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Sounds Perfect: the Evolution of Recording Technology and Music's Social Future

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Sounds Perfect: the Evolution of Recording Technology and Music's Social Future University of Southampton Research Repository ePrints Soton Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF HUMANITIES Sounds perfect: the evolution of recording technology and music's social future by William Richard Lingard Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy MArch 2013 ii UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ABSTRACT FACULTY OF HUMANITIES Department of Music Doctor of Philosophy SOUNDS PERFECT: THE EVOLUTION OF RECORDING TECHNOLOGY AND MUSIC'S SOCIAL FUTURE by William Richard Lingard The effect of technology on music has been indisputably profound. As a cultural descendant of the traditions first established by notation and printing, recorded music technology has transformed our understanding and use of music in all sorts of ways. Whether or not different technologies have had a positive or negative effect, however, is a subject of much debate. Traditional histories of recorded music technology demonstrate a tendency either to treat each new platform as truly revolutionary, or to elide the differences between them to such an extent that significant socio-cultural and socio-economic transformations become occluded. Revisiting this history with an open mind—and a degree of cultural and temporal distance—permits a perspective of progression, from which the ramifications of recorded music technologies become more accurately discernible. This thesis highlights six characteristics of recorded music, all of which have been affected at various times and in various ways by the evolution of recording technology. Without exception, every new platform for recorded music has improved upon at least one of these six characteristics, although not necessarily without detriment to one of the others. It is in the scope of these improvements that digital music files, as a platform, are fundamentally different to any of their predecessors. Far from simply continuing or exaggerating the trend that forms the customary narrative of the traditional histories of recorded music, digital music files have completely reengineered our relationship with and understanding of the production, distribution, and consumption of music in a very profound way. The thesis explores these changes, and offers some frank yet ultimately encouraging insights as to what the social future of music may hold. iiiiii iviv Contents List of tables and illustrations vii Declaration of authorship xi Acknowledgements xiii Abbreviations and definitions xv 1 Introduction 3 2 Rehearsing history 21 3 On the origin of CDs 63 4 Perfect in every way? 77 4.1 Capacity 81 4.2 Compatibility 89 4.3 Durability 115 4.4 Economic viability 127 4.5 Editability 139 4.6 Fidelity 155 4.7 Sociological implications 175 5 Ritual de lo habitual 189 6 A digital paradox 273 Appendices 293 Glossary 299 References 307 Bibliography 331 v vi List of tables and illustrations Chapter 2 2.1 (a) Input signal and sampling above Nyquist frequency. Author's own work. 2.1 (b) Input signal, sampling below Nyquist frequency, and aliased output signal. Author's own work. 2.2 Fletcher-Munson equal loudness curves and International Standards Organization (ISO) revisions from Standard 226:2003. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 2nd August 2012 from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/file:lindos4.svg>. 2.3 Simultaneous auditory masking of lower frequency, quieter signal by higher frequency, louder signal. Author's own work. 2.4 Compression capabilities of Sony's ATRAC formats compared to the linear pulse code modulation used in Red Book CD audio. Author's own work using data courtesy of Sony Corporation. Retrieved 8th September 2010 from <http://www.sony.net/Products/ATRAC3/overview/ index.html>. Chapter 3 3.1 Tree of organic life and tree of cultural artifacts. Image reproduced with permission of Springer Publishing. Licence granted 10th August 2012, no. 2965351153363. 3.2 Evolution of clock technology in terms of perfection and ideality. Author's own work. Chapter 4 4.1 Evolution of recorded music media capacity. Author's own version of an infographic created by Curtiss Spontelli. Licensed for non-commercial re-use and adaptation under Creative Commons. Original image retrieved 2nd May 2010 from <http://www.flickr.com/photos/7979419@N02/ 4131812966/sizes/l/>. viivii List of tables and illustrations 4.2 Cost per gigabyte of data storage from 1980–2009. Author's own work using data courtesy of Matt Komorowski. Retrieved 5th May 2012 from <http://ns1758.ca/winch/ winchest.html>. Data are included in Appendix 1. 4.3 (a) Two-node network with one connection. Author's own work based on a diagram created by Derrick Coetzee. Original image courtesy of Derrick Coetzee via Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 10th September 2011 from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Network_effect.png>. 4.3 (b) Six-node network with 15 connections. Author's own work based on a diagram created by Derrick Coetzee. Original image courtesy of Derrick Coetzee via Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 10th September 2011 from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Network_effect.png>. 4.3 (c) 12-node network with 66 connections. Author's own work based on a diagram created by Derrick Coetzee. Original image courtesy of Derrick Coetzee via Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 10th September 2011 from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Network_effect.png>. 4.4 Connections in networks of 1–12 nodes. Data calculated using Metcalfe's Law, which states that the number of possible connections (c) existing in any network of n nodes can be expressed as c = n(n–1)/2. 4.5 Average costs of a CD in 2002. Author's own work using data from a report by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry on the average costs involved in the release of a CD, cited in Peitz and Waelbroeck (2004: 2). 4.6 Changes in value chains. Author's own work, based on information in Bockstedt et al. (2006: 9). 4.7 (a) Traditional value chain. Author's own version of a diagram in Bockstedt et al. (2006: 4). 4.7 (b) Digital value chain. Author's own version of a diagram in Bockstedt et al. (2006: 5). 4.8 Outline of human auditory system. Author's own work using anatomical image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 31st October 2012 from <http://commonswiki- media.org/wiki/File:Hearing_mechanics.png>. viiiviii List of tables and illustrations Chapter 5 5.1 Matrix of acquisition channels. Author's own version of a diagram in Makkonen et al. (2011: 895). 5.2 Long tail graph. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 8th November 2012 from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Long_tail.svg>. 5.3 (a–j) Torrent transfer protocol sequence. Author's own version of a GIF sequence from Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 21st September 2012 from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki- /File:Torrentcomp_small.gif>. 5.4 Artist earnings from different acquisition channels. Author's own version of an infographic created by David McCandless using information provided by TheCynicalMusician.com, Digital Audio Insider, Basca.org.uk, PRSforMusic.com, and Musically.com. Full spreadsheet of data retrieved 12th November 2012 from <http://bit.ly/DigitalRoyalty>. Abridged data are included in Appendix 2. ixix List of tables and illustrations x Declaration of authorship I, declare that the thesis entitled Sounds perfect: the evolution of recording technology and music's social future and the work presented in the thesis are both my own, and have been generated by me as the result of my own original research. I confirm that: • this work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this University; • where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated; • where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed; • where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work; • I have acknowledged all main sources of help; • where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself; • none of this work has been published before submission. Signed: Date: xi xii Acknowledgements A project such as this is never undertaken in isolation, even though it feels that way sometimes. Many people have made many contributions; sometimes knowingly, sometimes not. I am indebted to the staff at the University of Southampton and my colleagues there. Those who have had the dubious pleasure of being involved in my PhD have been supportive and stimulating. Sadly, neither my memory nor my word count will allow me to enumerate them all here, so I say thank you en masse to everyone. There are a few people, however, whom I would like to thank more directly. My supervisor, Andrew Pinnock. Your guidance during the last four years (and beyond) has been invaluable, and equipped me to do something I never thought I could. My good friends Jaime Ashworth, Andy Fisher, Stephen Groves, and David Steynor.
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