Depletion Gilding, Innovation and Life-Histories: the Changing Colours

antiquity 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © digagl ae ntpo ifrn ea usrt wt uvrat,sc as such subvariants, ‘tumbaga’), (with (named alloy substrate gold-copper-silver a copper metal of removing different surface involved the that a from those by silver) of and sometimes, functioned plating), top (and, that electrochemical on or those leaf-gilding layer into fusion, categorised gold broadly a be adding can goldsmithing methods individual gilding techniques on of depending Gilding variety regions, A low. different traditions. relatively in was predominant metal are golden, bulk that objects the known their in are rendered gold that of techniques among quantity gilding the developed, if of having even range a for feats, renowned technical are other many America South of goldsmiths Pre-Columbian Introduction Sáenz-Samper Juanita metalwork Nahuange of colours changing the life-histories: and innovation gilding, Depletion ∗ 2 1 idn,gl,life-histories gold, gilding, Keywords: N nttt fAcaooy nvriyCleeLno,3–4Gro qae odnW1 P,UK 0PY, WC1H London Square, Colombia Gordon DC, 31–34 Bogotá London, #5–41, College 16 University Calle Archaeology, República, of la Institute de Banco Oro, del Museo uhrfrcrepnec (Email: correspondence for Author 0 139(07:15–27doi: 1253–1267 (2017): 359 91 km ot mrc,Clmi,peClmin rhemtlug,depletion archaeometallurgy, pre-Columbian, Colombia, America, South area Study 500 Bogotá 1 acsMartinón-Torres Marcos & [email protected]) 1253 idn elsewhere. depletion gilding of studies future for also affect directions It offers may microstructure. artefacts and appearance gold their of how life-history considers the and adopted, immediately illustrates be always not research a may innovation technological This how always feature. not desirable assumptions, have contrary widespread and, may discovery to accidental gilding an depletion Results been traditions. that comparative metalworking suggest regional on provide data to microscopic analyses and chemical metallographic, to ( in Colombia period Nahuange gold the well from Andean Artefacts is work. pre-Columbian gilding in depletion evidenced of technique The c. D1010)wr subject were 100–1000) AD 2, ∗ 10.15184/aqy.2017.97

Research Juanita Sáenz-Samper & Marcos Martinón-Torres leaving it more gold-rich and hence more golden in colour than the substrate (e.g. Scott 1983; Lechtman 1988; La Niece & Meeks 2000). The latter repertoire of techniques is broadly known as ‘depletion gilding’, and it was favoured in large regions of the Andes, including parts of present-day Colombia. Heather Lechtman’s pioneering research helped in understanding the technical sophistication of depletion-gilding techniques; she also proposed interpretive models to explain this particular cultural choice (Lechtman 1973, 1977, 1984, 1988). Essentially, depletion gilding is achieved by exposing a gold-copper-silver alloy to an oxidising environment, which leads to the formation of copper oxide scales on the surface. During removal of these oxides by burnishing or pickling with plant acids, copper is progressively removed from the surface of the alloy, and silver and gold replace it. By repeating the process several times, metalsmiths achieved remarkably golden (and gold-rich) surfaces, even if the bulk alloy was relatively gold-poor. The thickness of the golden layer could be as thin as 10µm or less, but it was sufficient to alter the appearance of the objects radically. As Lechtman posited, this process probably responded not so much to a concern with saving metals or reducing their melting temperatures, but rather to a cultural norm dictating that the golden ‘essence’ of the metal must be exhibited on the objects’ surfaces. Thus, depletion gilding became a key element of the Andean ‘technical style’ that straddles material and symbolic considerations, and it has continued to be recognised as such (e.g. González 2004). While overarching models are useful to drive the discipline, higher-resolution regional studies often reveal idiosyncratic practices that do not fit easily into those paradigms. Here, we present the first analytical characterisation of Nahuange gold work from Colombia— a metallurgical tradition that developed in the northern Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, based on copper-rich tumbaga alloys. Of particular significance is the discovery that goldsmiths often obtained depleted-gilded surfaces unintentionally, but these surfaces were painstakingly polished off to remove the golden layer and reveal the pinkish hue of the bulk alloy. Similar features were also found on some objects that had been gilded deliberately. The singularity of this tradition has implications for our understanding of the discovery of depletion gilding as a technique, the role of social agents in the acceptance or rejection of technological innovations, the complex life-histories of metal objects, the concept of value and the diachronic development of Colombian gold-working traditions.

Background to Nahuange metalwork The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is a pyramid-shaped mountain range close to the Caribbean coast of Colombia. It is over 5700m in height, with steep slopes that descend directly to alluvial plains to the west, the sea to the north, and with a range of arid plains and river valleys to the east and south. The mountain range therefore encompasses a wide range of climates and ecological niches in a relatively small area. Although it is a very prominent element of the landscape, it was not an impassable barrier, and allowed the movement of people and ideas (Figure 1). Archaeologically, the region is best known for the Tairona culture, which has been documented through excavations at famous sites, such as Ciudad Perdida and Pueblito. © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1254 steEryo aunePro—ae fe h a hr .AdnMsnexcavated Mason Alden (Mason J. 1922 where bay in the tomb after Period—named large Nahuange a or Early the as oe taao arn erc onain tPelt n iddPria(Giraldo the Perdida in Ciudad found been and example, Pueblito for at has, foundations pottery terrace Nahuange Tairona 2010 hills. of the were strata villages in lower Nahuange valleys. up or that bays scattered revealed with however, associated also have, coast, investigations Caribbean socio- the archaeological their towards villages Recent primarily and that spread Period indicates be Nahuange evidence to archaeological the appear Nahuange of scarce societies The the development. characterise cultural to necessary is research eela ale hs tsvrlTioasts ihdfeethbtto tutrsand structures to habitation however, to different begun, dated with has broadly sites, Research phase, Tairona gold-alloy This Bogotá. several of culture. in at material thousands Oro phase characteristic by del earlier Museo evidenced an the reveal conspicuously at most preserved is artefacts culture material Tairona with coast. coincides Caribbean Nahuange the the of near span Marta, geographic Santa The de regions. Nevada gold-working Sierra main the the in indicating Tairona Colombia the of Map 1. Figure .Nhag ussec ciiisicue giutr n sig h complexity The ﬁshing. and agriculture included activities subsistence Nahuange ). elto idn,invto n life-histories and innovation gilding, Depletion 1931 , 1936 1255 , 1939 Bischof ; niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © c. 1969 D1010,i known is 100–1000, AD ;Bray 2003 .Further ).

Research Juanita Sáenz-Samper & Marcos Martinón-Torres of the pottery, lapidary work and gold work suggests the existence of craft specialists. Little is known concerning the political or religious structure of Nahuange communities, although the rich tomb of Nahuange perhaps suggests some social inequality (Bray 2003; Langebaek 2005). It has been suggested that social and political change occurring around the tenth century AD led to the demographic growth and increasing political centralisation that seem characteristic of the Tairona (Oyuela-Caycedo 1987;Langebaek2005; Giraldo 2010). Nahuange material culture is only beginning to be understood. Studies so far have revealed cultural influences from several regions that were developed idiosyncratically. The morphology and iconography of Nahuange pottery share traits with ceramics recovered from the valleys of the Ranchería River in the Guajira, the Magdalena River and the Caribbean Plains (Falchetti 1987; Langebaek 1987; Oyuela-Caycedo 1987;Bray 1990, 2003). Winged plaques and female figurines carved in green stones may be local manifestations of motifs that are widely documented in Venezuela, Aruba, the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy, the Caribbean Plains of Colombia, the Caribbean and the Isthmus (Plazas 2007). Defining Nahuange gold work is one aim of an ongoing project led by Juanita Sáenz- Samper (2015). A major challenge is the scarcity of well-documented archaeological contexts for many of these artefacts. Furthermore, the morphological traits shared by Nahuange and Tairona metal artefacts, which are indicative of cultural continuities, can sometimes complicate the phasing of such artefacts. It is becoming possible, however, to characterise some specific traits of the Nahuange tradition by referring to metal objects that can be dated by association to datable material culture, or whose charcoal-rich cores can be dated directly by radiocarbon (as was the case of one tumbaga figurine recovered at the eponymous tomb of Nahuange, dated to AD 427–536 (OxA 1577 at 95.4% confidence); date modelled in OxCal 4.1, using IntCal13 calibration curve; Bronk Ramsey 2009; Reimer et al. 2013)—(cf. Falchetti 1987;Bray2003; Sáenz-Samper 2015). In general, while ceramics are indicative of connections with the east, the typology and iconography of gold work compare strongly with artefacts from cultures of the interior, particularly the Early Quimbaya and Early Zenú of the middle Cauca Valley and the Caribbean Plains (Falchetti 1993). Nahuange gold work was predominantly used for body adornment and display. Common typologies include pectorals (especially double-spiral, circular, triangular or ornitomorphic), pendants (mainly anthropomorphic, ornitomorphic, frog- and feline-shaped, or triangular), nose pendants (rhomboidal, elliptical, triangular or semilunar, among others), ear pendants, flat discs, belts/diadems and bracelets. Decorative motifs include spirals, volutes, circles, dotted lines, and schematic representations of birds and other animals. Although relatively flat objects predominate, three-dimensional figurative pendants cast by the lost-wax technique are also common—especially in the form of birds, frogs and quadrupeds with a raised tail (Figure 2) (Sáenz-Samper 2015). A more detailed discussion of the problems and potentials of defining the Nahuange culture, its origins, broader connections and evolution will be addressed in later publications. We concentrate here on the technical analysis of artefacts that are probably attributable to the Nahuange period. The aim is to provide an initial approach to understanding the materials and technologies that © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1256 cl.Alpoorpsb lr aulRdíuz ue e r,Bnod aRpbia andi- to Main Not República. (b). la surfaces de the back Banco between matt Oro, difference yellow, del the unpolished, Museo note the Rodríguez, 6 objects, and Manuel O16519—H: hammered Clark (f) centimetres: On by surfaces in artefacts. photographs front mensions metal All pinkish Nahuange scale. polished, of highly Examples 2. Figure r hw ob mn h otiisnrtcadpop ute nltclconsideration analytical further prompt and work. idiosyncratic gold these most archaeological as the of techniques, among Tairona treatment be later surface to on the shown placed with are is comparisons emphasis future Particular traditions. for other basis and a as metalwork, Nahuange characterise 10. D: 1.6 × :76 177H 4.3 O19707—H: 7.6; W: elto idn,invto n life-histories and innovation gilding, Depletion × :83 387H 6.7 O33857—H: 8.3; W: × :5.;O69—:2.3 O16195—H: 51.8; W: 1257 × :62 113H 2.6 O17123—H: 6.2; W: niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © × :1.;O16256—H: 13.4; W: × :56 O17587— 5.6; W:

Research Juanita Sáenz-Samper & Marcos Martinón-Torres Analytical methods All the artefacts studied belong to the public collections held at the Museo del Oro in Bogotá. Within a broader analysis of Nahuange and Tairona artefacts, 44 complete and fragmentary Nahuange objects were examined visually and under low-power digital microscopy to assess morphology and surface texture. Several analytical techniques were employed to characterise manufacturing traits of the objects. Optical, digital and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of whole artefacts or fragments were used to identify traces of the tools and the techniques employed in surface polishing and decoration. Metallography, scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS) and wavelength dispersive electron microprobe (EPMA) analyses of polished cross-sections provided further information about the microstructure and hence the artefact-manufacturing sequence. Particular attention was paid to the possible existence of surface layers, and their microstructure and composition, in comparison to the main body of the objects. In addition to those samples analysed chemically by SEM-EDS and EPMA, non-invasive analyses of a number of objects were carried out by portable X-ray ﬂuorescence spectrometry (pXRF). These results were combined with those of previous (unpublished) surface XRF analyses (both on surfaces and cross-sections) undertaken by the Departamento Técnico Industrial (DTI) of the Banco de la República de Colombia (Sáenz-Samper 2015). New invasive analyses were performed at the UCL Institute of Archaeology; surface analyses (low-power digital microscopy and chemical) were conducted both at UCL in London and at the Museo del Oro in Bogotá (see online supplementary material (OSM)). All compositional values reported here are in percentage by weight (%).

Results Visual and microscopic examination A large proportion of Nahuange metal artefacts are flat ornaments made on thin sheets (mean thickness 207µm, median 118µm, n = 5). Their slight curvature, together with the presence and arrangement of decoration, facilitates identification of their fronts and backs. Most objects show a very shiny, highly polished, pinkish front surface, which contrasts with a matt, scaly, yellower back surface (Figures 2 & 3). Microscopic examination helps visualise the extremely fine polishing marks on the pink surfaces. In some cases, the high density, straightness and parallel arrangement of these polishing marks suggest the use of a rotary polishing device—an issue requiring further investigation, especially considering the lack of rotary kinetic energy use in pottery making and transport in this region (Sáenz-Samper 2015). High-magnification surface imaging also allows inferences concerning the techniques and tools employed for decoration. Here, chiselled, chased and punched forms predominate, as occasionally evidenced by the ragged profile of the chiselled lines and the metal displacement caused by punching and embossing (Figure 4). Microscopic examination also shows remnants of a more yellow surface layer on the pink surfaces. These are typically confined to corners and crevices that would have been harder to polish, or to the inside part of the narrower chiselled decoration lines (Figures 4 & 5). These features indicate that during their manufacture or later life-history (and following © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1258 ennsaetpclycnndt h rvcsbtenojc oisadterapplied their and bodies object between gilding crevices These off. the polished to seems ( subsequently decoration was what confined that of typically layer remnants artefact. are surface the show golden of remnants also more part a objects as been cast cast have and some to threads pseudofiligree predominate, the wax occasional shades on with include modelled pink openings also were Although through objects that These details exposed other material, artefacts. remains or charcoal-rich metal core spirals the fine, this of a bottom casting, of or made After back cores, model. thick wax of the use inside the involved that technique wax ifrn ere fplsig( was polishing this of that degrees and different layer, golden a polishing. by by covered fronts their fully from were removed objects later these of some decoration), displaced Sáenz-Samper. metal Juanita of of by surface Photographs detail front O19259. Right) the ornament depression. on nose the decoration of inside chased back and colour the punched golden on the more decoration of punched a detail the of Left) by remnants artefacts. showing metal O18155a, on ornament decoration nose of Details 4. Figure ornament nose of surface back unpolished matt, the and surface front Martinón-Torres. polished Marcos highly by the Photographs O16195. between Comparison 3. Figure he-iesoa atatfcsaegnrlypn roag l vr n exhibit and over, all orange or pink generally are artefacts cast Three-dimensional iue6 Figure ,atog nafwcsste pert oe h uko h object. the of bulk the cover to appear they cases few a in although ), elto idn,invto n life-histories and innovation gilding, Depletion iue2 Figure .Te r fe atuigavrato h lost- the of variant a using cast often are They ). 1259 niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity ©

Research Juanita Sáenz-Samper & Marcos Martinón-Torres

Cross-section and chemical analyses SEM-EDS and EPMA results show the use of gold-copper-silver (Au-Cu-Ag) alloys of varied compositions, but always rather copper-rich (EPMA results: mean±SD Cu 62.9±9.5%, Ag 5.6±1.2%, Au 30.4± 7.8%; n = 5). While there is no evidence for pre-Hispanic silver-extraction technology in the area, an abundance of naturally argentiferous gold in Colombia is well known. We infer, therefore, that these alloys were made by combining metallic copper with argentiferous gold, rather than alloying three separate metals. All other elements are present in concentrations lower than 0.03%, and hence near the detection limits of the EPMA (Sáenz- Samper 2015). Most interesting, however, are the chemical and microstructural gradients observed when some artefacts were examined in cross-section. The back surfaces of flat objects frequently show a very thin and porous layer that is much richer in gold than the substrate, similar to those reported elsewhere as resulting from depletion gilding (Figures 7 & 8) (e.g. Lechtman 1988; Hörz & Kallfas Figure 5. Front view of hammered nose ornament O19707 2000; Schlosser et al. 2012). This layer is and detail of the raised decoration, showing remnants of the golden layer that once covered the whole surface. Object sometimes found on the front surfaces too; dimensions: 4.3 × 8.3cm. Photograph by Clark Manuel here, it is thinner and often discontinuous, Rodríguez, Museo del Oro, Banco de la República; detail and barely perceptible when the object by Marcos Martinón-Torres. is seen from the surface (maximum layer thickness on front 2.0±1.6µm, mean layer thickness on back 4.2±0.8µm, based on two measurements per layer on five objects). Consistent gilded surfaces on both sides are seen in only a very few cases. These observations appear to support the proposition that many objects would have been wholly covered by gilding, but that the golden layer was often removed from the front surfaces. The single cast object that we analysed in cross-section did not show any traces of a gilded layer. Cross-section analyses also showed the metallographic structure of the objects. Flat artefacts display a tight, fibrous texture resulting from intense hammering; intergranular corrosion reveals small recrystallised grains that denote episodes of heating between hammering cycles, to ensure the alloy retained its malleability (Figure 7). The cast object analysed metallographically showed a dendritic structure, indicating the lack of mechanical work after casting.

1260 e nlsswt eaydt oealmean (overall these data pooled 39.9 legacy and ones, with cast analyses three-dimensional and new objects hammered flat, between choices euto orso.Temtlorpi mg ntelf losostefiru etr eutn rmitnehmeig as the Sáenz-Samper. hammering, Juanita are intense and from cavities the Bustamante resulting The Alba of texture Nohora (bottom). (top fibrous by back Photographs the front annealing. shows the the by also on achieved on ferric left layer recrystallisation the surface alcoholic the golden on straight as in porous, image well the metallographic the etched Note The to microscope, corrosion. image). compared of optical electron polishing, result image: intense secondary (left from SEM resulting O16196 image: images), objects (right hammered O26820b and of chloride) cross-sections Polished 7. Figure la de Banco Oro, del the Museo of Rodríguez, remnants Manuel showing Clark decoration, by pseudofiligree Photographs the surface. of detail whole and the O18124 covered República. ornament once nose that cast layer of golden view Front 6. Figure ecridotnnivsv XFaaye falre ubro bet ocmaealloy compare to objects of number larger a of analyses pXRF non-invasive out carried We ± 39;n 13.9%; = 6 e OSM). see 36; elto idn,invto n life-histories and innovation gilding, Depletion iue9 Figure 1261 ofim ht o l ye fojc,preferred object, of types all for that, confirms ± SD:Cu52.4 niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © ± 59,A 7.4 Ag 15.9%, ± .% Au 3.2%,

Research Juanita Sáenz-Samper & Marcos Martinón-Torres

Figure 8. Scatterplot comparing the gold and copper levels on the core (c: full circles) and back layer (b: empty circles) in four hammered Nahuange artefacts, as measured by SEM-EDS on metallographic sections. Note the higher gold levels on the back surfaces, compared to the bulk.

Figure 9. Plot of the chemical composition of Nahuange metal artefacts on a ternary colour diagram, using normalised values in percentage by weight (%). See OSM for data.

1262 eibeidcto fbl ao lmn ocnrtosi odaly,ee hnsurface when even alloys, gold Blakelock in (cf. present concentrations are element phenomena major bulk of indication reliable Troalen i o aepaeutlteTioapro—prxmtl ee etre fe our after centuries seven period—approximately Tairona the until place gold. of take that always not not was did display for on essence displayed preferred be the to then ‘essences’ artefacts, had of always indeed surface not metals were the If surfaces accepted. golden preferentially that however, and Lechtman’s demonstrated, and immediately supports also gilding hence has and depletion It Marta, discovery. between Santa of de association model would Nevada the Sierra this at confirmed tumbagas that more has of hammered and, symbolism early study assumed the gold Our been in less copper. manifest required typically and as it systems gold has value that Andean It in broader discovery, objects. with desirable connected cast importantly, and advantageous to an it been apply have preventing of and way method no progressive essentially the the [was] leave “there realised would words, these have own (Lechtman removed, her it” would When In surfaces. smiths appearance. the yellow metal, on more reheating scales a the oxide) regular of (copper As dark fracture tumbagas. of deposition avoid with work to hammering required the was through during use-wear accident to by exposed discovered less being the object). front uniform, of the and (the wearing thorough removal objects individual too the of The generally with front colour. were contact is the pink polish rings on the nose former only use-wear: and their appearing with plates consistent to breast not them diadems, desired. is return of gilding be surfaces to always an front polished not the was would meticulously why gilding appearance explain depletion copper- golden annealing would cases, this and This visible these however, hammering of the Crucially, by sequence many tumbagas. from manufacturing in rich removed the that, of subsequently effect propose was side We inevitable which objects. layer, these been had gilded of surfaces side a these by often highly that covered and shows hues previously however, pinkish analysis, for Microscopic preference a surfaces. reveals polished work gold Nahuange of examination Visual Discussion alloy gold a in depth X-ray-penetration (effective 10 layer layer around back this gilded is beneath the produced of is and thinness exceptional detected back the between what by colour than explained 4.2 in smaller be (mean much contrasts may are noticeable This differences and very the surfaces. higher the back and front show considering case, the to the expected, tend from always analyses be measured not back might is as the this compared, results, But may are levels. XRF cast objects, gold are hammered the copper same When pure the bias). of nominally front of sampling artefacts a two and reflect the cast pinkish simply between that with found fact corresponding were (the differences copper, artefacts compositional of hammered significant proportions No colours. high orange relatively and with those were alloys h paeadpplrsto fdpeingligi iraNvd eSnaMarta Santa de Nevada Sierra in gilding depletion of popularisation and uptake The been have could gilding depletion that proposed previously has Lechtman Heather tal. et ± 0.8 µ 2014 mforCuK 1988 µ )adisihrn ooiy enn htmc fteXryfluorescence X-ray the of much that meaning porosity, inherent its and m) .Ti oprsndmntae htnnivsv R a rvd a provide may XRF non-invasive that demonstrates comparison This ). 5) hswudhv e osbeun xeietto ooptimise to experimentation subsequent to led have would This 354). : elto idn,invto n life-histories and innovation gilding, Depletion α n ihrfrA K Ag for higher and , 2016 1263 ). α n uL Au and niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © α ;cf.Gigante tal et . 2005 ;

Research Juanita Sáenz-Samper & Marcos Martinón-Torres documented earliest evidence of ‘polished off’ depletion gilding. This observation reminds us that even though a technological discovery can occur by accident, its widespread adoption does not—it requires a suitable social context in which the innovation may fulfil a utilitarian or cultural role. Nevertheless, the situation seems more complex than a wholesale rejection of depletion gilding in the Nahuange period, followed by a full adoption of the technique by the Tairona. Potentially contradicting this scenario are the few hammered objects from which the gilding was not removed and, especially, the cast objects with patches of gilding remnants. In the latter, the gilding is hard to explain as unintentional, as neither hammering nor annealing would have been required during manufacture; both the gilding and the subsequent ‘ungilding’ may represent deliberate practice. To explain this diversity, a more detailed consideration of artefact life-histories may be required. It is possible that the removal of the golden layer did not take place immediately after manufacture. It may have been carried out at a later stage of the object’s life, perhaps as part of a ritual or to mark a particular moment in the life of an individual or the community. Similarly, the gilding (and subsequent polishing) of cast objects may represent different stages in the social life of the object, rather than all taking place at the beginning. The signs of extensive wear shown by some of these artefacts are compatible with relatively long life-histories of moderately intense use, which may have involved more than one person. Ana María Falchetti (1999, 2003) has investigated the symbolism of metals in indigenous American societies, in which metal is often associated with ideas of transformation and the continuity of life. The yellow colour of gold, its immortality and incorruptibility are often connected with the male power of the sun, whereas the various reddish hues of copper and its capacity for transformation (through corrosion or other colour-changing processes) prompt associations with the human life-course. Among the present-day Desana people of Vaupés in south-east Colombia, different hues of red are classified as copper-like and are related to female properties, to the corruptible and mortal essence of human flesh and blood (as opposed to the bones; Reichel-Dolmatoff 1981). Against this background, and notwithstanding the risks of using ethnographic parallels, we propose that the colour and sheen of Nahuange metal objects may have been adjusted in the course of their life-histories. Intentional alteration may, for example, have been carried out prior to deposition in a funerary context, where the removal of the gilded layer may have represented a form of ‘ritual killing’. This is perhaps comparable to the case of a Nahuange pectoral at the Museo del Oro collection that was clearly folded before deposition, and also to similar practices documented elsewhere. This hypothesis could be tested by comparing the funerary vs non- funerary find contexts for Nahuange artefacts—a task made difficult by the scarcity of well-defined contexts. Another plausible scenario would be the alteration of the artefacts to mark important moments in life, such as the owner attaining puberty. Considering recurrent associations between reddish colours and females, it may be useful to investigate further the possible connections between women and metalwork. It may be significant that human representations in Nahuange metal, stone and ceramic artefacts are predominantly female. A related question pertains to the origins and spread of this particular tradition of metal surface alterations. A small number of early Quimbaya artefacts (500 BC–600 AD; Uribe- Villegas 2005) appear to show the same front polish that removed an earlier gilded surface, © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1264 ecnitn ihpeiu eerhta a ihihe eayo umaasye in styles Bray Quimbaya & of (Cooke legacy Colombia a northern highlighted would of has observation traditions that gold-making technical research the This previous research. with future consistent for be directions potential providing thus rad atlo esc ee n lr aulRdíuz swl st olausi odn nldn Kevin including Liu. London, Siran Rubio, in and colleagues Robert Boscher to Uribe-Villegas, as Loic Alicia well Phelps, María as Matt particularly Rodríguez, Reeves, Manuel Oro, grateful with Clark del continued very and Museo Perez then are Jessica the We was Archaeology, Castillo, Martinón-Torres. at It Orlando of to staff Colombia. Universities Institute supportive de Santander UCL extremely República from la the the Award de to at Catalyst Banco Sáenz-Samper Research the by a and from dissertation Oro del support MSc Museo an the of from part support with as initiated was work This 1995 h te oal odwrigtaiinna h aiba os fClmi ( Colombia of coast Caribbean the near tradition gold-working notable other the neetnl,fml ersnain r bnati eúadEryQiby material Quimbaya Early and Zenú in (Sáenz-Samper culture abundant are representations female Interestingly, oeg rgn unnsqaiiscnrse oteplns n ako du flocal of odour of lack and paleness possible the and quality to shiny contrasted (Bray colour, gold purple qualities or Guanín’s reddish origin. smell, foreign unique a in materialised which oprrc odaly a endcmne mn h an oite fteGreater the of societies Taíno the metal among this documented called been They Antilles. has alloys (Uribe-Villegas gold proposed copper-rich been also have female the ot hsi h nyojc nteasmlg iheiec fdpeingligad as off and, polished gilding deliberately been depletion have of Colombian to evidence appears with with layer along assemblage golden (Martinón-Torres Europeans the the objects, in by Nahuange object transported the what only with probably including the bird, objects, is Tairona guanín This a loot. several by be accompanied to was seems conquest the after sometime Torres Acknowledgements regions other in also but archaeometallurgists. contexts, by American identified South been has simply in gilding consumers. caution been depletion and raise where have goldsmiths only however, of not may, expectations should and items This intentions tumbaga the hammered of of irrespective unavoidable, gilding The Martinón-Torres see burning). (but by act intentional excluded, an ( be of Uribe-Villegas can result & treatments the probably post-depositional more if is objects, depletion elsewhere, cast surface or intentionality gilded here In the artefacts, assumed. act, gold-alloy be the annealed prove purposeful cannot and a While to hammered denotes in culture. need Nahuange gilding material the depletion the behind among archaeological also layers in but gilded recorded innovations, of removal actions rejecting the or behind adapting intentionality adopting, in agents social study to oversimplified, continue overcome should to research trying narratives. traditions, future atemporal gold-working notwithstanding data, of Furthermore, contextual development diachronic region. poor the Circum-Caribbean of challenge the frequent rites, on passage the focus and female particular with associations a possible with and metals), (beyond sheens and colours ial,ti td fNhag odwr mhsssntol h cierl of role active the only not emphasises work gold Nahuange of study this Finally, ;Bray 2013 1997 .I h ua eeeyo lCor eMía nidgnu eaeburied female indigenous an Maíta, de Chorro El of cemetery Cuban the In ). 1992 ;Oliver .Rdihhe r loue,atog o xlsvl,b h Zenú— the by exclusively, not although used, also are hues Reddish ). tal. et 2015 1993 2012 4–5 o ubg atfiuie cietlydepleted-gilded accidentally figurines cast tumbaga for 144–45) : 2000 elto idn,invto n life-histories and innovation gilding, Depletion Falchetti ; .Ftr okcud hrfr,fcso h tngah of ethnography the on focus therefore, could, work Future ). Martinón-Torres ; guanín 1995 n eeatatdb t uentrlassociations, supernatural its by attracted were and 1265 ,weecnetosbtenmtlokand metalwork between connections where ), tal. et 2005 2007 .Frhrnrh rfrnefor preference a north, Farther ). acre oa Martinón- & Rojas Valcárcel ; niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © 1985 Falchetti ; iue1 Figure 1987 ). ,

Research Juanita Sáenz-Samper & Marcos Martinón-Torres Supplementary material To view supplementary material for this article, please visit https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy. 2017.97

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