Assessing and documenting the cultural use of Sungazers Smaug giganteus by traditional healers within the species distribution range

by

Zwelakhe Zondi Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

in the

Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Sciences

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Supervisor: Prof R Jansen

Co-supervisor: Dr IT Little

August 2019

Copyright© Tshwane University of Technology 2019 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the dissertation/thesis submitted for the degree M Tech: Environmental Management, at Tshwane University of Technology, is my own original work and has not previously been submitted to any other institution of higher education. I further declare that all sources cited or quoted are indicated and acknowledged by means of a comprehensive list of references.

Zwelakhe Zondi

7 August 2019

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DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my father (Mr Bongani Derrick Zondi) who made sure that I went to school and never gave up on me when I was not doing well with my studies. I would also like to dedicate this work especially to my late grandmother (Ms Selina Zondi) who was a mother to me from the age of 2 years when I was ill and she did all that she could to ensure that I got well and fit and today I am a grown man. I dedicate this work my aunt (Ms Puleng Lillian Zondi) who also played a pivotal role in my life and to my daughter (Nobuntu Tshiamo) and my unborn child. Lastly, I dedicate this work to myself.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisors Professor Ray Jansen and Dr. Ian Little for their invaluable input, encouragement and guidance. It has been a long journey with multiple challenges but they remained patient with me and for that I am grateful, thank you. This research would not have been possible without the financial support provided by the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) and the Scientific Authority. A special thank you goes out to all the traditional medicine practitioners who allowed me into their homes regardless of whether they participated in the interviews or not. I appreciate your contribution to this study. I would like to thank the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) and the Sungazer Working Group (SWG) for trusting me with this project, it was indeed a great learning experience and I value every minute.

I extend my greatest gratitude to Mr Lesiba Papo, Ms Nokukhanya Mhlongo and Ms Joy Khuzwayo for their assistance with conducting field work and data collection. The interviews and data collection would have taken longer without your aid. A special expression of my sincere gratitude to Mrs Tasneem Variawa for assisting with the data analysis, proof reading the body of work and ensuring that it flows nicely. Not only have you improved my thesis, but I have also learned a lot from you. I would like to thank Ms Lihle Dumalisile for proof reading and editing my body of work. I would like to thank Mrs Bahia Brady for her assistance with the graphs. Thanks to Mr Mahlatse Kgatla for his aid on the maps and any GIS related work “Ke tsona bafanas”. To the Scientific Authority team, Ms Michele Pfab, Dr. Jeanetta Selier, Mrs Tasneem Variawa and Ms Laaiqah Jabar, thank you so much for you continued support and encouragement. The invaluable input and brilliant ideas you gave me are highly appreciated.

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ABSTRACT The extent and the impact of the traditional medicine trade on Sungazers is poorly understood. Whilst, the uses of Sungazers (for the treatment of both spiritual and medical ailments) by healers and traditional medicine consumers is also vague and has not been formally documented. This study aims to improve our understanding of the conservation requirements of the vulnerable, endemic Sungazer lizard, and the objectives are (a) to determine the extent of use of wild-harvested Sungazers across the species distribution range for traditional cultural practices, such as the prescription of traditional medicine or for healing and spiritual purposes; (b) to determine the extent of commercial trade in Sungazers within commercial traditional medicine trading shops and markets and; (c) to assess the potential impact of this use and trade on the remaining populations of Sungazers in the Mpumalanga and Free State Provinces of South Africa. Interactive interviews were conducted with 89 traditional medicine practitioners and collectors from 20 towns within the species distribution range. These were conducted using semi-structured questionnaires and, non-probability sampling methods. More than 80% of respondents indicated that they utilize the species or at least its body parts. Sungazer body parts are used in the preparation of traditional medicine remedies for treating both medical ailments and spiritual purposes. Six different body parts were identified as being used most commonly in the preparation of traditional medicine remedies, for both medical ailments as well as spiritual afflictions. The most prominent applications included the use of the species in the preparation of love potions, as well as protective charms. Whilst concoctions consisting of the species were also prescribed for various medical ailments including strokes, seizures, and sexually transmitted diseases, amongst others. The price of per specimen varied across the study area. However, across the study area there was no significant difference in price between an adult and juvenile specimen. During the survey at the Faraday informal traditional medicine market the species was recorded in low numbers with only two specimens being observed. The results estimated that around 442 animals may be harvested annually for traditional medicine purposes within the species distribution range. However, the exact number is difficult to ascertain given the opportunistic, illicit and informal nature of the trade. Although the species is protected under international, national and provincial law, lack of awareness amongst consumers coupled with a lack of enforcement has seen these laws being transgressed. Traditional medicine use and trade remains a mainstay in South Africa and many other developing countries around the world, v where healthcare and employment opportunities are limited. However, the use of Sungazers in rural areas does not seem to be extensive. Moreover, traditional healers mentioned that they usually prescribe small volumes of Sungazer material when preparing these concoctions. The commercial trade of the species in large markets in cities is of concern, although my study illustrated that Sungazers are rare in the urban traditional medicine markets.

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CONTENTS PAGE DECLARATION ii DEDICATION iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv ABSTRACT v LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES x GLOSSARY xii

CHAPTER ONE: General Introduction

Introduction 1 Problem statement 4

CHAPTER TWO: Literature review

2.1 Global reptile trade 6 2.2 Traditional medicine 9 2.3 Categories of African traditional health practitioners 11 2.3.1 Sangoma (Diviner) 12 2.3.2 Inyanga (Traditional doctor/herbalist) 12 2.3.3 Umthandazi (Faith healer) 12 2.4 Magical/symbolical spiritual uses 13 2.5 The use of reptiles in traditional medicine 14 2.6 Ecology of the Sungazer 16 2.6.1 Classification and description 15 2.6.2 Feeding and behaviour 18 2.6.3 Geographical distribution and habitat preferences 19 2.6.4 Life history 20 2.6.5 Breeding 20 2.6.6 Conservation status and legislation 20 2.7 Threats to the Sungazer populations 21 2.7.1 Habitat loss and habitat transformation 21 2.7.2 International pet trade 22 2.7.3 Spiritual use of Sungazers by traditional healers 23

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CHAPTER THREE: Aims, objectives, methods and outline of the dissertation 3.1 Aims and Objectives 25 3.1.1 Aims 25 3.1.2 Objectives 25 3.2 Hypothesis 26 3.3 Study sites 26 3.4 Methods 30 3.5 Data analysis 31

CHAPTER FOUR: Results 4 Results 33

CHAPTER FIVE: Discussion 5.1 Respondent demographics 45 5.2 Sungazer body parts and their uses 46 5.2.1 Medicinal uses to treat health ailments 46 5.2.2 Spiritual uses 48 5.3 Trade in Sungazers 50 5.4 Conservation implications of Sungazer use 51 5.5 Conclusion and recommendations 53 5.6 Limitations 55

REFERENCES 56 APPENDICES 62

LIST OF TABLES PAGE TABLE 2.1 Various common names used for Sungazers in South Africa 17 TABLE 4.1 Demographic data for 20 sites visited within the Free State Province 44 of South Africa TABLE 4.2 Respondents’ number of years practicing traditional medicine. 47 TABLE 4.3 Sungazer body parts used for the treatment of various medical 50 ailments and spiritual afflictions

TABLE 4.4 Estimated number of individuals collected or bought by traditional 51 medicine practitioners per annum TABLE 4.5 Causes of decline in Sungazer populations as noted by respondents 54

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LIST OF FIGURES PAGE FIGURE 2.1 Illustration of the revised phylogenetic tree and classification of the 18 Order Squamata FIGURE 2.2 Historical distribution range of Sungazers (Smaug giganteus) 19 FIGURE 2.3 Interpreted distribution indicating natural (black) and transformed 22 (white) land-cover for the Sungazer (Smaug giganteus) FIGURE 2.4 Legal exports of live Sungazers from South Africa between 1985 and 2015 (CITES Trade Database, UNEP World Conservation 23 Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK) FIGURE 2.5 Sundried Sungazer specimen preserved for future use 24 FIGURE 3.1 Locations of households where interviews were conducted within the Free State Province of South Africa. All 27 interviews were conducted within the species distribution range around areas where wild populations are known to occur FIGURE 4.1 Tribal ethnic groups interviewed 33 FIGURE 4.2 Respondents’ literacy levels 34 FIGURE 4.3 Gender and population age pyramid of respondents 34 FIGURE 4.4 Population sampling curve indicating the number of additional uses 36 for Sungazers as prescribed in traditional medicine practices FIGURE 4.5 Frequency of body parts used to treat a range of medical and 37 spiritual ailments in traditional healing practises FIGURE 4.6 Word cloud depicting the use of Sungazers in traditional healing practices. The size of the words is proportional to the number of 39 times the use was mentioned FIGURE 4.7 Sungazer population decline as perceived by the respondents 40 FIGURE 4.8 Recorded causes of decline in Sungazer population 41 FIGURE 4.9 Preferred method used to capture Sungazers 43 FIGURE 4.10 Average selling prices of Sungazers in the study area 44 FIGURE 5.1 Sundried and ground Sungazer specimens ready to be used as an 48 ingredient in the preparation of traditional medicine remedies FIGURE 5.2 Bathing soap containing small fragments of Sungazer scales 50

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GLOSSARY Terms/Acronyms/Abbreviations Definition/Explanation A. D Anno Domini AOO Area Of Occupancy CTM Chinese Traditional Medicine CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild Fauna and Flora DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism EOO Extent Of Occurrence EU European Union EWT Endangered Wildlife Trust IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature NEMBA National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute SARCA South African Reptile Conservation Assessment THO Traditional Healers Organisation ToPS Threatened or Protected Species UK United Kingdom UNEP-WCMC The UN Environment World Conservation Monit oring Centre USA United States of America WHO World Health Organisation

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Chapter One

General introduction

As of August 2016 there were 10,450 reptile species described globally which is 541 more descriptions compared to 2014. Of these, 1 645 (16%) were recorded in Africa (Uetz & Hošek, 2016). Despite these positive strides made in describing new reptile species, and an increase in herpetological research in recent years. Conservation biologists have raised concerns over the reported global decline of reptiles species (e.g. Asian tortoise crisis) (Buhlmann et al., 2009). Unlike other vertebrates, including birds and mammals, reptiles typically have narrow distribution ranges, (Anderson, 1984; Anderson & Marcus, 1992) often overlapping with large human populations. As a result, they are highly susceptible to anthropogenic threats, and are therefore regarded as a group of conservation concern (Cox & Temple, 2009). Pressures including urban development, invasive species, climate change, disease and pollution continue to exacerbate the continuing decline of reptilian species worldwide (Cox and Temple, 2009; Gibbons et al., 2000; Todd et al., 2010).

Approximately 43% of global reptile species have been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (IUCN, 2018). Interestingly, the IUCN Red List authenticates that a fifth of the assessed reptilian species are threatened and face possible extinction. Of these 18.7% are Critically Endangered, 37.4% Endangered and 43.9% are listed as Vulnerable (IUCN, 2013). Bohm et al. (2013) classified 59% of 1500 reptile species assessed in their study as Least Concern, 5% as Near threatened, 15% as Threatened (Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered) and 21% as Data Deficient. The southern African (South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho) regional assessment indicates that one-tenth of the 413 reptilian species found in the region are facing a probability of extinction (Bates et al., 2014). The Southern African Reptile Conservation Assessment (SARCA) by used to compile the southern Africa reptile atlas, illustrates that two South African reptile species are now Extinct (Bates et al., 2014). Thirty-eight species are listed as Threatened, 36 are Near Threatened, six are Data Deficient and seven have not been evaluated, and the remaining species are assessed as Least Concern

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(Bates et al., 2014). Moreover, 77 South African reptile species are listed on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), six of which are included in Appendix I and 71 in Appendix II.

The burgeoning human population has significant impacts on biodiversity through competition for space and resources (Ehrlich, 2009; Wilson, 1988). This results in habitat loss, the loss of species populations, and the subsequent erosion of functionally biodiverse systems. This growth also leads to the over- exploitation of plants and animals for medicinal, subsistence and food purposes. Traditionally, the noticeable global decline in reptiles has been associated with habitat loss, habitat transformation and over-exploitation. Together and/or independently, these factors may lead to the extinction of many indigenous species resulting in an overall loss of biodiversity.

More than 80% of threatened reptile species are affected by more than one threat process. Agriculture and biological resource use presenting the most common threats to reptiles (Bohm et al., 2013). Habitat transformation triggers varied responses from animals depending on several factors including, the type of disturbance (Jones et al., 2000). Changes in the availability of microhabitat (James & M’Closeky, 2003) and, changes in the proportions of predation as a result of transformation (Reinert, 1993). Most commonly, the ability of species to disperse and recolonize areas are greatly impacted by habitat transformation (Twigg & Fox, 1991).

This has a direct impact on terrestrial reptile species as fragmentation further hampers their already limited ability to disperse (Webb & Shine, 1997). This is more pertinent to Sungazers, as the species is an extreme habitat specialist. They have only been recorded in only 10 of the 31 vegetation types located in the species Extent of Occurrence (EOO). Furthermore, 50% of the habitat within the species distribution range is irreversibly transformed and fragmented (Parusnath, 2014). Apart from habitat loss and transformation, a growing potential threat facing reptiles globally is the over exploitation of species for the international pet trade and for use in traditional cultural remedies.

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The use of plants, animals and products derived from their parts has formed part of traditional practices in various cultures since prehistoric times. (Alves et al., 2008) They are often used as remedies for various ailments, a source of nourishment or for spiritual purposes. For instance, in China, bear gall bladders have been used to treat various conditions for over 1300 years (Li et al., 1995), and rhino horn has had a similar history of use (But et al., 1990). Similarly, the use of wild animals in African traditional culture also has a long recorded history (Deacon, 1976; Everard & Hardy, 1993) but has not been as meticulously documented. Globally, approximately 165 reptiles belonging to 104 genera and 30 families are used in traditional medicine (Alves et al., 2008). In Brazil the use of snakes has been recorded since prehistoric times, 38 reptile species were recorded to have been interacting with humans. Of these 23 species were used in traditional medicine (Alves et al., 2007). Furthermore, Alves et al. (2007) recorded that six snake species are used in traditional medicine in Brazil. These snakes were used to treat 15 different ailments including asthma and insect bites (Alves et al., 2007). Besides use in traditional medicine remedies, in Brazil reptiles are also used for decorative purposes, food, pets and magical/religious practices (Alves et al., 2007).

In Africa, reptiles are highly sort after and frequently present in traditional medicine markets (Williams et al., 2016). A study conducted by Williams et al., (2016) illustrates that 10 reptile species belonging to eight families were observed for sale in traditional medicine markets in Mozambique. In South Africa, at the Johannesburg’s Faraday traditional medicine market more than 50% of traders sold reptiles (Whitting et al., 2011). At the same market, five traders were observed selling Sungazer parts, and 22% of the overall trade in vertebrates was in reptiles (Whitting et al., 2011). Python skins are used in ceremonial regalia by traditional healers (Williams et al., 2016).

However, where rare and threatened animals and plants are concerned, the unsustainable use of biodiversity for traditional practices may have a significant impact on specific wild populations. Investigations have found that many species of high value in the traditional medicine market often have low reproductive rates, long-lived, and may occur in low densities in the wild

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(Gibbons et al., 2000). One such species is the focus of this study, the Sungazer (Smaug giganteus) (Smith, 1844) a highly sought-after, threatened lizard endemic to the highland grasslands of South Africa.

Sungazers are long lived and have low reproductive rates. They give birth to between two to four young every two to three years i.e., they breed biennially or triennially (Van Wyk, 1988; 1992). Owing to the difficulties associated with captive breeding. These lizards are continually collected from the wild for the pet trade, as well as for use and sale amongst traditional healers and users. While extensive research has been conducted on the uses of plants in traditional medicine, there is a paucity of research on the uses of animals in this field. This is particularly true for reptile species in Africa and in southern Africa in particular, where the use of animals and their parts for traditional purposes has received very little attention (Cunningham & Zondi, 1991). Currently, the harvest, use and impact of uses on Sungazers in traditional medicine are poorly documented. This study is a first attempt at documenting the local trade in Sungazers. Focusing specifically on its use as a form of traditional medicine within the species natural distribution range in the Free State and Mpumalanga Provinces of South Africa.

1.2. Problem statement Traditionally, Sungazers have been harvested for traditional medicine largely by the Sotho tribe throughout the species historical distribution range (anecdotal). More recently however, Sungazers have been found in traditional medicine or “umuthi” markets outside of this range, in the neighbouring provinces of Kwa- Zulu Natal and Gauteng (Whitting et al., 2011). Presently, the extent and the impact of the traditional medicine trade in Sungazers is poorly understood. Whilst, the uses of the Sungazer (for the treatment of both spiritual and medical ailments) by healers and traditional medicine consumers is also vague and has not been formally documented. The sub problems in relation to the problem statement are: The extent of use of Sungazers as a traditional remedy or for spiritual rituals is poorly understood in (a) rural villages, (b) commercial traditional medicine trading shops in larger cities and towns and, (c) commercial traditional medicine

14 markets such as Faraday market in Johannesburg and Warwick junction in Durban.

Ongoing, unsustainable use of threatened and highly sought-after species is a major concern for conservation scientists (Williams et al., 2014). Sungazers are a species of concern owing to their specific habitat requirements, low reproductive rate and limited distribution range. As well as the lack of scientific evidence of successful captive breeding of the species. Sungazers are classified as Vulnerable under the IUCN Red Listing criteria (A2bcd+4bcd) (Alexander, 2018). The species is severely threatened by habitat loss and transformation due to agriculture and mining, and possibly climate change impacts. The additional pressure from illegal collection for the local medicinal trade, as well as the international pet trade exacerbates the problem. The need for focused research that will assist in the conservation of the species is of paramount importance.

Many researchers have mentioned that the need for, and use of, certain animal species by indigenous communities and different cultural groups in South Africa is not well documented (Coetzee et al., 2014, Baiyewu et al., 2018). Research conducted on the use of animals in traditional medicine is mostly inventory studies, that record presence and/or absence of species in traditional medicine markets. For conservation scientists to address the possible over-collection of certain animal species, it is imperative to have an estimate of the population size of the species. Likewise, to understand and quantify the threats that species are exposed to. This study is an attempt to quantify the number and use of Sungazers in the preparation of traditional remedies throughout its distribution range in South Africa, and to deduce the possible conservation implications for the species.

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Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.1 Global reptile trade Anthropogenic activities have changed landscapes, displaced species and caused mass extinctions (Pfeiffer et al., 2005). It is imperative to understand how wildlife use and trade affects species populations, in order to assist in the conservation and management of threatened species. Global trade in wildlife, including derivatives and live specimens, is a rapidly growing multi-billion dollar business (Smith et al., 2009). Reptiles are ranked fourth on the list of most imported taxa in the United States (Smith et al., 2009). Many poikilotherms are at risk from trade and overutilization, particularly those species that are already threatened by other factors. Certain reptilian species such as crocodiles and turtles have been used by humans. For millennia they were used as a source of protein, or for their skins, and to a lesser extent for traditional medicine purposes for many millennia (Pough et al., 2004; Thorbjarnarson, 1999). International wildlife use and trade is a growing major threat contributing to the local extinction of many reptile species around the world. For example, more than half of all the freshwater turtle species from south-east Asia were listed as Threatened, due to over collection for the food, pet and traditional medicine industries (Nijman et al., 2012, Jenkins 1995, Klemens & Thorbjarnarnson, 1995).

Owing to the vast improvements in the global transportation systems as well as numerous technological advancements, particularly the rapid growth of the internet. Trade in reptiles has expanded rapidly and in large volumes over the past few years (Hoover, 1998). Reptiles are traded primarily for food, skins, traditional remedies and as pets (Schlaepfer et al., 2005). Generally, this trade has had a bad reputation due to growing concerns such as animal welfare, declines in wild populations from extensive harvesting of popular rare species, and the spread of invasive species (Arena et al., 2012). Klemens and Thorbjarnarson (1995) affirm that the most exploited reptiles for human consumption are turtles, while crocodiles, snakes, and lizards. An example of 16 an extensively traded reptile species is the Tokay gecko which is valued both in the international pet trade as well as for use in traditional medicine (Nijman & Shepherd, 2015). Laoong and Srimbudit (2006) found that between two and five million Tokay geckos were being exported to China, Malaysia and United States of America on an annual basis. The United Kingdom is also a large importer of the species. In addition, three traders from Java and Indonesia had reportedly exported approximately 1.2 million wild caught Tokay geckos for the Chinese Traditional Medicine market (Nijman et al., 2012a). Most recently, the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry granted permission for six companies to export more than 3 million Tokay geckos (Gekko gecko) (Linnaeus, 1758) that were allegedly captive-bred (Nijman & Shepherd 2015). Studies have shown that China is the primary importer of Tokay geckos where they are sold as whole specimens or added as an ingredient into capsules.

It is clear from the literature that a substantial component of the international wildlife trade is made up of reptiles and their derivatives (Caldwell, 2012; Hoover, 2000; Kasterine et al., 2012). This is corroborated by CITES trade data from UNEP-WCMW (2012). The data reveals that, except for caviar extracts, trade in reptiles accounted for 84% of the value of CITES-listed animals and animal products imported into the European Union (EU) in 2010 (Robinson et al., 2015). This trade involves an extensive range of snakes, lizards, turtles and tortoises from around the world. With a large proportion destined for the larger reptile markets in the EU and United States (US) (Hoover, 1998; Franke & Telecky, 2001; Auliya, 2003). Due to high levels of species endemism Africa is one of the key exporters of reptiles. The West African Sub-region is regarded as the second most prolific reptile exporting region after Central and South America (Auliya et al., 2016). Furthermore, Auliya et al., (2016) states that individuals living in the EU, USA and Japan are the main players in the trade in wild specimen from this region. Auliya et al., (2016) furthers mentions that 90% of the world’s reptiles are not listed on CITES, meaning that they are not afforded protection from over- exploitation. The Southern Africa’s wildlife trade analysis report illustrates that, reptile exports (excluding trophies) from the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region was valued at $626 million dollars between 2005 and 2014 (Sinovas et al., 2016). The South African endemic Sungazer lizard is

17 highly sort after in the international pet trade although there is no reputable captive breeding facility for this species (Auliya et al., 2016, Parusnath et al., 2016). Keeping reptiles as pets has, over the past few decades, become fashionable (Auliya, 2003). This is apparent in the number of live reptiles imported into Europe under permits issued by CITES, which illustrates that it almost quadrupled in the 1990s. This perceived upsurge is largely as a result of the rise in the demand for reptiles for the pet trade (Auliya, 2003).

The international pet trade in reptiles has continued unabatedly. Robinson et al. (2015) elucidates that between 1996 and 2012, approximately 18.8 million live CITES Appendix II reptiles were imported globally. In their regional assessment of the reptiles trade Robinson et al. (2015) illustrate that sub-Saharan Africa was the second largest exporter of reptiles after Mesoamerica, On the other hand, the reptile skin trade also involves species of large lizards, snakes, and crocodilians with the largest consumers located in the US, EU and Japan (Jenkins & Broad, 1994). The perceptible increase in the global demand for reptiles contributes significantly to the decrease in wild free-living reptile populations. This demand and unregulated trade results in the overexploitation of reptile species and is the key cause for the severe declines currently experienced in many turtle species, particularly in China (van Dijk et al., 2000).

Contrary to popular belief, a recent study by Robinson et al. (2015) reveals that between 2001 and 2012 the overall global reptile trade had decreased by 70% particularly in wild-caught reptiles. Whilst the trade in captive-bred reptiles also decreased by 40%. This decrease is attributed to the reduced trade in green iguanas and increased trade in ranched reptiles. Robinson et al. (2015) further indicated that this decrease is possibly due to increased legislative control, decreased demand and increased captive-breeding within consumer nations.

The international trade in wildlife is regulated by CITES which was formally established in the 1960s. There are currently 183 countries that are signatories to this convention, and South Africa is also a signatory to CITES having joined in 1975. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, therefore, has some form of a regulatory role for listed protected species. The trade in these species is regulated through their

18 permitting systems issued by management authorities of CITES parties around the world. Species are listed on one of three Appendices namely Appendix I, II and III. Species listed on Appendix I are granted the highest level of protection and trade in these species for commercial purpose is prohibited. Species listed on Appendix II and III may be traded for commercial purposes within the bounds of certain controls, in order to avoid over-exploitation. Species that are not listed on CITES are often exploited and are more prevalent in the pet trade than CITES-listed species as has been shown in a study conducted in the EU (Auliya, 2003).

In South Africa, recent legislation promulgated specifically to control the local utilisation of threatened species is the Threatened or Protected Species Regulations (ToPS). Provisions for this legislation are made in the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act No. 10 of 2004) (NEMBA). The list of ToPS species may be amended regularly to include or exclude specific species and was last revised in 2015 (South Africa, 2004; South Africa, 2013). Nonetheless, challenges with the implementation of the legislation exist and it is not always effective in regulating all the local trade. Particularly where wild faunal species are used in traditional cultural practices for either spiritual reasons or to provide a remedy to some or other ailment. As there are cultural practices, some dating back many thousands of years, no regulation was historically in place and, in many countries, legislation is weak in recognising and upholding ethnically important cultural belief systems.

In South Africa there is generally a lack of regulation in the cultural use of animals and plants, and data on the levels of trade in certain reptile species is severely deficient. Few studies have explored the trade of animal species for traditional cultural purposes within the country, with only a single study detailing the presence of different species available at the largest traditional medicine market in South Africa, the Faraday traditional medicine market (Whitting et al., 2011). In addition, Williams et al. (2016) conducted another study at this market where they recorded the use of animal parts in traditional medicine remedies. Findings from the study indicated that reptiles and mammals were the most frequently used animals available in the market, and that many threatened species were being traded including the Sungazer.

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2.2 Traditional medicine Traditional medicine is a comprehensive term used to refer to various forms of indigenous medicine such as Chinese traditional medicine, Indian Ayurveda and Arabic Unani medicine (Alves & Rosa, 2005). The use of plants and animals and derivatives thereof often forms an important component of traditional medicine, having been used to treat a range of physical and spiritual afflictions for many years.

Communities have relied on chemical extracts and parts derived from animal and plant material since pre-historic times (Lev, 2003; Alves & Rosa, 2005; Alves et al., 2007a). In many cases, these early remedies were the precursors for the ingredients of many modern commercial medicines prescribed today. According to some sources traditional medicine has been found to be a guide to the screening of modern day medicine, and there is an urgent need to document this knowledge. Mainly because loss of indigenous knowledge may impact the development of modern day medicine (Yirga et al., 2011). This is particularly true for plant remedies and the active ingredients contained in many plant species have been well researched. Animal materials have also previously been tested by pharmaceutical companies as a source of drugs for modern medicine (Alves & Rosa, 2007a). A study by Newman and Cragg (2012) illustrates that more than two-thirds of the drugs discovered over the past 3 decades were derived from natural products. Moreover, Vats and Thomas (2015) mention that 8.7% of the 252 crucial chemicals selected by the World Health Organisation (WHO) are derived from animals. Some of the more notable examples of wildlife used in traditional remedies, particularly for the Asian market, include rhino horn, pangolin scales, bear gall bladders and tiger penises (But et al., 1990; Li et al., 1995; Still 2003).

Presently the use of naturally occurring plant and animal products used in some form of traditional remedy is the primary source of health care for 80% of the world’s population (Alves & Santana, 2008). Africa boasts a long and valued tradition of using wild plants and animals for the treatment of medical ailments (Soewu, 2008). Healing ailments through traditional remedies existed in Africa before modern western medicine as it was the only source of health care (Adeola, 1992). In Africa, the use or the reliance on traditional remedies is often 20 deemed by local culture as the appropriate way of treatment. Indeed, not only are these traditional practices regarded as the most suitable method for the treatment of ailments, but it is also dominant because the percentage of traditional healers practicing far outweigh the number of western medical practitioners available (Soewu, 2008). However, this practice may have detrimental effects on wild populations since most plants and animals harvested or traded are collected in their natural environments.

The common dilemma facing all animal and plant species used in traditional medicine is the increasing demand for their body parts (Gaski & Johnson, 1994), as the human population keeps rising annually. This continued harvest of animals from the wild not only poses threats to biodiversity but also to the health status of human populations. This is because the ingredients sourced from wild animals and plants as raw materials are also used in the preparation of modern- day medicines (Yirga et al., 2011). In addition, the World Health Organisation (1993) stated that 80% of the people in the world rely directly on traditional animal and plant-based medicines.

In southern Africa traditional medicine use falls into two categories: treatment of medical afflictions referred to as white medicine, and dealing with ancestral conflicts referred to as black medicine (Whitting et al., 2011). Therefore, it is imperative to note that although a wide range of animal species are used to treat ailments, many wildlife products are used for spiritual events such as ceremonial or religious practices and as charms (Soewu, 2008). Furthermore, South Africa’s rich biodiversity is said to fuel the scale of traditional medicine trade (Parusnath, 2014). It is estimated that the local trade in traditional medicines supplies more than 28 million consumers each year (Mander et al., 2007). In South Africa, at least 2062 plant species, and 232 vertebrates animal species are recognised as being used and/or traded as traditional medicine (Williams et al., 2013).

In 1995 there were approximately 200 000 registered traditional healers in South Africa (Truter, 2007). However, it is difficult to determine how many traditional healers actually practice and how many people have consulted (Richter, 2003). Moreover, there have been increasing concerns over the

21 number of non-specialised traders becoming involved in the traditional medicine trade putting additional pressures on dwindling plant and animal populations. The South African government has recently started to recognise traditional healers, and established traditional healer organisations through the drafting of the Traditional Healer Practitioners Bill (Richter, 2003). The Traditional Healers Organisation (THO) is the largest organisation in South Africa with 69 000 registered traditional healers in southern Africa, 25 000 of which reside in South Africa.

2.3 Categories of African Traditional Medicine Practitioners A traditional healer or traditional medicine practitioner is defined as an individual recognised by the community as competent to administer primary healthcare using natural resources. Including plants and animal materials in addition to making use of alternative healing methods based on social, cultural and religious influences (Pretorius, 1999; Truter, 2007). Traditional healers are recognised by the constitution of the Republic of South Africa under the Traditional Health Practitioners Act 22 of 2007. Not all traditional healers fall under the same category nor do they all perform the same functions (Truter, 2007). These various categories of traditional medicine practitioners have different types of expertise, and unique methods of diagnosis where they make use of their own remedies. As such, a traditional medicine practitioner may fall into either one of the following categories: isangoma, inyanga, and umthandazi.

2.3.1 iSangoma (diviner) A diviner is the most senior of traditional healers; they diagnose the illness and discern the circumstances of illness in a traditional context. In South Africa, diviners are known under a variety of different names due to multiple official languages, for example, Amagqirha (Xhosa), Ngaka (Sepedi), Selaoli (Southern Sotho) and Mungome (Vhenda and Tshonga) (Pretorius, 1999). The vast majority (90%) of diviners are females although males may also train to be recognised diviners. Nonetheless, a diviner may or may not have knowledge of medicinal remedies, as their speciality is divination and they act as a medium to ancestral spirits. Training of a diviner is not by choice, but is rather through a calling where they are taught to throw bones and control the trance state at which communication with ancestors takes place (Truter, 2007). 22

2.3.2 Inyanga (traditional healer or herbalist) Herbalists specialise in the use of herbs and other medicinal preparations to treat medical ailments. They normally possess extensive knowledge of traditional remedies of both animal and plant origin. In addition, to be a herbalist one does not need to receive a calling. In contrast to diviners, approximately 90% of herbalists are males where their expertise falls within the diagnosis and treatment of medical ailments (Truter, 2007). Furthermore, they perform rituals, symbolism as well as preparations of remedies for “magical” purposes such as luck and fidelity. Herbalists can be experts in treating particular diseases and become renowned for it. They generally spend time as a trainee and do not profess to have divine powers. Herbalists often generate their business through referrals and they normally have shops or retail outlets where they sell herbs and remedies (Pretorius, 1998; Truter, 2007).

2.3.3 Umthandazi or Umprofiti (faith healer or prophet). Prophets use either prayer, candles or water to diagnose and treat their patients (Pretorius, 1999). They are normally professed Christians who belong to a mission or African independent church (Truter, 2007). Prophets believe that their healing power comes from God through ecstatic and trance contact with spirits, and some from the combination of both the Holy Spirit and ancestral spirits.

2.4 Magical/symbolical spiritual uses Natural remedies are not only used for healing medical ailments, but they are thought to also have magical-religious significance (Alves et al., 2008a). According to Cunningham and Zondi (1991) animal parts are primarily used for magical/symbolic religious purposes with a few exceptions. However, that’s not always the case. In a recent study conducted on pangolin in South Africa, Baiyewu et al. (2018) illustrated that various pangolin body parts are used to treat a multitude of medical ailments. However, the use of these animal parts in traditional medicine is regarded as being closely associated with witchcraft, which subsequently led to the discrediting of zootherapeutics in ethnozoological research (Williams & Whitting, 2016). In saying that, various wild animals (and their body parts) form a fundamental part of cultural and religious ceremonies which some seek to promote good health of local people. 23

During these rituals, animals may be sacrificed (Adeola, 1992) and the use is considered completely consumptive and, if practiced widely and frequently, may impact upon a certain species population (Baiyewu et al., 2018). Williams and Whitting (2016) state that the selection of animal species by traditional medicine practitioners seems to be allied with the doctrine of signatures. This suggests that animals are used according to their appearance. For example, baboon bones are used in some parts of South Africa to treat arthritis due to the animals perceived agility (Williams & Whiting, 2016). Furthermore, vulture brains are consumed in instances where patients wish to increase their intelligence and foresight, owing to the birds’ excellent ability to detect carcasses from kilometres away (McKean et al., 2013).

2.5 The use of reptiles in traditional medicine Reptiles and human societies have interacted for millennia (Alves et al., 2009), and ethnoherpetology is a subdivision of ethnozoology that studies the connection between human cultures and reptile use (Speck, 1964; Goodman & Hobbs, 1994; Bertrand, 1997). Uses of reptiles in traditional medicine are also believed to be driven by the doctrine of signatures according to Boehme’s theory. The theory mentions that natural objects resembling certain body parts could cure ailments that could arise on those body parts (Cunningham & Zondi, 1991; Williams et al., 2016; Moshoe et al., 2017). For example, in Korea, traditional medicine centipedes which have numerous legs and body segments are often used to treat ailments relating to legs and joint problems (Pemberton, 1999). Today, reptiles are amongst the most frequently used animals in traditional medicine (Alves & Santana, 2008). Around 284 reptile species are used in traditional healing practices globally. The groups with the largest number of species used are snakes (123 species), followed by lizards (76 species), chelonians (71 species) and then crocodilians (14 species) (Alves et al., 2015).

Asian countries are known to be large consumers of traditional remedies derived from animal and plant products (Sheng-ji, 2001; Still, 2003). The use of snakes in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) dates to as early as 100 A.D. The use of a snake gall bladder was first recorded around 20 A.D. 24

(Dharmananda, 1997a). Whilst, the skins of snakes have often been applied in the treatment of superficial diseases such as eye infections and sore throats (Dharmananda, 1997a). Furthermore, in China, during the Tang Dynasty period, two types of snakes of the genus Agkistrodon and Zaocys were used to treat arthritis and on occasion, they were soaked in alcohol to make extracts for stiff joints. China is also the primary importer of the Tokay gecko which is used in Gejie Dingchaun capsules to treat asthma and coughs (Cunningham & Yang 2019). According to Bauer (2009) 14 gecko species are used for traditional medicine worldwide.

Historic records illustrate that reptiles have been used for traditional medicine in South America since the inception of colonization (Almeida, 2005; Alves, 2007a). German explorer Von Martius (1939) recorded many natural remedies that were used by the Amerindian including the use of caiman fats to treat rheumatism (Alves et al. 2009). The prescription of caiman fat for rheumatism is still a common practise today (Alves & Rosa, 2006). Other reptile species that are known to be used for traditional remedies in countries like Brazil include Iguana iguana (Linnaeus, 1758), Caiman lotirostris (Daudin, 1802), Crotulas durissus (Linnaeus, 1758) and Micrurus iboboca (Merrem, 1820).

There are more than 100 ailments known to be treated by various reptile species in Brazil with some 33 species having multiple therapeutic uses (for several various ailments). Though several different species can be used to treat the same ailment (Alves et al., 2009). A study probing the use of snakes in ethnomedicine in north-eastern Brazil found that approximately 165 reptile species are used in traditional medicine which included 60 snake species, 51 lizard species and 43 turtle and tortoise species (Alves et al., 2008). In addition to use for traditional purposes and medicine, reptiles in Brazil have also been exploited as sources of food, pets, and leather (Alves & Santana, 2008). Regardless of their extensive use in traditional remedies, there is a lack of detailed information on the magnitude of this use and the impact of ongoing harvest on the species involved (Alves & Pereira-Filho, 2007).

In southern Africa the importance of animal-derived ethnomedicine was first acknowledged by Wat and Breyer-Barndwijk in 1950 (Williams & Whitting,

25

2016). The use of animals and plants for traditional remedies in South Africa however, dates back much longer than that. According to Williams et al. (2013), majority of traditional medicine is of botanical origin with over 2062 plant species recorded in use. Juxtapose to that, only 232 animal species have been inventoried excluding invertebrates. In South Africa, ethnozoological studies have largely taken place in the 1980s, amid growing concerns that the commercial uses of animals were exploitative (Williams & Whitting, 2016). More recently, inventory studies were undertaken at Faraday traditional medicine market located in Johannesburg, which is regarded as one of the largest informal traditional medicine markets in the country (Whitting et al., 2010). This study revealed that reptiles were the second largest taxa traded after mammals, with 33 species recorded. One of the more peculiar reptile species identified during the study was the threatened Sungazer lizard.

2.6 Ecology of the Sungazer (Smaug giganteus) (Smith, 1844) 2.6.1 Classification and description Sungazers, Giant Girdled lizard or Giant Dragon lizards, were first described by a Scottish naturalist named Andrew Smith in 1844. The species was placed in the family Cordylidae, order Sqaumata under the genus Cordylus (i.e. Cordylus giganteus) (Smith, 1844). The family Cordylidae constitutes small to medium- sized lizards that are endemic to sub-Saharan Africa and includes some of Africa’s most notable species such as the Sungazer (Stanley, 2011). Historically the family contained 80 taxa under four genera including Cordylus, Pseudocordylus, Chameasaura and Platysaurus (Boulenger, 1885). However, based on field studies and new research, the genus Cordylus had increasingly become recognised as paraphyletic and in need of urgent reclassification. This led to a wider revision of the entire Cordylidae family (of southern and eastern Africa) as well as the associated Gerrhosauridae family of southern Africa and Madagascar (Hoser, 2013).

A molecular study by Stanley et al., (2011), illustrated that several species in the genus Cordylus were distinctly different from other species in the group. This included the Sungazer (previously Cordylus giganteus). He proposed a new genus, Smaug, and suggested Smaug giganteus as the nominate species of the group (Figure 2.1). Ten genera are now recognised under the family 26

Cordylidae including the newly described monotypic genus Smaug (Hoser, 2013). The species in the genus Smaug are referred to as “dragon lizards” as they possess enlarged caudal and occipital spines. The name Smaug is derived from the character of the dragon (which bears a strong resemblance to the Sungazer) in J.R.R Tolkein’s book The Hobbit (Stanley et al., 2011). The genus comprises eight species that are found in South Africa, including the Sungazer (i.e. Smaug giganteus). Because South Africa is a multi-lingual country, Sungazers are referred to differently by different ethnic groups and tribes (Table. 2.1).

Table 2.1: Common names used for Sungazers in South Africa. Language Name English Sungazer

Afrikaans Ouvolk, Sonkyker

IsiZulu Imbhedle

SeSotho Phathakalle

Sungazers are the largest member of the genus with adults measuring between 160-220 mm snout to vent (van Wyk, 1994). They are unique among Cordylids, because they live in self-excavated burrows in deep sandy strata on slightly undulating grassland slopes dominated by Themeda triandra grasses (Jacobson et al., 1990, Van Wyk, 1994). Sungazers are atypical for the family because they are obligate burrowers and they are large and heavily armoured with keeled spiny scales. The dorsal parts of the head, body, and tail of adults are normally dark brown to blackish. The labials and scales of the neck and body are yellow-brown. In addition, hatchlings and juveniles are more colourful, they are dark brown with orange crossbars on the legs, back, and tail. The ventral side is creamy white with the tip of the tail being orange-red (Van Wyk, 1992). They have conspicuous elongated occipital spines and scales on the sides of their bodies and behind their necks which are quite characteristic.

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Figure 2.1: Illustration of the revised phylogenetic tree and classification of the Order Squamata (Stanley et al., 2011)

2.6.2 Feeding and behaviour The species is considered to be insectivorous feeding primarily on Coleoptera, Diplopoda, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, and Lepidoptera. They are sedentary in small family colonies and feed near the colony burrows (Van Wyk, 1992). The species is known to be active above-ground from spring through to autumn during the austral summer in South Africa, and they hibernate through the winter months (Van Wyk, 1991; 1992). Like many species in the family 28

Cordylidae, Sungazers are generally sit and wait (ambush) predators. Sungazers spend most of the time basking in the sun. They are not easy to approach on foot, because when they are disturbed, they retreat deep into their burrow.

2.6.3 Geographical distribution and habitat preferences Sungazers are endemic to the Highveld grassland of the Free State and Mpumalanga Provinces of South Africa (Figure 2.2). This large reptile inhabits self-excavated single channel burrows within gentle undulating grasslands (Jacobsen et al., 1990, Van Wyk, 1992). The species is an extreme habitat specialist and it is associated with relatively undisturbed Themeda triandra dominated grasses (Parusnath, 2014).

Figure 2.2: Historical distribution range of Sungazers Smaug giganteus (Parusnath 2014)

They inhabit areas that are dominated by loamy soils where they excavate burrows requiring soils that are deeper than 400 mm. The density of burrows is recorded to be around 4-19 per hectare (Jacobsen et al., 1990, Van Wyk. 1992). Furthermore, the average depth of a burrow is approximately 50 cm, and an average length of approximately 2 m that tapers towards the end (Van Wyk, 1992). A burrow is normally occupied by a single adult lizard, however, in

29 cases where there are two or more lizards in a burrow it is mostly an adult female with juveniles (Van Wyk, 1992).

2.6.4 Life history Sungazers follow a K-selection life history where the species is long lived, with both a slow reproduction and growth rates. Additionally, they reach their maximum length only at 11 years and sexual maturity is reached at 5 to 7 years. They are known to live up to 25 years in captivity and estimated to reach 35 years of age in the wild (Parusnath, 2014).

2.6.5 Breeding The species breeds seasonally and breeding in females is a prenuptial phenomenon and the onset of vitellogenesis occurring in autumn which continues throughout the winter months where the species is in hibernation. Ovulation takes place in spring (Van Wyk, 1994b). Gestation takes place through the summer months and young are born in the autumn of the following year. Females are viviparous, giving birth to two to three live young every two to three years the species has biennial reproduction (Van Wyk, 1991, 1994a). In males the reproduction is characterised by post-nuptial spermatogenesis that ends in early autumn that is not well synchronised with the female cycle.

2.6.6. Conservation status and Legislation Sungazer are listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red Data list under the criteria A2bcd+4bcd (Alexander et al., 2018). Currently the population size is estimated to be approximately 677.000 mature individuals (Parusnath et al., 2017). Sungazers are included in the national Threatened or Protected Species Regulations (ToPS) in terms of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (Act 10 of 2004) (NEMBA) and any direct use activity involving the species such as, trapping, hunting, transporting, importing, exporting, killing or possessing requires a permit from the local authorities. Within the Free State province, the family Cordylidea is protected under the schedule 1 protected game (section 2) in terms of the Nature Conservation Ordinance, 8 of 1969. In addition, the species is listed on CITES Appendix II since 1981 and thus requires a permit for international export. Recently the South African scientific

30 authority conducted a Non-Detrimental Finding (NDF) for the species. The NDF was negative, proving that international trade in the species is detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild. As a result, since 2016 no CITES exports permits have been issued for the species until there is scientific proof of captive breeding.

2.7 Threats to the Sungazer populations 2.7.1 Habitat loss and habitat transformation Land cover change due to anthropogenic disturbance is the most significant threat to global biodiversity (Parusnath, 2014). In its many guises, degradation of natural habitat is the main threat to South African herpetafauna in general, but specifically S. giganteus since it is a terrestrial species (Van Wyk, 1992). Also, the primary effector of land use cover is agriculture which contributes to 72% of global land transformation. This land cover change affects wild populations directly through habitat loss (Driver, 2015). Habitat loss due to agriculture is therefore considered the primary threat to the species (Parusnath et al., 2017). This includes the direct reduction in the Area of Occupancy (AOO) of the species, or indirectly by fragmenting the area into patches (Parusnath, 2014). Sungazer habitat on the Highveld also supports extensive coal and gold mining operations which also contributes significantly to the continued habitat transformation, and may further lead to populations being exposed to inorganic contaminants.

Parusnath et al. (2017) established that over half (58%) of the land cover in the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) for S. giganteus is still natural while 40% is transformed due to crop monoculture. In addition, they further assert that the remaining 2% was classified as plantations (0.6%), water bodies (0.3%), degraded (0.3%) and mining (0.2%). These findings are consistent with the historical findings suggested by Van Wyk (1992) and Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) (2005). The research also indicates that similar patterns are evident in the Free State and Mpumalanga Provinces, with 53.75% still natural and the remainder permanently transformed (Parusnath et al., 2017). Furthermore, the species occupies only 5.05% of the natural area available. The EOO is the spatial representation of the geographic

31 spread of the species; however, it does not represent the distribution of the species across this area (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3: Interpreted distribution indicating natural (black) and transformed (white) land-cover (Parusnath et al. 2017) for the Sungazer (Smaug giganteus)

2.7.2 International Pet trade Collection of individual animals from the wild for subsistence or commercial purposes has been alluded to as an additional factor contributing to the declines of many species (Gibbons et al., 2000). Sungazers are faced with the same threat, where they are also harvested for the international pet trade which may potentially contribute to the decline of the wild population. Owing to their unusual appearance and rarity, Sungazers are a highly sought after species in the pet trade (Auliya, 2003). Adverts have been recorded where sungazers were offered for sale on internet. In 2016 The highest average advertised selling price of R6 878 per specimen, as well as the highest maximum selling price of R17 525 per adult specimen, was recorded for S. giganteus (Zondi et al., 2015, unpublished). According to Loehr et al. (2016) the selling price for Sungazers on various internet platforms was between $1000 (R18642.80) and $4000 (R74571.22) (Loehr et al., 2016) The species is amongst the top five reptile species exported from South Africa (CITES, 2016). In addition, Sungazers were amongst top 10 South African species mostly advertised for

32 sale on the internet (Zondi et al., 2015, unpublished). Of greater concern is the evidence of an increasing demand for the species, coupled with the fact that there is little to no reliable evidence of successful captive-breeding. As a result, all specimens in the pet-trade are suspected to be of wild origin (Loehr et al., 2016).

Sungazers were first listed on CITES Appendix II in 1981. Furthermore, the CITES trade database indicated that 1035 live Sungazers have been exported between the period 1985 and 2016 (Figure 2.4). The CITES trade data comparative tabulation illustrates that South Africa first legally exported Sungazers in 1984 to the United States of America. China and Germany however, exported Sungazers in 1982 and 1983 respectively. This is prior an initial legal export from South Africa (CITES, 2017). These data strongly suggest that Sungazers have been illegally traded historically and prior to the CITES regulation implemented in 1984, however, the extent remains unknown.

33

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Figure 2.4: Legal exports of live Sungazers from South Africa between 1985 and 2015 (CITES Trade Database, UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK).

2.7.3 Spiritual use of Sungazers by traditional healers Historically, Sungazers have been harvested by the Sotho tribe for traditional remedies for spiritual and medical use. Mostly, specimens are known to be collected from wild populations, and sold to traditional medicine practitioners. The traditional medicine practitioners use the powdered body parts, mixed with other organic material in the preparation of remedies that allegedly allow a man to achieve harmonious consent from his wife or girlfriend to have multiple partners (Peterson et al., 1985). The specimens are usually sun dried and stored in bottles or plastics bags (Figure 2.5). When there is a need a small portion is ground into powder to be used in traditional remedies. Very little else regarding aspects of this use has previously been investigated. Also, there is a consequent lack of literature pertaining to the sourcing, current use and extent of harvest of the species for traditional remedies. Previous studies undertaken have primarily focussed on the species reproductive biology (Van Wyk, 1992; 1994b, 1995) and, only more recently on the species distribution and conservation status (Parusnath, 2014). Whitting et al. (2011) found that 21.9%

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of traders at the Faraday market in Johannesburg sold Cordylid species, in which S. giganteus specimens were previously observed. However, information on the traditional trade in Sungazers outside of commercial “umuthi” markets has not been undertaken. In addition, the ailments or spiritual rituals performed with certain body parts of this lizard have not been thoroughly investigated. These aspects will form the main scope of this investigation.

Figure 2.5: Sun dried Sungazer specimen preserved for future use.

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Chapter Three

Aims, objectives, methods and outline of this dissertation

3.1 Aims and Objectives 3.1.1 Aims This study aims to improve my understanding of the conservation requirements of the vulnerable, endemic Sungazer lizard. This will be achieved through investigating the scale and extent of local use and trade in the species within South Africa. This species has been traded both locally for traditional remedy purposes as well as for the international pet trade.

A key concern of this ongoing use and trade is the continuous removal of animals from the wild owing partially to the limited success of captive breeding. To date, there have been no confirmed reports or evidence to support successful captive breeding and the ongoing demand for the species both locally and internationally may threaten the survival of its population. There is, however, a lack of information detailing the trade (supply and demand), and no conclusive results on the impact this may have on the species has been made.

3.1.2 Objectives

1. To determine the level of use of wild-harvested Sungazers across the species distribution range for traditional cultural practices such as the prescription of traditional medicine or for spiritual ritual purposes. 2. To determine the level of commercial trade in Sungazers within commercial traditional medicine shops and markets. 3. To assess the impact of this use and trade on the remaining population of Sungazers in the Mpumalanga and Free State Provinces of South Africa.

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3.2 Hypothesis Null hypothesis (Ho): Current levels of harvest of Sungazers from the remaining natural population for the purposes of traditional cultural practices are detrimental to the survival of the wild population. Alternate hypothesis (Ha): Current levels of harvest of Sungazers from the remaining natural population for the purpose of traditional cultural practices are not detrimental to the survival of wild population

3.3 Study sites The study area encompassed most of the species natural distribution range (Figure 3.1). Interviews were conducted with traditional medicine practitioners operating in 21 small towns and larger cities within the Free State (20 towns) and south-western Mpumalanga (1 town) Provinces. Most towns in the study site were small towns located near rural areas, and some were big towns within Free State. These sites were selected based on the presence localities of wild Sungazer populations that were obtained from a previous study (Parusnath, 2014). Market surveys to evaluate the absence or presence of specimens were also undertaken in Gauteng Province where the largest traditional medicine market is situated (namely, Faraday traditional medicine market in Johannesburg). Faraday is the largest traditional medicine market in South Africa followed by the Warwick Junction traditional medicine market located in KwaZulu-Natal in the city of Durban.

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Figure 3.1: Locations of households where interviews were conducted within the Free State Province of South Africa. All interviews were conducted within the species distribution range around areas where wild populations are known to occur

3.4 Methods

Interactive interviews were conducted with traditional healers and collectors from towns within the species distribution range using semi-structured questionnaires comprising of open and closed ended questions (see Appendix A). Owing to the challenges associated with identifying and reaching all traditional healers across the study area, non-probability sampling methods were employed to select participants. These methods included targeted techniques to identify traditional medicine practitioners specifically for the purpose of this research. Traditional healers in the Free State Province are known to hang flag posts on the gates of their houses to indicate their presence to potential clients and these flag posts were used as the primary selection method of respondents for the interviews. In the absence of flag posts, local residents of the areas were asked to point out any traditional healers they knew, who could be interviewed. Once possible participants were identified, the background and aim of the project was explained and the aspects of volunteerism and anonymity were also highlighted.

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Respondents who agreed to participate were given an informed consent form to sign as proof that they consented to take part in the interview (see Appendix B).

A total of 89 interviews were conducted. Owing to the illicit nature of the activities being assessed and the probability of obtaining biased data, we asked general questions about demographics at the begging of the interview with the aim of establishing a welcoming environment. This also helps in converting the interview into a conversation. The remaining questions focused on the uses of Sungazers in traditional medicine or spiritual remedies; the body parts that are most commonly used or prescribed; the region or location where the animals are sought and harvested; as well as estimates of the turnover rates of the animals (i.e. turnover rate - how fast individuals are sold and replaced). Respondents were also asked if they had knowledge of any legislation pertaining to the protection of the species. In addition, the method of trapping Sungazers and the effectiveness of these methods was also investigated. All respondents were over the age of 18 years and respondent anonymity was strictly enforced. Similar to what preceding researchers observed, including Cunningham and Zondi (1991), Williams et al., (2011) and, Williams and Whitting (2016), who all reported frequent reluctance of traditional medicine practitioners to answer certain sensitive questions, we also experienced this reluctance amongst consented respondents. During the interviews, images of the Sungazer and monitor lizard were shown to the respondents as the two species are often confused with one another and the images aided in ensuring that respondents recognised the species in question.

All interviews were conducted according to this procedure. Each interview took approximately 40 minutes to one hour. Respondents who could read were provided with the questionnaire to complete and were assisted when necessary. GPS co-ordinates were recorded at each locality where a full questionnaire was completed. A survey of the traditional medicine market in Gauteng Province was conducted in an attempt to quantify the level of Sungazer use within this local commercial traditional trade. The numbers of individual animals present or offered for sale including their specific body parts were recorded. The study was approved by the Tshwane University of Technology’s Faculty Committee for Research Ethics (Ref: FCRE 2017/02/001 (2) (SCI)).

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3.5 Data analysis The qualitative data were analysed using Microsoft Office Tools professional Excel 2010 software. Further statistical analysis was undertaken on GraphPad Instat (version 3.10 trail version) and included linear regression analyses, Kruskal-Wallis Test (KW), Dunns’ multiple comparison test correlations and non-parametric one-way ANOVA. The uses of Sungazers were recorded as communicated by respondents and later simplified and categorised into short word strings. The words were then hyphenated to keep the words together to generate a word cloud using Jason Davies Word Cloud generator. (https://www.jasondavies.com/wordcloud/). In the word cloud, the size of the words is proportional to the frequency with which the use recurred. This method was adopted from Williams and Whiting (2016). Analyses also identified the body parts (of the Sungazer) most commonly used to treat both spiritual and medical ailments.

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Chapter Four

Results

A total of 150 individuals within the species distribution range were identified as possible participants for the study. Demographic data of the study area is included in (Table 4.1). Owing to the sensitivity of the information being collected, only 59.3% (n=89) consented to participate in the interviews. Ninety- eight percent (n=87) of the respondents were traditional medicine practitioners and 2.2% (n=2) were dedicated collectors. Of the 87 traditional medicine practitioners, approximately 92.13% were formally trained healers (i.e. Isangomas, Prophets and/or Inyangas), 5.62% were collectors, and 2.25% (n=2) were self-taught (pseudo-healers) or informally trained by a family member who is/was an Isangoma or Inyanga. The language that was frequently spoken by the bulk of respondents was South Sotho, followed by isiZulu and SeTswana. A small proportion of the respondents were Xhosa and Afrikaans speaking (Coloured) (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: Various tribal ethnic groups interviewed.

The level of education varied amongst the respondents, from below primary school (n=21), primary school (n=31), high school (n=36) and tertiary (n=1) (Figure 4.2). Most of the respondents 54.8% (n=52) did not complete their high

41 school education, consequently their reading and writing skills were extremely limited. To assist the respondents who were not fluent in the English dialect, interviews were conducted in the respondents’ home language or one in which they were fluent.

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Figure 4.2: Respondents’ education levels.

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Table 4.1: Demographic data for 20 sites visited within the Free State Province of South Africa (Stats SA, 2011).

Towns Variables

Bethlehem Bohlokong Clarens Fouriesburg Frankfort Harrismith Heilbron Hennenanmann Kroonstad Lindley Population size 16 236 35 003 751 664 5 840 27869 5486 3793 24723 1010

48.8 47.2 46.7 50 48.7 52.5 47.6 53.1 52 50.8 Male Sex ratio

(%) 51.2 52.8 53.3 50 51.3 47.5 52.4 46.9 48 49.2 Female Female headed households (%) 31 44.3 34 31 33 41.3 36.1 27.5 33.1 32.9

1.5 9.6 0.8 1.7 7.5 5.3 7.2 0.7 1.2 3.9 No education Some primary school 3.3 14.8 1.3 4.3 11.4 14.8 15.1 3.3 5.3 8.6

Completed primary 1.4 4.8 0.3 2.2 3.2 4 4.5 1.5 2.2 1.8 Education Some secondary level 21.3 39.9 9 22.5 29.1 31.6 36.2 35.1 26.7 32.5 school (%) Completed matric 42.3 26.4 33.2 36.9 36.8 31.2 25.4 43.9 43.3 34.1 Higher education 30.1 4.5 55.5 32.4 12 13 11.5 15.4 21.3 19.2

Households living below the 5 14.1 12.6 7.1 12.9 14.6 18.1 6.4 8.3 9.6 poverty line (%)

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Towns Variables

Memel Odendaalsrus Petrus Steyn Phuthaditjhaba Reitz Senekal Vrede Warden Welkom Wesselsbron Population size 619 9 393 596 54 661 3 362 3 466 1 962 2 088 64 130 1 415

45.7 54.4 47.0 45.5 47.1 47.8 48.4 55.4 51.9 48.6 Male Sex ratio

(%) 54.3 45.6 53.0 54.6 52.9 52.2 51.6 44.6 48.1 51.4 Female Female headed households 36.5 25 31 51.6 32.5 38.3 36.1 28.4 32.7 36.5 (%)

1.1 1.9 0.5 4.4 5.6 5 2.4 6.7 1.7 0.7 No education Some primary 9.2 5.9 5.5 7.4 10.4 7.5 8.8 10.8 7.1 4.6 school

Completed 2.7 2.9 1.5 2.8 2 2.8 2.9 4 3 1.7 primary Education Some secondary level 27.6 34.6 28.2 29.3 24.5 29.9 27.6 40 31 27.8 school (%) Completed 39.4 37.9 47 33.3 38.9 32.8 34.2 28 38.8 42 matric Higher education 23.3 17.2 15.5 19.9 21.5 20.8 23.8 10.5 18.3 23.2

12.3 Households living below the 11.3 9.4 3.5 20.1 6.8 12.9 8.4 10.9 7.9

poverty line (%)

45

Amongst the respondents, 44% (n=39) were males and 56% (n=50) were females of various ages ranging from 20 years old to more than 60 years of age. Of all the respondents, there were very few young traditional medicine practitioners (n=5), with the majority being female pensioners above the age of 60 (n=21) (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3: Gender and population age pyramid of respondents.

Amongst the healers interviewed, more than 40% indicated that they had been in practice for more than 20 years. These respondents gave the bulk of information on the indigenous knowledge on the use of Sungazers in traditional medicine (Table 4.2). Sungazers are used to treat multiple medical ailments and they are also used for cultural purposes.

Generally, the entire animal is used, and the majority of respondents indicated that small portions/doses at a time is usually adequate when preparing a remedy which ensures that specimens sustain multiple and prolonged usage. The carcass is usually sun-dried and crushed into powder whilst the fats are stored in bottles and sealed to be used when the need arises. Internal organs are usually discarded, but one healer stated that the heart of the animals is used as well.

46

Table 4.2: Respondents’ number of years practicing traditional medicine. Duration in practice (years) Frequency (%) 1 to 5 7 7.95 6 to 10 20 22.73 10 to 15 14 15.91 15 to 20 8 9.09 >20 39 44.32

A high proportion (84%) of the respondents indicated that they utilize the species or at least its body parts in the preparation of traditional medicine remedies and/or for spiritual purposes. The remaining 16% indicated that they do not use the species but are knowledgeable about the species and its uses in traditional medicine practices. The uses of Sungazers in the preparation of traditional medicine remedies appear to be similar across the species distribution range. Very few additional uses were recorded for the species once 50 respondents were interviewed, and this can be regarded as a suitable population sample of uses for the species (Figure 4.4).

6

5

4

3

Number of uses 2

1

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Number of interviews

Figure 4.4: Population sampling curve indicating the number of additional uses for Sungazers as prescribed in traditional medicine practices against the number of respondents interviewed.

47

Six different body parts were identified as being used most frequently in the preparation of traditional medicine. The remedies are prescribed to treat medical ailments as well as spiritual afflictions (Table 4.3). Several body parts are consumed more frequently than others, and individual body parts can be prescribed for more than one medical ailment or spiritual purpose (Figure 4.5). Fats were frequently prescribed for several different uses. On the other hand, different body parts are often prescribed to treat similar ailments, for example the prescription of liver, fat, scales and bile as a love potion (Figure 4.5). The uses of various body parts of the Sungazer is significantly different (Kruskal Wallis Test; KW = 269.01, P < 0.0001) in that the entire animal is used more frequently than individual body parts. Sungazers parts are prescribed for the treatment of more than one ailment and spiritual use. The most prominent use was the use in preparing love potions (Figure 4.5). Overall, the prescription of the species as a love potion was the most prominent use mentioned (Figure 4.6).

80

70

60

50

Luck/good fortune 40 Energiser Medical ailments

Frequency of useof Frequency 30 Protector/ prevent storms Love potion/ unifier/unite couple No Comment/Unsure 20

10

0

Body parts used

48

Figure 4.5: Frequency of body part used to treat a range of medical ailments and spiritual remedies in traditional healing practises.

49

Table 4.3: Sungazer body parts used for the treatment of various medical ailments and spiritual afflictions Body part* Uses/ailments treated Use report

Love potion, unite families, protect household and individuals from evil spirits and black magic, healing sore feet, good fortune, Whole animal keeping livestock together, heals stroke, helps infants to walk, prevent thunder storms, treat epileptic seizure, treat ulcers 42

stemming from sexually transmitted diseases.

Liver Love potion, make spouse submissive, protection of households and individuals against evil spirits and black magic. 1

Treat HIV/AIDS, treat epileptic seizures. Legs 1

Fats Love potion, treat HIV/AIDS, treat epileptic seizures, counteract spells, good fortune, and assist polygamous marriages. 22

Scales Love potion, unite families, and facilitate polygamous marriages. 6

Blood, heart Make spouse submissive and make a lazy person pro-active. 1

Bile Love potion, makes spouse submissive, protection of households and individuals’ evil spirits and black magic. 1 *Sungazer body parts are usually added with other plants and animal parts when preparing the remedies and are not prescribed in isolation.

50

Figure 4.6: Word cloud depicting the use of Sungazers in traditional healing practices. The size of the words is proportional to the frequency of times the use was mentioned.

Assessing the impact of Sungazer harvesting for traditional medicine purposes is a challenge given the informal nature of this trade. When asked about the number of animals collected per year, 24 respondents indicated that they do not use the animal or were unsure of the quantities. Majority of the respondents (37) stated that they use 1 to 5 animals per year whilst only three indicated that they use more than 30 animals per annum (Table 4.4). Whilst surveying the informal commercial trade of the species in the Faraday medicinal market, only two stalls (out of more than 200) were observed to have limited numbers (n=2) of specimens for sale.

Table 4.4: Estimated number of individuals collected or bought by traditional medicine practitioners per annum. Range of animals Estimated number of individuals Percentage (%) collected collected/annum of respondents Not sure/does not use the 0 26.97 species 1 to 5 72 41.57 6 to 10 146 10.11 11 to 15 12 4.49 16 to 20 80 8.99 21 to 25 0 3.37 26 to 30 30 1.12 >30 102 3.37 Total 442 100

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More than half (57%, n=49) of the respondents did not notice any decline in Sungazers over time, while 40% (n=34) had noted a perceived decline. Furthermore, only a few (n=2) mentioned that they were uncertain, and one respondent indicated that there was an increase in the wild population of the species (Figure 4.7). Despite that, most respondents verbally acknowledged that Sungazers are not as easy to find as in previous years.

Figure 4.7: Sungazer population decline as perceived by the respondents.

Twenty one percent of the respondents attributed the decline in Sungazers to over-harvesting. Likewise, 7% stated that the species is declining due to an increase in the number of traditional healers, and as a result, it is over- harvested to meet the traditional medicine demand. A large proportion of the respondents were uncertain of the causes of decline in the Sungazer population (Figure 4.8). The causes of decline as recorded from the respondents were significantly different (KW = 24.065, P < 0.0002; Dunn’s Test) and over- collection by hunters was mostly seen as the main cause for the perceived decline in the Sungazer population (Table 4.5).

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Figure 4.8: Recorded causes of decline in Sungazer population.

A vast majority (n=77.5%) of respondents were familiar with South African laws and legislation that protects animals and plants which are used in traditional medicine. Furthermore, most of the healers interviewed were registered to operate as recognised traditional medicine practitioners in the country and they had certificates to support this. However, none of the healers had permits that would allow them to harvest and use animals and plants listed under the National Threatened or Protected Species Regulations. When asked about knowledge on sustainable use, the healers indicated that they were aware of the term and the practise. Furthermore, many elaborated that they harvest plants sustainably to ensure availability for future use.

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Table 4.5: Causes of decline in Sungazer populations as noted by respondents. Comparison Difference P value

Not sure vs. hunter/collector -39.000 *P<0.05

Not sure vs. traditional healers 0.000 ns P>0.05

Not sure vs. high demand 0.000 ns P>0.05

Not sure vs. habitat loss 9.000 ns P>0.05

Not sure vs. natural process 9.000 ns P>0.05

Hunter/collector vs. traditional healers 39.000 *P<0.05

Hunter/collector vs. high demand 39.000 *P<0.05

Hunter/collector vs. habitat loss 48.000 ***P<0.001

Hunter/collector vs. natural process 48.000 ***P<0.001

Traditional healers vs. high demand 0.000 ns P>0.05

Traditional healers vs. habitat loss 9.000 ns P>0.05

Traditional healers vs. natural process 9. 000 ns P>0.05

High demand vs. habitat loss 9.000 ns P>0.05

High demand vs. natural process 9.000 ns P>0.05

Habitat loss vs. natural process 0. 000 ns P>0.05

Note: Significance code 0.001(*)

The method of capture varied significantly amongst the respondents (Kruskal value of 48.992; P < 0.0001), however, snaring seemed to be the preferred method of choice. Approximately 35% of all respondents indicated that they preferred snaring, 29% preferred digging the Sungazers out of the burrows, 5% suggested that they pursued animals on foot chasing them down and1% preferred other means of capture but did not elaborate. In addition, 14% mentioned 2 or more of these capture methods and 14% were not certain how these animals are captured (Figure 4.9).

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Figure 4.9: Preferred method used to capture Sungazers.

The preferred condition of the animal as recorded from the respondents was not significantly different amongst the different sexes in traditional medicine practitioners. (r=-0.05478, P=0.3726). Fifty-four percent (n=48) indicated that they preferred the Sungazer specimen alive, while 46% (n=41) mentioned that they preferred their Sungazer specimen dead.

The average selling price for a Sungazer specimen did not vary much within towns but there were fluctuations in the asking price between towns (Figure 4.10). Further analysis did however indicate that there was a weak correlation between the price and the town (r=-0.4192, P=0.1630), indicating no significant variation in the selling price across the region. Prices of specimens generally varied between R30 and R800 per specimen. The outlying point and highest asking price came from the town of Memel where only one traditional healer was interviewed, according to this traditional medicine practitioner Sungazers cost R1000. This limited sample size is attributed to this outlier. In addition, the prices of animals were classified according to size of the specimen with small individuals (juveniles) generally being sold for R30 and larger specimens (adults) being sold for R50 and more. There was no significant correlation between the towns sampled and prices of the Sungazer for both adults and juveniles. It also became apparent from the data that the price of a Sungazer specimen is influenced by the age of the trader with older traders charging more (pers. obs.). 55

Figure 4.10: Average selling price of Sungazers in the study area.

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Chapter 5

Discussion

The study aimed to document the uses of Sungazers in the preparation of traditional medicine remedies, and to assess the level of harvest and trade of the species for traditional medicine use within its distribution range. The findings illustrate that whole specimens, as well as various Sungazer body parts are used by traditional medicine practitioners. These parts are used in the preparation of a range of remedies to treat medical ailments, as well as to address specific spiritual afflictions. The documented uses are varied, but the species is associated with strong spiritual applications, and is favoured most commonly for use in love potions and as protective charms. The ongoing use of the species provides an indication of the afflictions troubling locals. Also, reveals the stronghold of traditional medicine within South Africa. There is a general paucity of research and literature on studies focusing on the use of animals in traditional medicine (McKean et al., 2013, Whitting et al., 2011; Yirga et al., 2011). Documenting and understating the extent and frequency of these applications has important implications for the conservation of utilised species.

5.1 Respondents demographics

Many of the respondents were above the age of 40 years. This suggests that (a) it is uncommon to find young traditional medicine practitioners in the rural areas as most may have moved to urban areas or, (b) new, young recruits into the practice are now uncommon. Additionally, most respondents were females, which may suggest that males may have moved to adjacent urban areas and contiguous major cities to seek employment. Lastly, this could indicate less men are entering this profession. Data from Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) demonstrate that in the Free State’s major mining towns such as Kroonstad (M=52, F=48), Odendaalsrus (M=54: F=46), and Welkom (M=52: F=48), generally, the ratio of males is higher compared to females. Although most young traditional healers are males. Statistics South Africa data further demonstrate that a considerable amount of homes located in the distribution range of Sungazers are headed by females, particularly in rural areas

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(Appendix A). These data could potentially indicate that men from rural areas are moving to the large mining towns to seek employment.

The majority of respondents interviewed (78%) were Sotho speaking and most had received some level of formal education. However, 35% of the respondents only received primary school education. This is because many of the trained traditional medicine practitioners received the ancestral vocation (calling) at a young age (Ngwenyama pers comm). For example, some traditional medicine practitioners mentioned that they received this calling at the age of seven years already, although this is not common. Additionally, a vast majority of traditional medicine practitioners that did not receive formal education were in rural areas and they were above the age of 60 years. As a result, they could not read nor write. Information on the species use was largely obtained from the older healers (+40 years) who had been in practice for more than 10 years. This lends credibility to the information as it was provided by experienced traditional medicine practitioners.

5.2 Sungazer body parts and their uses

5.2.1 Medicinal uses to treat health ailments

Reptile species around the world are frequently used for traditional medicine purposes (Alves et al. 2009; Bauer 2009; Williams et al. 2016; Nijman and Begins 2017). Most studies detailing the use of animals in traditional medicine practices have focused on producing inventories of the many species found in traditional medicine markets globally. Whitting et al. (2011), for example, quantified species richness, diversity and quantities of vertebrates and invertebrates sold by traders at Faraday traditional medicine market in Johannesburg, South Africa. Additionally, Williams et al. (2016) documented reptiles sold at traditional medicine markets in Mozambique. Alves (2010) mentioned that in Brazil there were 3722 articles published on the use of medicinal plants in Brazil and only 38 papers focusing on the use of animals for medicinal use. Recording species use is sometimes viewed as controversial matter that a risks of breaching indigenous knowledge rights (Williams et al. 2016) and this is perhaps why fewer studies have been successful in

58 documenting the use of reptiles and their body parts in traditional medicine remedies (see Alves et al., 2007, 2008 and 2009; Alves & Santana 2008; McKean et al., 2013. Since then, the species has been sporadically recorded for sale in some of the major local traditional medicine markets in South Africa. In 1991, the use of Sungazer in the perpetration of including love potions and as protective charms, was documented in a study looking at the use of animal parts for the commercial trade in traditional medicines (Cunningham & Zondi, 1991). Since then, the species has been sporadically recorded for sale in some of the major local traditional medicine markets in South Africa.

This study illustrates that Sungazers are used by South African traditional medicine practitioners to treat a range of medical ailments and documents these uses across the species distribution range. As with many other reptile species, Sungazers also have multiple therapeutic uses. Traditional remedies involve the use of the entire animal or parts thereof to treat several medical ailments. Whole bodies of the animal are used to treat stroke, sore feet, epileptic seizures, and ulcers stemming from sexually transmitted diseases. Legs and fats are used in the treatment of HIV as well as for epileptic seizures. The use of other reptile species such as the Tokay gecko (Gekko gecko) for the treatment of HIV/Aids has been documented in countries including Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines (Cunningham & Long, 2019). Cunningham and Zondi (1991) noted that in South Africa, black mamba body parts are used in traditional medicine remedies used to treat epileptic seizures. Usually, the carcass is sun-dried and crushed into powder (Figure 5.1) while the internal organs including fats and the heart are stored in bottles to keep them from desiccating. Fats are mainly used in small amounts and are generally required as an ingredient in most traditional medicine remedies.

Powdered Sungazer parts are used or combined with other animal or plant material for the preparation of certain remedies. This practice was also noted by Alves et al. (2010) in Bazil, as well as in a study by Soewu (2008) in Nigeria which found that fauna species used in traditional medicine were often used in conjunction with other animal or plant-based material. The use of single reptile species to treat a wide of variety of ailments has also been documented in other studies as well. Alves et al. (2008) for example, investigated the use of reptiles in traditional folk medicine in Brazil where remedies from certain species were

59 used to treat a wide variety of ailments, and conversely multiple different species were prescribed for the same ailment.

Figure 5.1 Sundried and ground Sungazer specimens ready to be used as an ingredient in the preparation of traditional medicine remedies.

5.2.2 Spiritual uses

Sungazer body parts are also used to treat various spiritual afflictions that fall outside the realm of western medicine. Therefore, there are little opportunities for consultation with trained medical doctors (Williams, 2007). Six different Sungazer body parts are used in the preparation of traditional remedies to treat spiritual issues and beliefs with certain body parts having multiple uses. Our results illustrate that in 80% of the towns visited across the species distribution range, any body part of a Sungazers can be prescribed to be used as an ingredient in the preparation of remedies. Also, 67.4% of the respondents prescribed Sungazer body parts specifically in the preparation of love potion remedies. This finding corresponds to what Cunningham and Zondi (1991) observed. In their study, they documented the use of Sungazers for spiritual purposes including love potion and protective charms This remedy is prescribed to create a strong bond between married couples who are experiencing 60 relationship problems. Moreover, 76.4% of the respondents mentioned that love potion remedies made from Sungazer material should not be prescribed to unmarried couples as it is rumoured to create an eternal bond.

Soewu (2008) states that the choice of animal species in the preparation of traditional medicine is guided by a number of factors including behavioural, and ecological characteristics naturally associated with the species. This theory is termed the Doctrine of Signatures (Williams et al., 2016). According to the respondents, Sungazers are an important ingredient in love potion remedies because they are believed to always occur in pairs in the wild. Therefore, for the love potion to be effective one requires a male and female Sungazer specimen when preparing love potion remedies. The doctrine of signatures associated with this species may have arisen from a misconception, as research has shown that males and females in Sungazers colonies rarely ever share a burrow. In his PhD thesis, Van Wyk (1992) recorded that 51% of burrows were occupied by single adults. He noted that when there was more than one animal in a burrow it was predominantly an adult female and her young. While in 10% of the burrows he found that males may share with juveniles. Branch and Patterson (1975) had similar findings and noted that burrows are usually occupied by one adult or by a female with her young. The notion that traditional healers have of the male and female always occurring in pairs is therefore unsubstantiated.

The blood and heart are the only parts of Sungazers not used in the preparation of a love potion. These derivatives are reportedly used to make a spouse submissive or to make a lazy person active and, to promote cleanliness in consumers. The latter application is attributed to the observation that Sungazer burrows are generally clean of grass around the entrance area when active (Parusnath, 2017). In contrast, a non-active Sungazer burrow can have grass growing all around the entrance area.

The liver, fats and bile are used to ward off evil spirits and protective charms for individuals and households. These beliefs are similar to those encountered in Nigeria where the monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus) and chameleons are used to ward off evil spirits (Soewu, 2008). According to Parusnath et al. (2014), mixtures of these parts are sold in small quantities (50g) and only a small

61 portion of the Sungazer is used. In Eastern countries, particularly South Asia, geckos are associated with good fortune and increased fertility (Bauer, 2009). The fats of Sungazers are also used for a similar purpose to attain good fortune. In addition, Sungazers are used to keep livestock together, this use is similar to the use of puff adders (Bitis arietans) and slow-moving tortoises (Williams et al., 2016).

An interesting observation arising from the study was that of the possible emergence of a new cosmetic market around this species. A soap bar allegedly containing fragments of Sungazer scales was located in a small retail store in the rural town of Reitz (Figure 5.2). A similar product, using a reptile-based material, was also recorded by Alves and Santana (2008) in Northern Brazil where soap is produced from Podocnemis expansa fat to treat acne. If this is an emerging market, it may have conservation repercussions for the species given the potential demand that this product could generate.

Figure 5.2 Bathing soap allegedly containing small fragments of Sungazer scales.

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5.3 Trade in Sungazers

Sungazers are sold at an average price of R50 per specimen specifically for the traditional medicine trade within the species distribution range. The price for the pet trade in this species is believed to be many orders of magnitude higher than this. There is generally no difference in the price between adult and juvenile Sungazers, although larger individuals may cost a little more. In contrast, in Johannesburg (Faraday market) the asking price is R50 for a small piece of tail. This disparity in pricing was also observed by Parusnath et al. (2014). These figures allude to the commercialisation of the species in urban centres. Nevertheless, the species is traded in very low numbers in the market (maybe 2-5 specimens at any one time) and this could be due to difficulties associated with obtaining wild specimens because of their elusive nature and rarity. In their study, Williams et al. (2014) state that the rarity of bird species sold in traditional medicine markets is a factor in them being recorded in fewer markets. These findings are supported by other market surveys which found a total of five whole Sungazer specimens and 11 body parts being sold at that Faraday market in 2010 (Whitting et al. 2011). Furthermore, it remains difficult to ascertain if the two stalls observed selling Sungazer body parts during this study were the same ones recorded by Whitting et al. (2011).

5.4 Conservation implications of Sungazer use

The use of reptiles in traditional medicine is one of the compounding factors leading to the decline of wild reptile populations (Alves et al., 2008). My results indicate that the main cause of decline in Sungazer population is hunters, habitat loss, high demand and traditional medicine practitioners. Dunn’s test was significant for those variables with P<0.05. The p value was extremely significant for hunter vs habitat loss and hunter vs natural processes. These results are in agreement with graph 4.8 where collectors/hunters are the main cause of decline in wild Sungazer populations. Quantifying levels of Sungazer off-take for traditional medicine purposes is challenging as a large majority of this trade is informal and no database occurs with regards to numbers harvested and numbers sold. Furthermore, the secretive and illegal nature of certain species use in traditional medicine makes it difficult to obtain data on 63 quantities and turnover rates for these species (McKean et al. 2013). Williams et al. (2016) found that 62% of healers and traders are unwilling to reveal what species are used for and where they source their stock. Respondents were more forthcoming with information during my study and when asked where Sungazers are collected, 40% of the respondents indicated that they sourced animals from the wild population in open unprotected areas. In addition, 49% indicated that they source Sungazers from private farms, and 3.3% of the respondents said that they purchase Sungazers from school learners. A newspaper article by Becker Semela (2013) corroborates this where the authors documents two young brothers who make a living by hunting and selling Sungazers specifically for traditional medicine practitioners. This survey suggests that Sungazers are harvested opportunistically, corroborated by the findings of Williams et al. (2016) who also noted that harvesting of reptiles in Mozambique for traditional medicine use was opportunistic. Thirty-eight percent of respondents stated that Sungazers were regarded as rare, and only four respondents out of 89 interviewed had a Sungazer specimen in their possession at the time interviews were carried out. What's more, 3.4% of the respondents mentioned that when there is a need they have to go to large commercial traditional medicine markets in neighbouring provinces to purchase a Sungazer specimen or body parts.

The results indicate that an estimated 442 wild animals may be collected each year for use/trade as traditional medicine within the country. In the Faraday traditional medicine market only two Sungazer specimens were observed. This appears to be an insignificant offtake when compared to the total population size which is estimated to consist of more than 677 000 mature individuals (IUCN, 2018). This figure is however an estimate and the number of animals harvested each year for traditional medicine purposes may be higher (there are 20,000 or more practitioners/traders in the country) (Moagi, 2009) or lower (specimens are used sparingly and one can last for three years or more) and most likely fluctuates owing to the opportunistic nature of the practise. Although the extent and scale of use and trade of the species appears to be limited, ongoing removal of individuals from wild populations could have longer term implications especially given the species long-lived nature and relatively low- reproductive rates. In addition, the decline of the population due to extensive

64 habitat loss is alarming and additional offtake pressures for both local use and international trade remains a threat to the species.

Although 57% of the respondents mentioned that they did not perceive a decline in Sungazer numbers, 38% noticed a decline in the species. Most (39%) of the respondents that perceived this decline attributed it to overharvesting for traditional medicine due to an increase in demand that has resulted from an increase in the number of practising traditional healers. The decline in the natural habitat of the species as result of urban development was cited as the primary factor contributing to the decline in wild populations of Sungazers by 4.5% of the respondents. Most traditional healers are reportedly aware of the principles of sustainable use of natural resources as this is taught to them during their training (Gogo Nkanyamba, pers comm). Trained medicine practitioners often only harvest enough material needed to prepare their remedies (Ngwenya 2001) and incidences of unsustainable harvesting may be attributed to untrained harvesters with limited knowledge on sustainable use and the need to obtain a livelihood or commercial traders looking to turn a profit.

Whilst, 77% of the respondents indicated that they are cognisant of South African legislation that protects wild animals and plants that are used in traditional medicine remedies, although they do not fully understand how to interpret this legislation. None of the respondents that possessed Sungazer specimens had Threatened or Protected Species (ToPS) permits for the collection and possession of specimens. Seventy-seven percent of the respondents had a misperception that being registered with a Traditional Healers Organisation (THO), that issues its members with certificates, grants them the legal freedom to harvest animals and plants at leisure to use in traditional medicine. Contrary to this, six out of the 29 traders and traditional medicine practitioners interviewed in urban areas are aware that permits are required to harvest and possess animals and plant-based material. One trader in Mannis traditional medicine market outside of the town of Welkom indicated that possessing animal products was prohibited by environmental law inspectors (EMIs) (Gogo Motaung 2017, pers comm,). Some of the respondents informally revealed that an official from the Department of Economic, Small business development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs (DESTEA) in the Free State regularly inspects the market. Law enforcement in this regard

65 remains a challenge, not only due to the difficulty associated with regulating an informal practice but also because traditional healing in South Africa is important for those communities that do not have immediate access to western medicine. The continued use of plants and animals will remain central to the well-being and livelihoods of many South Africans and it is imperative that all stakeholders work on a holistic approach to ensure that this trade is sustainable.

5.5 Conclusion and recommendations

It is important to document indigenous traditional knowledge, particularly in rural areas of Africa where there is a plethora of traditional knowledge. This study was the first step in an attempt to document the traditional use of Sungazers in South Africa. Sungazers are used to treat a range of medical and spiritual issues with the principal use being for love potion remedies prescribed to couples who are struggling with their relationships. All animals used in these preparations are wild harvested across the species range. Opportunistic harvest of the species takes place. Although the extent and scale of local use and trade currently appears to be relatively low, an increase in the number of practising healers/traders as well as an increase in the commercialisation of traditional medicine (including cosmetic remedies), could result in targeted and higher illegal removals of wild specimens. The additional threat of commercial exploitation for the pet trade as well as extensive habitat loss continues to put pressure on the wild populations. This may result in the species being uplisted to a higher threat category if conservation interventions are not adopted. According to Alves and Santana (2008), species of traditional medicinal significance should receive urgent conservation attention.

Further research is necessary with a focus on ways to regulate and monitor this informal trade. The outcomes of the research can be used to guide conservation decisions. Through this we can address the paucity of information on the number of individuals removed from populations, as a result providing offtake information that is pivotal to determine the impact of harvest. The use of Sungazers in rural areas does not seem to be extensive and traditional healers prescribe small volumes of Sungazer material to be used in preparing a 66 particular remedy. However, the commercial trade in large markets in cities is of concern, although our study illustrated that Sungazers are rare in the urban traditional medicine markets. With the current legislation in place, there is a need to enhance education and enforcement and ensure that all stakeholders comply. Particularly with regards to the regulation of protected and endangered species sold in traditional medicine markets.

It is imperative for conservation programmes to involve rural communities (within the distribution ranges of threatened species) as the cultural value of these species is often very high, and community conservation programs will be more welcomed with active involvement. This can be achieved through outreach programmes and roadshows. The outreach programmes should focus on information sharing and informing communities about the species in order to curb the persecution of Sungazers. The main target of these outreach programmes should be traditional medicine practitioners and collectors. Schools within the species distribution range should also be a key focus area for awareness and outreach programmes as collectors are often school learners. As mentioned by Cunningham and Zondi (1991), one of the key factors that contribute to the increase in the trade in wildlife for traditional medicine use is high rates of unemployment. With that said, job creation in the areas where Sungazers are harvest can assist in reducing the number of people collecting Sungazers for the traditional medicine use.

5.6 Limitations

 Traditional medicine practitioners particularly non THO members were reluctant to participate in interviews, they mentioned that they paid to be initiated into traditional medicine practice, and therefore researchers cannot obtain their intellectual property for free.

 In the Mpumalanga Province, none of the healers were willing to participate in the interviews. Therefore, species use information for this part of the distribution range was not recorded.

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 Surveying the urban traditional medicine was a challenge, the traders do not grant access to people to look at their stock, one of the traders told me that the market is not a classroom where people come and learn about traditional medicine.

 It is often difficult to quantify the number of animals seen at the markets, because one healer/trader will have just the head and the other healer/trader will have a piece of tail.

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APPENDIX/APPENDICES Appendix A THANK YOU FOR YOUR WILLINGNESS TO COMPLETE THIS QUESTIONNAIRE.

Figure 11 Sungazer The purpose of this questionnaire is to assess the extent and impact of the traditional medicinal and international pet trade on sungazers. The researcher will like to propose a realistic response to the conservation status of this threatened species, it is therefore necessary to better understand the extent and impact of the trade via traditional medicine and international pet trade on the species.

It is important that you answer all questions as honestly and directly as possible.

Your answers to this questionnaire will be treated as confidential. The completed questionnaires will only be seen by the researchers and will be locked in a safe until destroyed.

Your own identity is not requested or necessary.

Complete the questionnaire by circling the appropriate number in the shaded box or by answering the question/statement in the space provided.

Field Data Sheet

Date: Country: Province:

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Time: Closest town: Respondent Number:

Section A: Respondent Information 1. Stakeholder grouping Traditional medical practitioner Wholesaler of wildlife Retailer of wildlife Commercial hunter Hunter (collector) Restaurants operator Middleman Exporter Other (specify):

2. Sex Male Female

3. Age group 15-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 Above 60

4. Number of years in business (trade) 1-2 3-4 5-10 11-15 16-20 Above 20

5. Time involved in business (trading) activity Full time Part time

6. Ethnicity/Tribe

7. Religion Christian Muslim Other:

8. Last level of Below Primary High Matric (Grade Tertiary education primary School 12) Grade:

9. Do you know what a sungazer is? Yes No No sure

10.Purpose of Traditional Medicine Pet trade Others collecting/using sungazer

11. Are there any other lizards traded for Yes No Not sure muthi?

12. If the answer to question 11 is yes, please provide species name or description?......

Section B: Price and availability 13. What is the average price of a sungazer?

14. Average price of an adult/big sungazer?

15. Average price of a young/small sungazer?

16. Price fluctuations within the last Increase Decrease Stable Not Sure year

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17. Price fluctuations within the last five Increase Decrease Stable Not Sure years

18. Reason(s) for price fluctuation? …..………………. ………………………………………

19. Is there any seasonal (summer/winter) variation in price of Yes No sungazer?

20. If your answer to question 19 is yes, which season is more winter summer expensive?

21. Reason(s) for the high price during that season? ………......

22. How do period of festivities (e.g. Increas Decreas Stabl Not Sure traditional, Christmas) affect price? e e e

23. How do period of festivities affect sale? Increase Decrease Stable Not Sure

24. Reason(s) for fluctuation in price during this period? ……………………………………

25. Reason(s) for fluctuation in sale during this period?.………… …………………………..

26. Trend in number of sungazers Increase Decrease Stable Not Sure collected within the last year

27. Trend in number of sungazers Increase Decrease Stable Not Sure collected within the last five years

28. Reason(s) for fluctuation? …………………………………………………………………

29. Trend in number of sungazers Increase Decrease Stable Not Sure captured/traded within the last year

30. Reason(s) for trade fluctuation? ......

31. Sungazer supply rate Weekly Monthly Annually

Number supplied

Number sold

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32. Do you know where your suppliers source Area or region: sungazers

33. Do you know how the supplier finds sungazers?......

34. Do you know if the collector catches the whole group when collecting?......

35. If the answer to question 34 is no, how many does he catch at a time?......

36. Does he/she bring them to you dead or alive?......

Section C: Traditional Ecological Knowledge

37. Do you know where are sungazers usually found? …………………………………………………..

38. Do you know the breeding season of Yes No sungazers?

39. How frequent does it give birth Monthly Yearly Not Sure

40. How many offspring per time One Two more:

41. What is their diet?

42. Time of day when they are seen Morning Midday Dusk Night

43. How long do they live?

44. Capture Digging Snaring pursuing Poisonin Others technique g

45. Are there any taboos (bad omen) associated with Yes No hunting sungazers?

46. If your answer to question 45 is yes, please explain the bad omens

47. Is there any spiritual folklore associated with sungazers?

Section D: Traditional Medicinal Knowledge 48. How is this information about animal medicine passed from generation to generation? 79

49. Who is permitted to prescribe the use of Traditio Chief or Elder Anybody sungazer body parts to patients? nal headma healer n

50. What are the traditional medicinal uses for sungazers (whole or parts)? Body part used treatment for specific condition:

Section E: International pet trade 51.Do you trade in live sungazers? Yes No

52. If yes to question 51 who buys live sungazers?

53. How much do they pay for an adult?

54. How much do they pay for a juvenile?

55. Where do they go?

Section F: Conservation status 56. Do you think the sungazers are threatened? Yes No

57. If Yes, have you noticed a population decline?

58. What factors do you think are the major cause for this decline?

59. Are there sacred places where the capture of sungazers is Yes No forbidden?

60. Where would you find sungazers Muthi Hunters Road side Others for sale? markets

61. Do you know of any laws that regulate their capture and use Yes No both for traditional medicinal and international pet trade?

62. If yes to question 61 what do laws regulate?

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Collection Possession of whole Possession of body All animal. parts

63. Do you think laws are needed to regulate their capture and Yes No use both for traditional medicinal and international pet trade?

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Appendix B

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL, WATER AND EARTH SCIENCE

PARTICIPANT INFORMATION LEAFLET AND INFORMED CONSENT

PROJECT TITLE: Assessing the extent and impact of traditional medicine and international pet trade on Sungazers Smaug giganteus

Primary investigator: Mr Zwelakhe Zondi, M Tech (Environmental Management)

Supervisor: Prof Raymond Jansen, Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria

Co-Supervisor: Dr Ian Little, Endangered Wildlife Trust. Threatened Grassland Species Programme.

Dear Research Participant,

You are invited to participate in a research study that forms part of my M Tech- studies. This information leaflet will help you to decide if you would like to participate. Before you agree to take part, you should fully understand what is involved. If you have any questions, which are not fully explained in this leaflet, do not hesitate to ask the investigator. You may contact me through my email address; [email protected] if you have further questions.You should not agree to take part unless you are completely satisfied with all aspects of the study.

WHAT IS THE STUDY ALL ABOUT?

Use of sungazers for medicinal purpose and the international pet trade represents some of their greatest threats aside from the destruction of their natural habitat. Sungazers are listed on Appendix II on CITES. The purpose of 82 this study is to assess the extent and impact of the traditional medicine and international pet trade on sungazers .If you decide to participate, you will be asked to participate in an interview and asked questions that will be related to the purpose of this research.

WHAT WILL YOU NEED TO DO DURING THE STUDY?

If you decide to take part in the study, you will be required to sign this informed consent form or give permission by mouth to take part. You will be required to complete a questionnaire, which will take you approximately 30 minutes to complete. If necessary, you will be asked some questions which I will use a tape recorder to record what you say that is expected to take about 30 minutes. The reason for using a tape recorder is to allow me to listen to the conversation at a later stage. The interview will focus on sungazer use for traditional medicinal purposes, and the implications of this use for conservation of these species.

WHAT WILL YOU BE REQUIRED TO DO IN THE STUDY?

If you decide to take part in the study, you will be required to do the following:

ARE THERE ANY CONDITIONS THAT MAY EXCLUDE YOU FROM THE STUDY?

None

CAN ANY OF THE STUDY PROCEDURES RESULT IN PERSONAL RISK, DISCOMFORT OR INCONVENIENCE?

The study involves no foreseeable risk or discomfort.

WILL YOU RECEIVE ANY FINANCIAL COMPENSATION OR INCENTIVE FOR PARTICIPATING IN THE STUDY?

Please note that you will not be paid to participate in the study.

WHAT ARE YOUR RIGHTS AS A PARTICIPANT IN THIS STUDY?

Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your participation or non- participation in the study will in no way influence the potential research

83 participants’ membership of the study. You have the right to withdraw at any stage without any penalty or future disadvantage whatsoever. You may withdraw by informing me that you no longer wish to participate (no questions will be asked). You may also skip any question during the interview, but continue to participate in the rest of the study.

HOW WILL CONFIDENTIALITY AND ANONYMITY BE ENSURED IN THE STUDY?

All information obtained during the course of this study is strictly confidential. The study data will be coded so that it will not be linked to your name. Your identity will not be revealed while the study is being conducted or when the study is reported in scientific journals. All the data sheets that have been collected will be stored in a secure place. The information received during the project will only be used for research purposes.

IS THE RESEARCHER QUALIFIED TO CARRY OUT THE STUDY?

The researcher has done ample research on the topic.

HAS THE STUDY RECEIVED ETHICAL APPROVAL?

Yes. The Faculty Higher Degrees Committee and the Research Ethics Committee of the Tshwane University of Technology have approved the formal study proposal. All parts of the study will be conducted according to accepted ethical principles by the University.

WHO CAN YOU CONTACT FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION REGARDING THE STUDY?

The primary investigator, Mr Zwelakhe Zondi, can be contacted on his cellular phone at 081 047 6669, E-mail [email protected]. The supervisor Prof R Jansen can be contacted at 012 382 6347, E-mail [email protected]. Should you have any questions regarding the ethical aspects of the study, you can contact the chairperson of the TUT Research Ethics Committee, Dr WA Hoffmann, during office hours at Tel (012) 382-6265/46, E-mail [email protected]

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INFORMED CONSENT

I hereby confirm that I have been informed by the investigator about the nature, conduct, benefits and risks of the study. I have also received, read and understood the above written information (Participant Information Leaflet and Informed Consent) regarding the study.

I am aware that the results of the study will be anonymously processed into a research report. I may, at any stage, without prejudice, withdraw my consent and participation in the study. I had sufficient opportunity to ask questions and (of my own free will) declare myself prepared to participate in the study.

Participant’s name (Please print)

Participant’s signature Date

Investigator’s name (Please print)

Investigator’s signature Date

I………………………………………….. (field worker) herewith confirm that the above participant has been informed fully about the nature and conduct of the above study.

Witness’s name* (Please print)

Procedure should be witnesses whenever possible. *consent

Witness’s signature Date

PLEASE NOTE: The implication of taking part in this study is that informed consent has been obtained from you. Thus any information derived from your response during the interview (which will be totally anonymous) may be used for publication, by the investigator. As all information or data is anonymous, you must understand that you will not be able to recall your consent, as your information will not be traceable.

VERBAL INFORMED CONSENT (applicable when participant cannot read or write) 85

I, the undersigned, (field worker) have read and have explained fully to the participant, named ……………………………………………………………………….. and/or is he/her relative, the participant information leaflet, which has indicated the nature and purpose of the study in which I have asked the participant to participate. The explanation I have given has mentioned both the possible risks and benefits of the study. The participant indicated that he/she understands that he/she will be free to withdraw from the study at any time for any reason and without jeopardizing his/her relationship with the researcher.

I hereby certify that the participant has agreed to participate in this study.

Participant’s Name (Please print)

Investigator’s Name (Please print)

Investigator’s Signature Date

FINAL WORD

Your co-operation and participation in this study will be highly appreciated.

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INTERPRETER’S CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL, WATER AND EARTH SCIENCE

INTERPRETER’S CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT

I ...... serving as an interpreter to the researcher, Zwelakhe Zondi, a Master of Technology student at the Tshwane University of Technology in his field work, hereby declare that whatever information I have received during the course of discharging this duty will remain confidential.

I will abide by all ethical code of conduct that will be required during and after the study. I will ensure that informed consent and participants rights are properly explained to them before the commencement of my duty at any point in time.

I also agree that I will take full responsibility for any legal action that is taken against me due to my breach of the confidentiality agreement.

Signature of Interpreter ------

Date ------

Signature of Researcher ------

Date ------

Signature of Witness 1 ------

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Date ------

Signature of Witness 2 ------

Date ------

88