de-spontaneity of the child's work and ofdepending on their math skills. The signed for presenting to high schoolher access to the material. But when itactivity cards provide a section for sen- classes is perfect for the hands of el-comes to sections of the curriculumsorial exploration and another one for ementary children. where there is no training, some advicemeasuring and calculating. The Teacher Presents, Then the is necessary. Activity cards may be aSummary Child Manipulates the Material helpful compromise. The science of physics deals with There are two misconceptions in These activity cards follow the prin-laws followed by all nature. In our dealing with the apparatus in a Mont-ciples as followed in the geographypresent elementary curriculum there essori class; one, it is not productive justactivity cards. There is a list of the ma- are experiments providing key ideas as to have the materials all waiting on theterials, so the child is independent toan aid to understanding the develop- shelf for the child to take them and fig-go and gather them. Then there is a listment of the planet earth. A more sys- ure out what to do with them. It is also of commands, advice on what to do.tematic and complete approach to not productive to prompt the childThere is also a statement, some answerphysics is desirable. Maria Montessori through the manipulation. the child may find as a result of the ac-can be read in many dimensions as ad- When the teacher presents, it is hertivity. The statement may be cut awayvising to have physics exploration as turn. She is the performer; she mustin order to produce a card set wherepart of the prepared environment: present in a clear, straightforward way. the statements are on separate cards. I Her understanding of cosmic educa- But then she must leave the childrenhave also provided another section on tion, the plan for the elementary alone, so they have a chance to manipu-each card an explanation. class, certainly includes physics as late on their own terms, either repeatEmploy the Reasoning Mind the science of the laws in nature, what was presented or explore other which are obeyed by all particles. ways. The second plane of development is the time, when the children's minds are The cosmic task of human beings The teacher's presentation must be eager to reason, as opposed to the first necessitates comprehensive knowl- carefully planned. I had pointed to the plane, when the children's minds are edge of the processes in nature. two pieces of weight at this lever. If the In following the child we recognize children later on do their own activi-so ready to absorb. Each physics activity may lead to a clear understanding. the children's own eagerness to ties, they may take any weight which study physics. balances the lever. But for the first pre-There will be a sensorial phase, so we sentation a well planned impression isdo not start with the reasoning right Maria Montessori wants to have her important. In many instances there arefrom the outset. There should be the en- method properly applied with full number relationships. It is importantjoyment of just looking and manipulat- equipment, including studies of stat- for the first impression to show the sim-ing. But reasoning eventually is part of ics and dynamics. plest possible relationships. At this le-physics. Once the need to implement physics ver a 1:2 relationship of arm lengths The sensorial impression could beis recognized, a curriculum must be and weights is easiest seen and under-produced with very simple householddrawn up. The lists on pages 67-68 stood immediately, almost intuitively.items. For a lever all that is needed is ashould be the first step in this process.

69 7 Maria Montessori Envisioned Physics as Part of the Environment

They also provide a first step towards Lesson of "God Who Has No Hands", such a curriculum. AMICommunications 1994, 2/3. Didactic principles are gleaned from 9 Same as 1, p. 11. Peter Gebhardt-Seele, Ph.D., is an AMI 10 thid. elementary trainer at the Washington Mon- the geography experiments: tessori Institute, holding an AMI special Provide key concepts 11 Peter Gebhardt-Seele, Simple education (primary curriculum) diploma Isolate concepts Machines, a set of activity cards for from Montessori Kursus, Aktion Sonnertschein Provide clear and simple impressionsexploring static mechanics, available from in Munich, Germany, and an elementary Provide manipulative and sensorialthe author. diploma from WMI. Dr. Gebhardt-Seele has opportunities 12 ibid. served as an international speaker and workshop leader on topics ranging from The teacher presents, the child then Montessori fundamentals to computers and manipulates the materials physics in Montessori classrooms. He has Activity cards are a helpful compro- published several books, including The Com- mise SOURCES FOR SCIENCE MATERIALS: puter and the Child A Montessori Approach, Employ the reasoning mind Cosmic Education and the Physical Sciences, Science Kit & Boreal Laboratories and Metaphysical Implications of Maria Sensorial experience is at the begin- 777 East Park Drive ning, but formulas are eventually an Montessori's Great Lesson of 'God Who Has No Tonawanda, NY 14150-6782 Hands'. In addition, articles by Dr. Gebhardt- integral part of physics. Tel: 1-800-828-7777 Seele have been published in several AMI Materials that can be used for phys- Fisher Scientific publications. ics exploration in the Montessori classEducational Materials Division are readily available as high school or 4901 W. LeMoyne St. college demonstration materials. They Chicago, IL 60651 need, however, clever choosing and Tel: 1-800-621-4769 arrangement. McKilligan Supply Corp. I have not addressed the issue of 435 Main Street physics in the Casa dei Bambini. While Johnson City, NY 13790-1998 other principles may guide the imple- Tel: 1-800-882-5500 mentation there, it still is an important Nasco issue and many ideas discussed here 901 Janesville Ave. apply. Fort Atkinson, WI 53538 The guiding principle for all these Tel: 1-800-558-9595 issues must be the full development of Carolina Biological Supply Co. the child and our efforts to provide an 2700 York Road aid to life. Burlington, NC 27215 Tel: 1-800-334-5551 Sargent-Welch Scientific Co. NOTES 7300 N. Linder Ave. 1 Maria Montessori (1948), To Educate PO Box 1026 the Human Potential, 5th edition 1973, Skokie, IL 60077 Kalakshetra Publications Press, Madras, Tel: (312) 677-0600 India, p. 4. Central Scientific Co. 2 thid. 11222 Melrose Ave. 3 Ibid, p. 2. Franklin Park, IL 60131 4 Mario M. Montessori (1976), Education Tel: 1-800-262-3626 for Human Development, Understanding Montessori, Schocken Books, New York, p. 105. 5 Maria Montessori (1948), From Childhood to Adolescence, revised English translation from the French original, 1976, Schocken Books, New York, p. 116. 6 mid. 7 Mario Montessori retelling Maria Montessori's tale God Who Has No Hands, AMI Communications, Christmas 1958. 8 Peter Gebhardt-Seele, Metaphysical Implications in Maria Montessori's Great

70 72 Montessori Research: Recent Trends Mary Maher Boehnlein, Ph.D.

Intense interest in the results ofshort term results oriented. Rather, theof Montessori research by Boehnlein in Montessori's scientific pedagogy hasMontessori philosophy of education is 1988, and in the two bibliographies been present since she published the re-fixed on long term objectives and goals. (Boehnlein, 1985 & 1995). In addition sults of her first work. At first the world While Montessorians believe that aca-two other publications summarized flocked to her Casa dei Bambini and was demic achievement aids in the evolu-research in useful implementation convinced of the value of the pedagogytion of humans and civilization, theymanuals for private and public educa- by their immediate and personal obser- also believe they are touching lives in tors (Kalm, 1988 & 90). vations of the children in the Montes-a way that allows learners to propel The purpose of this paper is to review sori environment. Then replication ofthemselves to fulfillment through aand update the state of Montessori re- the methodology and environmentpersonal life style that contributes to a search since the original NAMTA Mon- across the world brought numerouspeaceful world. Such results are nottessori Bibliography (Boehnlein, 1985) anecdotal reports of similar results.readily measured by children's aca-and to add studies not included in the Within Montessori's lifetime, however,demic achievement as children but in-2nd edition of the bibliography which the movement to document educa-stead must wait until the child haswere not available at the time of publi- tional results with more exacting sci-reached adulthood and lived as ancation or which have been published entific rigor began to prevail and the adult in their society. This "cosmic edu-since 1994 through 1995. original ethnographic, observational,cation" view is often ignored and re- anecdotal approach to research was notsearchers seem only interested in theAreas of Research Interest enough to satisfy the larger educational "numbers" on achievement tests. Even Table 1 (p. 72) demonstrates the shift and social science community. Thethe more recent acceptance of ethno-in areas of investigation, some quite newer approaches of testing, measur- graphic research methods, which try todramatic, and some clearly expected ing, assigning numerical values to hu-capture evidence of those things thatfrom current trends in traditional edu- man performance permeated the psy-simply cannot be quantified and ma-cation and psychology. We found 271 chological and educational depart-nipulated numerically, have rarely met research studies and 28 reviews of re- ments of universities and Montessori's the higher standards that Montessorians search literature were published be- work was not immune from demandshave set for judgment of their approach tween 1909 and 1985. This was much for "true scientific research evidence." to education. more than we had anticipated but it did Availability of such "scientifically" Still in all, Montessorians have coop-show an abiding interest in Montessori documented research was limited toerated with those who want to captureeducation even during the time it was the few persons who had time and the a bit of what they do and are as anx-nearly nonexistent in North America. inclination to not only take such mea-ious to view the picture others haveThe categories or topics reflect the re- surements of learning but also whotaken of them as any human who hassearch interests of researchers in psy- believed Montessori "could measurebeen photographed. Might there be achology and education in Montessori's up" using the same yardstick used inbit to learn from these glimpses into re- theory of education with the philoso- evaluating other educational programs. search of Montessori education? phy underlying that theory behind a The popularity and growth of educa- Do Montessorians read the researchmajor area researchers wanted to un- tional testing has grown until today.and use it to enrich what they do? Ourderstand. Related to that area of inter- Even traditional educators are voicingexperience indicates Montessorians areest were investigations of the theory in concerns that accepted methods of re-interested in the measurements of theirpractice with questions such as: ducing learning gains to numericalefforts and especially in the long term 1. Did individual educational pro- quotients that can be statistically ma- results. Some Montessorians have even gramming and individual work nipulated, however advanced, do notbecome researchers themselves in or- among preschool children inhibit a capture either the essence or the whole-der to present a more accurate picture perceived need for the socialization ness of educational efforts. to the wider educational community. of preschoolers through group activi- Albeit, once the Montessori peda-The North American Montessori ties? gogy moved into the public funded sec-Teacher's Association (NAMTA) has 2. Did the Montessori approach re- tor of the North American continents,been the initiator of cataloguing, sum- ally work with children who did not it opened itself to sometimes exasper- marizing and preserving this research have the experiences of the child ating, detailed, and a somewhat out ofsince it first supported the work to from more advantaged socioeco- focus evaluation. Exasperating and outgather all sources published in English nomic circumstances regardless of of focus because Montessorians are notby and about Montessori in a history race or ethnicity?

71 7 3 Montessori Research: Recent Trends

Table 1 Summary of Numbers of Research Studies in Two Time Periods 3. Didchildrenexperiencing 1909-1985 and 1986-1995 Montessori's concrete materials show TOPIC NUMBER OF STUDIES NUMBER OF STUDIES more learning on achievement mea- 1909-1985 1986-1995 sures? Academic Achievement 47 17 4. Did the Montessori approach pro- Adult Education 0 1 duce children who scored higher on Anthropology 1 0 intelligence tests and other measures Art 1 2 of cognitive functioning? Body Concept 2 0 5. Did Montessori teacher training Child Development 0 2 change both teacher beliefs and in- Cognitive Intellectual 25 5 structional practices? In other words, Development did adults really believe one could Creativity 2 3 provide an environment of beauty Curriculum 4 5 which encouraged choice, move- Erdkinder 0 3 ment, social interaction, and devel- Evaluation 0 1 opmentally appropriate activities General Descriptions 8 11 that led to enhanced and earlier Infant/Toddler Education 0 1 learning of abstract concepts and Language Arts Curriculum ideas? & Methods 6. What were the Montessori meth- Second Language/Bilingual 1 1 ods and how did they work? Education 1 1 Grammar 1 0 Between 1985 through 1995 an addi- Materials 1 0 tional 138 research studies were located Reading 7 8 and Table 1 reveals a continuing inter- Writing 1 5 est in Montessori theory, teachers and Spelling 0 1 teaching, Montessori in a public edu- Learning 0 1 cational setting, and the Montessori Mathematics 3 3 approach to literacy education. Some Methodology /Pedagogy 22 0 areas receiving increased study were Normalization 0 1 creativity, Montessori education for the Montessori Theory 16 10 adolescent (Erdkinder), working with Moral Development 4 0 parents, the value of the Practical Life Motor Skills 1 1 area of the Montessori curriculum, Music Education 5 1 school administration, and application Parents 0 3 of Montessori educational principles to Play/Fantasy 0 3 the education of adults. A final inter- Practical Life Curriculum 0 2 esting phenomenon are the increasing Public School Montessori 0 7 number of Asian students completing Peace Education 1 2 dissertations in the United States but Perception 4 0 doing their research in Montessori Personality Development 4 0 schools in Japan, Korea, and Hong School Administration 1 5 Kong. This reflects the rapid expansion School Readiness 5 0 of Montessori education in these coun- Science Education 4 0 tries and the increased number of Asian Self Concept 5 2 graduate students pursuing advanced Sensorial Curriculum 4 2 degrees in the United States. Social Skills 13 4 Socioeconomic Status 25 0 Results of Selected Studies Sex Role Development 0 1 Achievement/General School Architecture 0 1 Since 1984 there have been 17 stud- Special Education 17 1 ies of general achievement, three spe- Teachers / Teaching 27 19 cific studies of mathematics education Television 0 1 and achievement. Of the general Toys 2 0 achievement studies eight were done Task Persistence 3 2 in the public schools. While a few stud- TOTALS 271 138 ies looked at academic achievement Reviews of Research 28 9 from the perspective of how much gain

72 7 4 Mary Maher Boehnlein children made compared to non-Mon-would then have significantly highergrade level achievement with the fifth tessori children, others were interestedscores than the traditional students.year students showing the highest in factors influencing achievement suchThe results of this study mirror results gainstwo years above their peers in as how achievement is monitored, dif-from other public Montessori magnetthe other Houston public schools. ferences between racial groups, and ifschool programs across the U.S. which Fuller (1994), studied the effects of higher self-esteem was engenderedconsistently show Montessori students implementing a Montessori program in among Montessori students because ofoutscoring students in traditional class- the Buffalo, New York Schools. She freedom of choice and the environmentrooms. In Lorain city schools, the Mon-found the children in the Montessori and subsequent affects on academictessori mathematics scores on the stan- elementary program scored higher achievement. dardized test are the highest in thethan the mean of the district scores on Bent (1989), examined four Montes-district's history, even outscoring thethe standardized test and were evalu- sori elementary classes, two kindergar-gifted and talented program children. ated as having higher self-esteem and tens, a first grade and a second / third Curtis (1993), investigated the extent a sense of community. Although the grade combination. Compared to tra-of differences in the test scores of ur-Montessori school enrolled 50% minor- ditional classroom evaluation proce-ban elementary students in a publicity students through an annual lottery dures, she found the Montessori teach-Montessori program and SIGHTS Pro-process the district did not aggregate ersemphasized assessmentofgram on the Metropolitan Achievementits test data by racial groups to com- children's independent and groupTest, Sixth Edition. The researcher waspare results of its programs. Fuller did problem solving growth, the progressinterested in determining the effects ofnote that district data had shown that of children's ability to work in a sociallythe variables in the instructional pro-mixed-aged grouping and enrolling the collective manner to problem solve,grams, gender, and ethnicity on el-children in the school at age two and a and used more non-test type measuresementary students' achievement. Thishalf contributed to the greater achieve- of assessment and evaluation such aswas an ex post facto design which meantment. Cisneros(1994), on the other journals, charts of progress over timeit did not have any pretest data to showhand, found no significant differences on a scale of teacher demonstration torate or amount of gain between chil-at the end of third grade on the Iowa child's internalization or mastery ofdren in the programs. There were sig- Test of Basic Skills in reading, attendance concepts and skills. She found thatnificant differences among ethnicrate, promotion rate, self-esteem or par- Montessori teachers believed and prac-groups within each program with Af-ent involvement in another public ticed a view of teaching as guiding, fa-rican-American and Anglo childrenMontessori program. The abstract of cilitating, and collaboratively evaluat-achieving higher scores on the math-her study does not indicate the quality ing with the child and parents contrib-ematics test than Hispanics in the Mon-of the Montessori school or if it con- uting to the evaluation and assessmenttessori program, while Hispanics in thetained the standard pre-kindergarten process. SIGHTS program had better scoresMontessori program. Boehnlein (1992), compared stan-than African-Americans or Anglos. These research of studies of achieve- dardized test scores of students in tra-Hispanics in the SIGHTS programment indicate an overall positive additional schools with students in thescored higher than Hispanic childrenvantage for the Montessori approach Montessori program. She found thatin Montessori but not better thanboth in academic learning and in per- Montessori students consistentlyAnglos and African-Americans in Mon- sonal attitudes and habits that contrib- achieved significantly higher meantessori. Montessori elementary stu-ute to higher achievement. The dents scored better on the writing sec- scaled and NCE scores than the tradi- generalizability of the results, however, tional students except on the grade fourtion of the MAT than did the SIGHTSis limited due to the variance among elementary students. mathematics sub-test where there was the various programs in terms of type no significant difference. Additionally, In another study conducted in Texas, and depth of teacher training and the at the sixth grade level, while Montes-Dawson (1988), found that African-quality of the implementation of the sori students scored higher there wasAmericans and Hispanics in a public program, particularly, in the public sec- no significant difference between themMontessori program in the Houston tor. and the traditional students. However,public schools did not score as high as closer inspection of the data revealedAnglos but did score significantlyAchievement/Mathematics that there was a higher amount of vari-higher than African-Americans in the Baker (1988), investigated elemen- ance in the scores of the Montessoritraditional educational settings sug-tary children's interpretation of sub- group which were found to be due togesting that the Montessori program istraction of children experiencing the the number of students admitted to theadvantageous for minority students.Association Montessori Internationale sixth grade Montessori program whoThe Montessori students showed supe- (AMI) curriculum as implemented by had no previous Montessori experi-rior performance on all sub-test topicsan AMI trained teacher. Forty-four chil- ence. She speculated that if these stu-at all grade levels of the Montessori el-dren ages 6.5 and 7.5 in three schools dents' scores were removed from theementary program. Years-in-programwere interviewed individually for 30 data, the sixth grade Montessori cohortshowed a steady increase in aboveminutes in January and February to

73 BEST COP if AVAILABLE 75 Montessori Research: Recent Trends determine their understanding oftiplication sentences, and estimation ofSocial Services to determine the match mathematical concepts and problemchildren's competencies in number. between their curricula and that recom- solving. She found a wide range of un-Piaget's theory of number was foundmended by a search of the early child- derstanding and achievement betweento fall short of findings of current re-hood literature. All believed that all the two age groups. Some could per-search. She prepared a model which in-children should develop their full po- form abstractly while others had only tegrated the best of all three sources andtential in the areas of social, emotional, an intuitive concept of how to solvetried using it in a traditional nurseryphysical, and intellectual growth and problems. Nearly all had the conceptschool / kindergarten in Taiwan for 30Froebel, McMillian, Montessori and of subtraction as: "take away" ratherchildren in two age groups, three toPiaget were the theorists listed as in- than one of difference between twofour and five to six. She judged thefluencing their curricula. amounts. Most could not do missingmodel inadequate without direct trans- In another study, Evans (1989), addend problems. Baker concludedlation into specific lesson plans. sought to determine the knowledge that children may not be using the con- Curriculum and Achievement level of distinguished elementary prin- crete apparatus long enough to build cipals in the United States regarding Related to the above studies are those conceptsfor example, even though Montessori, Individually Guided Edu- children could identify the place val-that compared the results of children experiencing different curricula. Re-cation, Open Learning, and Traditional ues of the golden beads, they had diffi- education, and the perceptions of the culty collecting 124 beads using thesearchers asked if there are differences in the implementation of the curricula,principles regarding these four cur- place value bead material. Additionally ricula. The data indicated that princi- word problems were solved by simpleand how aware administrators are of the variety of curricula available to bepals knew more about Traditional Edu- counting numbers as single digits. cation than Open Learning, Individu- When problems used two digit num-implemented. Beaton (1991), polled three groups of educatorsearly child-ally Guided Education, and Montes- bers, even with the golden beads avail- sori. Principals knew the least about hood experts, Montessori experts, and able, the children had difficulty and few Individually Guided Education and solved the problem with non-countingMontessori teachersabout the essential and unique characteristics of theMontessori education thus indicating techniques. Even children who were the principals were distinguished in the Montessori curriculum in America. The able to use the subtraction algorithm limited sphere of traditional education. still demonstrated their solution withparticipants were provided a list of the concrete materials. characteristics and rated each on a scaleAchievement/Self-Esteem/Cognition of not essential or unique to very es- Starskey and Chester (1988), did a Baker speculated that the transfer ofsential and unique to Montessori. The the concepts learned using the golden follow up study of children in kinder- second Delphi round consisted of agarten, first and second grade who had beads might need to be extended to realmodified questionnaire reflecting the objectsthus helping the child under- attended Montessori preschool. They responses from Round I and Round IIIwanted to determine if the early edu- stand and make the passage from theirusing a technique called StoryTech to informal mathematical ideas to the for- cational experience influences the elicit narrative responses. By the endmaintenance and improvement of aca- mal structures that assist them in solv-of Round I there was consensus on 37 ing problems beyond the counting do- demic abilities and fosters a positive essential and 16 unique items. Overallself-esteem. Using the Coopersmith main. the Montessori teachers were interestedSelf-Esteem Inventory and the Peabody The implications of Baker's study arein the effect of conventional practicesIndividual Achievement Test (PIAT) that children vary enormously in theiron Montessori curriculum while thewith 21 children, they found that when construction of understanding whichearly childhood education experts werechildren attend Montessori school for presents an issue of too much teachinginterested in how the Montessori cur-three to four years, 100% of them score or not enough teaching. Concrete aidsriculum would be modified to fit intoin the 90th percentile on the PIAT to understanding seemed to be with-the developmentally appropriate prac-whereas children who are withdrawn drawn too soon in a rush to move chil-tices adopted and defined by conven-from Montessori preschool before the dren to symbols in the schools she stud-tional early childhood education. Thus,three year cycle is completed did not ied. while Montessori had unique and cer-score as high. Only 50% of the children Hsu (1987), studied the Montessoritain essential characteristics, some were who attended Montessori for only one methods for learning number conceptsseen as not developmentally appropri-year reached the 90th percentile and as according to Piagetian theory and cur-ate by others but which are viewed bysecond graders they remained at the rent research on children's mathemat-Montessorians as developmentally ap- same level in second grade. All children ics learning. She found Montessori'spropriate according to Montessori'swho attended Montessori through sec- ideas were correct more often than nottheory of child development. ond grade were at least in the 75th per- but noted some inadequacies in pat- Freedman (1985), also did a question-centile. Results of the self-esteem inven- terning activities, function of classifica-naire study to proprietary schoolstory on 13 children, eight years and tion, one-to-one correspondence, mul-known to the San Diego Department ofolder, showed that none were below the

74 7 6 Mary Maher Boehnlein

50th percentile, 92% were at the 68thlic and twenty-nine independentmost schools but others have replaced percentile, and 62% were at the 95thschools, thirty-one in the US, one inthe farm experience with activities such percentile or two standard deviationsCanada and one in Mexico. Most re-as community service, business, above the mean. While the sample isferred to the program as an adolescentmentoring, natural world, or group en- small it does indicate that the moreprogram rather than a Montessori ado-counters. Montessori experience the child has,lescent program. Another study of adolescents was the higher the self-esteem and achieve- Four offer programs through age 18. done by Epstein (1985), in which he de- ment levels on standardized tests. ThisThe longer the program has been inscribed the perceptions of meanings study has similar results to that ofexistence, the more elementary childrenand the enactment of patterned behav- Takacs and Clifford (1988), who did aremain in the school. Retention in theior among Montessori teenagers. Using follow-up study of inner city childrenadolescent program is related to age ofethnographic techniques, Epstein who later attended the Cleveland Pub-programolder programs have aboutfound that the students' cultural affairs lic Schools in the traditional program.85% attrition while newer ones experi-took place within and between friend- Their data showed that children whoence about 10% attrition. Surprisingly,ship groups. These friendship groups had the full three years of Montessoriprograms of five to nine years experi-consisted of those who were deemed preschool did significantly better thanence lose about 16% of their students.to share various degrees of compatible their peers on the standardized test and Attrition reasons are many and variedpersonalities and moods and who were were rated as having parents who werebut some included need to get the childconsidered trustworthy to not betray more involved in their education thaninto the real world, the freedom in theprivate information. Some friends were those of their peers. Montessori school being a bad match for less trusted than others. An interesting In a study conducted in Taiwan,child, the desire for enriched sports op-factor that emerged in this study was Cheng (1993), compared the Montes-portunities, moving, tuition costs, etc. that the teens daily tested each other's sori method to a unit-structured pro- Most schools have guidelines for ac-willingness to hold information confi- gram. Using matched pairs and quan- cepting non-Montessori students anddential. Those who failed to maintain titative and qualitative measures, she limit the numbers to 15-20% of the class. confidentiality were disliked and not found no program differences in IQ,Students' strengths observed when stu-trusted. cognitive development, and adaptivedents leave for a high school were aca- Bodi (1987), proposed a curriculum development. Children in the unit-demic background in mathematics, sci-based on the educational philosophy of structured program progressed more ence, writing, thinking and study skills,Montessori for the education of young than the Montessori group in the sub- and personal attributes of self-disci-adolescents, ages 12-15, which would domain of personal-social develop-pline, confidence, independence, andform the basis for a mid-adolescent, ment-expression of feelings / affectsocial skills. ages 15-18, program. Bodi based his while the Montessori children scored Problems encountered were accep-curriculum on empirical studies which higher in coping. Montessori childrentance into a new peer group and en-suggested a specific program for ado- improved more than the comparison countering grading, test taking, lack oflescents needs to be based in natural group in task-attentiveness. challenge, increased homework, bookhuman development. Montessori Adolescents/Erdkinder bound instruction, whole group in-sources accessed include Montessori's struction, lack of freedom, and lack oflectures on cosmic education and her An area of Montessori receiving in- lecture on the Erdkinder. creased attention is the expansion ofsome math and grammar knowledge. Montessori education to the early ado- Teacher training was an area of con-Adolescent Education and Self Concept lescent years of ages 12-14. Long (1994), cern because there was no Montessori As part of Coe's (1989), dissertation did a survey of Montessori adolescentadolescent training available throughevaluation of the School of the Woods programs published as a special edition AMI and only one American Montes-middle school program, the Piers Har- of the NAMTA Journal. Long docu-sori Society (AMS) course which beganris Self-Concept Inventory was given mented the current state of adolescentin 1993, although there are others into middle school students. All but one programs in Montessori schools ofprocess. Only 35% of the adolescentstudent had taken the same test two North America attempting to provideteachers were Montessori trained andyears previously. The mean and mode a snapshot of the schools and to deter- these were usually elementary trainedscores were in the 8th stanine, indicat- mine if there are key materials/ experi-for ages six through twelve. Schoolsing a very high self-concept score for ences and the aspirations of the adults employ specialists in a variety of cur-this age group. All students gained in guiding these programs as they under-riculum areas but mostly in art, music,self-concept in two years with one girl stand their work in light of Montessori'sreading, languages, physical education.doubling her test raw score. The most Erdkinder essay. The study contains lists of key mate-growth was seen in the 8th graders and Eighty schools on the NAMTA mem-rials and key experiences. The farm ex- girls' growth was slightly higher than bership were mailed a questionnaireperience or the Erdkinder experience isthe boys. One hundred percent said with 38 (or 48%) responding. Four pub-incorporated in a limited manner bythey were happy persons, that they

75 77 Montessori Research: Recent Trends thought they would be an importantwhich certain activities are performedery increases creativity in literacy learn- person when they grew up, they wereby children and the emphasis on clean-ing, helps promote integration of the lucky, liked being the way they were,liness and orderly, approved use of thewhole language curriculum, and is a were different, were good persons,materials only for the purpose of thevaluable strategy for whole language could be trusted, liked school and werespecific activitythe long rods usedclassrooms. good at school work, were smart andonly to develop sense of length are not The majority of studies cited in were important members of their class.allowed to be used for block play andBoehnlein (1988), did show that Mont- The majority reported worrying a lot,the use of real housekeeping itemsessori children from a variety of socio- crying easily and not having a good fig-rather than play itemsthe child in theeconomic levels and schools scored ure. Coe's dissertation describes theMontessori environment would havehigher on multiple measures of creativ- school curriculum in detail and how ittheir creativity stifled. Rose (1990), ex- ity. She concluded at that time that re- has applied the Montessori educationalamined the effect of Montessori pre- search had not demonstrated that Mon- approach to teenagers. school education on the divergenttessori children were less creative and Computers and Music thinking skill of kindergarten-age chil-the current research seems to confirm dren. She presented research which this view. Sun (1993), equated characteristics ofcriticized Montessori education for its the computer with mouse-operatedlack of open-ended materials and fan-Development of Autonomy software commands, color graphics, tasy play. The 31 kindergarten subjects Davenport-Paige (1987), reviewed animation, sound quality and pro- were assessed using the Torrance Test ofthe literature to determine what vari- grams that are self-teaching, self-ad- Creative Thinking-Figural A. The resultsous theorists believed contributed to ministered and self-corrected with theindicated above average performancethe mature mind and compared these Montessori teaching approach. She deon overall scores of the test with per-to Montessori's beliefs. She concluded veloped a computer program, Kid's formance on some sub-tests suggestingthe theorists agreed upon five elements Premusic, which featured four activitiesthat divergent thought was affected bythat impeded growth or fostered it: with each lesson; improvisation, com- the Montessori curriculum. family, religion, education, separation position, sight-reading, and ear train- and individuation, and moral reasoning. Children were offered opportuni- Rush (1984), however compared the Open Education model of preschooling. She concluded that there was a ties to explore the sounds and choose need for children to experience a con- the matching icons in the order theyeducation with Montessori with respect to the development of fluency, original-sensually validated conceptual frame- preferred in the first stage of composi- work informed by research and hu- tion. During activities in improvisationity, and imagination. One hundred fifteen three and five year old children inmanistic philosophy if they were to and composition, children were ex- develop a mature mind and function posed to visual and aural stimuli and suburban Philadelphia were given pre and post tests in creativity. There werewell in society. All the elements were reinforced for their perception of considered present in the Montessori sounds and iconsa stepping stone tono significant differences between the the understanding of symbols. Atwo models or the two ages for any ofapproach to education which stressed the abilities tested but there was a sig-home school cooperation and a collabo- Macintosh computer with 14-inch color rative community in the school. monitor was used by a class of 23 threenificant interaction between model and to six year old children. At the end ofage for fluency. Montessori three year In a study asking a very similar ques- the study she administered a Transferolds scored higher than the five year tion, Kendall in 1992 wished to discover Test which contained 33 questions. olds in Open Education. In originality,the elements of the Montessori pro- significant differences were foundgram which may affect the develop- The results of the test and the evalu-within each of the individual programs ation of the classroom teachers sug- ment of autonomy. She observed two and no differences were found in imagi-classrooms, each with 30 third graders gested computer assisted instruction innation. The researcher concluded that music was feasible. The visual repre- for two months in a Montessori public Montessori children were not less cre-school program and a traditional pub- sentation of the notation affected theative and that neither approach could subjects' attitudes towards their prod- lic school program. Elements she con- be considered superior in developingsidered were the classroom physical ucts and the combination of visual andthe three creative abilities researched. aural feedback affected their composi- space and furnishings, educational ma- tional style. The data did suggest the Shaw (1989),explored the use ofterials used, teaching procedures, and children had difficulty in transferringguided imagery as a curriculum strat-the role of the teacher in relation to the the visual icons to aural stimuli as wellegy in a whole language Montessori el- learners. She used the Classroom Au- as in learning rhythm. ementary classroom. Children ages 6-tonomous Behavior Checklist and inde- 8 were trained in guided imagery prac-pendent observers to obtain her data. Creativity tices, twice a week for seven weeks, oneHer research showed that the Montes- A persistent and long standing criti-and half hours a session with subse-sori environment and teachers fostered cism of Montessori preschool educationquent drawing and writing. The re-significantly higher levels of indepen- is that because of its structured way insearcher concluded that guided imag-dence, initiative, and self-regulatory

76 78 Mary Maher Boehnlein behavior. The Montessori children ini- self-esteem, self-discipline, and sen-the standard practical life, cooking, and tiated more social interaction and em- sory-motor skills even though thereperceptual-motor activities and the ployed more varied approaches towere only very low correlations be-outdoor large muscle apparatus. How- problem solving and task completion.tween children's improved behaviorsever, she was concerned about this de- Overall the children seemed moreand parents' increased knowledge forcision and decided to see how other highly motivated in all aspects of theirthe four workshops. This suggests thatMontessori teachers handled pretend school experiences. the classroom environment itself may play. Marilyn Bull (1988), in an educationalbe the crucial factor in changing A questionnaire packet was mailed philosophy study, examined personalchildren's behavior. This is one of theto directors of 100 AMS affiliated and social autonomy as a legitimatefew studies to report changes in chil-schools asking administrators to give educational commitment. She con-dren in Montessori schools using Mon-the questionnaires to three teachers cluded that the cultivation of rational-tessori criteria rather than a standard-with at least three years of classroom ity and morality in conjunction withized test of achievement. experience since completion of their autonomy serves to protect human be-Play training. Questions dealt with the ings and their social groups from ex- This study observed children in alength of the school day, length of des- cessive pressures toward heteronomyMontessori and a play-oriented pro-ignated work time and whether or not they witnessed unsanctioned play oc- and standardization. She recom-gram to see which curriculum embod- mended protecting and fostering au-ied the competencies required in a Thaicurring during the designated work time. It also asked teachers to identify tonomy in the classroom. curriculum. Tovikkai (1991), found that Feltin (1987), viewed autonomy fromchildren in a play-oriented programthe classroom areas in which play occurs, how they intervened and if any the perspective of encouragement of in-had more opportunity to develop com- dependent learning through a preparedpetency in language, social science,play materials were included in the en- environment and the skill of themotor skill, eye-hand coordination,vironment. teacher. She collected data on each stu-shape and size recognition and dis- One hundred forty-four question- dent in three Montessori elementarycrimination, creativity, problem solv-naires were returned, a low 8% return schools in the Seattle area and throughing, and imagination than did childrenrate, of which 16 were disregarded for a questionnaire on each of the teach-in a Montessori program. Children invarious reasons. Data from 128 respon- ers. She also observed the classroomsthe Montessori program had more op-dents were used in the study. Results to assess the physical and underlyingportunity to develop competency inrevealed that standard play materials structural climate. After using correla-mathematics and science than did theare seldom included in the Montessori tion to see relationships she found theplay-oriented children. She concludedclassroom environments. If included, environment to be the most significantit would be necessary to combine ac-the most frequently cited were blocks factor in encouraging independenttivities from both programs in order toand Lego blocks 70%, dress-up mate- learning and self-directed study. Stu-implement Montessori in Thailand. rials were reported by 30% and dolls in only 19%. All teachers reported ob- dent background, specifically sex, age, Play Versus Fantasy and previous Montessori experience serving pretend play during desig- and the teaching experience in Mont- Torrence (1992), was interested innated work time. Although 78% said why children continued to instigate essori of the teachers were not as sig- they would be unlikely to intervene in nificant in predicting independence.pretend play in the Montessori pre-role play with practical life materials, Perhaps a more detailed analysis ofschool classroom despite her best ef-only 24% maintained a housekeeping forts at redirecting children toward a how the teacher helped the child access area for the specific purpose of role- carefully prepared, reality-based cur-play. Sixty-seven percent were unlikely the environment would have revealedriculum and despite their obvious in- a significant factor, however, this was to intervene in fantasy play with the terest and enjoyment of the preparedfarm game intended to teach functions not addressed in the study. environment materials. She noted thatof words, and only 35% provided pup- Parent Education according to Montessori theory thispets as sanctioned play props. Another Padovani (1985), planned and con-was not supposed to happen if the child 19% provided dolls. Ninety-three per- ducted a series of parent educationwas provided real world experiences,cent were unlikely to intervene in fan- workshops which focused on self-es- yet Montessori had also said follow thetasy play with clay or play dough mod- teem, the prepared environment, self-child. She asked herself if she shouldels but only 34% provided a sand table discipline, and sensory-motor skills. follow the theory or attend to the hinge for open-ended pretend-play and only Children were observed in their classeson which that theory swings? 33% provided a water table. pre and post workshop to see if the She decided to observe the child by She concluded that teachers have parents' participation would positivelycreating a space in the environment inmixed feelings about pretend play and affect children's behaviors in the class-which pretend play activities were pro-the study revealed two striking trends room. Statistically significant gainsvided for and sanctioned. Play materi- the length of the preschool Montes- were made by children of attendees inals were simply another option amongsori child's day is greater than gener-

77 79 Montessori Research: Recent Trends

ally perceivedtwo to three hoursand fives. "Paul and Jane were kissingfor gills and lateral. Another child longer and that a 2:1 margin of respon-in the boat." The fictional reporting was wrote "the old man had a hors" and still dents felt that their respective teacheralways written in the past tense. Aboutanother wrote "nicole is goee to get a training course had inadequately pre-the same time they started doing fic-pet"using the ee as the progressive pared them to deal with children's pre-tional reporting the children beganmorpheme when she realized there was tend play. She also noted that Montes-writing about significant events such asanother sound in the word going. sorians must educate themselves aboutseeing Jesse Jackson. Even children as In the traditional class in responding current research into the value of pre-young as four began to add reflections to the story of Stegallona, children used tend play as a medium for the higherto their statements about eventsdi-short description, some invented spell- cognitive processes to developprob-ary like observations. ing and some syntactic development lem solving, and creativity in action. Formal letters appeared about thewith subject verb and sometimes ob- Suggested inclusions were how tosame time as diaries and age seven chil-jects represented pictorially. wash a baby, using a doll in the practi- dren began to make lists for themselves Mitchell (1994), researched Montes- cal life area, dressing a doll, using planned a funeral for the death of asori children's concepts of writing. She blocks for construction to develop theclassroom pet"box, cross, bible,examined what children think about sense of spatial relationships of objectsminiters, people, dinner, champagne,writing with 23 middle-class children of various sizes and as a means to ap-red lobster, money, cake" etc. Younger in a 3-6 class by interviewing them ply geometric concepts relative tochildren did not make spontaneousthree times using four open-ended angles and curves. lists but did write notes. "Today is dayquestions; Literacy Learning 10. We eat the cake."his revision of 1. Can you tell me something about Alofs and Gray-McKennis (1988), in-similar messages that the teacher had writing? vestigated chiidren's writing choices ifwritten every day for 10 days during a 2. What do you think writing is for? they could freely choose their topics.group cooking project. 3. What is the difference between Using the writing process of Graves, Humor was an element in all forms writing and drawing? of the writing. About age six, it also which is philosophically attuned to the 4. Which do you like best? Montessori method, the authors col-emerged as a genre; children began lected and analyzed the works of stu-writing jokes, riddles, and entertaining The results revealed the children of- dents in a Montessori preschool andstories. Others constructed mazes,ten said they didn't know anything early elementary classrooms. codes and activity sheets. Childrenabout writing or gave an answer about how writing was used. Two and three One child used the acronym, SOS, aswrote no poetry and the researchers wondered if they were including year olds, about 73.9%, knew that writ- a shorthand for the word help and re- ing was used to give messages to oth- peats SOS throughout her stories.enough poetry in their classroom reading to children. ers. Most third year students could ar- When children didn't know what they ticulate and demonstrate the difference wanted to write next, or didn't feel like Olsen (19), studied the acquisition ofbetween writing and drawing. Draw- writing when it was expected of them, written narrative discourse competenceing was preferred to writing across all they often resorted to the comfortableof young children learning to write be-age groups although 75% of the five repetitions of platitudes such as "I likefore learning to read in Montessori andyear old students preferred to write by to play stiky bear" and "its my favoritekindergarten classrooms. In a pilotthe end of the year. game to play and I like to play it every-project to compare children's oral lan- day". guage production with their emergentPhonological Awareness Gradually formula stories becamewritten language production, Olsen Recent research has confirmed that more complex and began to reflectasked children to tell the story of alearning to read requires explicit inchildren's increasing occupation withdrawing and then to write in collabo-struction in phonological awareness. autonomy. These stories were devoidration with the teacher. The childrenWilkinson(1991), compared children of adults and often included dialoguelistened to the story Stega Nona andenrolled in three types of nursery between teenaged or animal protago-then drew a picture and orally de-school program: Pre-academic, Whole nists to move the story forward as thescribed it. Child, and Montessori, to determine characters struggled through a series of The Montessori children respondedtheir level of phonological awareness adventures or romantic episodes. Forin more complete sentences and inand the impact of the type of preschool example, in a selection by an eight yearmore elaborated clauses, orally. In ana-experience on the emergence of phono- old: "They went on a adventure. It waslyzing spontaneous writing of children logical awareness. She also investigated a long adventure. They almost gotin a Montessori classroom, one childthe influence of parental teaching of killed by a tiger. But they servived.gave a non-fiction summary of marinepre-reading skills at home. Then they ate the tiger and took a nap."biology lessons writing "the fish haz Using tasks of rhyme, syllable seg- The formula stories also had roots ingilz. Fish hav latrl lines." exhibiting hermentation, initial consonant, and final the fictional reporting done by foursuse of phonetic or invented spellingsconsonant awareness, she found the

78 8 0 Mary Maher Boehnlein majority of children demonstrated anout a word. search found that children chose a wide awareness of rhyme and the ability to This descriptive study by Goudvisvariety of materials especially fantasy segment syllables. They were better(1991), investigated how children col- and adventure, stories with good end- able to identify initial consonantlaborated with their peers to read in-ings, humor, the use of personification, sounds than produce the sounds them-formational texts and to complete aand books that allowed them to solve selves. Identification and production ofvariety of reading-related tasks. Chil-problems. It was concluded that Mon- final consonant sounds was too diffi-dren worked in pairs on three differenttessori teachers consult Montessori's cult for children of this age. Childrenkinds of tasks and because they dis-own writings on language, reading, in the Pre-Academic and Whole Childcussed the tasks with each other theirand literature and reactivate her programs exhibited better performancecomprehension strategies were madeteacher-as-researcher stance by using on rhyming, but overall, the Montes-more explicit than is the case in otherchildren's literature rather than a basal sori sample demonstrated a higher de-studies of comprehension which lookreader. gree of phonological awareness skill.at answers to questions about passages Temporary or Invented Spelling Montessori children were not as able read. Alofs (1992), was interested in find- to segment syllables, however, on In this study the tasks were part of closer examination of the data it was ing out the attitudes of teachers, admin- the on-going curriculum in a combined istrators and parents in AMS schools to- found that children in the Montessorithird-fourth grade public school and a group were segmenting words at the ward invented spelling as it occurs in first through third grade classroom inthe spontaneous writing of Montessori sub-syllable and phoneme level, a skill a private Montessori school. Extensivestudents in the 3-6 and 6-9 classes. She that is directly related to hearing andvideotaped observations of the children recording sounds in words and later surveyed 507 teachers, administrators, completing the tasks were scored for aand parents with a 21% (112) response being able to spell well. There were no variety of cognitive and social interac-rate; 59% were teachers 65% AMS, 4% significant differences between parent tions. Individual and pair progressSt. Nicholas, and 4% AMI and another teaching practices in the home among were examined by looking at scores 11% unspecified. Another 11% had no the three types of nursery school pro- over time with different partners. Dis-formal Montessori training. grams. cussions were examined to determine Results indicated that 90% of the re- Reading Instruction what types of interactions facilitated ac-spondents agreed that a knowledge of Children who had completed theirquisition of information from texts. phonics is a key factor in successful first year in a Montessori elementary The results showed that children'sspelling, that learning to spell is a classroom were studied to see whatquality of interactions with their part-gradual process developed through a strategies they used as a reader and ners was more of an influence than theirvariety of means including trial and were interviewed about their percep-reading or mathematics ability. Theerror and that opportunities to test and tions of their reading strategies byfindings also suggested that childrengenerate spelling patterns are a neces- Roantree (1992). The children read a lit- can acquire much information from in-sary aspect of learning to spell. Less erature/story book orally at or aboveformational materials and can demon-than 40% agreed that spelling is prima- their instructional level. The record ofstrate sophisticated comprehension rily a rote memorization process. Those the reading was evaluated for miscuesand monitoring behaviors if given thewith Montessori training were more in- and strategies. Analysis revealed thatopportunity to collaborate with theirclined to agree that students should ex- most miscues were substitutions. Onlypeers. No differences between pro-periment with spelling patterns. Teach- 16% of the children self-corrected errors grams were cited. ers with more years of experience of the substitutions which comprised Primary level teachers in grades onetended to indicate that writing helped 70% of their errors; 5.5% were omis-through three in the Dallas Public Mon- develop good spellers. sions, 3% were insertions, and 1% of thetes,sori School were interviewed by In response to questions about re- substitutions were word reversals. OfCurry (1990), to determine their inter-spondents' actual classroom practices, the errors, 4.5% were no attempt or nopretation and methodology of teachingmost teachers were accepting of in- response at an unknown word. These in the Montessori language curriculum. vented spelling for private contexts but Montessori children substituted graph-Some teachers did not believe that a lit-not when the sample of writing was to ophonemically related words while 56% erature-based reading approach couldbe displayed publicly for others to read. of all errors indicated the children werebe incorporated into the MontessoriOverall, Montessorians were generally operating as good readers by accessinglanguage curriculum as children would supportive of invented spelling and the all three cueing systems; meaning, syn-not choose to read books that directlydevelopmentalist philosophy. The AMI tax, and graphophonemic information. supported Montessori curriculum top-teacher group appeared the most sup- The interview revealed that childrenics. A free choice library was estab- portive of developmental spelling. The were aware that they could use alter-lished in one of the Montessori classesage of the writer appeared to be the native strategies such as asking forand children's choices were monitored most influential dependent variable. As help, reading for syntax, and soundingover a twelve week period. The re-the child's age increased more teach-

79 81 Montessori Research: Recent Trends

ers suggested assisting the child to cor-ing about differences in these schools.Montessori teachers and twenty-six rect and accurate spelling. Most respon-Merely paying fees and becoming ac-public school primary teachers were dents were accepting of invented spell-credited is meaningless unless the re- surveyed using two values inventories. ing because of their training but did notsearcher also analyzed accreditationThese were followed by observations articulate a current research knowledgeevaluation visit reports or at least ob-and interviews of three Montessori base about the developmental natureserved in the six classrooms to estab-teachers representing different Mont- of spelling acquisition. lish some baseline of comparison.essori training and organization affili- Peace Education Agreeing to standards cannot beations and five public school teachers. Oboodiat (1992), administered aequated with full implementation ofAll were teaching children in higher so- Piagetian test to 42 five and six year-those standards. Certainly, a follow-upcioeconomic areas. The data reveal no observation in the classrooms wouldsignificant difference in the humanis- old Caucasian subjects selected from six Montessori and other private pre-have provided needed documentationtic values advocated between the two schools. All were middle-socioeco-that accreditation had any effects. groups but the Montessori teachers were significantly higher in their advo- nomic class. The test revealed that the Teacher Beliefs and Practices cacy of the instructional values and dif- subjects were in the higher levels of the Chaney (1991), examined the degree fered in educational goals and out- pre-operational stage. The concept ofof philosophy disparity in practice of peace was evaluated by three sets of comes. While both groups were simi- Montessori and High Scope teachers.lar in the use of manipulatives and in verbal-visual questions. The results in-She compared the two models in terms dicated children's ability to practice their belief that children are eager ob- of their historical and philosophicalservers, the groups differed signifi- justice while controlling their egocen-development and then evaluated them trism and they had a more expanded cantly in their understanding of sensi- according to the standards of the Na-tive learning periods, preparation of concept of war than of negative peace. tional Association for the Education ofeducational environments with self- Special Education Young Children. Teachers' understand-correcting materials, the use of obser- ings of their adopted model of early Hale, (1992), used classroom observation to determine next lessons, and education were investigated and how vation of interactions and interviews individual vs. group lessons and stu- they practiced these understandingsdent choice of activities. Montessori with parents and teachers to determine and beliefs in their classrooms were the manner in which children with spe- teachers expressed beliefs in the capa- cial needs functioned and interactedalso investigated. Eight teachers partici-bility of children to make decisions, to within the Montessori classroom envi-pated in completing questionnaires,be autonomous, responsible, and ca- ronment. Observation revealed that thesemi-structured interviews and werepable of self-initiated learning. The observed in their classrooms. The re- Montessori model has the means to ef- public school teachers worked more fectively include young children withsearcher found there was a disparityoften with whole groups using open- special needs and that teachers re-between what the teachers claimed toended tasks to accommodate indi- sponded to the children much like theirbelieve and their practice in the class-vidual abilities of students. Public peers. She also found the children wereroom when teachers were inadequately school teachers felt less autonomous readily accepted by the other childreninformed about the foundations of theciting principals, district mandated and the classroom society fostered themodel, had not yet integrated the phi-testing, and increased academic em- development of positive, appropriatelosophy of the model with their ownphasis as inhibiting change. social interactive behaviors. personal belief system, or when they Jun (1994), surveyed 261 of the pos- were involved in a model in which theysible 3,642 Korean Montessori teachers Teacher Training/School Accreditation had not fully invested. Teachers seemedand 375 Korean parents from 32 Korean Adaptive Behavior to be enactMg practices based on theirMontessori schools located in the ma- Unfortunately, this study by Chesterpersonal interpretation of the model andjor cities of Korea. The findings dem- (1993), provides no results that arenot the classical or critical componentsonstrated that 74.5% of the teachers at- meaningful. The research merely askedof the model. They tended to dismisstended the training to increase their teachers to complete a rating scale ofelements which they did not under-professional competency and their behavior, The Vineland Adaptive Behav- stand. The results indicated a need for aknowledge of child development. The ior Scale, and compared children in ac-significant modification in the ways inteachers' levels of satisfaction differed credited and non-accredited Montes-which teachers are educated especially significantly based on age and experi- sori schools. She then compared scoresin selecting a teacher training programence in teaching. Parents send their on the children with the type of schoolthat fits their personal goals and values. children to a Montessori school because they were in. While she manipulated D'Emidio-Caston (1990), compared they believed the learning environment the data and found significant relation-Montessori and public school kinder-nurtured their child's interpersonal ships between accreditation and Dailygarten and primary teachers' instruc-growth. The majority of parents were Living Skills and Communication Skillstional values and the influence of theirvery satisfied with the Montessori ex- domains, this information reveals noth-values on teaching practices. Fiftyperience and none were dissatisfied or

80 82 Mary Maher Boehnlein very dissatisfied. Parents indica tedteacher gave directives to boys and girlssori theory, disagreement with the highest levels of satisfaction in the ar-and to children who were new entrants Montessori theory, difficulty in carry- eas of concentration and academicto Montessori from other types of ing out the theory in practice, misinterpre- achievement. The majority of Montes-school experience. In all, the teachertations of the questionnaire items, and mis- sori teachers encouraged the imple-voiced twenty-one social rules. understandings about Montessori's recom- mentation of the Montessori Teacher Emerson (1993), hypothesized that mendations for guiding the process of nor- Training program in neighboring coun-children who received the traditional mali7ation. tries. presentation of the pink tower supple- Implications of the study included validation of teachers for the high level Teachers' Language mented by thought-provoking discussion would choose to spend more timeof consistency in their reflections and Ege ( 1992), found differences in thewith that activity than children whothe development of a more complete ways teachers used language to orga- received only a traditional presentationtheoretical understanding of the pro- nize student learning environmentsof the pink tower and would scorecess of normalization, particularly the and to mediate learning. The language higher on a test of seriation. He used aimportance of respecting children's of the teachers seemed to reflect thethree group paradigm: traditional,spans of concentration. Zener observed training philosophy although the larger supplemented by limited discussion,that teachers often interrupted children context of the school setting influenced and supplemented by frequent thought-thus disrupting the child's concentra- the ways teachers functioned. provoking questions. He found thattion. Classroom management and the role children receiving supplemental dis-Reading Instruction Beliefs of the adult in relation to the learnercussion did not score significantly were studied by Matias(1990). He Using DeFord's Theoretical Orienta- higher on tests of seriation. All childrention to Reading Profile, Dold (1994), ex- wanted to explore and describe theincreased in points gained on the test kinds and functions of directive lan- amined the theoretical orientations to with the group receiving extended dis-reading of Montessori teachers and guage in the process of getting thingscussion gaining the most but still not accomplished in a Puerto Rican Mont- paraprofessionals. The study also in- significantly more. The latter groupvestigated if theie were differences in essori preschool classroom. He studiedalso spent more minutes with the pink the classroom for one school year us- responses among subjects trained by tower than the other groups. In factthree separate organizations. The re- ing three intensive videotaping phases, children who received the standardsults revealed that the majority of sub- at the beginning, middle and end of the presentation spent less time with the jects held a skills theoretical orientation academic year. Specifically, he wantedmaterial. The thought-provoking ques-to reading rather than a phonics or to study three classroom events; thetions seemed to generate greater inter-whole language approach. Most re- entrance / transition to work, individualest in the material. Emerson believessponded in manners consistent with work time, and circle time. Micro analy-this is because the discussions restoredMontessori philosophy. There were sis of the six videotapes and nine for-the interplay between action andsome items in which subjects trained mal and twenty-four informal teacherthought. by two of the organizations signifi- interviews revealed that teacher direc- Teacher Knowledge and Attitudes cantly differed. tives were sent to individual children and allowed them choices at entrance/ Zener (1994), investigated the degree Technology transition to work but as the year pro-of agreement between Association Mon- This study by Curran (1985), is a criti- gressed this event became more aca-tessori Internationale (AMI) trainedcal analysis of institutional resistance demically oriented and fewer choicesteachers' knowledge and attitudes andto the Montessori method in the early were allowed the students as well asMontessori's recommendations for guid-part of the twentieth century. Interest- less opportunity to direct each other.ing the process of normali7ation amongingly, the research posits the idea that During the individual work time theyoung children and the reasons for differ- Montessori educational theory was re- teacher's directive pattern was indi- ences from those recommendations. jected because the didactic materials vidual and pupils sought more infor- One hundred sixty-five teacherswere a new technology that threatened mation from the teacher. Gradually thewere surveyed with knowledge and at-to weaken the power, prestige, and eco- teacher had to remind the children lesstitude scales followed by semi-struc-nomic positions of teachers and admin- about the rules as they internalizedtured interviews with 10% of the par-istrators as the materials would replace their pupil roles. Students' directives to ticipants. the teacher centered classroom with a each other mainly asked for help or The study concluded that AMI trainedcompletely different organization pat- expressed social and academic needs.Montessori teachers reflected a satisfac- tern for classrooms and schools. Of the three events, circle time was the tory degree of agreement with the rec-Television most teacher-directed activity and stu- ommended knowledge and attitudes. dents were expected to comply fasterReasons for differences among theAge Appropriate Television and Affects here than in the other two events. Thereteachers about guiding the process in-on Classroom Behaviors were marked differences in how thecluded using other aspects of Montes- Aidman (1993), used the Soviet activity

PQ Montessori Research: Recent Trends

theory to determine what preschoolersrooms, children and teachers, and to essori curriculum model for children ages 3 to knew about appropriate host-guest behav- describe differences in Montessori 6. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Uni- iors and polite behavior routines. The classrooms from traditional classrooms. versity of Minnesota. Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood show was The studies on autonomy and peace, Bent, P.W. (1989) The role of educational evaluation in three selected Montessori elementary used in the study but the researcherfor example get to the very basis of classrooms. Unpublished doctoral disserta- also interviewed the program's produc-Montessori educationthe values chil- tion, University of Delaware. ers, and surveyed and interviewed par-dren acquire. Parents in Korea recog- Bodi, J. (1987). An interpretation of the Montes- ents to establish family attitudes andnized the difference and chose Mont- sori Erdkinder: The education of adolescents methods for teaching. essori for their children on the basis of through high school. Unpublished Master's the interpersonal education not on the thesis. University of Houston. Aidman concluded that preschoolers Boehnlein, M.M. (1985, Summer). The NAMTA have quite a bit of knowledge aboutbasis the children achieve more aca- Montessori Bibliography. (1st ed.). Cleveland how to interact as hosts and guests and demically. In that study the author Heights, OH: North American Montessori that they do imitate and learn from tele-states that over 3,000 Korean teachers Teachers' Association. vision programs. Their memory andhave been trained in 10 years! Not all Boehnlein, M.M. (1995, Summer). The NAlvITA comprehension for televised messagesof these teachers are implementing Montessori Bibliography. (2nd ed.). Cleveland increased with age. The youngest chil-Montessori and some never intended Heights, OH: North American Montessori Teachers' Association. dren, however, demonstrated difficulty to do so, but rather, they took the train- Boehnlein, M.M. (1988). Montessori research: in exhibiting appropriate behaviors be-ing to learn more about children and analysis in retrospect. Cleveland Heights, OH: cause of fear related to strange situa-their development. There is an impor- North American Montessori Teachers' As- tions. In this study, the program, thetant message in that study that we all sociation. school, and the home all demonstratedmight hear. Boehnlein, M.M. (1992). Evaluation Report of middle-class American values and al- Lorain Schools' At-Risk and Excellence Grant Reviewing this vast array of research Program at Palm Montessori Academy and Lin- though the television programmingmakes me hopeful that scholars will coln Academy. Cleveland, OH: Cleveland was important, she concluded thatcontinue to be interested in what makes State University. children's abilities in.this domain areMontessori so different or so special Bull, M.B. (1988). Autonomy as an educational stretched more by interacting with anand make them wonder how do the commitment. Unpublished doctoral disserta- adult, and that the learning throughMontessori teachers get children to be tion, State University of New York at Albany. role playing in the child's "zone of Chaney, C. (1991). Teacher beliefs and practices so cooperative and interested in learnin two models of early childhood education proximal development" was moreing? It is difficult to develop an instru- (Montessori and High Scope). Unpublished powerful than passive viewing. ment to measure respect but visitors to doctoral dissertation, the Pennsylvania State University. Summary Montessori classrooms notice it immediately. Seeing the respect of the adult Cheng, J.E. (1993). A comparative study of Mon- John Chattin-McNichols, when askedfor the child and the child for others, tessori and unit-structured programs in Taiwan about the state of the art of Montessori (China). Unpublished doctoral dissertation. visitors know they are seeing a revolu- research, "The problem is that Montes- University of Wisconsin-Madison. tion in progress. What would happen sorians don't know about research and Chester, B.). (1993). The adaptive behavior of kin- if all the children in all the world grew dergarten children who attended accredited and researchers don't know about Montes- to be adults respectful of all life they nonaccredited preschools (Montessori). Unpub- sori education." He also added, that "not wonder? What would happen? + lished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State only has important research not been University. done ... Montessorians have difficulty Ciscernos, M. (1994). Multiple measures of the in talking about what should be stud- effectiveness of public school Montessori educa- ied." It would appear from our most References tion in the third grade. Unpublished doctoral recent review that John was correct in Aidman, A.J. (1993). Television as activity sys- dissertation, University of North Texas. tem: "Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood" and the de- Coe, E.J. (1988). Creating a holistic, developmen- his assessment but since he made these velopment of polite behavior routines in tally responsive learning environment that em- statements in 1990 there seems to be preschoolers (Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood, Activ- powers the early adolescent. Unpublished doc- much more interest in Montessori re- ity theony). Unpublished doctoral disserta- toral dissertation, The Union for Experi- search. The wide variety of topics be- tion, University of Illinois at Urbana- menting Colleges and Universities. ing studied attest to that. Champaign. Curran, N.E.R. (1985). Institutional resistance to Alofs, J. & Gray-McKennis, J. Children's the Montessori method: An historical case study What is heartening to see are the Choices. The Constructive Triangle. XV, 8. in the adoption of technologies of instruction. number of studies that now use ethno- Alofs, J. (1992). How Montessorians View Non- Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana graphic methods of actually being in standard (Invented) Spelling. Montessori Life, University. Montessori classrooms and attempting 4, 31-33. Curry, L.J. (1990). A literature-based language to evaluate changes in children through Baker, K. (1988). The interpretation of subtraction curriculum in public Montessori. Unpublished first hand observation of the process of held by children in the Association Montessori doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M Univer- Internationale curriculum. Unpublished the- sity. education. Many studies annotated in sis, University of Maryland. Curtis, O.D. (1993). A comparative analysis of this paper demonstrate that there are Beaton, AS. (1991). The essential and unique char- elementary students' achievements in Montes- ways to observe the Montessori class- acteristics of a contemporary American Mont- sori and Sights programs in an urban school dis-

82 4 Mary Maher Boehnlein

trict. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, program. Unpublished thesis. The University nation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas Southern University. of Toledo. The Catholic University of America. Davenport-Paige, (1987). The concept of the ma- Hsu, J.J. (1987). An integrated model for learning Shaw, S.B. (1989). An exploratory study of guided ture mind: A cognitive and developmental ap- number concepts at the preschool level in Tai- imagery as a curricular strategy in a whole lan- proach. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, wan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, guage classroom (Montessori). Unpublished The Wright Institute. Dawson, M. (1988). A Peabody College for Teachers of Vanderbilt doctoral dissertation, University of South comparative analysis of the standardized University. Carolina. test scores of students enrolled in HSD Mon- Jun, Y.S. (1994). An evaluation of the effectiveness Staskey, P. & Chester, B. (1988). Now We Have tessori Magnet and Traditional Elementary of the Korean Montessori teacher training pro- Some ideas: Achievement Tests and Self- Classrooms. Unpublished Master's thesis, gram as perceived by Montessori-educated chil- Esteem in Montessori School Graduates. The Texas Southern University. dren. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Constructive Triangle. XV, 4-7. Dawson, M. (1988). A comparative analysis of the University of San Francisco. Sun, D.J. (1993). Teaching young children compo- standardized test scores of students enrolled in Kahn, D. (Ed.). (1988). A Montessori operations sitional concepts to enhance music learning in a HSD Montessori Magnet and Traditional el- handbook for teachers and administrators. computer learning environment (Montessori). ementary Classrooms. Unpublished Master's Cleveland Heights, OH: North American Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The thesis, Texas Southern University. Montessori Teachers' Association. Ohio State University. D'Emidio-Caston, M. (1990). Educating young Kahn, D. (Ed.). (1990). Implementing Montessori Torrence, M. (1992). Montessori and Play: children: An exploratory study of Montessori education in the public sector. Cleveland Theory vs. Practice. Montessori Life, 4,38. and public school teachers' beliefs and practices. Heights, OH: North American Montessori Tovikkai, V. (1991). A comparison of preschool Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer- Teachers' Association. coinpetencies required by Thai curriculum as sity of California, Santa Barbara. Kendall, S. (1992). The development of autonomy realized in a United States play-oriented pro- Dold, S.B. (1994). An examination of the theoreti- in children: an examination of the Montessori gram and a Montessori program. Unpublished cal orientations to reading of Montessori teach- educational model. Unpublished doctoral dis- Master's Thesis, Texas Woman's University. ers and paraprofessionals. Unpublished doc- sertation, Walden University. Wilkinson, K.A. (1991). A study of the emergence toral dissertation, Memphis State Univer- Long, J. (1994). "Survey of Montessori Adoles- of phonological awareness as influenced by type sity. cent Programs: Interpretive commentary." of nursery school program, parent teaching, and Ege, P. (1992). Communicative contexts of teach- Entire Issue. The NAMTA Journal Special Re- age (pre-academic, whole child, Montessori). ing and learning in a Montessori classroom port, July. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Bryn (teacher language). Unpublished doctoral dis- Matias, B. (1990). Getting things done: A natu- Mawr College. sertation. The University of Texas at Aus- ralistic study of the kinds and functions of di- Zener, R. (1994). Knowledge and attitudes of Mon- tin. rective language in a Puerto Rican early child- tessori teachers of young children as a context Emerson, G. (1993). Using Questions: A Sen- hood classroom. Unpublished doctoral disser- for guiding the normalization and self-construc- sorial Study. Montessori Life. 5, 33-35. tation, New York University. tion process. Unpublished doctoral disserta- Epstein, P.M. (1985). An ethnographic investiga- Mitchell, N. (1994). Montessori Children's Con- tion. University of Maryland. tion of a teenage culture in a Montessori junior cepts of Writing. Montessori Life, 6, 37. high school. Unpublished doctoral disserta- Oboodiat, F. (1992). Young children's understand- tion, State University of new York at Buf- ing of peace concepts: Negative peace, nonvio- Mary Maher Boehnlein, Ph.D. holds a B.S. falo. lent-conflict-resolution peace (Conflict resolu- Evans, R.M. Jr. (1989). Knowledge and perceptions tion, nonviolence). Unpublished doctoral dis- in Elementary Education, an M.A. in Read- of nationally distinguished elementary school sertation, The University of Texas at Aus- ing Disabilities with a minor in School Ad- principals regarding four instructional ap- tin. ministration, a Ph.D. in Curriculum and proaches in education (Montessori, Individually Olsen, Victoria. (1992). The acquisition of writ- Instruction and an AMI elementary diploma Guided Education, Open Learning, Traditional ten narrative discourse competence: The emer- from Bergamo, Italy. Dr. Boehnlein has 35 Education). Unpublished doctoral disserta- gent literacy of young children writing to read years of teaching experience at the elemen- tion, Memphis State University. in Montessori and kindergarten classrooms. tary, secondary and university levels. She Feltin, P.K. (1987). Independent learning in four Unpublished paper, University of Califor- is currently a Professor Emerita in the Col- Montessori elementary classrooms. Unpub- nia, Santa Barbara. lege of Education at Cleveland State Uni- lished doctoral dissertation. Seattle Univer- Padovani, D.K. (1985). A Montessori preschool versity and coordinates the Reading Recov- sity. (early childhood, involvement, 2,3-5 year olds, ery Program for the San Francisco Unified Freedman, H. (1985). A survey of curriculum in training, preschool workshops). Unpublished School District. selected proprietary preschools. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of San doctoral dissertation. United States Interna- Francisco. tional University. Roantree, G. (1992). Holistic reading in a Mont- Fuller, M.M. (1994). Equity and Montessori mag- essori classroom: and examination of the read- net schools: an historical study of Bennett Park ing miscues and perceived strategies of children Montessori Center, Buffalo, New York. Unpub- who have completed one year in a Montessori lished doctoral dissertation, University of elementary classroom. Unpublished Master's Massachusetts. thesis. DePaul University. Goudvis, A.K. (1991). The role of collaboration in Rose, A. (1990). The effect of Montessori educa- children's understanding of information texts tion on the divergent thinking skill of kinder- (Reading comprehension). Unpublished doc- garten age students. Unpublished Master's toral dissertation, University of Illinois at thesis, the University of Manitoba (Canada). Urbana-Champaign. Rush, N.M. (1984). A comparison of the effects of Hale, L.M. (1992). A qualitative analysis of the two child-centered models of educational inter- process of including young children with devel- vention on three selected creative abilities of pre- opmental delay within a Montessori preschool school children: Fluency, originality, and imagi-

83 3 5 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Children At Risk Sylvia 0. Richardson, M.D.

The current American educationalaction may exist with learning disabili-dination are unable to coordinate the and child care scene is under attackties but do not by themselves consti-small muscle groups, particularly in from many quarters. America is com-tute a learning disability. their hands. They may have difficulty ing to grips with the need for a more "Although learning disabilities mayin dressing and undressing, learning to literate society and with the realizationoccur concomitantly with other handi-button, tie, and zip. In school they will that liberty can only be achievedcapping conditions (for example, sen-have difficulty using a crayon, scissors, through literacy. Almost one-third ofsory impairment, mental retardation,and a pencil. Children with fine-motor our children will join the ranks of theserious emotional disturbance) or withincoordination become dependent illiterate unless they are provided withextrinsic influences, (such as culturalupon others to cut up their food, to help instruction that meets their needs.differences, insufficient or inappropri-them dress, etc. This is indeed a handi- Many of these youngsters will be dys-ate instruction), they are not the resultcap, since one of the major requisites lexic or have learning disabilities. Oth-of those conditions or influences."for school success is the degree of in- ers will notbut they will need (NJCLD, 1988) dependence that allows children to as- appropriate instruction. Children with specific learning dis-sume the responsibility for their own This paper will first discuss the ma-abilities are of at least average intelli- learning. jor characteristics of learning disabili-gence. Boys outnumber girls by Gross and / or fine-motor incoordina- ties and then describe Dr. Montessori'sapproximately four to one, which hap-tion is not the crux or the cause of any approach to education. Hopefully, thepens to be the approximate ratio of boysspecific learning disability, but may reader will grasp the significance of theto girls in relation to language disor-nonetheless prevent children from Montessori principles and practices asders and stuttering. There is usually ameeting the normal demands of the they may be applied in the educationfamily history of learning disabilities,school situation in all aspects aca- of children with learning disabilities. especially among the dyslexic popula-demic, social, and emotional. Learning Disabilities tion. These children demonstrate dis-Disorders of Language orders of varying degree in one or more All children with learning problemsof four areas: coordination, language, The language problems of children do not necessarily have specific learn-attention, and perception. with specific learning disabilities may ing disabilities. Diagnostic terminology be extremely complex. Because they are in this field can be extremely confus-Disorders of Gross and/or Fine Motornot visible, unlike problems in coordi- ing. A number of terms are used freelyCoordination nation or behavior, they are less likely by educators, the lay public, as well as The child with learning disabilitiesto be discovered or diagnosed. We are the medical profession. may be quite clumsy. Although not anot discussing speech problems alone. In 1988 the National Joint Commit-cause of learning disabilities, clumsi- Speech, like writing, is the motor act of tee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD),ness is frequently an associated symp-self-expression. Language and thought a national committee representing tentom that can be devastating for a child.are related processes, and the term organizations concerned with indi-This is the youngster who bumps into "language" includes both spoken and viduals with learning disabilities pro-everything, spills the milk, trips over awritten language. In order to acquire vided what may be the best of several thread in the carpet. Of course, therecompetence in reading we must build current definitions which has also hadare many clumsy adults who haveon proficiencies made available in the wide acceptance among professionals: never had any learning problems, andprimary (spoken) language system. "Learning disabilities is a general termclumsiness may not be a major concern The majority of individuals with that refers to a heterogeneous group offrom the adult point of view. Clumsylearning disabilities have specific diffi- disorders manifested by significant dif-children who have difficulty hopping,culty in reading, writing and spelling. ficulties in the acquisition and use ofskipping, running, riding a bike orReading researchers have reached con- listening, speaking, reading, writing,playing ball, however, probably don'tsensus that most of these disabilities reasoning or mathematical abilities. feel very good about themselves. Theymay originate with any of the several These disorders are intrinsic to the in-are rarely chosen to be on anyone'scomponents of language, especially dividual, presumed to be due to cen-team and they get in trouble at homethose that affect reading: phonemic tral nervous system dysfunction, andbecause they break things. They easilyawareness, the awareness that words may occur across the lifespan. develop a low self-image, in itself anare made up of individual sounds; pho- "Problems in self-regulatory behav-impediment to learning. nology, the sound structure of our lan- iors, social perception, and social inter- Children with poor fine motor coor-guage which includes syllables as well

84 E 6 Sylvia 0. Richardson, M.D. as phonemes; syntax, the rules whichMany children called hyperactive arejor problem. They may demonstrate govern the sequential ordering ofattentive when their activities are ofpersistent reversals or erroneous se- words, phrases, and sentences; seman-interest to them or when they are do-quencing of letters and words when tics, the meaning system that is at-ing things that they can do. We mustreading, spelling, or writing. They may tached to words and phrases as a resultdistinguish between the child whosealso mix up their words, like Sheridan's of experience in many contexts; and ad-hyperactivity is neurologically basedMrs. Malaprop. equate short- and long-term memoryand the child who is "hyper-reacting" A great deal of learning is dependent capacities. Many youngsters withto stress. upon early sensorimotor integration learning disabilities have considerable Some children have attentional prob-and perceptual maturation. Children difficulty bridging from speech to print,lems due to receptive language disor-learn first through their own move- the task of establishing sound / symbolder or to a memory deficit. Somements and manipulations, all of which correspondence in beginning reading"hyperactive" youngsters simply havethen become associated with the sen- a task that draws on their phonologi-high intensity temperamental at-sory information that they receive and cal awareness and memory and also is tributes (Thomas & Chess, 1977). Theperceive. Sensorimotor development dependent on the discovery that wordsimportance of attention in learning can-occurs primarily in the child's first two are made up of smaller units. not be overestimated. Attention meansor three years of life, but later academic Delay in the acquisition and use ofclose or careful observing or listening.learning is dependent upon the devel- spoken language may be the sole fore-The child with a disorder of attentionopment and integration of these skills. runner of a learning disability. Mosthas difficulty in attending selectivelyPiaget (1952) wrote: "Sensorimotor inchildren with reading and writingto pertinent stimuli. Later discussiontelligence lies at the source of thought, problems will have had a history of latewill address the ways in which atten-and continues to affect it throughout or impaired speech and / or languagetion can be trained. life through perceptions and practical development. These limitations make sets... The role of perception in the Disorders in the Function of most highly developed thought cannot it difficult for them to learn, in or out Perception of school. be neglected ..."(p. 326). Children with learning disabilities A perceptual disorder is a defect in The child's coordination, language, may not have much trouble with articu-the way our mind interprets what weattention, and perception are all inter- lation, although they may have whatsee or hear or take in through our otherrelated. No learning disabled child is Katrina de Hirsch and others call "clut-senses. Children with normal visionexactly like another. There is no single tered" speech, speech that sort of falls and hearing acuity may misinterpret orsymptom; the symptoms occur in clus- on top of itself. Speech therapy is help-misperceive what they see or hear. Theters and vary from child to child. The ful for such youngsters but other lan-functions of perception can be relatedimportance of any particular problem guage problems are usually involvedto the visual, auditory, tactile, kines-within the symptom complex can as well. thetic, or other senses. Visual percep-change as the child proceeds through tion is often tied to movement andschool. Learning disabilities change It is important to note that children, space while auditory perception refersover time and have lifelong effects. upon school entrance, do not all pos-to that which is temporal and sequen- sess equal levels of competencies in the To summarize briefly the four major tial. critical language areas. Since success in disorders demonstrated by children beginning reading, and consequently in Some children may have a visual-with learning disability are disorders beginning school, depends upon themotor mismatch. In trying to copy let-of fine and gross motor coordination, adequate development of their func- ters or shapes, they are unable to guidelanguage, attention, and perception. tions of spoken language, early school finger movements accurately accordingThese are not isolated but interdepen- experiences should be directed toward to what they see, and so drawing anddent functions. They are present from language development as well as read- writing are impaired. birth through the lifespan of the indi- ing instruction. Visuospatial perception is closelyvidual in changing order of importance tied to children's growing organizationand in varying degree. Disorder of Attention of their physical environment, which is Special education principles and Disorders of the functions of atten-based on the vantage point of their ownpractices address these problems after tion include short attention span, dis- beings, whether objects are far froma child has been identified in school, but tractibility, impulsivity, hyperkineticthem or near, larger than they orI believe that intervention in the school behavior or activity decontrol, and dis-smaller. There may be confusion aboutage years is too little and too late. Much inhibition. The label given to many chil- direction up and down, right and left,can be done in early childhood educa- dren who demonstrate such behaviorsfront and back. Children with learning tion programs to prevent or ameliorate is Attention Deficit with Hyperactivitydisabilities may have difficulty tyingthe anguish suffered by the children Disorder (ADHD). However, it is im-objects into a unified whole; their pos-before assistance is provided in school. portant to remember that hyperactiv- sessions may be scattered in complete I believe that Montessori offers one an- ity is not a disease; it is an adjective. disarray. Lack of organization is a ma- swer for these children.

3 7 85 Children At Risk

The Montessori Method the opportunity for movement and Zaporozhets and Elkonin (1971), found It would be presumptuous of me tomotor training and, of major impor-that to teach children how to carry out describe Dr. Montessori's work or tance, the provision for order. Childrena complex task, one must make sure methods to you. As you know, thereare to be guided from the start by pre-that they are also taught how to orga- have been many modifications and ad-senting them with activities that theynize their orienting responses (atten- aptations of Montessori in America toare prepared to do, at which they cantion). They must learn what to look at; accommodate cultural differences and be successful, and that thereby capturetheir action must be directed to the change. The basic philosophy and prin-their attention. The concept of order isright cues, both external and proprio- ciples of instruction however, generallyenormously important in the educationceptive. Thus, they must learn to make remain constant. It is the purpose of this of children with learning disabilities. use of feedback from the external situ- presentation to point out how Montes- The "prepared environment" con-ation and from their own action, and sori principles and practices pertain to tains objects designed through their usethe teacher must help them to do this. the education of the high risk child. to achieve a definite purpose, to allowSeveral experiments have shown that the child to carry out a real piece of Montessori's method is largely based a task can be learned more rapidly if on a concept described by Seguinwork having a practical objective. Each orienting behavior (attention) is specifi- activity in these "exercises in practicalcally trained through motor mediation. (1907): "To lead the child, as it were, by life" is made up of a graded series of the hand, from the education of the The Montessori exercises in practical movements to be performed in logicallife involve both verbal and motor me- muscular system, to that of the nervous sequence. Montessori broke down eachdiation and are invaluable aids in help- system, and of the senses, ...and then exercise into "points of interest," spe-ing the child to attend and to coordinate from the education of the senses to gen- cific points within each exercise totheir movements. eral notions, from general notions to ab- which the child's attention is drawn. As stract thought, from abstract thought to The importance of the exercises in the children are taught each "exercise,"practical life cannot be overemphasized morality."(p. 144). In Dr. Montessori'ssuch as washing hands, polishing Own Handbook (1965), she states: " The in working with learning disabled chil- shoes, or cutting vegetables, each stepdren. It is through these exercises that technique of my method, as it followsof the operation is presented by the the natural physiological and psycho- they can develop self-respect and some teacher verbally and by demonstrationindependence. The self-assurance that logical development of the child, mayin logical, orderly sequence. The chil- be divided into three parts: comes with the knowledge that they dren learn to focus their attention andcan care for themselves and their envi- 1) Motor education; to analyze their body movements asronment will help them to withstand 2) Sensory education; and they repeat the sequence each time. Asthe many difficulties they will encoun- 3) Language or intellectual education.the children's attention is directed toter later in their academic struggles. The care and management of the en-proprioceptive and external cues, they vironment itself afford the principleare learning to recognize and to useSensory Education means of motor education, while sen-feedback. All of this helps the children Montessori provided much material sory education and education of lan-to develop efficient motor patterns asfor sensorimotor training. The senso- guage are provided for by my didacticwell as selective attention. rial materials are designed to attract material" (pp. 49-50). The exercises in practical life maychildren's attention, to "educate the well be the most important aids for chil-senses," and to allow manipulation by The Prepared Environment and dren with learning disabilities. Exer-the children. The goal is to assist the Exercises in Practical Life cises such as pouring rice or liquids,children in their task of creating order Montessori believed that the child'scarrying various apparatus, cutting,and sequence in sensory input by pre- environment should be "prepared" andworking with the dressing frames, allsenting a carefully constructed se- maintained by the teacher. She saw theassist the children to develop goodquence of experiences which proceed teacher as the caretaker of the environ-gross and fine motor coordination. Ex-very slowly from the concrete to the ment and as the child's guide. ercises in care of the environment suchabstract. Montessori designed the furniture inas washing hands, tables, or linen; When one "educates" the senses, one the first Casa dei Bambini (Children'stidying and cleaning up the room pro-is not trying to make the children see House), to be light, child-sized, andvide structure and help the children toor hear or touch better, but is helping easy for the children to move, or ar-learn order. Exercises in grace andthem to know what it is that they see range, or wash with soap and water.courtesy teach social behavior, whileor hear or touch. By providing strongly She believed that education shouldwalking the line is a marvelous lesson contrasted sensations, followed later by have as its object the development ofin coordination as well as attention. Thevarious graded series of sensation, one independence in the child, and fre-Silence Game, usually a favorite with the teaches the children to discriminate. For quently stated that every unnecessary children, provides wonderful training in example, if we teach them first red and aid to a child is an impediment. Thus,listening as well as body control. then blue, then several shades of blue the "prepared environment" includes The Soviet research psychologists,or several shades of red, we are teach-

86 S S Sylvia 0. Richardson, M.D. ing what is red and what is blue. At the Written language is viewed as an ex- can appreciate the significance of same time they are learning to contrast, tension of oral language: "To train theMontessori's early language exercises. to compare and match, to discriminate,child's attention to follow sounds andThe analysis of sounds relative to to distinguish different sense impres-noises which are produced in the envi-speech are essentially auditory-visual- sions and to put them in some sort ofronment, to recognize them and to dis- tactile-kinesthetic exercises connected order. This is the beginning of a con-criminate between them, is to prepare with the learning of the alphabet. Sand- scious awareness of the environment ashis attention to follow more accurately paper letters are provided for the chil- opposed to any unconscious knowl-the sounds of articulate language"dren to look at and trace with their edge they already may have. (1965, p. 123). Such attention (listening)fingers as they voice the sound of the The idea of always presenting twoaids the child in his development ofletter, thus utilizing a multisensory ap- contrasting stimuli rather than a singlephonemic awareness. Variations in the proach. Later they will use a movable one was derived, as were many ofSilence Game can be very effective foralphabet to build words; these are let- Montessori's activities, from Seguin. this. ters which the children can hold in their "We must never confine to automatic Children are taught the precise no-hands and manipulate themselves. memory what can be learned by com-menclature for the sensorial materials, The multisensory approach to writ- parison, nor teach a thing without itsthe names of the objects and words de-ing and reading was not new. Various natural correlations and generaliza- scribing the specific attributes. For chil-forms of this date back to Plato (427- tions; otherwise we give a false or in-drenwithlanguagelearning347 B.C.), who taught boys to write by complete idea, or none, but a dry notion disabilities this is imperative, becausetracing; Horace (65 B.C.), who taught with a name..."(1907, p. 66). Seguinwe know that one of the factors mostchildren by means of pieces of pastry also developed the Three Period Lesson characteristic is a deficit in naming.made in the shape of letters; and to associate an object or a quality with Seguin's Three Period Lesson is used forQuintillian (A.D. 35-100), who sug- its name. The first period consists ofnomenclature. The children learn thegested learning the form and the sound establishing identity, associating thelanguage of forms and dimensions.of letters simultaneously (Richardson, sense perception or the object with itsThey learn gradations of quality and 1989). name. The second period tests thecontrasts. For example, colors are Montessori viewed graphic, or writ- child's recognition of the object corre-graded according to tint and to richnessten, language as offering to the child sponding to the name. The third period of tone, silence is distinct from non-si-an essential tool for communication establishes that the child can recall thelence, noises from sounds, and every-with others as well as a means of per- name corresponding to the object. Dur-thing has its own exact and appropriatefecting spoken language. This recipro- ing these lessons the teacher may work name. cal function of speaking and writing is on correct articulation, and a good bit Montessori stated: "The didactic ma-an essential point that is overlooked in of repetition of the first two periodsterial, in fact, does not offer to the childeducation and has surfaced only re- may be necessary before recall is ac- the 'content' of the mind, but the ordercently in language research. complished. The interval between suc- for that content. It causes him to dis- Montessori saw that the indirect cess in the second and in the thirdtinguish identities from differences,preparation for written language period (i.e., between recognition andextreme differences from fine grada-would include all of the child's previ- recall) may be quite lengthy and pro-tions, and to classify, under conceptionsous experience: the exercises in practi- vides a striking illustration of theof quality and of quantity, the mostcal life, which begin to prepare the hand amount of time and repetition required varying sensations appertaining to sur-for writing and which help to establish for a child to establish the associationsfaces, colors, dimensions, forms andcontrol of movement and eye-hand co- so necessary in language developmentsounds. The mind has formed itself byordination; and the sensorial materials, and learning (Richardson, 1969). Cur-a special exercise of attention, observ- which develop the child's perceptual rent education practice of telling anding, comparing and classifying" (1965,abilities, visual and auditory discrimi- testing is absurd, even for childrenp. 136). Such vocabulary building, withnation, ability to compare and classify, without learning disabilities. precision, is part of the preparation forall of which are necessary for written Language reading and writing. "Language comeslanguage. Through practice, the hand Montessori effectively links language to fix by means of exact words the ideas learns to control the pencil with the development with sensorimotor education, which the mind has acquired. Thesemetal insets, and the sandpaper letters one facilitating the other. She did not de-words are few in number and have ref-provide the kinesthetic sense with the vise a method for teaching reading. Inerence, not to separate objects, butmemory for forms pertinent to written fact, in her handbook, the table of con-rather to the order of the ideas whichlanguage. At the same time, sounding tents does not mention reading; therehave been formed in the mind" (p. 137).out the letters reinforces oral kinesthetic is one section on the material for the As stated, the underlying neuro-psy-memory, increases auditory discrimi- preparation for writing and another onchological deficit in dyslexia is a prob- nation and auditory memory, and as- exercises for writing "alphabeticallem in phonemic segmentation or sists the child in the final perfection of signs." phonemic awareness skills. Thus, onespeech itself.

87 83 Children At Risk

Liberman (1971) pointed out quiteMoveable Alphabet enables the childmakes when he verifies the word he has clearly that if readers and writers areto build words but, again, this materialwritten. He is translating signs into to use the alphabetic principle produc-is not used to encourage reading orsounds, as he first translated sounds tively they must be aware of the pho-writing but simply the mechanical pro-into signs... What I understand by nological structure the letters represent. duction of the children's words andreading is the interpretation of an idea Liberman also hypothesizes that thelater their phrases and sentences asfrom the written signs... So, until the weakness in phonemic awareness dis-well. Montessori says, "Touching thechild reads a transmission of ideas from played by children who have difficultyletters and looking at them at the samethe written word, he does not read" learning to read may reflect, "a moretime, fixes the image more quickly (1912, p. 296). general deficiency in the biological spe-through the cooperation of the senses. When the child can read back the cialization that processes phonologicalLater, the two facts separate: lookingwords he has made with the Moveable structure in speech"(1989). Difficultybecomes reading; touching becomesAlphabet, the teacher introduces the in, or a lack of, phonemic awareness iswriting. According to the type of indi-Phonetic Object game. A box is pre- a cardinal sign of dyslexia, or specificvidual, some learn to read first, otherssented which contains small objects, language disability. Liberman (1989)to write" (1912, p. 325). Thus, when theeach with a C-V-C combination, such also points out that phonemic aware-children place the cardboard letters inas pin, cup, cat. The teacher writes one ness can be taught. This can be seen inthe sequential order in which they hearof the words on a slip of paper and asks, Montessori preschools where childrenthem in the spoken word, they can"Can you give me the one I want?' If are aided by the sensorial and languagebuild a visual image of the writtenso, the child can then take off, match- materials in their development of atten- word for themselves. Then the childrening objects and labels. Most Montessori tion, phonemic awareness, phonologi- are led to analyze the written word intoclassrooms have an enormous number cal processing and subsequent reading its component parts, to articulate them,of these object games available, and the achievement (Lillard, 1973). and to blend them together to form thechildren love decoding the labels and There are some simple measures ofspoken word the process of mechani-placing them with the correct objects. phonemic awareness: cal reading. Children who can compose a)Phoneme counting, such as "how Next, phonogram cards and "puzzle a word with the letters of the Moveablewords" (non-phonetic) are introduced many sounds are in box"; Alphabet are not writing, but are readyand, later, the roots of words are ex- b)Phoneme identification, such asto writethey are prepared. "what is the last sound in dog?"; plored. Usually the children are be- To summarize, the basic steps intween six and nine years of age when c) Matching, as in rhymes; teaching the child to write are: d)Reversal, e.g., "say cat backwards"; they become interested in the source of and 1) indirect preparation of the muscularwords, although this isn't true of chil- mechanism for holding and using the e) Deletion, e.g. "say smack without the dren with learning disabilities. pencil; m." Gradually, the children begin to ex- Bradley and Bryant (1983) found2) use of the sandpaper letters to estab-plore the functions of words. This is the high correlations between pre- lish the visual-motor image of thefirst time that Montessori uses the term, schoolers' phonemic awareness in re- graphic symbols and to establish the"introduction to reading." She states; sponse to writing tasks and their later kinesthetic memory of the move-"Before the child can understand and reading and spelling achievement. ments necessary to writing, associat-enjoy a book, the logical language must Those children who were trained in the ing these with the sounds of thebe established in him. Between know- phonological classification of words letters; and ing how to read the words, and how to and in phoneme-grapheme correspon-3) use of the Moveable Alphabet toread the sense of a book there lies the dence were superior later in reading compose words that are firstsame distance that exists between and spelling to children who did not "sounded out" by the child. knowing how to pronounce a word and have this training. Montessori found that "in general, allhow to make a speech" (1912, p. 304). When children work with the sand-children of four are intensely interested The many grammar games first in- paper letters, they are exploring thein writing" and that "writing is one oftroduce "naming words" (nouns) and sounds of language and the shapes ofthe easiest and most delightful con-their modifiers (articles, adjectives, and the symbols for these sounds; this isquests made by the child." (1912, pp.prepositions); and then the dynamic neither an exercise in writing nor an 293-294). "doing words" verbs with their modi- exercise in reading. We have discussed briefly the devel- fiers (adverbs and prepositions). Fi- Through their increasing ability toopment of writing and mechanicalnally, the children explore sentence analyze spoken words into componentreading, or decoding. In order for theanalysis and composition. They learn sounds, and through their mastery ofchild to read with comprehension, the names of parts of speech, their func- the association between sound andhowever, further work of a differenttions, and relative place in the sentence. written symbol, children are led intonature is required. " I do not consider Dr. Montessori believed that elemen- the process of building words. Theas reading the test which the child tary school should begin with "children

88 90 Sylvia 0. Richardson, M.D. who possess, besides a perfect masterylearning disabilities. Many are over- of articulate language, the ability to placed, "unripe" youngsters who need Sylvia Onesti Richardson, M.D. is a read written language in an elementarymore time for sensorimotor develop- Clinical Professor of Pediatrics in the Col- way, and who begin to enter upon thement. When the school system insists lege of Medicine and Distinguished Profes- conquest of logical language" (1912, p. on force-feeding them, they will soonsor in the Department of Communication 308). She was too wise to specify an age. look and act like they are learning dis- Sciences and Disorders at the University of However, children with learning disabled. It is, I think, a form of child abuse South Florida. She is a pediatrician interna- abilities move very slowly through theto allow children to fail the first grades tionally known for her work in evaluation language exercises. In fact, it is usuallyof school before we find a label that will and management of children with language learning disabilities, and is also a certified necessary for the teacher to lead suchallow them to receive "special" educa- speech/ language pathologist (CCC-SP). In children by the hand into these areastion. We must not continue to punish addition, Dr. Richardson is a Montessori when they are reluctant or resistant.children who can't learn what we want teacher certified by AMI and AMS. She is a The Montessori teacher should knowthem to learn, in the way we teach former president of the American Speech- the developmental stages of readingthem, and in the time we give them. Language Hearing Association and of the and how to extend or modify teaching To recapitulate: Montessori's ap- International Orton Dyslexia Society. as needed. proach to early childhood education is Children with specific languagedevelopmental; it utilizes techniques REFERENCES learning disability can profit from thisand materials that would assist the in- Bradley, L., & Brant, P.E. (1983). Catego- carefully programmed sequence oftelligent child who demonstrates devi- rizing Sounds and Learning to Read A learning experiences, from the concreteant development of coordination, Causal Connection. Nature, 30 419-241. exercises in practical life to the final ab- language, attention, and perception; the Fernald, G. (1988). Remedial Techniques in straction of interpretive reading andchild who is at risk academically. The Basic School Subjects. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed writing. A multisensory approach is asensorimotor foundations of language Classic Series. requisite in the instructional ap-development are built in an orderly, Liberman, LY.(1989). Phonology and Begin- proaches for children with languagelogical fashion. Training is provided in ning Reading Revisited. In C. Von Euler (Ed.), learning disabilities or differences. the motor bases of behavior and learn- Wenner-Gren International Symposium Se- There are many excellent multi-sen-ing such as posture and coordination, ries: Brain and Reading. Hampshire, En- gland: Macmillan. sory remedial programs for childrenthe development of directionality and laterality, and the development of body Lillard, P.P.(1972). Montessori: A Modern with dyslexia, most of which are off- Approach. NY: Schocken Books. shoots of the Orton-Gillingham Ap-image. There is training in perceptual skills such as form perception, space Orton, J.L.(1957). The Orton Story. Bulle- proach (Richardson, 1989). June L. tin of the Orton Society, 7, 5-8. Orton (1957) has summarized thesediscrimination, stereognosis (the ability to identify objects by touch or feel), Piaget, J. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence approaches in two basic principles: in Children. (Margaret Cook, tr.). NY: Capri- (1) Start the language training withand recognition of texture, size and corn Books. small units that the pupils can handlestructure. The child receives training in Richardson. S.O. (1969). In R.C. Orem easily and then proceed by orderlyauditory perception (listening), in vi- (Ed.), Montessori and the Special Child (pp. 73- steps from the simple to the more com-sual perception (looking), and in kines- 81). NY: Capricorn Books. plex. Be sure to teach the blending ofthetic perception (muscular memory of Richardson, S.O. (1989). Specific Develop- the separate units into syllables andmovement, positions, and postures). mental Dyslexia: Retrospective and Prospective words for recognition in reading and These provisions assist the child to de- Views. Annals of Dyslexia, Vol. XXXIX, 3-23. recall in writing. velop the prelinguistic and preliteracy Spalding, R.B., & Spalding, W.T. (1957, skills that are among the requisites for 1969). The Writing Road to Reading. NY: (2) Use an "integrated, total language the development of symbolic language, Quill /William Morrow and Co. approach. Each unit and sequence is es- spoken and written. Montessori, M. (1912). The Montessori tablished through hearing, seeing and Method. NY: F.A. Stokes. writing it"(p. 6). The various patterns Montessori demanded humility and careful clinical observation on the part Montessori, M (1965). Dr. Montessori's reinforce individual differences among Own Handbook. NY: Schocken Books. the students. of the teacher. She had deep respect, a reverence, for the child and his work. Seguin, E. (1907.) Idiocy and its Treatment The similarity between these reme- by the Physiological Method. NY: Columbia So must we all. Children with dyslexia dial approaches and that of Montessori University Press. and other learning differences are only are clear. Why then have we not initi- Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Tempera- handicapped by us by a system which ated such preschool programs for chil- ment and Development. NY: Brunner / Maizel dren at-risk academically, programsfails to provide them with access to an United States Congress. (1988). p. 94-142. which can continue through the pri-appropriate education that meets their Washington, DC: Government Printing Of- learning needs. + fice. mary grades, or longer if necessary. Zaporpzhets, A., & Elkonin, D. (1971). The Not all children who have difficulty PsychologyofPreschool Children. learning in the primary grades have Cambridge,MA: MIT Press.

89 911, The Child in the Family Chulanganee Fernando

It's a miracle! The birth of a child. Ameans, then it is required of society nothope of discovery." father, so overwhelmed at the sight ofonly to give the needed instruction, but Sofia Cavalletti says: "It is the his newborn son, said: "Call Heaven.also the support necessary for bringingeducator's task to offer the child's won- Tell them an angel is missing!" up children.... if society recognizes as der an object capable of taking the child Dr. Montessori says: "In the coursenecessary to the child's developmentalways further and deeper into the of its psychological development thethings that the family cannot provide,awareness of reality, an object where baby achieves things so marvelous asthen it is society's duty to provide thesefrontiers are always expanding, as the to be miraculous, and it is only habit thatthings."(Absorbent Mind, p. 12) child slowly proceeds in the contem- makes us indifferent spectators."(Secret Education as a help to life considersplation of it."(The Religious Potential of of Childhood, p. 35) the needs of a living organism, and re- the Child) We adults must develop and main-alizes the child herself has her own Humans become animated when tain our faith in the child, and our faithspiritual program. When we changethey are in love with their environment. in the great mystery of life manifestedour attitude towards the child, weThis love for their environment can be in the child. Faith can create miracles.change our attitude towards all of life.realized when the inner nature of the We must realize there is an energy aThis is the first step we must take; Mon- child has freedom to explore the beauty divine power, which follows a specialtessori calls it "the modification of theof the world around him. We must re- pattern which leads to the formation ofadult." The conscious mind has no ac-spect the rhythm of the child and not the human being. cess to the functioning of the uncon-rush him from one thing to another. "The source of growth lies withinscious. But if we have the desire toMontessori talks about a Japanese fa- (the child). A child does not grow be- know what is best for the child, throughther taking his little son for a walk, how cause he is fed, because he breathes,sincere desire we make the reality. De-he would stop and wait while the little because he lives in suitable climaticsire is pure potential seeking manifes-one took time to examine the minute conditions. He grows because his po-tation. Inherent in desires are all theinsects and plants on the sidewalk. tentialities for life are actualized, be-mechanics for its fulfillment, just like As the child's inner urges for explo- cause the fertile seed from which lifein the seed is inherent the entire me-ration are satisfied, there develops an comes is developing according to itschanics of a tree. (Deepak Chopra, Age-irresistible urge in humans to create. Dr. natural destiny."(Discovery of the Child) less Body, Timeless Mind) Montessori refers to "supranature", Margaret Stephenson says: "The art The task of the educator (and allwhich is the environment created by of Montessori is, functioning the bestadults are educators, including parentshumans over and above the natural way to help the child help himself, anand teachers) is to help the child liveenvironment. Humans utilize the laws art that joins home and school. Parentshis own life of development accordingof nature for their own advantage. The and teachers supporting one another."to the laws which govern it, in an envi-nature of the inner man is synchronized Hillary Clinton says: "It Takes a Vil-ronment prepared for this purpose. and harmonized with nature outside lage" to raise a child. The home is the first prepared envi-man. When this occurs, it is truly a Dr. Michael Obsatz says: "It takes aronment for the child. There is an at-spiritual manifestation. village and a family to raise a child." mosphere of hope, optimism and love. We must believe in the child, that she Mary Pipher says: "Family need not It provides security, and the child learnsis capable of real goodness, intelligence be traditional or biological. But whatto trust his parents and the world intoand purity. We will stand in awe and family offers is not easily replicated. Letwhich he is born. wonder at the miracle of naturein- me share a Sioux word, "tiospaye", As he grows, the child manifests hisspired by the child's natural develop- which means the people with whomlove of the environment by taking goodment when she is allowed to proceed one lives .... The tiospaye gives childrencare of it. The child's spiritual well-be-according to nature's plan. multiple parents, aunts, uncles anding is linked to taking good care of his At birth the child is a spiritual em- grandparents. It offers children a cor-environment (Joen Bettmann). Thebryo, the physical embryo having been rective factor for problems in theirworld is full of wonder for the child,constructed before birth. Just as nature nuclear families."(The Shelter of Eachand we make it a wonderful place forhas a clear cut plan for the physical Other, p. 23) him to live. embryo, there is a definite plan the Dr. Montessori says: "Fathers and St. Thomas Aquinas: "Wonder is aspiritual embryo must follow in order mothers must shoulder their responsi-kind of desire in knowing. It's the causeto become a human being. bilities; and if the home fails for lack ofof delight, because it carries with it the The child is not born with a little bit

90 9 2 Chulanganee Fernando of intelligence, a little bit of will andbenefit of the state, and sometimes the What tiospaye offers and what the memory, and reasoning. All these psy-individual is given little or no value.biological family offers is a place that chic organs have to be constructed dur-Western societies lean more towardsall members can belong to, regardless ing the embryonic period, from birthself-gratification and the rights of the of merit, regardless of health, likeability to three years. Only humans have twoindividual. In ancient Greece, theiror prestige. People are in by virtue of embryonic periods. Other animals arehighest social rule was to invite anybeing born into a group. What Robert born complete with all their instinctsstranger into one's home, who is inFrost valued when he wrote: "Home is in place. That is why they can moveneed of food and shelter. One had towhere, when you go there, they have around and communicate soon afterfulfill the obligations of a host, bathing,to take you in." they are born. But humans have to con-feeding, clothing, before even asking The most important factor for the struct their minds and their behaviorhis name and whereabouts. child's social development which must after birth. In Japan, family loyalty demands sac-be contained in the home is the bond- This is why the environment is sorifices of individual family members.ing with the mother or the caregiver. important. The child needs a humanMany societies have rules regardingIn our late 20th century we are seeing environment that will provide the psy-marrying outside that society. In Indialess of the bonding force that holds the chic nourishment and the raw materialmarriages are arranged in early child-family and society together. A constant for his psychic construction. hood. presence, the mother or any caregiver Renilde Montessori says: "The great- It is our responsibility to ensure andis essential in the very first days of life. est discovery that Dr. Montessori madeprovide the most highly valued expe-This interdependent relationship leads was the intrinsic humanity of children,riences for the child. We must introduceto bonding between mother and child. their transcendent goodness. Childrenthe highest social values, such as love, The lack of early bonding leads to have the better qualities distinctive ofrespect and gratitude to the child at aantisocial behavior in later life. The humans. We believe all children arevery early age. If we live these valueschild grows up trusting no one, lack- born good. Like all living things chil-in the child's environment, the childing security, full of fear and apprehen- dren come into the world powerfullycan absorb these real life experiences. sion. Dr. Montessori was concerned tending towards wholesome growth." Douglas Heath says: "Teachers andabout what kind of society we are pre- All babies are born good. They canparents agree about the meaning ofparing for our children one full of vio- know it only by the way they arehuman excellence whether in Minne-lence, crime and drugs, sex, child treated. Instead of looking at the infantapolis, Hong Kong, or Cairo, they iden-suicide, deteriorating family and social as small, weak, and slow, we must rec- tify the same type of gifts that they wishstrategies? How can we help our chil- ognize the power that lies hiddentheir students or children might some dren develop strong characters, so they within. day thank them for: self-confidence, joyare able to master their environment, of learning, sense of what is right, abil-and make their contribution, rather Dr. Montessori was concerned about than become victims of it? what kind of society we are providingity to teach themselves, curiosity, sen- Today we seem to have lost the good for our children, and what kind of asitivity to others and compassion. When describing the most mature, full-sense common sense that guided hu- society they will create in the future man behavior, Now we subject our- in the 2Ist century. est, all-round effective adult that they know the ideal person they wish theyselves to science and technology Douglas Heath says: "Teachers (par-or their children were likethey invari- instead of our own intuition. Once the ents) also agree quite well about the fiveably identify similar strengths. Head- will is there, the sincere desire to know most important strengths that studentsing their list is sense of humor, followed what is best for the child, common (children) will need in their rapidlyby self-confidence, enthusiasm, andsense will help us discover what to do. changing, technology dominated, inter-high energy; interpersonal strengths Social interaction begins at birth. dependent, less coherent communitiessuch as empathy, and sensitivity to and Through feeding, touching, holding, of the future. tolerance of others; strengths such aseye-contact, bonding between parent "They agree responsibility shouldcuriosity and openness to challengesand child is established and reinforced. head the list. Communication andand change; ethical value such as in-Very early the infant begins to smile in problem solving skills come next, fol-tegrity; and self-directing qualities suchresponse to verbal communication. Dr. lowed by interpersonal attitudes suchas commitment and perseverance."Montessori says that the sound of the as respect of different peoples and skills, (Schools of Hope) human voice is like "heavenly music" such as cooperatively working with oth- The child's first social environmentto the baby, and he will fall asleep ers; ethical values such as honesty and ais the home and the family. The new-soothed and calm when his mother self-concept, as a member of a globalborn needs most of all a feeling of se-sings to him. That is why, all over the community."(Schools of Hope). curity and a sense of being loved andworld people sing lullabies to their chil- Social values vary greatly from cul-accepted. Unfortunately, wheneverdren. ture to culture. In a totalitarian, social-there is rejection, the psychically sensi- The ability to smile is present from istic state, the individual works for thetive infant is very aware of this. birth. Le Boyer's pictures (Birth With-

91 93 The Child in the Family out Violence) show the infant smilinggether, and will help in creating trustorder of things in the environment, and soon after birth, instead of the primaland bonding. order in the daily schedule. They need scream. This is the result of the careful, Another important means of expres-to have a place for everything and ev- considerate handling given to both sion is movement. erything in its place. Give the child a mother and child. Montessori says: "It is only by move-special place for his things, within reach Parents today are trying harder thanment that the personality can expressof his eyes and hands, and let him put their parents did, yet they are havingitself... In fact, this whole apparatus ofaway his things by himself as soon as more trouble with their children. If thebrain, senses and muscles, is oftenhe is able to move around. child feels safe, wanted, and "at home"called the "system of relationship", If we allow him to do this while he is in the midst of activity, his view of latermeaning that it puts man into touchin the sensitive period for order, it will life will be very distinct from those of awith his world, living and non-living,become part of his nature, and there child who feels unwelcome, unstimu-and therefore with other people." will be less problems with teenagers lated by experiences he missed, and was At first the baby's movements arecleaning up their rooms. Even more accustomed to living in a state of want. reflex movements. Yet, even these have important is that this external order (Continuum Concept) a purpose. While the baby lies on hisleads to an inner order, a logical and Communication in the home envi-back, he constantly kicks his legs in thereasoning mind. This will greatly help ronment is an essential element to theair. This is nature's way of strengthen-in the development of the mathemati- child's social development. Dr. Mon-ing the muscles of his back and legs, tocal mind, another human tendency that tanaro says that communication with theprepare for walking; and the mechani-Montessori has mentioned. She says environment must begin almost imme-cal babbling at six months is an indi-that mathematics comes naturally to all diately. Even before the child has de-rect preparation for speech. Montessorihumans. All humans have the tendency veloped an articulate language helearned the important principle of in-to count, to measure, and to enjoy interacts with the environment throughdirect preparation from nature, andshapes and symmetry. the movement of his head, arms, handsapplied it to her method of education. Coordinated movement leads to in- and legs, looking at people and objects The child's potentialities can only bedependence. The young child who can in the environment, smiling, crying;actualized through movement, throughtake care of himself, dress, bathe, eat thus he is in a constant dialogue withpurposeful and constructive work. Thehis food, button his coat, is following the environment. When there is little orfirst intentional movement is seenthe direction of nature towards func- no response from the environment, thearound six months when the child at-tional independence. There are many child is deprived of interaction. (Under-tempts to grasp an object. At this ageways in which the child can help in the standing the Human Being) the simplest objects will suffice to sat-home, washing, preparing food, clean- We can help the child immensely byisfy the child's need for activityfill- ing, polishing, sweeping, dusting. The providing the very best language in theing a pail with pebbles, emptying it andchild always prefers purposeful activ- environment. That is all she needs. Shefilling it again; opening and closingity to play. is in the sensitive period for language,doors and drawers, over and over These activities of our daily life are and can master any language withagain. An older child will wash histhe first activities the child sees done great ease and joy. For this sensitivityhands five or six times, or polish a brassin the home, and begins to understand. we provide all that the child needs, be-vase many times. They are brief, simple, utilize concrete cause our environment is saturated We see the human tendency to re-objects, and are performed daily. The with language. I remember Dr. Mont-peat, and this has a constructive pur-child sees a beginning and end, and he essori saying: "This is why nature haspose: coordination of movement, whichbegins to anticipate them. Thus he builds entrusted the baby to women, becausemeans the coordination of intelligence,up his intelligence. they can't stop talking!" will, and movement; mind and body For 12 months or more the child ob- Read aloud to the child, even to theare working together, resulting in theserves these activities being done, day infant. The power of the absorbentintegration of the personality. after day. To wash the dishes manually, mind is that it need not understand Provide purposeful activities for therather than use the dishwasher, enables what it absorbs. We never know howchild at each stage of development. the child to see the whole process. This we are affecting the unconscious mindHelp the child to take care of himselfis when the foundation for the intelli- of the child, what is being stored in theand to take care of his environment. Asgence is laid (not at college or the uni- subconscious. Montessori says give thethey grow older there are so many ways versity). It is certainly worth our while very best to the child at this age, be-in which the child can participate in theto invest in the child at this early age. cause he is forming the foundation ofhome environment. But let's not think When he can move on his own two his being. of them as "chores". If we start early feetnow he wants to do these activi- Even after the child can read by him-enough, children really love to do them, ties himself. He says: "Mom, may I help self, continue to read to him. It will beand they become a habit, a part of life.you?" Here is the will coming into play, the best quality time you spend to- There is a sensitive period for order,following the understanding. If we can

92 4 Chulanganee Fernando provide simple tools for the child, realmuch authoritarianism the child will bewithin her that forces her to live and tools, not toy brooms and brushes,unable to think for himself, will becomework. there are many things children can dodesensitized, and will follow rules only These natural energies cannot be de- in the home, which will give them self-when adults are around. nied. Yet, in order to help the child confidence and help them feel they are The ideal to strive for is to be authori- adapt to others in the environment, the making a contribution to the family. tative. Set rules. Believe in the rules youchild needs an external discipline, so Dr. Montessori says: "A man must be set, be consistent, and explain the rea-we must provide guidelines to help independent in his powers and char- sons for the rules, so that children be-him. acter, able to work and assert his mas-come aware of consequences and From the very beginning the child tery over all that depends on him."internalize the rules as personal stan-needs to know what our expectations (Absorbent Mind, p. 209) True adapta-dards. In this way the child will de-are. We must have guidelines so we re- tion is the ability to answer one's ownvelop self-discipline and be able tospect and care for each other, respect needs and support the needs of others. experience real freedom. each other's needs, and freedom. The As independence expands, he grows in Dr. Montessori's great discovery wasrules must be simple and few, and they his sense of becoming and belonging. that the child is born with an inner dis-must apply to all of us, adults and chil- This brings about responsible interac-cipline. This discipline is found in ev-dren. If the rules are in accordance with tion with others and the environment.erything in the universeanimate andthe laws of life, and the child under- Freedom and discipline are two im-inanimate. We observe the perfect or-stands them, he will obey them. portant principles in a Montessori en-der of the movement of the stars, so Obedience. Life would be so wonder- vironment. It was the children whotheir positions are predictable thou-ful if children were obedient! We de- showed Dr. Montessori that these two sands of years hence and known thou-mand obedience from our children elements, often considered opposites, sands of years ago. because we say "it is for their own should exist side by side to help the The child has an inner discipline thatgood." But if we know about life, about child in his development. guides his life, and he lives in completethe child who is in course of develop- We must reevaluate the traditionalobedience to these laws of nature. Thement, we would know that the young values and beliefs of these two terms.word discipline comes from the samechild has no conscious will. He acts Many think of freedom as being ableroot as the word discipleone whodriven by an unconscious energy, the to do whatever we want to do; and dis-follows a leader, a teacher, based onhorme, to which he is obedient. cipline as being made to do what wetrust. To allow the child to live according do not want to do. If we can understand that the young to the dictates of the hormic energy, to Freedom in the Montessori environ-child has no choice but to follow thelet him explore his world using his ment has often been misunderstood.natural laws of lifewe would do allsenses and allowing him freedom to Some believe that children are allowed we can to support him. We would makemove, to touch, to feel, to taste, to smell, to do whatever they like. It was a childprovision for the child to move freely,enables him to lay the foundation for who once said to a visitor who asked:to touch, to explore his environment,his conscious will. Sometimes it is "So this is where you do what youby making it safe for him and provid-thought we should break the child's like?" and the child answered: "Noing simple objects with which he canwill at this stage. But there is no will to Ma'am, this is where we like what webe active. This is to support the child'sbe broken. do!" self-construction. As she becomes conscious, the child If freedom is given without limits But the child needs to live with oth-begins to understand what we say, and responsibility, it is not true free-ers. So he needs guidelines, an exter-what we require of her, and because of dom. It amounts to abandonment andnal order, a path to follow, so he canher great love for us and her desire to neglect. Children who are abandonedlive together in harmony with his fam-please us, she is sometimes able to obey in this way do not accept any kind ofily, with his friends, with the worldand sometimes not. Its hard for us to authority and become antisocial beings. around him. understand this, and we think when We must set guidelines from the very We must prepare these guidelines for she was obedient yesterday, why is she beginning. The child must alwaysthe child, making sure that they do notbeing stubborn now? Again it is not a know that there are limits and conse-contradict the natural laws that guidematter of will power. When the child quences to what he can do. At the sameher life. This is often the cause of con-does not obey it may be due to a lack time we must not inhibit the child'sflict between the child and the adult, of understanding or a lack of capacity development by being too strict. Wewho dearly love each other. We cannotto accomplish the task. It is up to us to must avoid both extremes of permis-ask a two year old to sit still and beunderstand this. siveness and authoritarianism. Withquiet, or not to touch things, because Real obedience means to sublimate too much permissiveness, the child be- this is not her will that makes her actone's will to that of another. So we must comes compulsive, aggressive, self-cen-this way. It is the unconscious horme, wait until the will is developed to ex- tered, abusive and rebellious. With toothe life force within the child, the drivepect obedience.

93 95 BEST COPYAVAILABLE The Child in the Family

If we can help the child during thesenses. on the basis of statistics, the larger num- unconscious stage to be obedient to the The child from 6 to 12 years, nowbers, the average. natural tendencies and not contradictarmed with language, both spoken and Montessori discovered a "new" them ourselves, there appears whatwritten, now guided by his reasoningchild, the child who was obedient, la- Montessori calls a third level of obedi-mind, explores the society he lives in,borious, considerate, concentrated, joy- ence when the child simply waits forand the universe at large. This is theful, able to care for himself and his our commands, waits for us to ask himsensitive period for the imagination,environment, generous, and orderly. to do something. Now he carries them and what we cannot present to him inDr. Montessori defines normal as be- out with great joy, and then we must concrete form, the child can understanding according to a law. Norm literally be very careful how we word our re-from books, museums, planetariums,means "law". So, the laws of life. quest. Once a teacher said: "Put away libraries, and through meeting people Twenty-five years after starting her your things...", and she meant to add, of various disciplines and cultures.work with normal children, in all parts "before you go home", but the children Help the child with your own interestof the world, she found that wherever immediately began to obey her! to widen and expand his knowledge. certain conditions for life were pro- The adult's responsibility is not to This is the age of reason and imagi-vided, there always appeared these discipline the child, but to allow thenation. Montessori believes it is thecharacteristics of the normalized child. child's inner discipline to grow and de-most intellectual period of human life. The former characteristics, mistak- velop. This cannot be done by teach- Add to that the child's own endeavors.enly understood as belonging to childing and sermonizing. To help the childHe needs to be challengedhe chal-hood, Montessori calls "deviations". be disciplined we must be disciplinedlenges himself, by setting himself greatDeviations are not "abnormalities". ourselves. tasks no adult would dream of asking Montessori calls them "a sickness of the The child simply absorbs whatevera child of this age. soul"; or arrested development. They he finds in the environment whatever The tendency to work is a human ten-are simply a detour from the path of is living in the environment. We mustdency. It is work that nourishes thenormality, caused by lack of proper be living examples of discipline. Wesoul. The young child works with ex-conditions in the environment, that is, must be orderly, purposeful, focused,actness and precision and that is whatlack of purposeful activity and lack of punctual and show that we are in com-attracts him and interests him. He triesfreedom. These are temporary charac- mand of ourselves and of our environ-to work following the same precisionteristics and can be overcome easily ments, whether it be home or school.that we show and then he is success-between the ages of three and six years All this the child will absorb. ful. That creates interest because hein a prepared environment. We only We must speak clearly in a pleasantunderstands. That results in repetition, need to find the child some work that voice. Make sure the child understandsnot so much to perfect the activity butwill interest him, and give him the free- what you say, make sure the child is lis- to develop that inner integrity of thedom to pursue it. tening, and make eye contact with thepersonality. We call it coordination of Normalization is the process that child. Use only as many words as aremovement, which is coordinating theleads the child from deviations back to necessary and sufficient; don't rambleintelligence, will and movement. Andthe path of normality. Dr. Montessori along aimlessly. the child concentrates. says it is the single most important re- We must follow the natural tenden- Montessori says concentration mustsult of her work. It was this discovery cies of the child. The child learns andform the basis of all education, of allthat led her to give up her flourishing builds himself through exploration,development. The child who concen-medical career and follow the child. order, orientation, work, reasoning and trates is perfecting himself. He is on the Dr. Montessori says in the Secret of the mathematical mind. way to what Montessori called the nor-Childhood: "The most pertinent (mani- The very young child explores his malized child. festation of the children) which seemed environment using his senses and From the beginning of our humanlike a magic touch opening the gates to movement. Our home environmenthistory people have thought that cer-an expression of normal characteristics, should provide materials that he cantain characteristics were "normal" tois a consistent activity concentrated on touch, manipulate, see, taste, smell andchildhoodlike noisiness, disobedi-a single work, an exercise on a single hear. And the child must be left free toence, unruliness, disorderliness, selfish- object, where the movements of the move about and experience all theseness, stubbornness, etc. We hoped theyhand are guided by the mind. And here sensations. These sensorial impressionswould outgrow them as they grew we find the unfolding of characteristics are the building blocks of the intelli-older. Montessori says these are notwhich plainly come from an inner im- gence. Aristotle said: "There is nothingnormal to childhood, they are simplypulse, like the "repetition of the exer- in the intelligence that was not first incommon, and because so many chil-cise" and free choice of objects". It is the senses." That is why Montessoridren throughout the years have mani-then that the true child appears, aglow gives so much importance to the edu-fested them, we have called themwith joy, indefatigable because his ac- cation of the senses, the refining of thenormal. This judgment has been madetivity is like the psychic metabolism to

94 Chulanganee Fernando which life and hence development isourselves. how helped."(Absorbent Mind, p.16) attached. From now on it is his own Our spirit will be one that thrives on choice that guides him. He respondstruth. Our joy is in the child himself. eagerly to certain tests, like that of si-We must model Montessori's under- lence; he delights in certain lessonsstanding and incarnation of herself, as Chulanganee Fernando attended a pri- which open a way of justice and dig-the servant of the child. Montessori mary level training course given in 1944 by nity before him. He avidly assimilatessays: "The relationship between the Dr. Maria Montessori in Sri Lanka. Ms. the means that enable him to developadult and the child is in the spiritual Fernando went on to teach for the next twenty years. During this time she also his mind. Whereas he turns away from realm." helped to found a training center in other things, such as prizes, sweets and The child's task assumes a spiritual Colombo, Sri Lanka, where, Lmder the di- toys. Moreover he shows us that orderdimension. It includes the help HE of- rection of A.M. Joosten and Sister John and discipline are vital needs and a vi-fers the adult in our continued spiritual Bosco, she was a trainer from 1957-1973. In tal expression where he is concerned.development. 1973 she traveled with Mr. Joosten to the And all the while he is a real child, We must give the child freedom to United States where they began a training fresh, sincere, gay, lively, shouting center in St. Paul, Minnesota. Ms. Fernando develop independence. Without inde-went on to be the Director of Training for when his enthusiasm overflows, ap-pendence he cannot reach the higher plauding, greeting loudly, thanking the AMI training center in Vancouver, Brit- level of interdependence. ish Columbia from 1984-1986 and 1988- with effusion, calling and running af- 1990, and currently serves as the Director ter one in sign of gratitude. He ap- Independence is the result of working towards perfection. of Training at the Montessori Training Cen- proaches all, admires everything, ter of Minnesota and as an AMI consultant. adapts himself to everything." Perfection is absolute, so it may not Our goal too should be to help eachbe achieved in this life. child gain normality and the wonder- So never let the child stop working towards perfection. Never discourage ful characteristics that accompany it. REFERENCES The reality is we are faced with chil- or praise unnecessarily. There is a very delicate, a very subtle balance here. Be Cavalletti, Sofia. The Religious Potential of the dren who have difficulties, children Child. Paulist Press, 1979. with deviations. We can help to cure sensitive without being picky or finicky. Never limit the standards by saying Clinton, Hillary Rodham. It Takes A Village. them, or we can prevent them. Preven- Simon Schuster, 1996. "good enough". tion is always better than cure. Here the Heath, Douglas. Schools of Hope. Conrow home can help the child by providing Independence is not the goal; it is a Publishing House, 1994. the best conditions, so that the childcondition for freedom. The goal shouldMontessori, Maria. Discovery of the Child. enters the Children's House already onbe perfection. Perfection is experienced Kalakshetra Publications, 1989. the path of normality, and there is noby true self-confidence. Help the child Montessori, Maria. The Secret of Childhood. need for normalization. gain that confidence. Orient Longman, 1975. The emotional atmosphere in the I wish to leave you with a quotationMontessori, Maria. The Absorbent Mind. home is crucial and affects the whole from Dr. Montessori: "Mothers, fathers, Kalakshetra Publications, 1973. life of the child. If there is love and af-politicians: all must combine in theirPipher, Mary. The Shelter of Each Other. fection, if she encounters friendly andrespect and help for the delicate work G.P.Putnam's Sons, 1996. accepting attitudes from people aroundof formation, which the little child car- her, the child grows up with self-confi- ries on in the depth of a profound psy- dence, trust and optimism. chological mystery, under the tutelage We must empower the child, not tryof an inner guide. to control him. The child grows and "This is the bright new hope for man- develops because of certain conditions: kind. Not reconstruction but help for unconditional love, caring, nurturing,the constructive work that the human feeling special. These inspire beyond allsoul is called upon to do, and to bring values. Children learn what they love. to fruition; a work of formation which Empower the child so they have a deep brings out the immense potentialities root system and strong branches. with which children, the sons of men, Help the child, who despite the prob-are endowed. lems of life can live a joyful life. The "Societies must heed the child, rec- adult's responsibility is to protect andognize his rights and provide for his nurture the new life that comes into ourneeds. Once we have focused our at- care. The adult must purify her hearttention on life itself we may find that and render it full of charity. We mustwe are touching the secret of mankind, have a deep desire to know the child,and into our hands will fall the knowl- hand in hand with a desire to knowedge how it should be governed and

BESTCWV AVAILABM Working With Your Assistant M. Shannon Helfrich

In most primary Montessori class- shared while explaining why the en-that you have one! rooms, there are two adults respond- vironment is arranged as it is and The second task is that of defining ing to the needs of the child. Dr. how this benefits the children, roles and expectations. Many a new Montessori would most likely consider this can be a time to discuss how the guide responds to this by saying, "But, this too many adults for a group of 20- environment is cared for, I don't know what I want the assistant 25 children. However schools in most it is a time to discover specific areasto do." Even if this seems common or states are bound by the day care codes of interest or talent that the assistantappropriate for a new teacher, it is or education statutes mandating a spe- brings to the class community, fraught with danger. The guide is the cific adult-child ratio and authorities this can be a time to discuss togetherone Montessori trained adult in the en- are reticent to vary from this standard vironment. It is the guide's responsibil- regardless of the nature of the program. the routines for the first few days and ity to create the basis for a harmonious For Montessorians the challenge is to the routines that will provide a struc- atmosphere. Even more important, the accommodate this situation in a man- ture for the children's interactions. ner that still frees the children to act on Take your assistant shopping as you assistant can't feel confident and secure their own behalf, fostering functionalpurchase those last few things neededin her interactions with the children or and social independence, while at thefor the beginning of the school year.the guide, if the expectations are a hid- same time utilizing the expertise of theThis is a more relaxed and casual timeden or undefined agenda. We many second person. This may require edu-when you can get to know each other a times function with the erroneous as- cation and adaptation on the part oflittle. The value of communication can-sumption that she'll just know what to both adults. not be overly emphasized here! do and how I wish it to be done. Cer- tainly, our expectations have to be ap- There are four keys to success in a As the year begins, establish a time propriate to the needs of the group and primary class with two adults: and routine for communication with your assistant throughout the year. Fail-how they are best served by the two establishing a working relationship adults. Some assistants are best suited between the guide and the assistant,ing to plan and organize for this aspect of on-going communication is danger-to doing observations and having lim- clearly defining the roles and expec-ous. Most of us believe that we willited direct interactions with the chil- tations, make time for whatever needs to bedren. Other assistants have learned, or modeling behaviors and manner ofdiscussed without any overt structure.are learning, the techniques for inter- interacting with children, This usually leads to a lack of commu-acting and take on a much more active utilizing the skills and abilities of the nication and the escalating of difficultrole in the environment. A lot depends assistant in ways that preserve his / situations because there is no forum forupon the individual's personality and her self-efficacy. discussion built in on a regular basis.background. Regardless, think through First and foremost is the establishingThis is too important to leave it tocompletely the roles and responsibili- of the working relationship. Somechance! Some guides plan a set timeties of the assistant. Show where the guides participate in the interviewingdaily or at least weekly for discussion,materials are that will be needed, just and hiring of their assistant, others doothers offer the assistant a notebook inas we would do with the children. This not have that opportunity. It is my ex-which the assistant can record obser-brings us to the third challenge. perience that neither approach guaran-vations of things she enjoyed, things This challenge requires modeling for tees success. The question is how andthat bothered her, things that are con-the assistant those behaviors and pat- where does a solid working relation-fusing and about which he / she wouldterns of interacting that we ourselves ship begin? It begins before schoollike clarification or has questions.model and in turn, wish the children starts and the children arrive. Most pro-Sometimes, the guide's response couldto adopt. Where to be during the morn- grams have a period of weeks prior tobe written directly in the notebook anding greeting and entrance procedures, the arrival of the children that is in-didn't require further dialogue, buthow to greet, and how to offer help tended for the preparation of the envi-many times it brought issues to the sur-when it is needed. Social interactions ronment and the building of the schoolface or to the attention of the guide atare the lifeblood of a smoothly running community. This is a great time to getthe very time the dialogue was crucial. primary classroom wherein the adults to know your assistant. Engage themThese are only two ideas of things thatand the children apply their grace and in the creating of the environment. Thiscan be done to foster on-going commu- courtesy. The children learn from both can accomplish a number of purposes: nication. Each guide needs to find his / adults what to say in certain interac- a bit of basic philosophy can beher own format. What is important is tions and situations. If we offer a mixed

96 M. Shannon Helfrich message, we leave them confused andate to the group. It is the guide who of snack and / or lunch, even though the assistant feeling incompetent ormodels these behaviors and attitudes the children may be able to do much humiliated. It is impossible to antici-and who is trained to build this atmo- of the work after the initial gather- pate each and every situation that issphere as a part of creating and main- ing; going to occur during the year, but wetaining the environment. Beyond these Assisting the guide with the care and can be prepared for those common oc-two "shall not's", there is great diver- maintenance of the prepared envi- currences encountered in all groups ofsity in the things that the assistant can ronment. This is a never ending task children. One of the most importantdo and these activities are at the dis- and requires two sets of hands, al- things we can model is how not to in-cretion of the individual guides. I am though I have had groups of children tervene when children do not need ourreluctant to give any list of possible who were incredibly eager and effi- help. It can be a new learning experi-activities, as there are so many strong cient in taking on this role. ence for many assistants to know whenopinions about what assistants can and All in all, your assistant can become to stay out of the way, or how not toshould do. However, let me offer youa great companion as you journey to- attract attention to the adult, thussome possibilities to think about. As-gether with the children. We talk of the stimulating independence. It is nosistants, within the parameters of theirprimary environment as a Children's small task to overcome our natural in-own comfort zones and abilities can do House. In a smoothly running class, the stinct to "help." these types of activities: children feel as if they have two lov- It may sound to this point as if we Read to children; ing, sensitive, caring "caretakers" who have established a strong framework Sing songs with the children, or teachare there to assist them along their path. for a non-functioning assistant. As most new songs that they have checkedJust like parents, we serve best when of us know, the assistant can be a great out with you for appropriateness; we facilitate and can avoid being an asset to the class community. This Listen and Do language games, once obstacle to the process unfolding in brings us to the fourth challenge: that they have learned the technique and front of us. + of using the talents and interests of the use your guidelines for different lev- assistant for the benefit of the commu- els of vocabulary; nity. At the beginning of the year, that Bring Me games in language or math- extra pair of hands are vital. New chil- ematics; M. Shannon Helfrich, M.S., current Ex- dren require great attention from the ecutive Director of the Montessori Institute guide as they are helped to orient to this Story problems as summaries of deci- Northwest, is a lecturer, consultant, exam- new place. The assistant can be a help mal system operations with golden iner and trainer for AMI. She has been in- in helping the older children settle into beads; volved in the field of Montessori education work choices while the guide attends Naming language cards or map since 1971 and has extensive background in to the new child. At the beginning of pieces; the Children's House environment. Ms. Writing slips for those children who Helfrich holds an AMI primary diploma, a the year, there are fewer children who B.S.in Elementary Education from are independent in getting their own are practicing reading; Dickinson State University and an M.S. in supplies especially for practical life re- Telling true stories; Educational Psychology from the Univer- lated activities. This is one area where The Sound Game, after you have ac- sity of Wisconsin. Ms. Helfrich's articles the extra hands are critical. cessed his /her ability to articulate the have been published in AMI's Communica- As the year progresses and the group phonemes and to mix a variety of tions, the NAMTA Journal, and the Oregon becomes more self-sufficient, the experience levels according to the Montessori Association's Forza Vitale. assistant's role will change. I'm not sure makeup of the group of children; if this is the right moment to insert one Assisting the guide with the organi- of my well-known "soap- boxes", but I zation of outdoor activitieseither am going to anyway. There are really in the garden or in the play areas. only two things that assistants may not These are all activities that involve do: this is give presentations and servedirect interaction with the children. As as the class disciplinarian. The assistant the group becomes more able to meet is not trained to do presentations and their own needs, these more active roles has not spent time honing the analyzeddiminish. movements necessary to connect chil- Here are some ideas for the assistant dren to the materials. To then assign the assistant to the role of class disciplinar-that do not involve direct interaction ian so you are freed to do presentationswith the children: is just as inappropriate. It is the guide's Material-makingthis can be a great responsibility to define, establish help in a class, especially in keeping within the group and follow through the language area alive; on the limits and behaviors appropri-Assisting with the initial preparations

9 9 Montessori in the 21st Century Paula Polk Lillard

You have no idea how glad I am to rive to our present system of schooling. Education describes our outdated edu- be here tonight as the author of Mont-In fact, the largest area of growth incational system as based upon the essori Today: A Comprehensive Plan ofMontessori education today is occur- "blank slate view of the mind". Such a Education From Birth To Adulthood. ring in the public sector. view led logically to a set curriculum Many of you knew that I was writing a Montessori has always had a pres-driven by objective testing such as the book highlighting the elementary level.ence worldwide, but there is a hungerSAT (Stanford Achievement Test). Many of you would see me at a confer-for it today in developed and develop-When a child "doesn't get it" in such a ence or workshop and you woulding countries alike that is unique in itssystem, his or her mental ability can cheerfully ask, "How is the new bookhistory. At this conference, I was speak-always be blamed. We give these chil- coming?" I can't thank you enough foring to a woman from the Philippinesdren a variety of labels. Inevitably, they doing that. It is what kept me going.who told me that there are four thou-suffer from the degradation that results But, you must have wondered what Isand students in her Montessori when human beings are stereotyped in- was doing all that time! schools. Earlier this year, I spoke tostead of being recognized as unique in Actually, I was writing a book; in fact, hundreds of enthusiastic Montessoriabilities and, therefore, unique in I wrote three of themthe last one ofparents in New Zealand and Australia,needs. which, my editor informed me, wouldand when I spoke at the Maria Mont- In fact, we are developing a larger have printed up to over a thousandessori Training Center in London thisand larger population of children in the pages. I threw away each book in turnpast June, there were trainees andregular school system who are labeled without keeping so much as one pageteachers from Botswana, Kenya, Hong as dyslexics, learning disabled, atten- for notes. Kong, India, Taiwan, France and Swe- tion-deficit-disordered and hyperac- Why should Montessori Today have den in the audience. I think it is signifi-tive. While these diagnoses can be valid been such a difficult book to write? Itcant that Taiwan is the first country toand useful in some instances, they can was because my goal in doing so wasask for the translation rights to Mont-be exaggerated with unfortunate re- formidable: to understand the whole ofessori Today. sults for individual children and for the Montessori ideas from the child's birth It is the realization that educationeducational system in general. In reac- to adulthood, and then to put thesetoday must involve preparation for life tion to such an unfortunate situation, ideas in the clearest possible terms forrather than rely on a set curriculumthe following bit of humor occurred in the layperson. which merely prepares the recipient forthe New Yorker magazine. It seems the It was the profoundness of Montes- further schooling, that is fueling this in-writer has learned of a new "affliction" sori's ideas, of course, that made this goal terest in Montessori education. On sev-in children. It is called "Hyperlexia". so challenging. Montessori really dideral occasions, when I was discouraged Children who suffer from it develop mean to revolutionize our core beliefsin my writing, I attended meetings at"an unusual interest in letters and num- about human beings: how we intu-Lake Forest College where I serve asbers, and learning to read and write too itively theorize about human mindsChairperson of Academic Affairs forsoon. In other words, they are bright and how they develop through the pro- the Board of Trustees. I came away each children". cess of learningwhat Jerome Brunertime with renewed conviction that I Bruner proposed a new approach to in his new book, The Culture of Educa-must complete this book. College pro-education which is consistent with tion, calls our "Folk Pedagogy and Folkfessors are increasingly alarmed andwhat we now know about the human Psychology". discouraged by the inadequate prepa-mind and its development. Far from ration of their students for life itself. What kept me at my task over these being a "blank slate", neuroscientists They lament the students lack of skillshave discovered that the human brain past six years was my conviction thatfor clear, logical thinking, organization, the world is, at long last, ready to hear is engaged in a constant process of self-expression, independence, and change from its earliest beginnings. The the Montessori message. The educa-above all, responsibility. College stu- tional scene throughout the world is outer environment, as well as inner dents today need what Montessori edu-thought, affect its development in com- poised for change. In the United States,cation provides. the general public is well aware of the plex and diverse ways. Learning is no Professionals in the field, at long last, simple matter then of input by the plight of today's schools, both publicare recognizing that a revolution must and private. In addition, parents are teacher and output by the pupil. Rather, occur in education if the needs of stu-it is a continual interplay between in- familiar with the name, Montessori, ifdents for the twenty-first century are not its full implications, as an alterna- ner and outer forces which dramati- to be met. Bruner, in The Culture ofcally alter the organic structure of the

98 00 Paula Polk Lillard brain. discovering their place within it. They This excellent conference has been Listen to Bruner's key proposals forare introduced to the heroes of our cul-about carrying "principles into prac- an education that recognizes this com-ture who can inspire them to search fortice" in our classrooms. We have ben- plexity in the learning process. He callsthe potential heroism within them-efited from Montessori training for schools that: selves and help them determine whatcourses, but continued learning is es- One, involve a "subcommunity ofmight be their own role to play withinsential to the pedagogical integrity of learners" within each classroom society when they become adults. our teaching. Only by being good learn- mutual learners that operate as a This confidence in their own mentalers can we be good teachers. Attend- team with division of labor to pro-powers may be the best "aid to life"ing conferences, and workshops, as duce mutual works. which Montessori gives to children. Itwell as our required consultations and is, after all, "thinking about thinking",visits by trainees, are important to this Two, build upon children's help to continued learning. However, our on- each other and "where being good atas Bruner defines creative thought, something implies, among otherwhich has taken us to another dimen-going education on a more private level sion of living as human beings. All theis equally important. We need to be things, helping others get better at constant in our reading in diverse ar- something." great discoveries of the twentieth century in physics, chemistry and biologyeas and to discuss what we are learn- Three, provide an "entry into the cul- are its products. ing with our colleagues. In our school, ture, not just a preparation for it." This reality was brought home to mewe accomplish this by scheduling an Four, recognize the benefits of cul-this summer in my reading of twoadditional hour to our weekly staff tural myths and stories in helpingbooks by Nobel Laureates: Six Easymeetings so that we can discuss a book children to build a personal narrative Pieces by the physicist Richard Feynman that we mutually have chosen to read. of the world, and "to envisage a place and Vital Dust by the Belgian biologist, This book discussion time together infor themselves within it." Christian de Duve. I recommend bothevitably leaves us feeling inspired Five, realize that human beings canbooks to you, particularly if you areabout our work, no matter how diffi- derive the unknown from the knownelementary or secondary level teachers. cult the day or week has been. It's safe and that what is needed in theirSix Easy Pieces describes the forces ofto say that it has saved us from "burn- schooling is for children to learn tonature, as we know them today, for theout" on many an occasion, especially think with what they "have alreadylayperson. Vital Dust, which discussesin the February-flu season! got hold of"."Less is more" is in-the evolution of life, is particularly Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Professor trinsic to such a paradigm. thought-provoking in its discussion ofof Psychology, University of Chicago, Emphasis on interactive, reflectivethe meaning of life and its future in thein his best selling book Flow, writes that thought is the underlying theme be-universe. These are essential topicsto be truly happy, it is essential for hind Bruner's proposals. His goal inwhich we must have positive convic-people to "keep on learning until the education is to help children "to real-tions about if we are to counteract theday they die." ize that they know more than theydespair which our children are continu- The best possible Montessori class- think they ever knew, but they have toally barraged by in our present day so-rooms may not be sufficient by them- 'think about it' to know it." ciety. selves to spread Montessori education The poise and confidence of our In summary, the education which we worldwide, however. I believe that Montessori children comes from theneed for the twenty-first century mustpeople have to know about these class- opportunity which they are given fordevelop "thinking about thinking" inrooms and what makes them so help- this "deep thinking", doesn't it? Thechildren. It must be, in Bruner's words,ful to children. "keys to the world" in the primary and"participatory, proactive, communal, This necessity was first brought "keys to the universe" in the elemen-collaborative, and given over to con-home to me when I was a young tary set the children off on a lifetime ofstructing meanings, rather than receiv-mother of four children in the 1960's. I thoughtful responses to their environ-ing them". had newly discovered Montessori and ment. They are given the opportunities This is Montessori education. This iswas trying to explain my enthusiasm to repeat their explorations and com-what we do everyday in our class-to my father. He listened politely to my plete follow-up work after presenta-rooms. The challenge before us then islengthy explanation. At its end he said, tions with as much freedom as they can this"Will all children, not just a for- "Well, Paula, it's all fine and good that handle and as much time as they wish.tunate few, have the opportunity toyou are so interested in this, but I don't They are encouraged to think about thebenefit from the insights of Maria Mon- see how you are going to promote needs of others, too, and to help eachtessori?" Our progress in this directionsomething that you can't explain any other in a community of others fromdepends upon two outcomes: the de-better than that." I went home to write, the time they are eighteen months old. velopment of authentic MontessoriMontessori A Modern Approach. I have They have the opportunity for "goingclassrooms worldwide and our abilitywritten Montessori Today in the hope out" as elementary children and be-to explain what is happening in themthat it will do for the whole of Montes- coming part of the larger society and to others. sori ideas, and particularly the elemen-

99 0 1 Montessori in the 21st Century

tary and secondary levels, what my first book accomplished for the pri- Paula Polk Lillard helped launch the first mary. scientifically designed research study on In conclusion, I want to say some-Montessori education. Conducted at the thing about the writing process itselfUniversity of Cincinnati, three Montessori and the effect it has on me. I have al-preschool classes were established and luded to my struggles in writing Mon- evaluated. The resulting Sands School Mon- tessori Today but I want also to mention tessori program is a prominent alternative what a privilege and an inspiration itschool within the Cincinnati public school system for children aged 3-12. In 1983 Ms. was to live with the vision of Maria Lillard received her AMI primary diploma Montessori on a daily basis during from the Milwaukee Midwest Montessori these recent years of writing and teach- Institute. She is a cofounder and current ing. I came to understand Montessori's administrator of Forest Bluff School. Her insights about the Human Tendencies book, Montessori: A Modern Approach, has and the Planes of Development andbeen published in seven languages and is their role in the child's self-construc- internationally known. Her most recent tion, particularly in brain development book, Montessori Today, concentrates on the elementary and middle-school years. Ms. and the relation of the hand to the in- Lillard currently serves as a member of the telligence, in a very deep and pro- Board of Trustees at Lake Forest College. foundly personal way. They are a part now of my everyday thinking about life. The discipline of having to express our thoughts in writing for others can have this profound effect on any of us, just as when one of our children chooses to help another child with a particular material and the teaching process deepens his or her own understanding of it. Therefore, I want to encourage any of you who have an interest in writing to take the time to write down your thoughts about Montessori on an on- going basis. You may conclude this process by writing books as I have done. You may write articles for magazines and educational journals. You may prepare parent hand-outs and newsletters for your schools. Whatever the end- product, your focus and inspiration for education will be increased and you will help to create the next generation of Montessori authors. Let us go back to our classrooms and schools now, renewed in energy and purpose, knowing that we have something to offer children and their parents that can make a difference in their future lives and in the lives of us all. Thank you for the opportunity to be your banquet speaker and to be with you in these past days of inspiration and renewal.

100 11C2 Classroom Management The Path to Normalization By Sue Pritzker

The reality versus the theory: howdemands of a school community middle of a year? often have we been faced with thatmeetings, collaboration, compromise, How many adults have guided the Montessori dilemma? As an adminis-and humility. And when I was begin- class over the past three years'? trator, Montessori guide and AMIning to feel comfortable and I had seen How many of the parents encourage school consultant, I have seen such cre-the unfolding of a normalized class, I independent activity at home ? ative struggling with how to make itmoved to an urban school that needed. How many children possibly have work. I have seen the same strugglesleadership and a return to basic Mont- special needs? essori principles. No time to rest. I had repeated in schools in numerous cities Do you have enough space for the and I've so often heard: "They didn'tto patiently help people who were children? teach me how to handle this chaos instruggling just to keep things in con- my training!" I have ventured to re-trol. I had to help create a board that+ Is there a supportive classroom as- mind them that the answers were all insupported the structure and protected sistant in the environment? the training (or in the work of Mariathe staff. I had to assure that the needs The Baby Check: Are there children Montessori) while suggesting a fewof the children were met all day and in the environment who are tired, practical steps to get things back onyear round. My only possible conclu- hungry, emotionally in need? track. Returning to the writing of Maria sion is that there are basic principles+ Do you have a trained or knowledge- Montessori inevitably rekindles mythat bind our collective efforts. There able administrator? faith and my knowledge that the basicexist many unique Montessori cultures. Do your children have a full plate of principles that were developed throughThey, for the most part, have the same sensory impressions already at observation of the young child willintentto provide a prepared environ- home? stand the test of time. ment that is, at once, stimulating and And then it is important to acknowl- It was my good fortune to have fourpeaceful; one that offers a microcosmedge your answers to the above ques- dynamic trainers in my first Montes-of our world available for free explorations. If your group is not well-balanced sori experience during my AMI train-tion by the child without unnecessary or has not had time to develop over three ing. The daily dialogue created aintervention of the adult. years, your goals will need to be ad- personal foundation of acceptance Classroom management: the tie thatjusted. You cannot expect as much as needing to find my way was a chal-binds. What we do with the informa-quickly if you are compensating for lenge, not a failure. I have worked thir-tion we have should make it all work. some of the issues above. Once you have teen years in a classroom setting andWhen there is a disparity between thatan honest picture of what you are work- ten administrating. I've witnessed theimage and our reality we look for an-ing with, it is important to evaluate the starting of a class twice and I have seenswers. We start by redefining our terms.things that you can address. the value of setting the groundwork inMaria Montessori, in the The Montes- My observations have uncovered one that first year. I worked as an assistantsori Method, gave a foundation for themajor obstacle for many Montessori for one year and every moment was in-discussion of classroom managementguidesthe adult-dependent group. valuable. I wasn't allowed to give les-with these words: "a room in which all Children must be independent. It is a sons, but was offered the opportunitythe children move about usefully, in-premise of Montessori principles. Your to prepare the outdoor environment. Itelligently, and voluntarily, withoutgroup will not be normalized if you do had trike washing and sink and floatcommitting rough or rude act, wouldnot allow it. It is so important to read in a hole in the ground. The playhouseseem to me a classroom very well dis-and reflect upon Montessori's words was a reading room and the fences wereciplined indeed". Many of you mayabout the teacher, the guide. In The sandpapered to a sheen! Another earlynow or in the past have experienced a Montessori Method she notes: "Our new experience was less than idyllic. I nur-classroom environment that representseducation is like a taut spring which tured two year olds in diapers, had little those words. But many Montessoriprovides an intrinsic motion to the choice in who was enrolled in my classpractitioners feel a great failing whenwhole mechanism. It is a driving force and I absorbed full responsibility forthis picture eludes them. Before one caninherent in the watch itself and is not the all-day support staff. assess their situation as a shortcoming,simply that of the person who wound In retrospect, it is hard to believe allit is important to use a quick checklistit." (The Montessori Method) that I had to learn: what I wanted fromto put your efforts in perspective: We need to connect the child to the an assistant, how to engage the energy+ How many children have been withenvironment with short, simple, unin- of parents in their child's experience the class one year or less? terrupted lessons and then we must and how to deal with the day-to-day How many children started in theretreat. I cannot find a place in

101 BEST COPY AVAOLABLE r) 3 Classroom Management The Path to Normalization

Montessori's writing where she im-dren. Are these lessons short and en-pable of changing if they find an inter- plores us to not let the child work spon-ticing? Does the child get excited aboutest. She says that she "would not be taneously. So often our classes becomecontinuing to trace the letters on theirable to site a single example of conver- adult-dependent because we are un-own? sion taking place without an interest- willing to step back from those miracu- "Nor is it her aim to train a child toing task that concentrated the child's lous daily discoveries. When I hearuse the materials correctly. It would de-activities". I like to think of all of the children consistently say: "I can't do itmand the continual active operation ofactivities in a Montessori classroom as because I haven't had a lesson", I be- the teacher in providing information anda point on a circle. We do not know at gin to wonder about a pattern that is hastening to correct every mistake untilwhich point the child will intersect that developing and the impression withhe has learned his lesson." (M. Montes-circle in pursuit of an interest, but our which a child is left. Dr. Montessori sori, The Discovery of the Child, p. 149) responsibility is to be the ready connec- encouraged us to create an environ- If our lessons are quick and we leavetor. ment that did not present childrenwiththe impression that experimentation is The guide must follow the interest of persistent failure. She created precisethe point, the child would come backthe child and give that necessary les- lessons timed to meet a child's periodsmore frequently. The sure sign of theson. The activities of the environment of sensitivity. Well presented, the pro-adult-dependent group is the long lineshould not be seen as a vertical line, cedure of the lesson will be easily ab-of children waiting in front of thebeing presented only one after the sorbed by the child and lead him /herguide's chair or stool. I've seen at-other. Although many activities have to individual activity. But she also sug-tempts to solve this problem which re-definite and necessary prerequisite ac- gested that the adult should not inhibitsult in long lines in front of the assistanttivities, there is much room for parallel the child's ownership of the work or beor lines and arrows drawn on the floorwork. The beauty of the Montessori a required presence for discovery. Sheto indicate where to stand while wait-materials is that they attract the chil- offered a wonderful example in Theing. A few simple grace and courtesydren in a variety of ways. Our lack of Discovery of the Child ("Observations on lessons on asking others for help or try-patience may be the only deterrent to a Prejudice") when she described aing again if you are having difficultytremendous new discovery. If we are teacher beginning to correct the childwith an activity can help all of the chil-trying to manage every experience and when he began to color in a trunk of adren undo the bad habit of teacher de-discovery we eliminate the spontane- tree in red. She suggests that the childpendence. The long term result ofous moment of interest that Montessori will, at some point, discover that treesteacher dependence is a multitude ofdescribes as a conversion. "And such are not red. If the teacher intervenes atmanagement problems. If the adult isIs our duty toward the child: to give a this moment, the child will miss thattrying to give all of the lessons, solve ray of light and to go our way." (M. Mon- moment of individual discovery evenall of the problems, and answer all of tessori, The Montessori Method, p. 115) though it may be realized some time inthe questions, he / she will be having a A third major problem that confronts the future. lot to manage. most classroom guides at some point "Many teachers intervene in order to "It is my belief that the thing whichis a lack of order and respect for the restrain, advise or praise the childrenwe should cultivate in our teachers isenvironment. In this area, Montessori when they should not, and instead re-more spirit than the mechanical skill ofwas very clearthe adult must be the frain from intervening when it is nec-the scientist: that is the direction of theguardian of the environment, I often essary." (Communications 4-95 from Call preparation should be toward the spiritobserve that a small, yet specific, for Education, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1924) rather than toward the mechanism" (M.change in procedure or classroom rule I watched one day while a four year Montessori, The Montessori Method, p. 9)can totally alter a management prob- old persisted in conquering the zipper Many Montessori guides describelem. I've seen classrooms struggle with frame. He found a more secure posi-their major management problem aslunchtime mess, only to discover that tion with the zipper carriage at the top children who are not absorbed or con-more detail and ritual at the luncheon of the table. Twice an adult passed himcentrated on their work. All of the les-hour becomes the key to everyone's by and suggested that the zipper car-sons and all of the representations dointerest in making it better. Napkins, riage needed to be placed near him atnot hook the child sufficiently to initiateplacemats, plates and candlelight all the bottom of the table. Twice, afterthe cycle of repetition. It is enlighten-bring significance to the daily meal to- complying with the requests, he re-ing to review Dr., Montessori's chap-gether. Each step of the activity offers versed the position and continued onter on "Pampered Children" in the Thethe child another sequential memory his way. I often wonder why many chil-Secret of Childhood. She offers hearten-challenge and keeps their attention fo- dren do not seem drawn to the sand-ing examples of discouraged teacherscused on the goalthat moment when, paper letters and to the movablewho wrote to her about unruly and un-after all of the steps are done, "we" can alphabet. Perhaps it is the initial teacherresponsive children. Her responseeat together. presence that is required for these ac-didn't offer concrete solutions, but a I observed an inspiring guide pre- tivities that is a deterrent for some chil-simple guidepost: every child is ca-pare for two months before a group of

102 4 Sue Pritzker children invited their parents in for athis child's day, For the interrupter aDeciding between the needs of the formal tea party. No stone was leftfew words that might help: "First yougroup and the needs and potential of unturned. Each placemat and napkinwere watching, but now you are inter-the individual often becomes the issue. was embroidered, all invitations wererupting". Putting an accurate label onThis is when the guide may need to written in poetic form, and repeatedtheir activity may be a first step towardassess whether an individual child's lessons taught the children how totheir conscious awareness of their body. needs can be met by this guide and carry the cups without clinking the Lining up to go out of doors can begroup of children. At this juncture it is china, pour from the hot pots, and howthe worst of management problems. important to revisit school policies, pa- to eat petit-fours one tiny bite at a time.But thought through logically, it can berental commitment to the program and When the moms and dads cameanother successful procedure. Al-any special assessments that may help dressed for the occasion, many inthough our goal, idealistically, woulddetermine if outside intervention is gloves and hats, the children were morebe to avoid this collective effort, whichwarranted. It is most helpful to the than ready for a memorable experiencegenerally interrupts the child's indi-guide if school policy outlines in ad- and skills to carry on to a later day. vidual workday, making a line is a skill vance how these individual difficulties Every object has a place and purpose that will probably have a place in thewill be handled. If the enrollment con- in the Casa and this fact frees the childchild's future life. The goal should be tract outlines that policy, it provides the to become independent. The first ques-ultimately to have the children do itguide with a format for discussions tion I ask when a guide says that shealone. Take the steps one at a time: with the family about expected action needs help with management is: "Do 1) Show a few children how to quietlyto be taken. Although the hope is that you think your children are truly inde-remind the same three or four childreneach child can grow toward indepen- pendent?" that is time to go out when they have dence in the Montessori classroom, in- finished their work. stances may develop when it is not in How often do they wait for you be- the best interest of the child or group 2) In small groups, show a lesson on cause procedures aren't in place for for a child exhibiting consistent behav- how to pack up your work (without a them to help themselves? Are they ior problems to remain. In the interim, sound and without hurrying). waiting for embroidery needles to be the Montessori guide must provide as threaded or can they learn to do it3) Show many lessons on how to walkmuch order and consistency as pos- themselves? Do they know how to waitfrom your work toward the gatheringsible. Frequently it is the growth of trust for work, ask a child to tell them whenspot. in the guide that can change the pat- they are done, or find someone who4) Practice many times in small groupstern of behavior for a child. Montessori does know all the letters if they do not?of four how to make a line just likesuggested that when consequence for Do they find everything in the samewalking on the line. behavior is needed the child should be place each day? Do they have a tidy5) Tell the children that we will soonseparated, but within eyesight of what way to store their work so that it hasbe doing this all together and decidehe / she is missing. It is imperative that significance when they go to retrieveupon a child who will lead the line. you remind the child of the conse- it. Are the objects really rotated regu-6) Practice how to give someone yourquence of inappropriate activity. Ask if larly? Would you find fascination inattention by looking at them, but notthey can tell you the rule. Try to have mastering the words in the object boxtalking. their attention without intimidation. never again to see new objects and Give all of this lots of time in smallDemanding eye contact may not be ef- words to discover? The environment fective for a child already embarrassed speaks to the children and tells themgroup presentations and create some excitement about the day when we willby their behavior. Try the following: what to do. What is the purpose of "We can talk when I see your body is try it all together. (Add in practice for aprons? They have a purposeful, pro- ready to hear my words". Make it pos- putting on coats if weather dictates it.) tective use, but they are also a cue that sible for the child to change and be care- helps the child prepare for work. TheyWhen you know it will work, inviteful to protect them from an image that bring to the young subconscious mindyour leader to take over. The result is athey cannot alter. Everyday is a new a reminder of the body's physical placecollective group effort for which thereday and that may be the day when this and activity. The words we use can alsois a desire to succeednot just a dailychild makes their "conversion". A create order in the daily activity of thecompliance with an adult's needs. morning mantra with joyful visions of class. A child who is physically discon- "The child who does spontaneous ex-your little challenge can give you a new nected from the classwalking acrossercises which lead to a healthy mentalperspective. Check your verbal and rugs, disrupting work can be helpedequilibrium will be able to adapt him-body language to assure that you are by simply asking: "where is your bodyself without losing his own individu-giving them every possibility for suc- right now? what is it doing? whereality."(M. Montessori, Call forcess. While they are with you, keep would you like your body to be? what Education, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1924) working to find that one activity that are your feet doing now?" These simple Behavior Management is perhaps thewill pull them over the edge to normal- questions may begin to bring order into most perplexing for Montessori guides.ization. It may happen. After twenty-

103 05 Classroom ManagementThe Path to Normalization

five years of daily life in a Montessorision that he is not your priority at that is fine tuning their sound discrimina- community, I never expect less. moment. tion by taking apart words they know. The management of the Montessori There are some parts of the body of Add phonograms as you go if they curriculum is not just the managementMontessori exercises that need some need them to write the words they want of a specific set of materials, but thecareful management for successful use. to use. Use start cards like: At my management of a complex of activitiesSometimes I think that there is forgot-house...In Africa... On the trip... that will activate a child's interest. Ex-ten curriculum. One easy way to keep a comfortable ploring some basic Montessori termi- Function of word games, both oralflow in the room is to know which ac- nology or principles in relation to theand written, must be done early andtivities can be effective for groups when materials will solve many difficulties. with great spirit by the guide. Thechildren want to work together. Have Point of interest: What one thing canyounger children are more intrigued bya three year old available to hold the we point out along the way that willthe syntax of the language and willgolden beads when they are being refocus the child's attention? giggle gleefully for hours about sen-counted, even if they are not in the deci- . Three period lesson: Have I offered atences out of place. The six year old willmal system lesson. Snack can be a tosimple contrast for the child to clas-probably consider it odd that yougether timeone child prepares, the sify their impressions? would mix up the words. This work isother cleans. + Have I offered a multitude of oppor-absolutely elemental to the language Give a lesson on sharing cultural ob- tunities to explore during the secondprogram. It is the reading program jects. Have cards that ask some basic period? (Included as an example atlong before books are offered. questions about an object the child the end of this presentation is the ex- Cultural nomenclature: Children needmight share. Send home a note about ploration of flowers giving ideas on to know the names of the countrieswhat objects should be shared and give second period extensions.) and continents before drawing mapsparents the list of important questions. Control of Error: Will the child know or doing flag work. Five minute les-Practice sharing by using the questions how to work independently, but be sons on the names of the countries,and then have a tray that will hold the aware if the activity is incorrect? flags, flowers, birds, etc. need to besharing object and the questions in or- . Preliminary exercise: Is there an activ- done regularly each day. This createsder that the child can explore the ob- ity (or activities) that I need to give a clear impression in the environ-ject on their own. The questions can be first in order to assure success for the ment that we are always learningthe format for independent work and child? new words. some interesting stories. + Parallel exercise: Is it appropriate for Memorizing math facts: The fun part!+ What is it called? the child to do this while he is doing This can be done in pairs. Many get+ What is it made of? other activities in a particular area? stuck on the strip board which is de- Where does it come from (in the signed to show only a limited aspect world)? Key to the universe: Is the child's ex- of addition. Make baskets or enve- ploration with this material creative? lopes of the answers they know. What is it used for? Is it likely that the exploration will Move this along like the sandpaper Who uses it? lead to the integration of the abstract lettersa few at a time. Think consciously about how and concept? Writing before reading: We must make when your older children can be teach- These principles should guide us in the movable alphabet a tool for cre-ers. Have you taught them how to give that split-second decision making ative writing. Move quickly fromsimple lessons to younger children? If about the child's work that we are faced words to phrases "red rod" or "hotyou haven't shown them what to do, with each day. When deciding about dog" or "get set". Teach simple po-they may wait until you ask for their intervention or redirection, the basic ems and suggest that the child writehelp. principles that we know should guide them: Classroom management is a most us. Our reliance upon objective and the hen personal endeavor. Your knowledge of regular observation will provide a time ate yellow corn Montessori principles and your inter- to reflect upon these principles. If we and laid an egg est, analysis and decision-making make do not protect individual work, we will the black morning how you manage a Montessori class a have difficulty managing a classroom. specific product of you. Where you Maintaining a quiet, working environ- sees the sun peeking place the objects and how you connect ment is a prerequisite to work being the child to the people and things in the done. Assistance from a classroom aide Use adjectival phrases: wet, green, terry towel or the dull, red pencil. environment is unique. Hopefully, must neither increase interventions nor some of what I have offered today has overstimulate the environment. Every The child needs to see his/her wordsinspired you to think about those interruption during a lesson gives thein concrete form, yet this work is pri-choices you make and has encouraged child engaged in the lesson the impres-marily an auditory exercise. The childyou to go back to the source for your

104 1 6 Sue Pritzker guidance. Few educators have the Flower study: collect different flowers foundation that we have in the great including local wildflowers for iden- body of words that were our gift from tification books, songs, handplays, Maria Montessori. Those words be- names that are flower names, state come our plan of action. flowers, definition books for parts of "The spontaneous exercises which a flower (a must), smelling exercise the little children do in our schools, with different pungent flowers lilac, choosing the work which they like and honeysuckle, etc. remaining absorbed in it for a long+ Songs on the bells about flowers: time, in an atmosphere of calm, fortify Daffodil - GEC GEC GEGA GEC. and indirectly prepares them for their Flowers around the year: pictures of future social life." (Maria Montessori) local flowers during different seasons. Poems and stories: write the poems Flower Study Activities or songs you know from memory with the moveable alphabet. + Begin with the collection of flowers for the classperhaps asking each Planting flowers: bulbs using bulb child to bring two or three flowers that vases, flowering succulents, herbs they know. that flower like clover and parsley. Use the flowers for flower arranging. Have all of these possibilities ready Give lessons on the names of the flow-(or in spirit) and wait to see which in- ers in the room in three period lessons. terest the child follows ... then you can Add flower cards, hopefully those that open the door. match a number of live flowers the children have learned. Be sure to rotate cards and bring in new flowersif possible from a class Sue Schmidt Pritzker received her AMI garden. primary diploma in 1972 from the Montes- sori Institute of Atlanta. Ms. Pritzker + Parts of a flower cardsthis is impor- worked first as a classroom assistant and tant to present early as flowers vary then as a teacher for the next ten years. She and knowing the part names will be a went on to be an administrator at Mafin point of interest as the child searchesMontessori School before moving to Port- for the pistil or stamen. land, Oregon in 1987. She has been a teacher + Activities with the live flowers: at, and the administrator of, Childpeace Montessori School for nine years and cur- a) match to the cards rently serves as an AMI primary consult- b) match to colors in the 3rd color box ant. In addition Sue currently serves as the c) dry flowers by hanging upside president of the Oregon Montessori Asso- down with masking tapeallow ciation and received the OMA Outstanding children to do flower arrangingDedication Award. with them d) dissecting a floweruse a dark background if possible e) collect dead petals for potpourri in a container where they can be tossed f) use dried petals for sweeping exercise g) boil petals in water to create dyes and use for painting or on fabrics ISST (COPY AVARLAIRE h) eat nasturtium for snack as part of a salad i) use a flower presssave flowers to decorate tables for a party or put on cards for mailing (and many more ideas for using pressed flowers bcok marks, story covers, etc.)

105 07 AMI USA 1 08 U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) National Library of Education (NLE) ERIC Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) REPRODUCTION RELEASE (Specific Document) I. DOCUMENT IDENTIFICATION:

TMe: The Relevance of Montessori Today - Meeting Human Needs Principles to Practice

Author(s): collection of articles by many authors: MOntessori, Stephenson, Richardson, et.ar

Corporate Source: Publication Date: Association Montessori Ifiternational/USA November, 1997

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Ms. Karen Smith Acquisitions Coordinator, ERIC/EECE Children'.s Research Center 51 Getty Drive Champaign, IL 61820-7469

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