Volume 6, Issue 3(6), March 2017 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Founder and President Research Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Mumbai Lima Peru
Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Prof. Igor Kondrashin Vice Chancellor, Patna University The Member of The Russian Philosophical Former Director Society Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Studies, New Delhi & The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Vizianagaram Assistant Professor Dept. of Sociology & Social Work Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr. N.S. Dhanam Russian Philosophical Society Department of Philosophy Moscow, Russia Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Department of Mechanical Engineering Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education GITAM University University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Department of Computer Science Coordinator University of Pune,Pune A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering Dr.S.Kannan University of Novi Sad, Serbia Department of History Annamalai University Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Department of English Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India GITAM University Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Hyderabad Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences Dr.K.Chaitanya University of Sapienza, Rome Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Technology Al-Mustansiriyah University People’s Republic of China College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics Dr. Bipasha Sinha University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Librarian Prof. N Kanakaratnam Kalasalingam University Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi
Dr. K. John Babu Assistant Professor Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Department of Sahitya Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati
Dr.T.V.Ramana Prof. R. Siva Prasadh Department of Economics, Andhra University Institute of Advanced Studies in Education Campus, Kakinada Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
Volume 6 C O NIssue T E N3 (T6) S March 2017 S. Pg.
No No 1. Service Delivery, Institutional Capacity And Governance 1 Practices In Ethiopian Urban Administrations: The Case Of Hawassa City Administration Municipality Tekalign Arficho Haeso and Girma Teshome
2. Direct Sum of Algebraic Extensions 24 T.Srinivasarao
3. Moral Considerations for Animals (A Challenge for 27 Anthropocentric Approach) Tapan Talukdar
4. Survey on Evaluation of Students and Staff Performance 40 using Various Data Mining Techniques T.Prabha and D.Shanmuga Priyaa
5. An Empirical Study on Quality of Work Life in Service 57 Organisation with Reference to A.P. Co-operative Department, Visakha Zone K.V.B Ganesh and R. Padmaja
6. A Survey on Sports Participation and Performance of 74 Government Degree Colleges of Hyderabad Karnataka Region Karabasappa Parameshwar and M.S.Pasodi
7. Comparative Study on Mental Health and Self Confidence 83 among Sports Players Pradeepkumar and M.S.Pasodi
8. Impact Analysis of SHGS-Empowerment of Women - Self- 94 Help among Women in YSR Kadapa Dist of Andhra Pradesh Ramesh Reddy.T
9. Study and Prospects of Di-Methyl Ether as an Alternative 105 Fuel in C.I.Engine: Review Sarang.S.Chaudhari 10. Impact of Climate Change on Food Security in India 119 Seema Sharma
11. Labour Legislation in India 136 Suresh Chennam
12. Myanmar’s Rohingya Crisis: An Analysis of Security 152 Threats for South Asia Md Intekhab Alam Khan
13. Modular Teaching Approach in Undergraduate Program 164 and Its Implication on Quality Education: The Case of Mizan-Tepi University Matheas Shemelis and Miressa Yadessa Eba
14. Zilla Praja Parishad Administrtion in Andhra Pradesh 179 M.Saravara Kumari
15. Emergence of Christian Missionaries and their Social 196 Change in Andhra Pradesh M. Indira Santhi
16. APSRTC – A Cosmic Wheel for Safe Travel 207 K.V.Chidambaram and C.S.Sukumar Reddy
17. The Transformation of Women Characters in R.K. 216 Narayan Novel “The Guide” Kabyashree Baruah
18. Making Policy in the "New Economy": The Case of 228 Biotechnology in Karnataka, India Kumar.K.S
19. Origin and Development of Public Work Development in 250 Tamilnadu Under British Period M.Rajeswari
20. Passing Technical Skill Executions of the U17 Male 257 Youth Soccer Players’ of Ethiopia, 2015/16 League Season Laake Reda Hailu and A. Pallavi 21. 280
B.Laxmi 22. Beyond Milk- Rural Women Empowerment Through 286 Dairying In Rural India Shashikumar ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Dr. K. VICTOR BABU Impact Factor :4.527(2016) M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect. The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action. The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 3(6), MARCH 2017
SERVICE DELIVERY, INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY AND GOVERNANCE PRACTICES IN ETHIOPIAN URBAN ADMINISTRATIONS: THE CASE OF HAWASSA CITY ADMINISTRATION MUNICIPALITY
Tekalign Arficho Haeso Girma Teshome Researcher Assistant Professor of Agricultural FDRE Policy Study and Research Economics Center Haramaya University Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Principal Researcher FDRE Policy Study and Research Center, Ethiopia Abstract The objective of the study was assessing institutional capacity and governance practices in service delivery in the case of Hawassa Town municipality. The study assessed the institutional capacity and governance practice related to service delivery issues particular emphasizing on a working system in terms of, regulatory framework, policy and strategy, organizational structure and coordination and customers’ grievance redressing mechanisms and on leadership competency, particularly on the coaching, staff and customers communication and engagement. The study used qualitative and quantitative research data and probability and non probability sampling techniques. A total of 99 customers of which 27 experts of the municipalities, 28 focus group discussion (FGD) and 4 individual interviews were participated to collect data from both primary and secondary sources using questionnaire and interview data collecting tools. The finding of the study confirmed that the customers as well as employees of the organization (As expected from them) are unfamiliar with the legal frameworks of the municipalities. They have not consulted, participated and engaged on decision-making issues that concern their interest. Regarding institutional capacity in terms of human resource management, Office materials, and the leadership capacity were seen and it lacks training for the experts and leaders and also shortage of materials needed to accomplish the activities of the municipalities and then delivering excellent service to the customers hampered because of these institutional capacity problems. Therefore, the leadership has not committed to understanding the job trend, did
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not take the necessary actions proactively, have not good achievement and practices on customers and staff communication and engagement, the human resource in the municipalities found unsatisfied, uncommitted to understand the needs of the customers because of absence of good governance practices in the leadership and lack of attention for capacity development training. Service delivery systems are excellence if there is customer centered, have clear standards and comprehensive legal frameworks in order to be fair and accountable to the service receivers. Key Words: Institutional Capacity, Leadership, Customers satisfaction, and Service Delivery Introduction Public sectors need to have institutional capacity in order to deliver excellent services to their customers. Strong institutional capacity and good governance are essential to deliver effective services. As stated by (Masum, 2011) institutional capacity ensures good governance in the delivery of municipal services to the people by creating and strengthening the participation of the people in decentralizing decision- making and building sustainable partnerships with customers which facilitate the transparency and responsiveness principle of good governance. The Ethiopian Government has identified the lack of capacity in terms of not having the required number and quality of institutions, working systems, and human resources as the chief obstacles that stand in the way of realizing its development objectives (MoFED, 2010). Likely, in the Growth and Transformation plan (GTP), the government acknowledged that strengthening institutional capacity is critical to implement the GTP policies, strategies, and programs in order to achieve satisfactory results (MoFED, 2010). Addressing the problems of service delivery especially, at the municipal level is mainly important in alleviating institutional capacity related challenges and improving bad governance practices. This study tried to identify the problems of service delivery especially, problems of respecting the customers as a king, and issues like shortage of human resource, technologies for fast and timely service delivery, how suggestions were understood and accepted by the leaders of the institutions, issues of teamwork in delivering the services, satisfaction
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level of the customers on what they need were some of the gaps that have to be addressed by the research at South Nations Nationalities and Peoples Regional State Capital Hawassa city municipality. Literature review Institutional capacity and leadership Service delivery, from public sector organizations, refers to those activities of government institutions aimed at satisfying the need and ensuring the well being of society as well as enforcing laws, regulations and directives of the government. Service delivery Systems require systematic method where by activities are arranged so that the service recipients can get the services they need in an effective, efficient, transparent an equitable manner. The efficiency and effectiveness of the civil service is of vital importance for a successful implementation of the government policies and strategies (ECSU, 2012). Odeck, Langaas and Bjørvig (n.d), define institutional capacity in terms of three main activities such as skill upgrading, procedural improvements, and organizational strengthening. Similarly, UN (Economic and Social Council, 2006) defines institutional capacity development as the process by which entities develops abilities to perform functions, solve problems and set and achieve objectives.
Currently, one of the most popular and studied models of leadership contrasts two related approaches: transformational leadership and transactional leadership (Packard 2004, pp. 152–155). In transactional leadership, the more common approach, an exchange process involves the leader and followers agreeing to do or provide things to accommodate each other’s needs. In transformational leadership, the leader transforms and motivates followers by making them more aware of the importance of task outcomes, inducing them to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the organization or team, and activating their higher-order needs. Urban Good Governance in Ethiopia A combination of high urbanization rates, low management capacity and insufficient revenue generation in local administrations is placing Ethiopia’s cities under stress. Most city administrations are
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overwhelmed by the challenges confronting them. In the secondary cities where formal administrations have recently been established, urban population pressure particularly causes delays in urban service provision, with a significant impact on peoples’ living conditions. Nonetheless, well-governed cities can play a significant role in reducing poverty by offering employment opportunities and improved services. Establishing good governance practices in urban administrations is one of the priorities of the federal government. In its five-year Growth and Transformation Plan, urban areas are frequently cited as “growth poles” that require effective and efficient administrations to accommodate this function. The Ethiopian government’s urban development policy therefore calls for a comprehensive reform of the urban sector, particularly in regard to service delivery and urban finance administration (giz, 2012) According to World Bank Institute WBI (2001), governance role of public organizations is directly dependent on the leadership roles exercised in the organization in delivering excellence services to customers. These governance roles include: Strategy Setting or Visioning: determination of the desired future; Policy formulation: setting a framework for strategy implementation, Determination of Service Standards: decision on the level of services the sector will provide; Monitoring and Evaluation: the efficiency, effectiveness and capacity of the organization in delivering of services and implementation of prioritized strategies; and Ensuring Effective Communication: assuring the provision of information to citizenry, to empower the community for enhanced participation. Therefore, Service standards are a basis for measurement of service delivery. Standards help to measure the extent which service is being improved. The established service standard should be available to the public in order to meet its objectives. Research Objectives The general objective is to identify the problems of institutional capacity and good governance practices in service delivery in Hawassa city administration Municipalities. To achieve the general objective, the study pursued the following specific objectives:
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1. To assess the leadership quality of the municipality in relation to service delivery.
2. To assess customer handling practice of the municipality employee.
3. To identify the problems of service delivery in relation to the institutional capacity of the municipality.
4. To assess customers satisfaction level in response to municipal service delivery. Research Methods In order to accomplish the research objectives, descriptive research design and both probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling techniques were employed. In this study, all the customers who have come to the municipality to take services during the survey week, and all the experts of the municipality are considered as the target population. Additionally, work process coordinators and managers of the Hawassa city municipality and the selected sub-cities were also part of the target population. Hawassa has been selected because of being a regional capital, Population size, investment & tourist destination and nations and nationalities live together. From Hawassa City administration of eight sub-cities (Hawassa City administration profile, 2014) the researcher took three of them namely Tabore, Menehariya and Hawella Tula sub-cities. The sub-cities were selected purposively based on the population size, more services delivered by, the oldest and new emerging (suburb or rural behavior) of the sub-cities, from the new emerging ones Hawella Tula has been selected. Table 1: Summary of Sample size, techniques & data collection tools Sampling Target Sample Sampling Data frame populati populat technique collection Re on ion tool mar k Experts of 68 27 Purposive Questionna the and simple ire municipalitie random
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s Process 32 28 Purposive FGD coordinators Managers( 4 4 Purposive Interview deputy) managers Customers Weekly 99 Simple Questionna random ire Total 158 Source: Own survey, Nov, 2016 Results & Findings of quantitative and qualitative Analysis The socio-economic and demographic characteristics of respondents As it is shown, in Table 2 below, from the samples of total respondents 84 %of the customers of the municipalities’ are male and the remaining 15 % are female. About 85% of the experts of the municipalities respondents are male and 15% are female. This means that in the two respondent category most of the respondents were male. Table 1also indicated that out of 99 customers of the municipalities’ respondents, 76 % are between (20-50) age group, and out of 27 experts of the municipalities respondents, 96.3 % are in between (20-40) age group who are in the young age category.
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Table 2: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents Respondents
It e Customers of the municipalities Experts of the municipalities Frequency % Valid Cumulative% Frequency % Valid Cumulativ f f
Descri ption % % e % Male 84 84 84 84 23 85.2 85.2 85.2 Female 15 15 15 15 4 14.8 14.8 14.8 Total 99 99 99 99 27 100.0 100 100 Missing 1 1 1 - -
Sex Sex Respondents Total o 100 100 100 27 100.0 Below20 - - - - 20-30 35 35 35 35 16 59.26 59.26 59.26 31-40 33 33 33 33 10 37.04 37.04 37.04 41-50 18 18 18 18 - - - - above51 13 13 13 13 1 3.70 3.70 3.70 Total 99 99 99 27 100 100 100 Missing 1 1 - - - -
Age Total 100 100 100 27 100.0 100 Source: Own survey. Nov, 2016
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Educational Background of the Respondents The educational background of the respondents also summarized in table 3 indicating, 6 % of the customers of the municipalities’ are in between 1-8 grade and 8 % are in between 9-12 grade, 14 %t are a certificate, 24 % are Diploma, 40 % Degree and 7 % Masters and above. This means that out of 99 customers of the municipalities’ respondents 75 % are an educational background of above certificate. Moreover, 6 % and 8 % of these respondents are in between 1-8 and 9-12 grades education level respectively. Similarly, out of the 27 experts of the municipalities, 4(14.8), 20(74.1) and (3)11.1 % have Diploma, first Degree, and Masters Education status. Educational status is a key point and having such mixed educational background helps the respondents can successfully address the issues that they supposed to respond in this study.
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Table 3: Educational Status of the respondents Description Respondents Customers of the municipalities Experts of the municipalities Frequenc % Valid Cumulative Frequency % Vali Cumulative y % % d % % 1-8 Grade 6 6 6 6 - - - - 9-12 Grade 8 8 8 8 - - - - Certificate 14 14 14 14 - - - - Diploma 24 24 24 24 4 14.8 14.8 14.8 Degree 40 40 40 40 20 74.1 74.1 74.1 Masters & 7 7 7 7 3 11.1 11.1 11.1 Above Total 99 99 99 27 100 100 Missing 1 1 - - - Total 100 100 27 100 Source: Own survey. Nov, 2016
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As stated in Table 4 below most 55(44%) of the respondents indicated that getting a service on the given time frame and quality is difficult, almost half of the customer respondents stated about the prerequisite to be fulfilled by the customers not that much known and posted, regarding to structure of the municipalities 57(57%) of the respondents stated that it does not fit to provide the services as we want especial, at sub-cities level only one manager and no deputy managers. Customers are missing the prerequisites to fulfilled by them and the it leads them not to get services from the municipalities as well as the rules and regulations. Again regarding to the organizational structure in case of political duties given for the Heads of the municipalities then the customers program will be delayed, so, it need to have deputy managers at all municipalities and organizational structure needs to be restructured to fulfill all the services needed by the customers.
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Table 4: Customers Response on Quality Service and institutional support Description Category of Frequenc % Valid Cumulative
Th em responses y % % 1 Have you got quality services you Yes 44 44 44 44 needed? No 55 55 55 55 Total 99 99 99 99 Missing 1 1 100 2 Do you know the rules and Yes 61 61 61 61 regulations of the municipalities to No 38 38 38 38 get services? Total 99 99 99 99 Missing 1 1 100 3 Do you know the prerequisites to be Yes 49 49 49 49 fulfilled from your side to get a No 50 50 50 50 service? Total 99 99 99 99 Missing 1 1 100 4 Does the structure of the Yes 42 42 42 42 municipalities fits to provide the No 57 57 57 57 services? Total 99 99 99 99 Missing 1 1 100 Source: Own survey. Nov, 2016
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zAs indicated in the table 5 below the evaluation of sampled customers about the effectiveness of leaders in their job indicates that leaders of the municipalities are not effective enough to address their complaints and interest (63% of the respondents), the time taken to get a service in the municipalities needs almost long time (59% of the respondents) and it has direct link with their satisfaction level of the customers and it is in a bad condition (indicated as 52% were dissatisfied and very dissatisfied). Here, the leaders effectiveness is directly linked with training and capacity building and lack of effective service delivery may lead to dissatisfaction of the customers by the services delivered, as well as the time taken to get and have a services from the municipality takes very long time and lacks trust on their leaders. Therefore, the appointment or selections of leaders should be very careful and fair with based on the capacity that they have and commitment.
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Table 5: Customers’ response on leadership effectiveness and satisfaction level No Description Category of responses Frequency % Valid % Cumulative % 1 How you evaluate their (leaders) Very high 10 10 10 10 effectiveness in solving complaints of the High 12 12 12 12 customers? Average 14 14 14 14 Low 36 36 36 36 Very low 27 27 27 27 Total 99 99 99 99 Missing 1 1 100 2 The time taken to get a service V. short time 15 15 15 15 Short time 21 21 21 21 No answer 4 4 4 4 Long time 38 38 38 38 V. long time 21 21 21 21 Total 99 99 99 99 Missing 1 1 100 3 Your satisfaction level on services Very satisfied 22 22 22 22 delivered by the municipalities Satisfied 19 19 19 19 No answer 6 6 6 6 Dissatisfied 31 31 31 31 Very dissatisfied 21 21 21 21 Total 99 99 99 99 Missing 1 1 100 Source: Own survey. Nov, 2016
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As indicated in table 6 11(40.7%) of experts of the sampled municipalities said “Yes” on mechanisms by which your organization can handle the complaints raised from the customers & yours and 16(59.3%), of the respondents were said “No”, regarding to the current organizational structure is it sufficient to provide the intended services to customers 8(29.6%) of experts of the sampled municipalities said “Yes” and the rest of 19(70.4%) said “No”, about the leadership of the municipalities trying to improve work practice to achieve the desired mission in service delivery for customers 12(44.4%) were said “Yes” and the rest of 15(55.6%) said “No”, for the question raised on the municipality has adequate and comprehensive rules & regulations to govern its service delivery 17(63%) of the respondents were said “Yes” and the rest of 10(37%) responded “No”. If, there is no complaints handling mechanisms then the customers may fill bad image on municipalities, no trust, and stand for unnecessary acts like corruptions to get the services. If, the leaders are not trying in improving work practice then high rate of experts turnover, culture of bad service delivery may not be changed, there should be very clear rules and regulations regarding to services to be delivers if, no it will be very difficult to manage the activities of the municipalities.
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Table 6: Experts’ responses on complaint handling and leadership No Description Category Freque % Valid % Cumu / of ncy lative responses % 1 Do you have mechanisms by which your organization Yes 11 40.7 40.74 40.74 can handle the complaints raised from the customers No 16 59.3 59.26 59.26 and yours? Total 27 100 100 Missing - - - - 2 Do you believe that the current organizational structure Yes 8 29.6 29.63 29.63 is sufficient to provide the intended services to No 19 70.4 70.37 70.37 customers? Total 27 100 100 Missing - - - - 3 Is the leadership tries to improve work practice to Yes 12 44.4 44.44 44.44 achieve the desired mission in service delivery? No 15 55.6 55.56 55.56 Total 27 100 100 Missing - - - - 4 Do you believe that the municipality has adequate and Yes 17 62.97 62.97 62.97 comprehensive rules & regulations to govern its service No 10 37.03 37.03 37.03 delivery? Total 27 100 100 Missing - - - - Source: Own survey. Nov, 2016
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As indicated in table 7, regarding to the mechanisms for sharing information about governance (i.e. plans, accomplishments, service standards) to the customers in the municipalities 10(37%) of the experts said “Yes” and the rest of 17(63%)were said “No”, about giving the needed service to the customers in a reasonable time frame 12(44.4%) of the respondents said “Yes” and the rest of 15 (55.6%) were said “No” so, it indicates that Citizens charter did not implemented yet by the municipalities, regarding to giving the right person (leader & experts) at the right position 8(29.7%) of the sampled experts were said “Yes” and the rest of 19(70.3%) were said “No” here it indicates that the right person at the right position not assigned. From the above statistical presentation, someone can conclude that the services given by the municipalities were not satisfied by the customers at all levels and needs to be addressed properly by the concerned bodies. The service standards not visible for customers and the time frame not understandable and plus there is lack assigning proper leaders. Therefore, municipalities were in bad conditions to deliver the intended services for all and poor service delivery.
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Table 7: Experts’ Response on information sharing and leaders dispense No Description Category of Frequency % Valid Cumulative responses % % 1 Does the municipality have a Yes 10 37.03 37.03 37.03 mechanism for sharing No 17 62.97 62.97 62.97 information about plans, accomplishments, and service Total 27 100 100 standards to the customers? Missing - - - - 2 Is the municipality gives service Yes 12 44.44 44.44 44.44 in reasonable time frame? No 15 55.56 55.56 55.56 Total 27 100 100 Missing - - - - 3 Do you have the right person Yes 8 29.7 29.7 29.7 (leader & experts) at the right No 19 70.3 70.3 70.3 position? Total 27 100 100 Missing - - - - Source: Own survey. Nov, 2016
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As indicated in table 8 for the question raised the leadership in your organization is confident at understanding the job trends and patterns of each process and determining necessary actions? most of the experts (63%) responded they do not agree upon that issue, about selections for training programs almost half of the respondents said that there is unfair and illogical selection for training purpose, organization as staffed with adequate and trained human resource to serve the customers? Still half of the experts respond that no adequate and trained enough experts in the municipalities. The leaders of the municipalities lacks understanding each work process and also there is unfair selection of experts for training and capacity building sessions as well as the municipalities lacks adequate and trained human power for delivering the services and it’s because of lack of clear placement mechanisms from applicants, no or less on job training, poor follow-ups by the leaders. The sum of this all things leads the municipalities not to archive there mission and vision as well as it has its own side effect on town development in all spheres. Table 8: Responses of experts on leadership confidence and training participation No/ Description Category Frequency % Valid Cumulative of % % responses
1 The leadership Strongly - - - - in your agree organization is Agree 6 22.22 22.22 22.22 confident at Neutral 4 14.82 14.82 14.82 understanding Disagree 14 51.85 51.85 51.85 the job trends Strongly 3 11.11 11.11 11.11 and patterns of Disagree each process, Total 27 100 100 and Missing - - - - determining necessary actions 2 Selections of Strongly 10 37.04 37.04 37.04 experts for agree training Agree 4 14.81 14.81 14.81
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programs is Neutral - - - - done in a fair Disagree 11 40.74 40.74 40.74 and transparent Strongly 2 7.41 7.41 7.41 manner Disagree Total 27 100 100 Missing - - - - 3 Your Strongly 2 7.41 7.41 7.41 organization agree staffed with Agree 10 37.04 37.04 37.04 adequate and Neutral 9 33.33 33.33 33.33 trained human Disagree 5 18.52 18.52 18.52 resource to Strongly 1 3.70 3.70 3.70 serve the Disagree customers Total 27 100 100 Missing - - - - Source: Own survey. Nov, 2016 As stated in table 9 the respondents were asked about municipality have consult and participate customers to suggest on the service delivery almost 81% of the experts said no way of consultation and participation with customers and they didn’t agree on, and they were also asked about the leadership in your organization proactively leverages employee strengths while providing targeted development opportunities almost 74% of the respondents not agree with the issue of proactively leveraging the employees. If the municipalities not consult and participate their customers regarding to the services that they are giving then they can’t understand the fillings of the customers and they may understand that they are giving good services.
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Table 9: Responses of experts on consultation and customer’s participation N Description Category Frequenc % Valid Cumulativ o of y % e % response s 1. The Strongly - - - - municipality agree has consulted Agree 3 11.1 11.1 11.11 and 1 1 participate Neutral 2 7.41 7.41 7.41 customers to Disagree 12 44.4 44.4 44.44 suggest on 4 4 the service Strongly 10 37.0 37.0 37.04 delivery Disagree 4 4 Total 27 100 100 Missing - - - - 2. The Strongly - - - - leadership in agree your Agree 3 11.1 11.1 11.11 organization 1 1 proactively Neutral 4 14.8 14.8 14.82 leverages 2 2 employee Disagree 6 22.2 22.2 22.22 strengths 2 2 while Strongly 14 51.8 51.8 51.85 providing Disagree 5 5 targeted Total 27 100 100 development Missing - - - - opportunities . Source: Own survey. Nov, 2016 Conclusion From the data analysis and presentation, the researcher can confidently conclude that excellence service delivery in the given organization is a function of clearly articulated and communicated regulatory frameworks, skilled, satisfied and committed human
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resources and good governance practices with a cohesive ingredient, transformational leadership as a focal point in the center of each attribute. However, the current practice of the municipalities is the reciprocal of this fact. The diffusion of the regulatory frameworks in the organization is weak or neglected. Customers as well as employees of the organization are not much familiar with the proclamations, regulations, and directives that determine interaction and relationship and responsibilities and accountability role of all actors involved in excellence service delivery of the organization. Furthermore, the customers are not familiar with the service standards, procedures and prerequisites to be fulfilled in order to get service in the municipalities. This has made the development of the sector to be narrowly defined and hampered by lack of clear service delivery standards and prerequisites. The human resource management practice of the municipalities is poor. Inconsistent with the HRM practices, the FGD participants (work process coordinators) and reasons described by respondents indicated a lack of motivation, commitment, and skill in the HR of the organization hampered service delivery excellence. Noticeable attentions were not given for human resource capacity development plan. This, in turn, indicates that dissatisfied employees have not shared the vision and mission of delivering excellence services. The coaching role of the leadership was not much visible in the service delivery process. The failure of the leadership participating and consulting customers and employees in the decision-making process has been happened because of the leadership failure in understanding the job patterns of the municipalities. The leadership has not considered that the customers are the focal point of the service delivery, and has not build connectivity with the HR in the organization. For the institutionalization of good governance in the organization, the good governance practices of the municipalities have been found in a poor manner. Both the customers and employees of the organization have not engaged and communicated on the municipalities’ matters, specifically on issues that affect their interests. The organizational structure of the sub-cities municipalities (managerial position of the sub-cities municipalities) needs to be structured again. The municipalities lack capacities on professionals, material, and
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information technologies resources available to support employees in order to serve the customers need and no enough budget (in this case sub-cities responded that there is a lack of enough finance or budget). Recommendations Based on the findings, the researcher strongly recommended the following points to alleviate the institutional capacity and governance- related problems of service delivery in the municipalities. Therefore, Introduce strong and shared leadership to establish a culture of service excellence in the organization, and thus the top leadership must ’walk the talk’ modeling good governance behavior and has to demonstrate a commitment to establish service excellence team and then, making the proclamations, regulation and directives easily accessible by the customers and employees of the municipalities is vital, regarding to good governance, the municipalities have to enhance customers’ engagement, communication, and satisfaction and to inform them in order to improve the challenges in the service delivery. To this end, the municipalities have to organize customers’ dialogue forum quarterly, for Employees Short, medium and long term training has to be needed to upgrade their capacity and skills. Establish staff selection and appraisal procedures, promotion criteria, professional development schemes and reducing employees’ turnovers, frequent and consistent communication to all staff and customers has to be conducted by the top leadership of the organization in order to ensure coaching and to understand the mission of the sector and roles and responsibilities of the staffs, t is recommendable to make organizational capacities such as professionals (human resources), material (needed to address the customers) and information technologies resources available to support employees in order to serve and to meet their customers’ satisfactions, the municipalities are advised to appropriately handle and manage the complaints forwarded as a feedback from customers, because it helps to identify and improve the service delivery problems and then to build strong customer and service providers’ relationship as well as to become customer-centered and learning organization, the organizational structure of the municipalities’ (sub-cities) needs to be structured again, especially add the deputy manager position and decrease complaints from customers and lastly, benchmarking (It is possible to compare approaches to customer service, staff management,
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financial issues, HRM, materials needed for the municipal service, public relations and decentralization among municipalities).
Bibliography
Masum, F. (2011). Strengthening Individual and Institutional Capacity and Developing Framework for Good Governance: The need for an Integrated Approach. Marrakech Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED), (2010). Ethiopia: Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program. MoFED, (2010). Growth and Transformation Plan. Main Text. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Sogoni, M. (2011). Assessment of Capacity Development Through Public-Private Partnership: A Case Study of The Department of Economic Development And Environmental Affairs in The Eastern Cape. Master Thesis. University of Fort Hare Packard, T. (2004). The supervisor as transformational leader. In M. Austin & K. Hopkins (Eds.), Supervision as collaboration in the human services: Building a learning culture (pg. 151–163). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hawassa city administration socio-economic profile, , (2007). World Bank Institute (WBI), (2001). Urban and City Management Program. Distance Learning Course; City Strategy and Governance; Washington D. C.: The World Bank. GIZ, 2012. Making Good Governance Tangible The cobblestone sector of Ethiopia, central printing press. Ethiopian Civil Service University, (2012). Public Service Delivery, Ethics and Change Management Reader, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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VOLUME 6, ISSUE 3(6), MARCH 2017
DIRECT SUM OF ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS
T.Srinivasarao Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Adikavi Nannaya University Rajahmundry Abstract
A group of prime order is cyclic. A finite group G with pn | G where p is
a prime number and n and n1 , then a subgroup H of the group G p| G is called a Sylow p – subgroup. The Sylow – p subgroups allow a finite group to be written as the direct sum. The same view can be extended to a splitting field of the irreducible polynomial exist as the product of minimal polynomials. It is observed that “if f x F x is an irreducible polynomial over the field F, then all roots of f x have the same multiplicity”. But, through a different perspective, we have a different outcome in the present case. In my previous paper, it is shown that the orbit of each algebraic number in the algebraic closure of a i field F is nothing but the smallest field extension and the set of F i non – zero elements in this field form the cyclic group. When the splitting field that comprises the smallest extension fields is of order
e1 e 2 ek ’s are distinct primes, then the smallest extensions are p1 p 2 ..., pk p i the sub – fields of this splitting field each is of order ei . pi, e i 1 Introduction
A group, a ring and a field are considered in the usual algebraic manner. An extension field is the quotient field formed by a polynomial ring F[x] that is a principal ideal domain and a maximal ideal by p x an irreducible polynomial p x . The root of p x is present in the
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extended field and not in . The zero element in E is E F x / p x F
1 and the multiplicative inverse of 1 . 0 p a p a p
Lemma: if A is a finite abelian group of order e1 e 2 ek ‘s are p1 p 2 ..., pk p i distinct primes, ’s positive integers, then ei
where ei and this A S p1 S p2 ... S pk S pi p i decomposition of Sylow – p subgroups is unique. S pi Theorem: a finite extended field E over a field F is identical to the fundamental theorem of finitely generated groups in two ways.
Theorem: any finite field F with pn elements is the splitting
field of pn x x Fp x
Any two fields with pn elements are isomorphic.
Theorem: a splitting field F of order e1 e 2 ek solves a p1 p 2 ..., pk p i
polynomial pe1 p e 2 ... p ek and the nonzero elements of F denoted by * x1 2 k x F can be written as * F S p1 S p2 ... S pk
Mega orbit: under the group action of F on F defined by where is the irreducible polynomial of the a* p i a p i p x
form pe1 p e 2 ... p ek , the orbit is called the mega orbit of the x1 2 k x F pi splitting field of p x .
Theorem: if k e with ’s are distinct primes, then the n p i p i1 i i k number of non isomorphic abelian groups of order n is P e i1 i Theorem 1: the nonzero elements of the orbit form the multiplicative finite group of order
1 2 k p1 p 2 ... pk
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Theorem 2: The nonzero elements of the mega orbits F * is a direct pi sum of Sylow – p subgroups of the multiplicative group of a splitting
field of the polynomial pe1 p e 2 ... p ek x1 2 k x Theorem 3: any two mega orbits of the splitting fields of the
polynomial pe1 p e 2 ... p ek are x1 2 k x isomorphic.
Proof: ei e1 e 2 ek pi 1| p1 p 2 ... pk 1
Theorem: if pe1 p e 2 ... p ek is an irreducible polynomial over p x x1 2 k x F x the field F, then the roots of having the multiplicities p x e1, e 2 ,..., ek respectively.
Note: this is a contradiction to the statement that “if f x F x is irreducible over F, then all the roots of f x have the same multiplicity”
References:
1. Essential extensions of a Direct sum of Simple Modules, Contemporary Math Series, Groups, and Algebras 420, American Mathematical Society, 2008
2. Decomposition of Generalized polynomial symmetric matrices, Linear Algebra and its Applications, 376(2004)
3. Orbits and Partition: T.Srinivasarao, IJMER ,Volume 6, Issue 3(1) March 2017.
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MORAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ANIMALS (A CHALLENGE FOR ANTHROPOCENTRIC APPROACH)
Tapan Talukdar Ph.D Scholar Assam University, Silchar 1. Introduction:
In this article, I would like to analyze critically about whether animals are worthy of moral considerations like human beings. If it is strongly established that all animals have moral status and they are worthy of moral considerations then we cannot use them as we please. It is prevalent for the anthropocentric approach that human beings alone can perform their voluntary actions and exercise their freedom of will. Therefore they are the only morally considerable beings.1 Many traditional western thinkers have given their views in support of this human centered bias. For them, human beings have the capacities of rational thought, aesthetics creativity, autonomy and self determination, and moral freedom that other animals do not have. According to the Greeks, rationality is the fundamental characteristic of human beings which regulates our ‘brute’ nature of animals. They claim that rationality is the key to our superiority. Similarly, Descartes and Judeo- Christian have also supported the human beings superiority. Are the capacities that animals do not seem to possess, the actual mark of human superiority? After all, nonhuman animals have some capacities that humans do not have. Why should not these be taken as signs of their superiority over human? Aristotle, for example, maintains that nature has made all things specifically for the sake of man. All duties, according to him, are ultimately owed to humans and only to humans. Paul W. Taylor has rightly described the human centered standpoint as
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“We may have responsibilities with regard to the natural ecosystems and biotic communities of our planet, but these responsibilities are in every case based on contingent fact that our treatment of those ecosystems and communities of life can further the realization of human values and/or human rights. We have no obligation to promote or protect the good of nonhuman living things, independently of this contingent fact.”2
So, the question of moral status of non-human animals is irrelevant. Historian Lynn White jr., has clearly mentioned that the historical roots of many environmental crisis is the consideration of human beings as superior to all other forms of life.3 It is worth mentioning here that the contemporary environmental ethics has emerged as a new-sub discipline of philosophy by posing a challenge to this human centered bias and attempted to redefine the boundaries of ethical obligations.
Historical background:
Before going in to the main debate, we have to clear about the roots of such movement. Originally the animal liberation movement was founded by an English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham. Later this movement was initiated in a systematic manner by a group of oxford graduates Peter Singer of which was the pioneer. The feminist ideas have also significantly help to initiate this movement. Mary Wollstonecraft, a forerunner of today’s feminism, in her book “Vindication of the right of women” (1972) has raised lots of arguments regarding the equal status of men and women. Latter these arguments of equality also applied to the equality of animals. According to Peter Singer, if the argument for equality is sound when applied to women, why should it not be applied to dogs, cats, and horses? One reply is that the case for equality between men and women cannot validly be extended to nonhuman animals. Because, women have a right to vote, they are capable of making rational decision about the future as men
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are; on the other hand, dogs are incapable of understanding the significance of voting, so they can’t have the right to vote. There are many other obvious ways in which men and women resemble each other, while human and animal differ greatly. So, humans and nonhumans are different and should not have equal rights. This is the view of Thomas Taylor, a distinguished Cambridge Philosopher. Taylor’s view is correct up to a point, but it does not go far enough. No doubt there are some obvious differences between humans and animals. But, recognizing this fact, however, is no barrier to the case for extending the basic principle of equality to nonhuman animals. The differences that exist between men and women are equally undeniable. And the supporters of Women liberation are aware that these differences may give rise different rights. For example, women have the right to an abortion on request, which is meaningless in the case of men. Similarly it is meaningless to talk of dog’s rights to vote that human beings have. So the supporters of animal rights movement believe that there is no reason why either Women’s Liberation or Animal Liberation Should gets involved in such nonsense. The extension of the basic principle of equality from one group to another does not imply that we must treat both groups in exactly the same way, or grant exactly the same rights to both groups. According to Singer, equality of the basic principle does not require equal or identical treatment; it requires equal consideration. Equal consideration for different beings may lead to different treatment and different rights.4
2. Significance of Moral status:
The concept of moral status signifies the inherent worth or intrinsic value of a being. It is a means of specifying those entities towards which we believe ourselves to have moral obligations, such as, what we ought or ought not to do. This concept is also used to specify minimum standards of acceptable behavior towards entities of a given sort. Here, the minimum standard represents a floor below which we ought not to
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allow our actions. Thus if an entity has moral status, we may not treat it in just any way we please. For example, the claim that all persons have full and equal moral status implies that we must not murder other persons, assault them, cheat them, torture them, and imprison them unjustly. If anybody violates this claim, we are justified in protecting, objecting, and sometimes using force to prevent or deter further violations. So the concept of moral status is a claim to give weight in our deliberations to the needs, interests, or well-being of a moral agent. We are morally obliged to do this not merely because protecting it may benefit ourselves or other persons, but because its needs have moral importance in their own right. We may raise here two relevant questions to make clear the concept of moral status: Is it morally wrong to take a stone and grind it into powder, merely for one’s own amusement? Secondly; is it wrong to kill a helpless human child, merely for one’s own amusement? In reply to the first question, the most obvious answer is that it is not wrong unless there are special circumstances, because stones and other inanimate objects are usually presumed to have no moral status at all, even though they may legitimately be valued and protected for other reasons. In the second case most people would say that it is, because all human beings, may be either a child or a very old man, have full and equal moral status. Kantian deontologists and the classical utilitarianism have also supported strongly this view.4In response to the second answer, some more important questions may be posed here: Is it not possible to ascribe equal moral value to non-human animals like human beings? Are all animate beings equally morally considerable being? What is the moral status of non-human animals? Regarding the moral status of non-human animals different views are found. Some of the most prominent views are: the views of the consequentialists and the deontologists.
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2.1. Moral status of non-human animals:
It is convenient that human beings are considered as the only morally considerable being. (I have already mentioned it.) It is also true that there are some people who deny that all human beings have full and equal moral status. Sexists, for instance, deny that female (or, occasionally, male) human beings have an equal moral status equal to that of favored sex. Similarly, Racists deny the equal moral status of groups of human being whose appearance and ancestry is, or is thought to be, different from their own.5 Nevertheless, humans are claiming as superior to other animals. In what sense humans are considered to be superior to other animals? We have certain capacities that other animals don’t have. For example, human being may be a better mathematician than a monkey. He has the capacities of rational thought, aesthetic creativity, autonomy and self-determination, and moral freedom. Are these capacities the mark of superiority? After all non human animals also have some capacities that humans don’t have. Why should not these be taken as signs of their superiority over humans? One obvious answer that immediately comes to our mind is that these capacities are not as valuable as the human capacities that make us superior beings. Yet we may ask: valuable to whom, and what ground? The philosophical traditions of human centered approach themselves rest on very questionable assumptions. Three main traditions are mentioned here to substantiate the point. Firstly, in the Greek definition of man the inherent superiority of humans over other species was implicit. According to Greeks, rationality is the fundamental characteristic of human being. It can regulate the ‘brute’ nature of animals. They claim that rationality is the key to our superiority over human beings. Here, the Greeks never looked at rational capacities of human beings as one capacity of living things among many others. Other creatures have also species-specific capacities which are good for them without the need of rationality. So,
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the human centered outlook of classical Greek thought doesn’t give us a neutral ground to construct a scale of degrees of inherent worth possessed by different species of living things. Secondly, Cartesian dualistic tradition also tries to justify the claim of human superiority. In this tradition human superiority is supposed to derive from the fact that we have souls while animals don’t have. According to Descartes, non-human animals are not morally considerable beings, since they are mere insensitive automata and lack of divine element that makes them spiritual being. But there are many living things that can live a good life for their species. How can we say that non-human animals are insensitive being? Thus an anthropocentric bias runs throughout Cartesian dualism. Finally, Judeo-Christian concept of the Great Chain of Being is also the source of the idea of human superiority. According to this concept humans are superior to animals and plants because their creator (God) has given them a higher place on the chain. The above three considerations leave us one ground for assertion that a human being, regardless of merit, is a higher kind of entity than any other living thing. This is because of the genetic makeup of the species Homo sapiens, which is surely irrational and arbitrary.6
The contemporary consequentialist and deontologist thinkers however are different from this traditional anthropocentric view regarding the moral considerations of non-human animals. They have given different arguments in order to justify that the non-human animals are also morally considerable being. According to them whether an individual has a soul, is rational, or any of the rest is not a relevant matter for moral considerations. Rather the relevant matter is (according to the utilitarianism) whether an individual is capable of experiencing happiness and unhappiness, pleasure and pain. If an individual is capable of suffering, then we have a duty to take that into account when we are deciding what to do, even if the individual in question is not human. Because both human and non-human can suffer, we have
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the same reason for not mistreating both. Jeremy Bentham, the founding father of the English school of Utilitarianism writes, the question is not, can they reason? Nor, Can they talk? But, Can they suffer? Non-human animals are also sentient beings; they have the capacity to experience pleasure and pain. So, they are morally considerable beings. Bentham argues whether the individual is human or non-human is just as irrelevant as whether he is black or white. For him, both human and non-humans are equally entitled to moral considerations. Peter Singer, the Contemporary Utilitarian, has also developed a view regarding this matter. He agrees with Bentham and suggests that there is no morally justifiable way to exclude non-human animals from moral considerations. Even the contemporary Kantians (also known as deontologists) have acknowledged the moral force of the experience of pain of non-human animals.7
2.2. Cosequentialist approaches:
In contemporary period, most important advocates of this approach are Peter Singer, Donald VanDeVeer, Robin Attifield, and Gary Varner. All of them have tried to develop a theoretical base of the environmental ethics by applying cosequentialist approach in their own style. The first modern philosophical discussion of the moral status of non-human animals was initiated by a small group of graduate students working at the University of Oxford in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Peter Singer was one of the pioneers among them. His view first articulated in Animal Liberation (1975) which is frequently referred to as “the bible” of the Animal Liberation Movement.8 This initial view was later developed in his Practical Ethics and his article Killing Humans and Killing Animals. Singer’s position in Animal Liberation is that of a straightforward hedonistic utilitarianism – that is to say, value is measured in terms of pleasure and pain.9 Following Bentham, Singer in his early works, accepts the capacity for experiencing pleasure and pain as the morally relevant characteristics. If a being is capable of suffering,
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then that being has interest. It is not immoral to kick a stone around the street. Stones cannot suffer, so they lack interest. But kicking a cat is morally wrong. So, if a being suffers, then that suffering should be taken into account regardless of which species the suffering being is a member. Singer’s ethical concerns thus limits to the sentient animals only. All non-sentient animals, plants and natural formations are thus morally irrelevant in Singer’s position. VanDeVeer’s position, as found in his article Interspecific Justice, is in many respects similar to that of Peter Singer, though he attempts to develop a more detail and discriminating account. The ability to feel pleasure and pain is the central pillar of his approach like Singer. The aim of VanDeVeer’s principle is to achieve maximum total utility – the best overall consequences. Non-sentient animals, plants and natural formations have no moral significances for him. They have just the instrumental value to those animals that are direct moral concern.10
But Robin Attfield’s consequentialist approach is different in many respects. His view is contrasted with both Peter Singer and VanDeVeer. For him it is not simply the ability to experience, to feel pleasure and pain, which makes an organism morally considerable. Rather, the ability to flourish, to exercise the basic capacities of a species, makes an organism morally considerable. Thus all organisms, regardless of their sentience, are morally considerable. Only the inanimate objects are morally inconsiderable, since they cannot flourish. Gary Varner in his book In Nature’s Interest has also developed a cosequentialists approach to environmental ethics. His focus was on the satisfaction of interest, which are possessed by all and only individual living things. Like Attfield and VanDeVeer, Varner also creates a value hierarchy, which is based on desires. Some organisms (such as mammals and birds) have desires and some (such as insects and plants) probably don’t have. The interests of those organisms who have desires take priority over those organisms who have purely biological interest (such
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as for water or sunlight) but are not capable of desires. Varner’s hierarchy however indicates that it is better to eat (non-desiring) plants than (desiring) animals. So his account of environmental ethics is in favor of a vegetarian diet (in normal circumstances).11
2.3. Deontological approaches:
This approach is developed in environmental ethics by rejecting the cosequentialist approaches. Kenneth Goodpaster’s article On Being Morally Considerable, 1978, provides an important basis for the position of this approach. He considers the question ‘what makes something morally considerable?’ in detail. Tom Regan also considers a similar question in his article The Nature and Possibility of an Environmental ethics. In this article Regan suggests that all natural objects have ‘inherent goodness’ regardless of living or nonliving beings.12However Regan has modified his view later in The Case for Animal Rights. Here, Regan develops the view that the beings that are capable of experiencing subject of a life are called morally considerable beings. By virtue of being such subject, a being possess what Regan refers to inherent value. And those who possess inherent value merit respect and that are shown by respecting their rights. In Regan’s view all that possess inherent value possess it equally. For him, not only humans but certain non-human animals also possess inherent value, since they are capable of experiencing subjects of a life. So, all those human and non-human animals that satisfy the subject-of-a-life criterion are rights-holders. In order to regard morally considerable beings as valuable in themselves, their rights need to be recognized and protected. And like human those non-human animals are also not permissible to use as means in the name of general welfare, since it would be a violation of their rights. Animal’s rights are often violated in many cases, such as when we hunt them; use them in commercial agriculture and experiment on them. According to the United States Department of Agriculture figures, approximately 1, 40,000 dogs and
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42,000 cats die in laboratories in the US each year. In Regan’s view it is the failure to treat an experiencing subject of a life as inherently valuable.13
Albert Schweitzer and Paul Taylor have also suggested a developed deontological approach in their books, entitled, The Ethics of Respect for Nature and Respect for Nature. For both all morally considerable individuals are of equal value. Central to Schweitzer’s view is the ‘will- to-live’, an impulse to self realization found in all living things. He asserts that all wills-to-live are of equal value, and that human beings are not in a position to judge the relative values of different species. Thus for Schweitzer, taking of any life, however necessary, is wrong, and generates a burden of guilt and responsibility. Like Schweitzer, Paul Taylor has also developed a sophisticated account which urges ‘respect for nature’ rather than ‘reverence for life’. He argues that all organisms are teleological centers of life, pursuing their own good in their own way, which gives each individual organism inherent worth. And this inherent worth is equally possessed by all living organisms. This forms the basis of his bio-centric view, the scaffolding for his fundamental principle of species impartiality. Responding to Taylor, Lombardi has argued that many living beings have additional capacities that increase inherent worth. He thus constructs a graded individualist deontological approach in environmental ethic, which is based on the difference of capacities between species.14
3. Critical analysis:
Thus both the approaches have tried to justify that non-human animals are also morally considerable beings, and the questions of moral status can be raised towards them. But if we critically analyze their arguments in the perspective of contemporary environmental ethics numerous objections may be leveled against both of the above approaches. Some most important objections are: Firstly, both the
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approaches are individualistic in nature, since their ethical focus is on individuals rather than on wholes. They have considered that the individual organisms have value in themselves. Criticizing these two approaches, some recent environmental ethicists, such as Eric Katz, have focused on ethical considerations on the ‘ecological whole’ and advocated a holistic approach towards environmental ethics. Aldo Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac is often cited as the foundational work in holistic environmental ethics. Holistic approach is contrasted with the above two approaches in the sense that it stresses on the importance of integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community as whole. Katz has rightly argued that the well-being of the ecological community as a whole should be the primary ethical goal or principle of an environmental ethics. Secondly; both Singer and VanDeVeer have identified value with experiences. Many environmental ethicists have targeted this identification for criticism. John Rodman in his article The Liberation of Nature argues that this identification of value with experience is anthropocentric in nature, since it picks a quality paradigmatically possessed by human beings and uses it as a measure by which to judge other species. However the explicit introduction of hierarchy, as with Lombardi, opens deontological individual thinking also to the victim of Rodman’s arguments about anthropocentrism. Thirdly; deontological approaches are unable to ascribe value to ecosystem or species. They are also unable to distinguish between domestic and wild animals, and different treatment that may be appropriate to this categories.15
4. Conclusion:
Contemporary environmental ethics have realized the ethical values of both animals and plants. Ecological system has already established how human life is connected with animals and plants. Harming one form of life upsets the entire chain of lives. So it is absolutely necessary to protect and conserve all forms of life on this planet as they are
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interdependent and form a chain. Nature has created them in such a balanced manner that if one form of life is disturbed it affects all the other forms of life too. The very existence of man depends upon the survival of other forms of life-both plants and animals. So, the destiny of humanity depends upon the survival of other forms of life. As a moral being we should nurture a wide cosmic-vision for the sake of ultimate morality so that all forms of life on this planet are honored and protected. Morality is based on the principle of equality, which implies the sense of equal respect for all kinds of life on this earth. With the development of behavioral sciences it becomes evident that non- human animals also have some capacities that human beings have, such as intelligence, self-consciousness, memory of the past, expectations of the future etc. Modern science also has proved that even the plants do have a sense of feeling, sorrow and pleasure. Indian scientist J. C. Bose displayed this fact on ‘Cresco graph’.15 So, if human beings have special value or claim to be protected, the non-human animals too have equal right to exist. Both consequentialist and deontologist approaches have attempted to protect the rights of non- human animals. No doubt both the approaches have some important limitations. Nevertheless both are still relevant, since both leads to another modified form of approach towards environmental ethics that is holistic in nature.
References:
1. Srivastava, D.C.,(2005), Readings in Environmental Ethics, New Delhi: Rawat Publications, p.301.
2. Z., E. Michael, (1993), Environmental Philosophy, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, p.67.
3. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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4. Singer, P., (2002), Animal Liberation, New York: Harper Collins Publishers, pp.1-6
5. W., A. Mary, (1997), Moral Status: Obligations to Persons and Other Living Things, Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp.1-13.
6. Ibid, p.7.
7. Z., E. Michael, (1993), Environmental Philosophy, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, pp.74-80.
8. R., James, (2003), The Elements of Moral Philosophy, New York: McGraw-Hill, pp.97-101.
9. Skorupski, J., (2010), The Routledge Companion to Ethics, New York: Routledge, p.742.
10. L., Andrew and R., Holmes, (2003), Environmental Ethics: An Anthology, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, p.19.
11. Ibid, p.20.
12. Ibid, p.21.
13. Ibid,pp.21-22
14. Skorupski, J., (2010), The Routledge Companion to Ethics, New York: Routledge, p.744-746.
15. L., Andrew and R., Holmes, (2003), Environmental Ethics, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp.22-23.
16. L., Andrew and R., Holmes, (2003), Environmental Ethics: An Anthology, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp.18-30.
17. Srivastava, D.C., (2005), Readings in Environmental Ethics, New Delhi: Rawat Publications, p.306.
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SURVEY ON EVALUATION OF STUDENTS AND STAFF PERFORMANCE USING VARIOUS DATA MINING TECHNIQUES T.Prabha D.Shanmuga Priyaa Karpagam Academy of Higher Karpagam Academy of Higher Education Education Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Abstract
Educational Data Mining (EDM) is an evolving field exploring pedagogical data by applying different machine learning techniques/tools. It can be considered as interdisciplinary research field which provides intrinsic knowledge of teaching and learning process for effective education. The main objective of any educational institution is to provide quality education to its students. One way to achieve highest level of quality in higher education system is by discovering knowledge that predicts teacher’s performance and the student’s performance. Data mining is slowly but surely making its way into the educational field after dominating the business fields. Data mining is now considered a great asset to the educational sector in highlighting and scrutinizing many elements absent from educational managers. This study presents an efficient survey for evaluation and prediction of teachers and students performance in higher institutions of learning using data mining technologies.
Keywords: Education Data Mining, Pedagogy, Knowledge, Institution Prediction
INTRODUCTION
In last decade, the number of higher education universities/institutions have proliferated manifolds. Educational institutions are playing an important role in our society and playing a vital role for growth and development of nation. Large numbers of graduates/post graduates are
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produced by them every year. Universities/Institutes may follow best of the pedagogies; but still they face the problem of dropout students, low achievers and unemployed students. Understanding and analyzing the factors for poor performance is a complex and incessant process hidden in past and present information congregated from academic performance and students’ behavior and teacher’s performance.
Powerful tools are required to analyze and predict the performance of students scientifically. Although, Universities/Institutions collect an enormous amount of students’ data, but this data remains unutilized and does not help in any decisions or policy making to improve the performance of students. If, Universities could identify the factors for low performance earlier and is able to predict students’ behavior, this knowledge can help them in taking pro-active actions, so as to improve the performance of such students. It will be a win-win situation for all the stakeholders of universities/institutions i.e. management, teachers, students and parents. Students will be able to identify their weaknesses beforehand and can improve themselves. Teachers will be able to plan their lectures as per the need of students and can provide better guidance to such students. Parents will be reassured of their ward performance in such institutes. Management can bring in better policies and strategies to enhance the performance of these students with additional facilities. Eventually, this will help in producing skillful workforce and hence sustainable growth for the country.
In recent years there has been an increased interest in using data mining for educational purposes. Data mining represents promising areas of researches in education, and it has specific requirements which other fields lack. A very comprehensive review of data mining in education from 1995 to 2005 is published in 2007 by Romero and Ventura. One of the educational problems that are solved with data mining is the prediction of students' academic performances, whose goal is to predict an unknown variable (outcome, grades or
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scores) that describes students. Educational Data Mining (EDM) is an application of Data Mining and statistics to information generated from educational settings like Universities and Colleges.
The estimation of students' performances includes monitoring and guiding students through the teaching process and assessment. Assessments, as the main procedure for the measurement of studying outcomes, indicate the level of students' performance, which is expressed qualitatively and quantitatively. Therefore, exams play an important role in any student’s lives, determining their future.
LITERATURE SURVEY
Minaei-Bidgolim, et al.[1] was among the first authors who classified students by using genetic algorithms to predict their final grade. Using the regression methods, Kotsiantis and Pintelas [2] predicted a student’s marks (pass and fail classes). Superby, Vandamme and Meskens [3] predicted a student’s academic success (classified into low, medium, and high risk classes) using different data mining methods (decision trees and neural network). Al-Radaideh, Al- Shawakfa and Al-Najjar [4] applied a decision tree model to predict the final grade of students who studied the C++ course in Yarmouk University, Jordan. Romero et al. [5] compared different methods of data mining in order to predict final assessment based on the data obtained from the system of e- learning. Zekić-Sušac, Frajman-Jakšić and Drvenkar [6] created a model for predicting students' performance using neural networks and classification trees decision-making, and with the analysis of factors which influence students' success. Kumar and Vijayalakshmi [7] using the decision tree predicted the result of the final exam to help professors identify students who needed help, in order to improve their performance and pass the exam.
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Three supervised data mining algorithms, i.e. Bayesian, Decision trees and Neural Networks which were applied by [8] on the preoperative assessment data to predict success in a course (to produce result as either passed or failed) and the performance of the learning methods were evaluated based on their predictive accuracy, ease of learning and user friendly characteristics. The researchers observed that that this methodology can be used to help students and teachers to improve student’s performance; reduce failing ratio by taking appropriate steps at right time to improve the quality of learning. [9] described the process of knowledge discovery from databases using a practical example of a current actual problem. They developed two models based on decision tree which were successfully used to predict student success based on GPA [Grade Point Average] criterion and time student needs to finish the undergraduate program (time-todegree) criterion. Bayesian classification method was also used by [10] in their work on student database to predict the students’ grades on the basis of previous year performance. The researchers concluded that the study will help the students and the teachers to improve the grades of the student.
The study also helps to identify those students which needed special attention to reduce failing ratio and taking appropriate action at right time. [11] Compared four different classifiers and combined the results into a multiple classifier. Their research divided the data into three (3) different classes weighing the features and using a genetic algorithm to minimize the error rate improves the prediction accuracy at least 10% in the all cases of 2, 3 and 9-Classes. In cases where the number of features is low, the feature weighting worked much better than feature selection. The successful optimization of student classification in all three cases demonstrates the merits of using the LONCAPA data to predict the students’ final grades based on their features, which are extracted from the homework data. However, the
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research in this case was based on an online course as opposed to the regular classroom class that the present study considers.
Furthermore, [12] observed that in the problem of prediction of performance, it is possible to automatically predict students’ performance. Moreover by using extensible classification formalism such as Bayesian networks, which was employed in their research it becomes possible to easily and uniformly integrate such knowledge into the learning task. The researchers’ experiments also show the need for methods aimed at predicting performance and exploring more learning algorithms. [13] addressed the prediction of secondary school students’ performance in two core subjects of mathematics and Portuguese by using their past score in the previous session and other demographic factors and employed four data mining methods of Decision trees, Random Forests, neural networks and Support Vector machines approach. The results show that the prediction was achievable provided the grades of the previous session were known. This confirms that the prediction of students’ performance is premised on past performance and hence shows that a student’s performance is closely related to the performance in previous course (most likely a prerequisite course).
In [14] it is concluded that Decision trees are so popular because they produce classification rules that are easy to interpret than other classification methods. Frequently used decision tree classifiers are studied and the experiments are conducted to find the best classifier for Student data to predict the student’s performance in the end semester examination. The experimental results show that Classification and Regression Tree (CART) CART is the best algorithm for classification of data.
From the study conducted by [15], by using a case study on educational data mining to identify up to what extent the enrolment data can be used to predict student’s success. Two algorithms CHAID
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and CART were applied on student enrolment data of information system students of open polytechnic of New Zealand to get two decision trees classifying successful and unsuccessful students. The result obtained showed that the accuracy obtained with CHAID and CART was 59.4 and 60.5 respectively. In their study [16] used classification task to predict the final grade of students. It was done by the use of ID3 decision tree method. Another study undertaken by [17] showed that Data Mining Techniques (DMT) capabilities provided effective improving tools for student performance. The study further showed how useful A Decision Tree Approach for Predicting Students Academic Performance 15 data mining can be in higher education particularly to predict the final performance of student. The researchers collected data from student by using questionnaire to find the relationships between behavioural attitude of student and their academic performance.
Data mining techniques were then applied. They obtained the prediction rule model using decision tree as well as implementing the rules into Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithm to predict the students’ final grade. Also the students were clustered into groups using kernel kmeans clustering. The study expressed the strong correlation between mental condition of student and their final academic performance. Also, [18] used Iterative Dichotomiser 3 (ID3) decision tree algorithm to predict the university students’ grade of a university in Nigeria. A prediction accuracy of 79,556 was obtained from the model. They further suggested the use of other decision based model to predict student’s performance.
Another more recent survey was done by Rajni and Malaya [19], which focused on components, research trends (1998 to 2012) of EDM highlighting its related Tools, Techniques and educational Outcomes. They also highlighted the Challenges in EDM. A study by Varun and Arupama[20] examined the application of data mining techniques in higher educational institution to extract useful information from huge
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data sets and provided analytical tool to view and use this information for decision making processes by taking real life examples. Chin-Chia Hsu and Tao Huang [21] conducted a study on the use of data mining technology to evaluate student’s academic achievement via multiple channels of enrolment like joint recruitment enrolment, athletic enrolment and application enrolment.
A similar study was carried out by Osofisan and Olamiti [22] where they investigated the academic background in relationship with the performance of students in a computer science programme in a Nigerian university. Their study showed that the grade obtained from senior secondary school examination (SSCE) in mathematics is the highest determinant of students’ performance using the C4.5 learning algorithm in building the model of the student’s performance. Mardikyan and Badur [23] conducted a study to investigate the factors associated with the assessment of instructors teaching performance using two different data mining techniques: regression analysis and decision trees.
For regression analysis the stepwise regression method was used and for decision trees CHAID and CART algorithms were applied.As a result of their study, they found that instructors, who have well prepared course outlines, use satisfactory materials, help the student outside the lectures, grade exams fairly and on time receive higher evaluations. Hemaid and El-Halees [24]; Surjeet and Saurabh[25] used C4.5, ID3 and CART decision tree algorithms on engineering student's data to predict their performance in the final exam. Prediction models that included all personal, social, psychological and other environmental variables were necessary for the effective prediction of the performance of the students. C4.5 technique has highest accuracy of 67.7778% compared to other methods ID3 and CART algorithms.
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A study by Pal and Pal [26] analyzed some numbers of parameters for the derivation of performance prediction indicators needed for teachers performance assessment, monitoring and evaluation. Four classification algorithms (Naïve Bayes, ID3, CART and LAD) based on Weka were used in their study. Their results showed that the best algorithm based on data is Naïve Bayes classification. Surjeetet al, [27] carried out a research on mining educational data to predict student’s retention. In the study machine learning algorithms (ID3, C4.5 and ADT) were applied to analyze and extract information from existing student data. Their study established predictive models and showed that machine learning algorithm such as Alternating Decision Tree (ADT) can learn predictive models from the student retention data accumulated from previous year.
Aranuwa and Sellapan [28] used directed modeling that is an intelligent technique for evaluation of instructors' performance in higher institutions of learning, and proposed an optimal algorithm and designing a system framework suitable for predicting instructors’ performance as well as recommended necessary action to be taken to aid school administrators in decision making considering the limitations of the classical methodologies. The proposed system, if fully implemented, will aid school administrators in decision making, provide basis for instructors' performance improvement that will optimize students' academic outcomes and improve standard of education. Consequently, this will contribute to successful achievement of the goals.
A similar study was carried out by Hemaid and El-Halees[24] to examine the factors associated with the assessment of teacher's performance. In this study, data was collected for teachers from the Ministry of Education and Higher Education in Gaza City. They proposed a model to evaluate their performance through the use of techniques of data mining like association, classification rules (Decision
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Tree, Rule Induction, K-NN, Naïve Bayesian (Kernel)) to determine ways that can help them to better serve the educational process and hopefully improve their performance and thus reflect it on the performance of teachers in the classroom. In each tasks, they presented the extracted knowledge and described its importance in teacher performance domain.
Zlatko J. Kovacic & John Steven Green, 2010 have predicted student’s academic performance using various attributes like gender, parent education, economic background etc. M.N. Quadri & N.V. Kalyankar, 2010 explained that the previous academic result plays a key task to predict the students who are a threat to be unsuccessful in the exam. Bhardwaj & Pal, 2011 performed a study on the student performance among 300 students. By means of Bayesian classification method on 17 attributes, it is noted that the influencing factors like grade in senior secondary exam, medium of teaching, living location, mother’s qualification, other habit, income and family status plays a vital role in the student academic performance. Pandey & Pal, 2011 performed a study on the student performance on 600 students. The attributes like category, language and background qualification were used to predict student performance. Hijazid & Naqvi, 2006 performed a study on the student performance by selecting a sample of 300 students (225 males, 75 females). The study reveals that “Student's attendance, hours spent in study, family income and mother's education are significantly related with student performance" using linear regression. If data mining techniques such as clustering, decision tree and association are applied to higher education processes, it would help to improve students’ performance.
Al-Radaideh Q., Al-Shawakfa E. & AI-Najjar M,2006 used data mining classification techniques to enhance the quality of the higher educational system by evaluating students’ data that may affect the students’ performance in courses. They used three different
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classification methods ID3, C4.5 and the NaiveBayes. The results indicated that the decision tree model had better prediction accuracy than the other models. Z. J. Kovacic,2010 presented a study on educational data mining to identify up to what extent the enrolment data can be used to predict student’s success. The algorithms CHAID and CART were used. K.Shanmuga Priya & A.V.Senthil Kumar, 2013 applied a Classification Technique in Data Mining to enhance the student's performance by extracting the discovery of knowledge from the end semester mark Mohammed M. Abu Tair & Alaa M. El-Halees (2012) applied the data mining for discovering knowledge from data that come from educational environment.
Student’s data has been collected from the college of Science and Technology for a period of 15 years [1993-2007]. The collected data was preprocessed and data mining techniques are applied to improve graduate students’ performance, and overcome the problem of low grades of graduate students. Muslihah W., Yuhanim Y., Norshahriah W., Mohd Rizal M., Nor Fatimah A., & Hoo Y. S., 2009 have compared Artificial Neural Network and the combination of clustering and decision tree classification techniques for predicting and classifying student’s academic performance. Students’ data were collected from the data of the National Defense University of Malaysia (NDUM). H. W. Ian & F. Eibe,2005 gave a case study that used educational data mining to identify behavior of failing students to warn students at risk before final exam.
S. B. Kotsiantis, C. J. Pierrakeas & P. E. Pintelas,2003 have compared six classification methods Naive Bayes, Decision Tree, Feed- forward Neural Network, Support Vector Machine, 3-nearest Neighbor and Logistic Regression to predict drop-outs in a course. The data set contained records of 350 students. Their best classifiers, Naive Bayes and Neural Network, were able to achieve a performance of 80%. Nguyen N., Paul J. & Peter H., 2007 compared the accuracy of decision
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tree and Bayesian network algorithms for predicting the academic performance of students of Under Graduate and Post Graduate students. The decision tree classifier provided better accuracy than the Bayesian network classifier. Ramaswami M., & Bhaskaran R,2010 have constructed a predictive model using 772 students’ records with 7-class response variables by using highly influencing predictive variables obtained through feature selection. The accuracy of the present model was compared with other models and it has been found to be satisfactory. Brijesh Kumar Baradwaj, Saurabh Pal,2011 conducted a study on a data set of size 50 MCA students for mining educational data to analyze students’ performance. Decision tree method was used for classification and to predict the performance of the students. Different measures that are not taken into consideration were economic background; technology exposure etc.
Han & M. Kamber, 2001 depicted the data mining process and the methods to analyze data from different perspective and the steps to mine knowledge. Monika Goyal & Rajan Vohra, 2012 discussed on various applications of data mining in order to improve the quality of higher education. Anupama Kumar & Vijayalakshmi, 2011 have used classification algorithms like C4.5 and Random Tree to mine the records and predict the outcome of the students in the V semester. The algorithms are analyzed using parameters like the number of instances predicted correctly, algorithm accuracy, and precision value of the algorithm. Y. Bengio, J. M. Buhmann, M. Embrechts, and J. M. Zurada, 2000 discussed that neural networks are suitable in data-rich environments and are typically used for extracting embedded knowledge in the form of rules, quantitative evaluation of these rules, clustering, self-organization, classification and regression.
Neural networks have an advantage, over other types of machine learning algorithms, for scaling. J. A. Moriana, F. Alos, R. Alcala, M. J. Pino, J. Herruzo, and R. Ruiz, 2006 studied the possible
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influence of extra- curricular activities like study-related (tutoring or private classes, computers) and/or sports-related (indoor and outdoor games) on the academic performance of the secondary school students in Spain. A total number of 222 students from 12 different schools were the samples and they were categorized into two groups as a function of student activities (both sports and academic) outside the school day. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to verify the effect of extracurricular activities on the academic performance and it was observed that group involved in activities outside the school yielded better academic performance.
In paper [29] deals about some classification models to predict the severity of injury that occurred during traffic accidents using two machine-learning approaches. They compared Naïve Bayesian classifier and J48 decision tree Classifier for classifying the type of injury severity of various traffic accidents and the result shows that J48 outperforms Naïve Bayesian.
CONCLUSION
During the past decades advancements in the Internet technologies introduced various learning mechanisms to students to gather more knowledge collaboratively and collectively. These technology improvements allowed most of the institutions to utilize large amount of knowledge effectively which is diverse and distributed around the world. But it has become a massive challenge to understand and cover the actual needs of the learners through the existing learning management systems since most of the systems are providing assistance on scheduling and maintenance of the course modules. Evaluating performance in the e-learning systems becomes a massive challenge because of the different factors which affect the learning models. Many of the qualitative and quantitative factors, which are available in the e-learning framework, highlight different aspects of the
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students' learning but have not been considered yet for evaluation purposes of the student performances. Therefore a deeper analysis on the behavioral patterns of the students and the factors which affect the student learning in e-learning systems can be used to implement an effective performance model to evaluate the overall performance of each student and it is a much needed requirement at this stage to upgrade the learning capacity in the e-learning education.
Applying data mining methodologies on the educational data has brought a new research discipline where the existing methodologies have been used to model the learning behaviours of the learners. Many of the institutions and other university systems around the globe have tried to overcome the problems of identifying actual student needs through learning analytics. Most of the available system implementations are focused on providing capabilities to the teachers and other knowledge producers to discover the students with difficulties of learning. By analysing their learning environment and other behavioural factors teachers will be able to provide necessary guidance to improve their capabilities or learning capacities.
Therefore models for evaluating the student performance with acceptable accuracy levels and quality predications still need to be researched more and existing learning analytics should be implemented in such a manner in which they can be used by the knowledge producers with more user friendliness and more interpretation capabilities in an efficient and effective manner
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15. Kovacic, Z. “Early prediction of student success: Mining student enrollment data” Proceedings of Informing Science & IT Education Conference. (2010). 16. Ahmed, A. B. E, Ibrahim S. E.. "Data Mining: A prediction for Student's Performance Using Classification Method." World Journal of Computer Application and Technology Volume 2(2) (2014). 17. Sembiring S, Zarlis, M, Hartama, D. Ramliana S, Elvi W. “Prediction of student academic performance by an application of data mining techniques.” International Conference on Management and Artificial Intelligence IPEDR Volume.6, (2011). 18. Ogunde A.O., Ajibade D.A. “A data Mining System for Predicting University Students F=Graduation Grade Using ID3 Decision Tree approach”, Journal of Computer Science and Information Technology, Volume 2(1) (2014). 19. Rajni J. and Malaya D.B (2013): A Survey on Educational Data Mining and Research Trends. International Journal of Database Management Systems (IJDMS) Vol.5, No.3 20. Varun Kumar and AnupamaChadha, “An Empirical Study of the Applications of Data Mining Techniques in Higher Education”, International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, Vol. 2, No.3, March 2011 21. Chin Chia Hsu and Tao Huang (2006): The use of Data Mining Technology to Evaluate Student’s Academic Achievement via multiple Channels of Enrolment. An empirical analysis of St. John’s University of Technology. 22. Osofisan A.O. and Olamiti A.O. (2009): Academic Background of Students and Performance in Computer Science Programme in a Nigerian University. European Journal of Social Science. Vol. 33 Issues 4. 2009. 23. MardikyanS., and Badur B. (2011). Analyzing teaching Performance of Instructors Using Data Mining techniques. Informatics in Education, 2011, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp 245 – 257. 24. Hemaid and El-Halees (2015): Improving Teacher Performance using DataMiningInternational Journal of Advanced Research in Computer and Communication EngineeringVol. 4, Issue 2, February 2015. 25. Surjeet K.Y and Saurabh P (2012): Data Mining: A Prediction for Performance Improvement of Engineering Students using Classification World of Computer Science and Information Technology Journal (WCSIT) ISSN: 2221-0741 Vol. 2, No. 2, 51-56, 2012 26. Pal K. and Pal S. (2013): Evaluation of Teacher’s Performance: A Data Mining Approach. International Journal of Computer Science and Mobile Computing. IJCSMC, Vol 2, Issue. 12, Dec., 2013, pg. 359 – 369. 27. Surjeet K.Y et al, (2012): Mining Educational Data to Predict Student’s Retention: A comparative study, volume 10, No 2.
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28. Aranuwa F.O., and Sellapan P.,(2013): A data mining model for evaluation ofinstructors’performance in higher institutions of learning usingmachine learning algorithms, International Journal of Conceptions on Computing and Information Technology Vol. 1, sue 2, Dec’ 2013; ISSN: 2345 – 9808 29. Zlatko J. Kovacic & John Steven Green, Predictive working tool for early identification of ‘at risk’ students, New Zealand, 2010. 30. Quadril.M.N & Dr. Kalyanka N.V. Drop Out Feature of Student Data for Academic Performance Using Decision Tree, Global Journal of Computer Science and Technology Vol. 10 Issue 2 (Ver 1.0), April 2010. 31. Bharadwaj. B.K & S. Pal. “Data Mining: A prediction for performance improvement using classification”, International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security (IJCSIS), Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 136-140, 2011. 32. Pandey U.K & S.Pal, Data Mining A prediction of performer or underperformer Using classification IJCSIT International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technology, Vol. 2(2),pp.686- 690,ISSN:0975-9646,2011 33. Hijazi S. T., &. Naqvi R. S. M. M, “Factors affecting student’s performance: A Case of Private Colleges”, Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology, Vol. 3, No.1, 2001. 34. Al-Radaideh Q., Al-Shawakfa E., & AI-Najjar M., Mining Student Data using Decision Trees, In Proceedings of the International Arab Conference on Information Technology (ACIT'2006), Yarmouk University, Jordan, 2006. 35. Kovacic Z. J., “Early prediction of student success: Mining student enrollment data”, Proceedings of Informing Science & IT Education Conference 2010. 36. Shanmuga Priya. K, & Senthil Kumar A.V., Improving the Student’s Performance Using Educational Data Mining, 2013. 37. Mohammed M. Abu Tair & Alaa M. El-Halees, Mining Educational Data to Improve Students’ Performance: A Case Study, 2012 38. Muslihah W., Yuhanim Y., Norshahriah W., Mohd Rizal M., Nor Fatimah A., & Hoo Y. S., Predicting NDUM Student’s Academic Performance Using Data Mining Techniques, In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Computer and Electrical Engineering, IEEE computer society, 2009. 39. Ian H. W. & Eibe F., “Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques with Java Implementations,” California: Morgan Kaufmann, 2005 40. Kotsiantis, S. B., Pierrakeas C. J., & Pintelas P. E., “Preventing Student Dropout in Distance Learning Using Machine Learning Techniques,” In proceedings of 7th International Conference on
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A EMPIRICAL STUDY ON QUALITY OF WORK LIFE IN SERVICE ORGANISATION WITH REFERENCE TO A.P. CO-OPERATIVE DEPARTMENT, VISAKHA ZONE
K.V.B Ganesh Dr. R. Padmaja Research Scholar Assistant Professor Department of Business Department of Business Management Management Krishna University Krishna University Machilipatnam. A.P, India Machilipatnam. A.P, India Abstract:
Service organisation has played a very important role in the process of economic development of all countries of the world including India. The problem of service industry and its role in economic development had attracted the attention of policy makers in India too. The present study focusing on Quality of Work Life in A.P Co-operative Dept, particularly in Visakhapatnam Zone. Co-operative department is the governing body of various co-operatives like PACS, CS, DCMS, GCC, and Waivers Societies etc. in A.P. It has a crucial role in the lives of rural people, and also economic strength to the state. In rapid growth situation of developing economy it is the miserable condition for organisation like co-operation of A.P which faces difficulties in existence even due to many common aspects. The researcher has a great thrust on this to find out how this problem will be solved which would be built the organisation as shaped earlier with high surplus of capital. For every organisation employees are the primary source for profits or losses, hence the researcher made an attempt on employees Quality of Work Life to find out the reasons and identify suitable recommendations.
Key Terminology CS : Consumer Stores DCMS: District co-op marketing society
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GCC : Girijan co-operative corporation PACS : Primary Agricultural co-op society INTRODUCTION
Service organizations are the part of service Industry which has played a very important role in the process of economic development of all countries of the world including India. The problem of service industry and its role in economic development had attracted the attention of policy makers in India too. Indian economy is on the threshold of change today consequent upon the historical economic reforms initiated since 1991. Reforms in different spheres of economic activity have led to change on different fronts. Service Industry development is no exception.
Service industries plays key role in the industries of developing countries. This is because they provide immediate large-scale employment and have a comparatively higher labour-capital ratio. They need only a short gestation period and relatively smaller market to be economic. Service organizations need lesser amount of capital. But, they offer a method of ensuring a more equitable distribution of national income and facilitate an effective mobilization of capital and skill which might otherwise remain unutilized. Service organizations stimulate the growth of industrial entrepreneurship and promote a more diffused pattern of ownership and location. Many empirical studies have shown that service enterprises are an important vehicle for meeting the growth and equality with social justice objectives of developing economies. In the Indian context they play a key role in the economic development of the country.
Service sector is a significant segment of Indian economy. In the Indian context they are more important because in addition to the general advantages it can help to attain some socio-economic goals. Service units can decentralize and disperse finance activities of the country from the metropolitan to the non-metropolitan and rural areas.
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They can reduce the regional economic imbalance of the country and help to defuse entrepreneurial and managerial abilities and skills as well as of the technology throughout the country.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The broad objective of the study is to examine the quality of work life in selected units of Co-operative department, i.e., Visakhapatnam Zone. Keeping in this view the following objectives are set for the study.
1. To review the A.P Co-operative department services to their employees and to analyze how their services help employees’ satisfaction.
2. To elicit the views of employees on various aspects relating to quality of work life in co-operative department of selected area.
3. To elicit the views of Gazetted and Non Gazetted employees on various aspects relating to quality of work life in co-operative department of same area.
4. To measure the opinions of QWL on employee compensation and benefits among employees of three districts.
5. To measure and compare working conditions of employees between Gazetted and Non Gazetted employees of selected districts.
HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
In line with the objectives stated above, the following hypotheses formulated, which will be tested for the purpose of this study.
H01 = The various factors for the measurement of QWL viz. Adequate and fair compensation, working conditions, etc. do not significantly differ when employees are classified on the basis of their personal profiles like gender, age, and education.
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H11 = The various factors for the measurement of QWL viz. Adequate and fair compensation, working conditions, etc. significantly differ when employees are classified on the basis of their personal profiles like gender, age, and education.
H02 = There is no significant difference between Gazzetted and Non Gazzetted employees on quality of work life dimensions.
H12 = There is significant difference between Gazzetted and Non Gazzetted employees on quality of work life dimensions.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:
Studies on Quality of Work Life in India are limited. But the studies on QWL in service sector are also rare to find. In this context a study on QWL in service organization with reference to A.P co- operative Dept in Visakha zone is highly relevant and is useful in the following areas i) How this organization helpful as service organization in service sector? ii) What are the factors which influence the QWL in said organization? iii) Are there any significant differences in the QWL of select three districts of Visakha zone? As well as between the Gazzetted and Non Gazzetted employees.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The scope of the present study is restricted to the quality of work life in Dept of Co-operation Govt of A.P. Visakhapatnam zone. The measurement of the Quality of Work Life is done on the basis of five determinants namely compensation & benefits, working conditions, stress management & work life balance, employee empowerment & career growth, and human relations, . Comparative study is made on
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the basis of employees' responses from these three districts, and between Gazzetted and Non Gazzetted in every district, of selected zone.
It is hoped that this study will be helpful in understanding the current position of the respective organization and to provide some strategy to extend the employee satisfaction with modification. This is based on the internal facilities of the organisation. This research can be further used to evaluate the facilities provided by the management towards the employees and also helps in manipulating the basic expectations of the employees.
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
In pursuance of the above mentioned objectives and hypotheses, the following methodology was adopted for the study. It is an empirical method based on both primary and secondary data. The first objective of the study was pursued by the collection and analysis of data from secondary sources whereas all the other objectives have been achieved by collection and analysis of primary data.
Sources of Data:
Primary Data
The study is mainly based on primary data, obtained from a well-designed interview schedule and open discussion with Managerial and non-managerial employees in this selected organisation. For this purpose an interview schedule is being prepared, covering all aspects of quality of work life. This interview schedule will be finalized after conducting a pilot study among a sample of fifty employees. Appointments will be taken in advance from the employees and the interview timing also fixed accordingly.
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Secondary Data
The secondary data has been drawn from various publications and also from personal discussion with the officials of various agencies. Various studies and publications from which secondary data will be drawn from:
1. Co-operative department Portal, Hyderabad, A.P.
2. Co-operative magazines and co-operative unions. The secondary data was collected from various branches of the co-operative central banks and PACS’s under study, their books and journals dealing with the subject and various reports published by agencies working in this field.
Collection of Data
The primary data will be collected by conducting interviews with the selected employees in the selected organisation. The schedule consists different variables under the five main factors pertaining to quality of work life. The researcher had developed a five point rating scale namely ‘strongly disagree’, ‘disagree’, ‘neutral’, ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’ for rating the answers to the questions. The respondents will be asked to give information on the five point rating scale. Rating scale 5 point is given for strongly agreements, 1 point for strongly disagree and in between points 4, 3 and 2 were given in the order of rating. Before the commencement of interview, a sample schedule is given to each respondent and a brief explanation (in English or Telugu) regarding the study was given to them. Each question/item in the schedule was asked by the interviewer to the respondent employees. Care was taken to give sufficient time to the employees to think over and answer the questions. The respondents were encouraged to express their opinions and suggestions freely and frankly. Before the interview, the respondents were given an assurance that it was an
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independent and unbiased study and that their responses and opinions would not be disclosed to anyone so as to enable them to be frank, lucid and fearless in expressing opinions. The respondents were interviewed taking into account their time and availability and after obtaining permission from their employers.
Sample Size:
The universe/total population of employees in co-operative department in Visakhapatnam district is approximately 1510. Out of the total population a sample of 320 are selected.
Sampling Design
The sample is based on stratified random sampling method. Few executives are also taken as sample approximately 50 executives will be covered for the present study.
Zone : 1 District : Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram, Srikakulam Service : O/o Deputy Registrar,6 divisions in zone 1 Sector O/o of DCAO, and O/o of District co-operative offices
Sample : 1. Visakhapatnam District 120 Size 2. Vizianagaram District 100 3. Srikakulam District 100 Divisions : Visakhapatnam & Yellamanchili Vizianagaram & Parvathipuram Srikakulam& Tekkali. Tools used for Analysis
The collected primary data will be statistically processed, classified and tabulated by using appropriate methods. Tables and statistical results will have been derived from the computer software package called SPSS (Statistical Packages for Social Sciences).
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The following procedure is followed for analyzing the data.
1. For the purpose of measuring quality of work life five point rating has been used.
2. For testing the reliability of variables used for the measurement of quality of work life, Pearson's coefficient correlation has been used
3. For testing the significance of difference in variances. Fisher's Test for Equality of Variances has been applied.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Despite the fact that very reliable results that may also be generalized have been arrived at, the researcher would like to point out some unavoidable limitations that have entered into the study. They are as follows.
1. For measuring quality of work life five point factors have been considered. There may be other factors having impact on quality of work life which are not considered for this study.
2. For each of the factors minimum seven sub-variables were identified. They have been selected on the basis of various theories, models, seminar/study reports etc. More variables could have been included in the tentatively selected independent variable to make it more conclusive. However the researcher has felt that the selected items grouped under five factors are more vital and sufficient and therefore, they have higher logical correlation with the quality of work life than with the left-out items
3. A comparison of the total quality of work life in the selected organisation has not been made since any standard index of quality of work life has not been available
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4. The findings of this study are based on the information supplied by the respondents which might have its own limitations. The attempted objectivity has naturally been constrained by the extent of the respondent's readiness to give correct information. Possibility of hiding certain facts on the part of respondents could not completely be ruled out, although all possible efforts have been made to elicit authentic information.
In spite of these limitations, an earnest attempt has been made to arrive at fairly objective and representative conclusions by analyzing the data discreetly and tactfully.
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Data Analysis & Interpretation: Compensation and Benefits: Class of To Correlati STATEMENT Respon % SA A N D SD P(T<=t) two- tal on dents tail Gazette 20 14.062 64 23.4375 29.6875 18.75 14.0625 d 5 compensation Non 80 and benefits 6.6406 31.6406 38.6718 16.01 Gazette 256 7.03125 0.985253 0.776684421 25 3 8 563 d Gazette 20 14.062 14.06 64 18.75 26.5625 26.5625 d 5 25 Adequate Non 80 Equity 23.8281 37.1093 10.15 Gazette 256 15.625 13.28125 0.542951 0.473254184 3 8 625 d Gazette 20 20.31 64 12.5 31.25 23.4375 12.5 Satisfaction d 25 with pension Non 80 15.234 27.7343 13.67 scheme Gazette 256 35.9375 7.421875 0.7367 0.655279669 38 8 188 d Gazette 20 17.187 Satisfaction 64 14.0625 35.9375 18.75 14.0625 d 5 with Non 80 provident 17.578 25.3906 33.5937 16.01 Gazette 256 7.421875 0.747581 0.724044783 fund scheme 13 3 5 563 d Satisfaction Gazette 20 14.062 32.81 0.792568 0.65273596 64 14.0625 17.1875 21.875 with general d 5 25
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insurance Non 80 11.328 16.7968 25.78 Gazette 256 21.875 24.21875 13 8 125 d Gazette 20 10.937 35.93 64 14.0625 25 14.0625 Satisfaction d 5 75 with health Non 80 10.156 17.5781 20.7031 Plan Gazette 256 25 26.5625 0.543603 0.926271673 25 3 3 d Gazette 20 20.312 15.62 64 32.8125 25 6.25 Satisfaction d 5 5 with leave Non 80 31.640 19.9218 11.71 facilities Gazette 256 32.8125 3.90625 0.851028 0.724004253 63 8 875 d Gazette 20 17.18 64 28.125 20.3125 23.4375 10.9375 d 75 Satisfaction Non 80 with HRA/DA 26.562 33.2031 19.5312 14.06 Gazette 256 6.640625 0.719269 0.615782785 5 3 5 25 d Gazette 20 39.06 Satisfaction 64 4.6875 10.9375 14.0625 31.25 d 25 with tuition Non 80 reumburseme 4.2968 4.29687 11.3281 40.62 Gazette 256 39.45313 0.973488 0.419114465 nt 75 5 3 5 d Satisfaction 20 Gazette 29.68 with Paid 64 7.8125 9.375 14.0625 39.0625 d 75 time off 0.889799 0.914514298
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Non 2 8 14. 10. 38. 31. 4.6 Gaze 5 0 453 937 281 640 875 tted 6 13 5 25 63
Inference: There is no significant difference between Gazetted and Non-Gazetted respondents with respect to the agreement levels.
Very high correlation is observed between Gazetted and Non-Gazetted respondents in terms of the statements 1 and 9.Other statements are showing moderate to high correlation. working conditions
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Class of STATEME Tot Correlat Responde % SA A N D SD P(T<=t) two- NT al ion nts tail
20.312 10.937 Adequate Gazetted 64 20 12.5 37.5 18.75 Physical 5 5 Working 0.648589 0.400826913 Non 11.32 12.109 12.109 30.859 33.593 conditions 256 80 Gazetted 813 38 38 38 75
10.93 39.062 29.687 Gazetted 64 20 7.8125 12.5 Adequate 75 5 5 Infrastructu 0.961907 0.165843554 Non 11.32 14.453 14.062 30.859 29.296 ral facilities 256 80 Gazetted 813 13 5 38 88
10.93 32.812 Good Gazetted 64 20 6.25 12.5 37.5 Drinking 75 5 0.954425 0.186393962 water Non 12.10 12.890 14.062 32.421 28.515 256 80 facility Gazetted 938 63 5 88 63
1.562 Good Gazetted 64 20 1.5625 3.125 59.375 34.375 5 Transportat 0.963042 0.550584079 ion Non 256 80 0.390 0.7812 3.125 73.437 22.265
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Gazetted 625 5 5 63
20.312 23.437 Gazetted 64 20 6.25 21.875 28.125 Good Dining 5 5 hall/Lunch 0.762703 0.248015756 Non 5.468 9.7656 11.718 42.187 30.859 room 256 80 Gazetted 75 25 75 5 38
20.31 26.562 20.312 20.312 Gazetted 64 20 12.5 Satisfied 25 5 5 5 with rest 0.36062 0.856601895 Non 20.31 26.171 22.265 19.921 11.328 periods 256 80 Gazetted 25 88 63 88 13
14.06 29.687 Motivating Gazetted 64 20 12.5 28.125 15.625 work 25 5 0.483004 0.700516057 environmen Non 10.54 13.671 45.703 11.328 256 80 18.75 t Gazetted 688 88 13 13
Satisfied with 14.06 32.812 10.937 20.312 Gazetted 64 20 21.875 0.719858 0.85206326 working 25 5 5 5 hours
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Non 256 80 12.89063 25.39063 14.84375 29.6875 17.1875 Gazetted Inference: There is no significant difference between Gazetted and Non-Gazetted respondents w.r.t the agreement levels.
Very high correlation is observed between Gazetted and Non-Gazetted respondents in terms of the statements 2 and 4.Low correlation is observed for the statements 6 and 7.Other statements are showing moderate to high correlation.
Findings
1. It is found that both Gazetted and Non Gazetted employees of three districts are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. There is no significant difference between both Gazetted and Non Gazetted employees with reference to their agreement levels on compensation benefits.
2. It is found that both Gazetted and Non Gazetted employees of three districts are dissatisfied with their working conditions like infrastructure, drinking water, transportation etc., There is no significant difference between both Gazetted and Non Gazetted employees with reference to their agreement levels.
RECOMMENDATIONS
This study is able to touch some grey areas with respect to the factors of Quality of Work Life in three districts of co-operative department, that need special attention. These involve hygiene and motivational factors such as human relation, work environment, work schedule and councelleing. The researcher suggest that the administration of this organisation may take steps to address the problems by enacting the recommendations with suitable modifications that fit their organizations.
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1. Skill Improvement : As the technology grows it is essential for the said organisation to improve skills of their employees to retain and enhance the profits of organisation.
2. Good Human Relations: The complex nature of services and the heterogeneous nature of employees are the reasons for not healthy relations and social integration in ant organisation. So the management has to consider special attention in this dimension.
3. Conducive Work Environment: It is quite understandable that the very nature of this organisation works over time due to heavy pressure from politicians, So it is suggested that the management has to change work conditions to replace old infrastructure to new facilities.
4. Flexible Work schedule: To avoid the pressure of workers it is suggested to the management to prepare weekly or monthly preplanned schedule with continuous guidance from superiors.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
It is clear from the study the Quality of Work Life initiatives can provide staff with experiences that ate conducive to improving their overall quality of work life. It is also clear that quality of work life can contribute to the perceived enhancement of the quality of care that is provided by staff. Since quality of work life determinants are key organizational priorities, several recommendations can be offered to help with the future QWL studies.
1. Studies on the quality of work life of employees of A.P co-operative department in selected districts under study can be extended to other Govt. and private sectors too.
2. Other deviation factors affecting the quality of work life such as the pattern of organizational management, leadership of organisation, organizational culture, and job satisfaction should be studied.
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References:
Journal Papers:
i. Bhandari, Mala, “Women in Two Work Roles and the Quality of Their Life”, Sociological Bulletin, Vol 53 No.1, Jan-Apr. 2004.
ii. Saloniemi, Antti, Virtanen, Pekka & Vahetera, Jussai, “The Work Environment in Fixed-Term Jobs: Are Poor Psychosocial Conditions Inevitable?” Work Employment and Society, Vol. 18, No.1, UK, 2004.
iii. Blanche, R., Hedriks, Elma, March 2004, “An Investigation into the Determinants of Job Satisfaction and the Improvement of Quality of Work Life of Grassroots Social Workers”, Social Work, Wol. 40, No 1, South Africa,
Books:
i. Dr. GUPTA. C.B. Sultan chand sons – Human resource management
ii. ASWATHAPPA. K. – Human resource and personnel management Third Edition 2002, Tata MC Graw – Hill New Delhi
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A SURVEY ON SPORTS PARTICIPATION AND PERFORMANCE OF GOVERNMENT DEGREE COLLEGES OF HYDERABAD KARNATAKA REGION Mr.Karabasappa Parameshwar Dr.M.S.Pasodi Ph.D Research Scholar Director Dept of Physical Education Dept of Physical Education Gulbarga University, Gulbarga Gulbarga University, Gulbarga
Abstract
The present study deals with the sports participation and performance of government degree colleges of Hyderabad Karnataka region. The researcher wanted to find out the government degree colleges sports participation and performance by students both male and female in five years of period in major sports/games at the inter- university level competitions. The objectives of the study. To know the number of sports participation in five years of period by the students of government degree colleges. To compare the year wise sports performance of government degree college students in inert-university level sports. To compare the sports participation & performance among male and female students of government degree colleges. Hypotheses of the study - There is decrease in sports participation at college and inter-university level competitions. There is difference among male and female in sports participation and performance. Sample of the study - all the government degree colleges affiliated to Gulbarga University, kalaburagi, the basic statistical techniques used to prove the research hypothesis of the study.
Key words – Sports participation and performance
Introduction
The Committee on Physical Education was appointed by the University Grants Commission under the chairmanship of Dr. C.D. Deshmukh in
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December, 1965, to examine the facilities of physical education and standards of games and sports in Indian universities and colleges and to recommend measures to be taken to improve the standard and level or performance in this important field or activity of students. It cannot be said that the contribution of physical education to a programme of general education has been fully appreciated in India. Nor can the facilities for physical education provided in our universities and colleges be considered in any way adequate. There is also a lack of interest on the part of students and teachers in programmes of physical education, which are at best considered to be only a useful ancillary activity of the university or college. The committee submitted its report in February, 1967. The information regarding grounds at different colleges and universities collected by the committee is given in the following table:
The development of physical education in the universities and college should be given the highest possible priority and regarded as an essential and integral part of education and human development.
2. It should be compulsory for every university/college student to participate in one activity or the other covered under physical education viz., games, sports, exercises, N.C.C., drill, P.T. etc.
3. N.C.C. which is at present compulsory in the universities and college will have to be reorganized on a voluntary basis.
4. Certain norms should be developed to ensure optimum utilization of the available resources. It is necessary that each college should aim at having about 8 to 10 acres of land for playgrounds. Generally speaking, each university should have at least 2 cricket fields, 2 hockey fields, 2 foot-ball fields, 4 basketball courts, 6 volley-ball courts, 12 tennis courts, a sports stadium with a running track, a cricket pavilion and a gymnasium hall for gymnastics, badminton, table tennis and wrestling pits. Similarly, each college should have at least one cricket-field, one hockey field, one foot-ball field, 2 basket-ball courts, 2 volley-ball
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courts, 2 tennis courts, a sports stadium with a running track, a swimming pool and a gymnasium hall.
5. As the universities and colleges do not have enough resources to make provision for basic facilities and amenities in the field of games and sports, a suitable system of grants for augmenting the present facilities will have to be formulated. The government has to provide a substantial proportion (say 80 percent) of the total expenditure required for an effective programme of compulsory physical education.
6. Suitable incentives should be provided to students and teachers to participate in games, sports and other forms of physical education and to create in them a sustained interest in these activities.
7. It should be possible that, other things being more or less equal, preference may be given in matters of admission and employment to those students who have taken active and regular part in games and sports.
8. In judging the suitability or otherwise or candidates for admission to university courses, the authorities concerned should take into account their performance in games and sports along with the marks at the qualifying examination and other criteria of their aptitude and ability.
9. In the degree awarded to a candidate there should be a mention of his record in games and sports apart from marks or division/class in the regular subjects.
10. More students should be encouraged to participate in national and international events in the field of games and sports
11. Young lecturers in the universities and colleges should be encouraged to take a more active part in games and sports and in other extra-curricular activities.
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12. It would be necessary to have an estimate of the required manpower in the field of physical education in order to have in idea of the extent to which facilities have to be expanded. This exercise could be profitably undertaken by the Institute of Applied Manpower Research, New Delhi.
13. The University Grants Commission should appoint a review committee to carry out a comprehensive review of the courses offered by the colleges/departments of physical education, to evaluate the standard of training and to make suggestions for the improvement and upgrading of standards.
14. While the existing colleges/departments of physical education should be strengthened by the provision of additional facilities in terms of staff and equipment, no new college or department of physical education should be set up till a review of the existing courses and standards of training has been carried out by an expert committee.
15. It might be useful if some of the existing colleges/department of physical education pay adequate attention to training in yogic exercises, the development of which would be in the interest of our youth and society at large.
16. Where colleges are not in a position to employ special coaches for individual games, an arrangement could be made for the pooling of resources at the university level.
17.The universities might also consider the organisation of short-term coaching camps for the benefit of students in the affiliated colleges.
18. The minimum qualifications for appointment as instructor/director of physical education in a university or college should be a mater’s degree in physical education.
19. In order to give physical education its due status, universities and colleges should revise the salary scale of their physical education
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teachers to bring them at par with those of the other teacher. Persons with requisite qualifications (as mentioned above) should be appointed in the same scale of pay as lecturers. Directors of physical education in the universities could be appointed in the scale of pay of readers.
20. While organisation of games and sports is largely a matter of local needs and conditions, it is of the utmost importance that students are given due representation on these bodies. The boards should encourage inter-college sports as well as youth festivals and other activities such as labour and social service camps.
A bill was passed in the parliament which was known as National Policy of Education 1986. Emphasized the importance of Physical Education in following ways.
Sports and Physical Educations are an integral part of the learning process, and will be included in the evaluation of performance. A Nation-wide infrastructure for Physical Education, Sports and games will be built into the educational edifice. The infrastructure will consists of play fields, equipment, coaches and teachers of Physical Education as part of the school improvement programme. Available open spaces in urban areas will be reserved for play grounds, if necessary by legislation, effects will be made to established sports Institution and hostels where specialized attention will be given to sports activities and sports related studies, along with normal education. Appropriate encouragement will be given to those talented in games and sports. The stress will be laid on indigenous traditional games. As a system which promotes an integrated duo of body and mind. Yoga will revive special authentic effects will be made to introduce Yoga in all schools, and to this and, it will be introduce in teacher training courses. The MPE has recommended for a minimum of 10 periods per week for Physical Education activities in low primary and upper primary stages, and 7 periods per week at the second stage
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Method
Significance of the study
The study having the most important step to understand and analyze the status of the government college’s in participation and performance in sports competitions at college and inter university level. The study also compares the year wise data which help us to assess the status of the colleges in sports in the Hyderabad Karnataka region.
Objectives of the study
To know the number of sports participation in five years of period by the students of government degree colleges.
To compare the year wise sports performance of government degree college students in inert-university level sports.
To compare the sports participation & performance among male and female students of government degree colleges.
Hypotheses of the study
There is decrease in sports participation at college and inter- university level competitions.
There is difference among male and female in sports participation and performance
Sample of the study
All the government degree colleges of affiliated to the Gulbarga university, majorly consider Hyderabad Karnataka area.
Data collection
All the government colleges of Hyderabad Karnataka region the data of the survey work based on the records of the last five years sports
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participation and represented to university at inter-university level competitions.
Tool
The self structured questionnaire used to collect the needful data for the survey work.
Data Analysis
Sports participation and performance in five years
Sports/ 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 Games Total M Fem M Fem M Fem M Fem M Fema ale ale ale ale ale ale ale ale ale le 1 Athletic 2 ------1 1 4 s 2 Kabadd 3 4 3 8 - 5 3 4 - 5 35 i 3 Kho- - 6 - 6 - 5 6 7 5 7 42 kho 4 Volleyb 2 7 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 23 all 5 Basketb 4 - 2 - 3 - 2 - 6 - 17 all 6 TOTAL 11 17 7 16 5 12 12 13 13 15 121 The table data based on the colleges sports records**
The table No-1 showing the participation and the level of performance of government degree colleges of hyderabad karnataka region at inter university sports competitions in five years from 2012-13 to 2016-17.
The study revealed that the participation and performance of students both male and female students of government colleges in major sports /games at inter university level sports competions. In athletics the 3 male players were participated at inter university there were 1 female players participated or performanced. In kabaddi game in total 9 players of government degree colleges of hyderabad karnataka were participated at inter university level. Total 26 female kabaddi players were represented in the inter university competitions in five years.
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Kho kho game the 11 male players were represented to the inter university and 31 female players were represented at inter university sports competitions in five years of period. In volley ball 8 male players were represented their colleges at inter university competitions, total 15 female players were selected to inter university competition from government degree colleges of hyderabad karnataka region. In basketball game total 17 male players were represented /paticipated at inter university basketball tournaments in five years of period, there were no female players were participated from the government degree colleges of hyderabad karnataka region in the five years of period.
When we observe the total number of participation the female sports players were had higher status than the male sports players of the government degree colleges of Hyderabad Karnataka region. In all five major games only 121 male and female sports players from government degree colleges of kalaburagi district had participated and performance at inter university sports competitions. There is need to more number of participation at inter university level sports.
Conclusion
There are more than forty government first grade colleges are affiliated to the Gulbarga university and thousands of students are studying the colleges but when we come sports participation issue the less than 1% of students involving and participating the at college and inter university level sports competitions in one year of period, there is lack of sports infrastructure and facilities in the colleges and lack of motivation about sports and physical education in our region.
There is decrease in the sports participation at college and university level sports competition
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Female sports players participation is higher than the male players of government colleges of Hyderabad Karnataka region in most of the games
There is no female participation in basketball game
There is lack of participation by the male and female players in athletics events at inter university level competitions.
There is lack of motivation to sports players in the government degree colleges of Hyderabad Karnataka region.
Recommendations
The collegiate department of Karnataka should observe the sports and physical education activities in the government colleges of Hyderabad Karnataka region, and take steps to improve the sports and physical education and region.
References
Sports records of the colleges of Hyderabad Karnataka region
National Policy of Education 1986
Sports journals
Google.com
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COMPARATIVE STUDY ON MENTAL HEALTH AND SELF CONFIDENCE AMONG SPORTS PLAYERS
Mr.Pradeepkumar Dr.M.S.Pasodi Ph.D Research Scholar Director Dept of Physical Education Dept of Physical Education Gulbarga University, Gulbarga Gulbarga University, Gulbarga
Abstract
The Psychological variables are more important things in the sports players life, the psychological variables like mental health and self confidence are having the significance influence on the sports players in the present sports world. The researcher tried to find out the significance difference in the selected psychological variables among individual and group game players both male and female players, the sample of the study randomly selected from the government degree colleges of kalaburagi district, Karnataka. The research tools- the Mental Health scale developed by Dr. Jagadish and Dr. A. K. Srivastava was used in the present study. The inventory contains 44 questions. Self Confidence Inventory (SCI). The self confidence inventory (SCI) developed by Basavanna .M (1975). The questionnaire consists of 100 items also used to measure the level of self confidence of the sample. The odd-even (split-half) reliability co-efficient calculated by spearmen brown formula is found to be 0.94.The collected data scrutinized with help of SPSS statistical tool and also used the statistical techniques like mean, SD, t-value are used to prove the research hypothesis of the study.
Key words:Mental health, Self confidence, sports players
INTRODUCTION
The thing, which is mostly desired in all the societies of the world, is the need of preserving mental health of the individual. Mental health is
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a potent determinant of one’s integrated personality and balanced behavior identified on the basis of the level of his/her adjustment to own self, others and environment. The acquisition of such personality is indeed essential for a normal individual. Only then, an individual can be able to actualize him/her, live his/her life to his/her satisfaction in the perfect tune of talking and giving something to the society.
The concept of being healthy is extended beyond the proper functioning of the body. It means the body and the mind are working efficiently and harmoniously. Human behavior is determined by both physical and mental factors. Mental health is a basic factor that contributes to the maintenance of physical health as well as social effectiveness.
Mental health means ability to balance in one’s daily living. In other words it is the ability to face and balance the reality of life (Bhatia, 1982). Mental health is a complex phenomenon depends on a set of familiarly personal, psychological and social variables. Mental health is as n important feature as the physical health of a person to make him complex with balance mental disposition of the children to cope with life more effectively and productively. Good mental health depends on the good state of both mind and body. Each exerts a direct influence on the other, but owing to the power of matter, good mental health is of supreme importance according to Hadfield (1952) mental health is the harmonious functioning of the whole personality.
Effects of nature games on Mental Health: Seiler R, Birrer D. The role of mental health is increasingly recognized in the discussion about health. In this article, health is considered to be a dynamic balance between resources and potential risk factors. Sport and physical activity may represent resources that do not only contribute to an increased well-being, but also to an improved self concept as a cognitive representation of one's health-status. To study the most important aspect of sport- a means of promoting interpersonal, national and
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international understanding. It would provide clue whether sports are truly fulfilling this much-publicized purpose or the differences in their mental health status are defeating the fundamental purpose of sports promotion.
Mental health has a huge impact on every aspect of life (Hackner, 2010). Self-Image: Good mental health means appreciating one’s achievements and accepting shortcomings. A mental illness can cause an inferiority complex, a negative body image and intense feelings of self-hate, anger, disgust, and uselessness, which could mutate into extreme depression, psycho-social disorders, or eating disorders. Education: Students with mental problems socially isolate themselves and develop anxiety disorders and concentration problems. Good mental health ensures an all-round educational experience that enhances social and intellectual skills that lead to self-confidence and better performance/achievement
Self confidence is an attitude, which all individuals have positive yet realistic views of themselves and their situations. Self confidence people trust their own abilities have a general sense of control in their lives and believe that, within reason, they will be able to do what they wish, plan, and expect. Like self esteems, self confidence refers to individual’s perceived ability to act effectively in a situation to overcome obstacles and to get things goes all right. Hence self-confidence is believed to increase one’s performance. The higher level of confidence generates enthusiasm for the given activity. It is the variation in confidence that makes differences in performance of sports activity. Therefore studying the influence of confidence assumes importance.
The Dictionary defines confidence as freedom of doubt; belief in yourself and your abilities. Many people lack the self-confidence and self-esteem needed to live a happy and healthy life. Self-esteem is a confidence and satisfaction in oneself. These two things must be
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present in people’s daily lives in order for them to believe that they have the ability to do anything. At this point in my life I am trying to gain the esteem I need to truly be happy. The best way to gain self- confidence is to look deep inside of yourself and believe that you have the ability to overcome all obstacles and challenges that you are faced with, on a daily bases, because our self-esteem is one of the few things that we have control over.
Self-confidence is something that cannot be taught. It is up to the individual to decide how much belief that they possess inside of themselves. I am at the point where I realize that I must first believe in myself before others will believe in me. Nobody teaches us to be happy or sad. They are natural feelings that come along as we develop mentally, physically, emotionally and psychologically. When you get to the point where you allow others to dictate how you feel about life, you have to stop and take an internal survey. Ask yourself if your lack of self-confidence and self-assurance is holding you back from being the best that you can possibility be. Most often these feelings come from people allowing the negativity of other people to overcome them. You have to be willing to take control of your life and whatever is holding you back. So often we, as a people, look for the validation from society before we validate ourselves. I have allowed society to determine how I should look, dress and feel. It is time for me to take a stand and be in control of my own destiny.
Basavanna .M (1975) studied self-confidence in relation with self and ideal self and found that self confidence people particularly who were capable. Successful and adjusted, had significantly higher self ideal and self-congruence than those who were low in their level of self- confidence.
Hence several researchers have made significant attempts to relate motivation with sports and found significant association between
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the level of motivation and the* corresponding sports activity. It has been proved empirically that persons with greater amount of motivation are found to be superior to others who are less motivated. This reveals that the motivated groups improve significantly in the given sports activity more than the non-motivated group (Hansen, 1967). However, there is no single motivational technique that is superior to other techniques. This marks very clearly that each motivational technique is, by and large, important depending upon the conditions in which it is presented. Hence motivational techniques produce desirable effects to the extent that a coach or coaches present them wisely. In a similar way, the social factor like social support, SE5, personal factors like self-confidence have significant impact on the performance of persons. Thus present study makes an attempt to assess the influence of all such factors on performance of sportsman selected from the colleges of Gulbarga division. Research Questions.
Review of Literature
Many studies have been conducted in the area of child development. Some of the studies have been mentioned here. Chowdhury Aparajita & Muni, Anita Kumari (1995) in their study about „Role of parental support in children need satisfaction and academic achievement‟, found that need satisfied by parents was much more than need satisfied by outside family members. With regards to academic it was found from the academic marks of the children that the average ranging (40-60) students were getting more parental support.
Linda L.Dunlap (2004), in her paper, „What all children need: theory and application‟ provides that sibling relationships typically are children‟s first social network and form the basis for relationships with others. Siblings are usually children‟s first playmates, intimate friends, protectors, enemies, competitors, confidantes and the role models. They are an important source of support school-age children, in particular.
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During this time siblings are not only companions but also help with difficult tasks and provide comfort during emotional stress. The bond formed between siblings is one of the most complex, long-lasting, and important connections in life. Typically, no other relationship lasts as long or has such a great impact. Siblings, who are close in age, often argue more but also develop closer bonds. Children who have siblings tend to work very well with peers
Method
Significance of the study
Mental Health might be viewed as secondary to physical health. However, it is every bit as important for a successful sporting performance as our physical state. University is a time of significant change in the athlete’s life and with the increased demand of balancing academic deadlines with regular training and competition; student- athletes are subjected to a large amount of stress. Hence, mental health problems are an increased risk for this population and sufficient services should be made available if psychological help is warranted. The investigator noticed that different games having different situations which effecting on the mental health of players, everyone knows that self-confidence is very important but what is not known to everyone is the degree of its importance. Self-confidence is more important than you can imagine. Self confidence can change your whole life to the better while lack of confidence will definitely have a negative effect on your social relations, career, achievements and even your mood. The following list will give you a better idea of the importance of self-confidence.
Objectives of the Study
To examine the level of Mental Health of players due to difference nature of sports.
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To find out the influence of nature of games on the mental health of sample groups.
To find out the level of self confidence among group and individual games female sports players
To compare the sports players influence of nature of game & gender difference on the psychological variable of the study.
Hypothesis of the Study
There would be significant deference in mental health and self confidence among male sports players due to nature of game.
There would be the significance deference in the mental health and self confidence among the female sample group due to difference in nature of game.
Sample
In the present study the researcher took fifty group games players both male and female and fifty individual game players both male & female from the government degree colleges of Kalaburagi district, Karnataka.
Tool
Mental Health scale developed by Dr. Jagadish and Dr. A. K. Srivastava was used in the present study. The inventory contains 44 questions. The responses are scored with the help of manual. Construct validity of the inventory is determined by finding coefficient of correlation between scores on mental health inventory and general health questionnaire (Gold berg, 1978). It was found to be 54. it is not worthy here that high score on the general health questionnaire indicates poor mental health.
Self Confidence Inventory (SCI). The self confidence inventory (SCI) developed by Basavanna .M (1975). The questionnaire
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consists of 100 items. The odd-even (split-half) reliability co- efficient calculated by spearmen brown formula is found to be 0.94.
DATA ANALYSIS INTERPRETATION
Mental Health
Sample N Male Female
Group game Mean 50 93.88 98.16
SD 11.76 13.67
Individual game Mean 50 124.12 131.72
SD 16.51 17.64
t-values 6.684** 8.408**
Significance at 0.05 level**
131.72 140 124.12 120 93.88 98.16 100 80 group game 60 Individual game 40 20 0 male female The table No 1 showing that the male sports players both group and individual games are highly differ in the their mental health, the researcher had analyzed the data of collected from the sample groups, the group games male players scored mean value is 93.88,SD is 11.76. And the Individual games players scored mean value is 124.12, SD is
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16.51, the t values showing the significance difference between group and individual games sports players significant at of 0.05 level.
Sample N Male Female
Group game Mean 50 35.28 39.18
SD 9.82 7.73
Individual game Mean 50 53.36 57.32
SD 6.68 5.34
t-values 7.47** 9.55**
The female sports players of group and individual games also differ in the mental health level at the significant at 0.05 levels. Mean score also showing the difference between male and female sports players of both groups.
Self Confidence
Significance at 0.05 level**
70 57.32 60 53.36 50 39.18 40 35.28 Group game 30 Individual game 20 10 0 Male Female
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The table No 2 showing the statistically difference between sample group, the groups game male sports players mean score is 35.28, SD 9.82 the individual game male sports players mean score is 53.36 SD is 6.68 the t value is 7.47** which showing significance at 0.05 levels. The female group game player mean score is 39.18 and the SD is 7.73, the individual game female players mean score 57.32 SD 5.34 the calculated t value 9.55** which showing the significance difference between group game and individual game sports players. The mean scores are also showing the difference between male and female sports players due to gender difference.
Conclusion
The study shows the difference in level of mental health and self confidence in sports players according to the nature of the playing game, the study reveals that there is significance difference in the mental health of players which depends on nature of the game like group and individual games. The study also found the mental health and self confidence level among sports players, this type of studies will help the coaches, team selector, managers in the various aspects of the sports field, it also show the new ways of research in the sports field to improve the Indian sports.
There is a significance difference between the group and individual games male players in their mental health level.
There is a significant difference between group and individual games male players in their self confidence level.
The gender factor influence the level of self confidence in both sample group players.
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Recommendation
This study may extend to the various sample groups like teachers, bank employee`s & patients, rural sports players, female sports players those suffering from low mental health and low self confidence.
Reference
1. Calfas, K.J., & Taylor, W.C. (1994). Effects of physical activity on psychological variables in adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6, 406–423.
2. Cohen, S., Tyrell, D.A.J., & Smith, A.P. (1991). Psychological stress and susceptibility to the common cold. New England Journal of Medicine, 325, 606–612.
3. Alderman, R.B. (1974): Psychological Behavior in Sports. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
4. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (1960): Skills Test Manual-
5. Volleyball for Boys and Girls. AAHPER Publication, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
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IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SHGS-EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN - SELF- HELP AMONG WOMEN IN YSR KADAPA DIST OF ANDHRAPRADESH Ramesh Reddy.T Research Scholar Rayalaseema University Kurnool
Despite of the earlier initiates in the formal sector so as to make them to meet the credit needs of the very poor could yield limited results. Moreover, rural socio – economic structure has been in favor of elite sections to take maximum advantage of the institutional credit facilities depriving the eligible poor, particularly women (Damyanty Shridharan,1997).
The need for alterative strategy for credit delivery to rural poor stems not only from the lack of accessibility by the poor, flexibility and the ability to respond to diverse needs of rural poor are the critical elements in the emerging alternative credit delivery system (Nitya Rao,1995); The alternative system is informal group of Self – Help Group (SHG).
In India informal or Self – Help Groups were initiated by voluntary sector through a carefully designed strategy for pursuing people reorienting their attitudes, building up their capacities for pursuing livelihoods that improve their standards of life (Jalma Ro,1998). Of late. Government has also made provisions in several development programs for involving people in socio – economic development process through group approach. The Self – Help Groups may be categories as credit: programs ‘or’ thrift and credit programs. According to NABARD, Self – Help Group (SHG) can be defined as a small homogenous affinity group of the rural poor which is voluntarily formed. It can be formal or informal. Members of the SHG save and
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contribute to common fund from which small loans are made to the needy members as per decisions of the group. Self – Help Groups are promoted by Government, development banks and non – Government organization so as to address the socio – economic issues. The SHG facilitates the development agencies to reach the poor people on wider scale and at lower costs (Mukherjee T.K.,1999).The financial assistance for on – lending to SHG is not merely credit delivery system to poor, but are emerging as instrument in socio – economic development agencies to reach the poor people on a wider scale and at lower costs (Mukherjee R.K.,1999). The financial assistance for on –lending to SHG is not merely verdict delivery system to poor, but are emerging as instrument in socio-economic development in the sense that it promotes small savings, quick credits for emerging needs particularly for the basic social expenditure like on health care education of their children.
Environment:
The Ninth Plan (1997-2002) emphasized on ‘Human Development’ as its main, focus. the plan approach paper made provision for ‘empowerment of women and socially disadvantage groups such as SC, ST and backward as agents of socio- economic change and development’ and ;promoting and developing people’s participatory institutions like Panchayat Raj. Cooperatives and Self – Help Groups’ (Sujatha Suresh.1998).
This has reflected in the policy initiatives taken by Government of India in its budget for the fiscal year 1999-2000. The Government of India has directed the apex institutions in the rural credit delivery systems 9(NABARD,SIDBI)to launch schemes for promotion of Self- Help Groups and NGOs as a channel for flow of funds to micro enterprises, which have great potential for generating employment in rural areas.
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The SHG approach has come to the centre –stage of the development process as members got loan at less interest rates, free from money lenders, credit for consumption purpose (Kumaran K.P.1997) and also instrument in promoting income generating activities with small credit (Surekha Rao K and Padmaja G.,1998).Moreover, members of the SHG, have paid much care to the vital social aspects like child welfare sanitation and education (Gopala KrishnanB.K1998).Hence ,it can be understood that SHG approaches have indicated positive effects on the targeted people and communities especially in the sustainability through ‘savings and credit programs’
Players:
The RBI is the authority of the entire financial systems in India, and the NABARD is responsible for rural credit delivery systems.Both RBI and NABARD made careful review of the ‘pilot project’ of funding SHG under the ‘SHG Bank linkage program’ The RBI has institutionalized the SHG Bank linkage program in April 1996 a ‘normal leading activity of the banks under. Priority sector and service area approach (NABARD / 1998).
In promotion and development of SHGs, banks/ Cooperatives /RRBs and NGOs are involved as partners in the SHG- Bank linkage program. The NGOs are actively involved in promoting ; nurturing and linking the groups with banks. The NGOS support includes initial hand – holding to maintenance of group cohesiveness, developing leadership and equitable perceptions. According to the available documents from the NABARD, there are two roles for NGOs; first one as the promoter and facilitator of the SHGs for tapping assistance from the banks, another one as financial intermediaries which makes the NGOs as on- lend organizations in this micro –finance sector.
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Methodology:
This paper is based on the micro- study conducted in the three villages of Chapadu Mandal (Block) in YSR Kadapa district. Purposively these three villages were selected as all seven women Self Help Groups (SHGs) have promoted and nurtured by SERP-velugu. Out of a total of 116 members of these Groups, a sample of 25 per cent (30 members) has been studied- from three Groups.
The main objective of this paper is to understand the functioning of the women SHGs among the scheduled Caste. The analysis intended to cover the areas of saving and borrowing pattern; participation in decision making process of the Groups.
Profile of the Members:
All the sample respondent members of SHGs are married and most of the members are falling in the age group o 20-35 Years. Most of the members are matters, excepting only 6.70 per cent of them. Are literate in these SC women groups .it is notable that few members aged below 20 have got married which members the socio- cultural back – ground of the SCs families.
Large proportion of members(76.7 per cent) is from the joint family and rests of them are nuclear family. Most of the members from the joint family class are class are changed in farming (61 per cent ) and others are agriculture laborers. In the nuclear family class most of them (86 percent ) are living as agricultural labourers.As evident from the high correlation between family type and occupation that the SC families are drawing the advantage of joint family system for taking up farming activities.
A typical ‘poor’ household is one at the low end of the caste hierarchy, most often a member of the Scheduled Castes of Tribes (World Bank,1998).Apart from data on annual income of the families
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attempts were made to look into the expenditure per annum so as to understand the demand for the credit among the SC Families .According to K.S Parikh’s(Economic Times, 1997) estimate, per capita annual expenditure in rural area worked out as Rs .2749.68.By using this figure, annual expenditure of the families have been estimated for the purpose of analysis. Cased of the annual income and estimated annual expenditure (Table-1) following deference can drawn.
Majority of the members who are agriculture labors and farmers have annual income below Rs.15000/- - Few agriculture laborers even no able to reveal their income.
For the majority of the members / the estimated annual expenditure is about Rs. 15,000/-. This implies that majority members are not able to cover their annual expenditure well within their annual income .This indicates their ‘poor status’ and requirement for the credit.
It is evident from the survey that the pace of occupational shift is slow among the members of SHGs. Only one member has moved agriculture laborers to take production after joining the SHGs. This implies that SC women involved in the Groups have to go a long – way to take advantage of the group to involve themselves in the income generating activities.
Saving and borrowing:
The Group methodology facilitates the poor for thrift and small savings among the poor communities. The groups have provided poor families a unique avenue to save and use their pooled funds to meet their emergency needs. The study of women Groups among SC indicates the following patterns;
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Average total amount saved (in a year) is marginally higher in the case of member of farming class (Rs.2687) than the agricultural jabberer class (Rs.2543).
Majority of the farming family members (60 percent ) saved the average saving of the farming class.
Most of the agriculture laborer (57 percent) members are below the average savings of this class.
The least amount saved (Rs. 1500/-) by lone member engaged in the milk production.
It is evidenced from the survey that average amount borrowed was higher for members as agriculture laborer (Rs.3,007) than the farming members (Rs.2,500).It is also noticed that the average borrowings was more than their average savings in the case of members of agriculture labor families. The gap between savings and borrowings was marginal for members of farming families.
The members engaged in farming (50 per cent) have borrowed from the Groups for the purpose of expenditure related to the crop production/ whereas, agricultural laborers have taken the loan from the groups for the purpose of expenditure on health and social events like marriage. It implies that SHG facilitates to have credit facility, even for the purpose of consumption expenditure/ specifically for the social aspects like health care. This is a positive situation for the SC families who have been even deprived of accessibility to the credit for the productive purpose.
Repayment
The women are very cautious and want to see their loans repaid quickly. They also know that they’re very little money to go round and everyone wants to get it at the earliest (Parathasarathy G.- 1995).It is evident from the study that about 56.6 percent of the
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members have repaid their loan in “single installment” and rests of them have repaid in “multiple installments” (maximum of 10 installments).
Most of the members who have availed loan facility for crop production have repaid in single installment/ whereas/ those who borrowed for the purpose of consumptions expenditure on health care/marriage have repaid their loan in multiple installments. It implies that earlier cash flow from their occupation enabled them for quick repayment by the farming members than others. It is also notable that as total borrowings and numbers of installment of repayment is positively related by multiple installments.
Participation in Managing SHG
Marvin E. Show (1976) defined “group” Indicating that members of a group “share something in common” which implies collection of indivuals with shared perceptions. Moreover/each person influences others in a “Group interaction” (Aubrey Pisher B. 1981).The interaction implies communications inter-changeable among the members.
People do not simply enter into groups. The groups are formed for specific reasons – some groups from simply to prepare for future associations/other may form to carry out extensive activities .Decision making is one of the most frequent reasons/ people get together as Group. The Groups are the basis for relationship among members and communication in the for of “discussion” which enables groups to reach decisions (Michael T. Myers and .Gail E. Myers,1982).A decision / ultimately the outcome of group interaction (discussions) are inevitably a choice made by group members from among alternative proposals made available to them. In this context, members of SHGs are common interest could be taking required
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Quantum of credit from the group. To facilitates “credit”/discussion among the members is necessary which implies information sharing, looking out for and making alternatives /selecting alternative (deciding) and implementing /effecting the decision taken in this group.
Hence/attempts have been made (through in a limited way) in this paper to analyze now far SC women members of SHGs are participating and contributing in the meetings of SHGs. The areas of participation and contribution by members of the SHG are identified based on the John Dewey’s model of “Reflective Thinking “(Michael T. Myers and Gail E. Myers/198).So as to get response from the member of SHG/ following steps have been identified as participating and contributing areas in the group meetings:
Presiding the meetings of the SHG. Leading the discussions in the Group meetings. Providing information for decision making. Participation in the discussion during Group Meetings. Developing (suggesting) alternative and selecting an alternative. Implementing the decisions (effecting the decision). Monitoring to get feedback this implies weighing the reactions of the members which would be useful for further discussions/decisions. Mostly the discussions in the SHG are pertaining to the process of decision making for providing credit to a member for a specific purpose, and to recover the loan. The succeeding discussion is meant for understanding the difference in the participation level by the executives and ordinary members of SHGs.
Seven areas of participation and contribution in managing the SHGs have been identified and Priorities of the Respondents (Ranks) have been ascertained. The priority ranking implied that first as more highly active /second as active and third as less active
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in participating /contributing in those aspects in the meetings. Following weightage has been assigned to the ranks:
First Rank =3 points = More /high active
Second Rank =2 points =Active
Third Rank =1 point =Less active
With this weight age the ranks have been converted into points/ which indicate priority of the respondents in various aspects of the decision making process of SHG. The data on participation in deciding process of SHGs by executives and ordinary members indicates that.
It can be inferred that “elders” have directed the process of decision making in the SHGs. On the whole /respondents have shown their participatory priority in the aspects of “presiding”, “leading”/ “providing”, “participating in the discussion” for decision making. It implies that members of the SHGs have shown interest in “actively interacting among the group members” in the process of decision making in the group affairs. This also indicates that SC women are empowered to the extent that their capabilities are augmented to deliberate in the gatherings and group meetings.
Conclusions
The SHGs have enabled the SC women to save and obtain small loans from the groups. but this alternative credit supplies effect on the income generation activites are limited .the SHGs are dependable source for SC women for their credit needs to meet to meet consumption expenditure.expenditure.it is notable that SHGs are also able to meet the crop loan requirements.
On the management part,SC women have been empowered to interact in the meetings of the SHGs, probably by the SERP-Velugu
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which has promoted. And contribution by the members implies that Group meetings are directed by the ‘ Power points’ which are relatively well –off members and relatively elderly members .However/ it can be concluded that for SC women SHGs seem to be an avenue for getting empowered and also to empower.
References:
1. Aubreu Gosjer.B.,(1981). ‘Small Grpup Decision Making’ Mcgraw- Hill Intermational Book Co.,Pp.126-163,16-17.
2. Damyanty Shridharan (1997),’Encourage Self- Help Groups’ Social Welfare, 44(7),Pp,33,39.
3. Gopala Krishnan ,B.K., (1998) ‘Self-Help Groups and social Derence’ Social Welfare / 44(10),Pp,30-34.
4. Jalma Rao ,V.,(1998),’Government of Micro-Finace Institutions; A Case for starting Micro Finance’, Held at BIRD in October ,1998.
5. Kumaran,K.P.(1997) Self-Help Groups; An Alternative to Institutional Credit to the poor’ A Case Stidu om Andhra Pradesh, Journal of Rural Development,16(3),Pp.515-530.
6. Michael.T.Myers and Gail E.Myers.(1982), ‘ Managing by Communication ; An Organizational Approach’, Mcgraw –Hill International Book Co., Pp.210 -231-
7. Mukherjee R.K.(1999),’Self –Help Groups and Bank Linkages’ ‘Economic ‘limes,26th May,1999.
8. NABARD (1995),’Status of SHG Bank Linkage Programme as on 31 March 1998’, Prepared by Micro-Credit Innovations Departments, NABARD, Mumbai (Unpublished Paper).
9. Nitya Rao,(1995),’Catalysts of Empowerment’ Social Welfare, 42(4),Pp.8-11.
10. Parthasarathv G.(1995),’Economic Impact of Women’s Thrift and Cridit Societies’ institute of Development Planning Studies, Visakhapatnam, Pp.4-5 .
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11. Sujatha Sursh g., (1998) ‘Approach to the Ninth Five Year PLAN – A Summary and Critique’ The Asian Economic Review , XL (3),Pp .315-328.
12. Surekha Rao and Padmaja,(1998),’Self – Groups in Tirupathi’ Social Welfare , 45(1),Pp.25-27.
rd 13. The Economic Times, 23 July, 1997. 14. The Hindu,28 February,1999.P.8.
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STUDY AND PROSPECTS OF DI-METHYL ETHER AS AN ALTERNATIVE FUEL IN C.I.ENGINE: REVIEW
Sarang.S.Chaudhari Mechanical Engineering Department Sinhgad College of Engineering Pune Abstract
With ever growing concerns on environmental pollution,energy security,and future oil supplies,the global community is seeking non- petroleum based alternative fuels,along with more advanced energy technologies(e.g. fuel cells) to increase the efficiency of energy use. The most promising alternative fuel will be the fuel that has the greatest impact on society.This paper reviews the potential of DME as an most promising alternative fuel for C.I. engine.This paper reveals that DME can be used as a clean high-efficiency compression ignition fuel with reduced NOx, SOx, and pm and does not have large issues with toxicity, production, infrastructure, transportation as various other fuels. On the basis of researches on DME engine and vehicle the performance and exhaust emissions of DME engine are introduced in this report. the results were as such that NOx, HC, CO and PM emissions are reduced by 28.1%,80.5%,62.5% and 50% as compared to diesel engine and relevant to meet the energy demand while minimizing environmental impacts.The literature in accordance to DME use is reviewed and summarized to demonstrate the feasibility of DME as an alternative fuel.
Keywords: DME - dimethylether, HC-hydrocarbons ,CO-carbon monoxide
І INTRODUCTION It is presumed that the world’s present oil resources may be wiped out in about in about 42 years. Moreover the estimated time of the
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world future oil resources depend on the price demand. At the same time possibility of supply of crude oil by several times at the present price might be impossible. Air pollution,global warming,acid rain,smog,odours and its effect on human health,wildlife are being caused by a rapid increase in harmful exhaust emissions due to the burning of fossil fuels.Many types of combustion contribute to this problem. Therefore a new fuel should be linked to the oil resources.
Next there are problems of urban air quality standard and a global environment. The exhaust emissions from gasoline engines are becoming very clean with aid of advanced fuel formulation, intake air quantity, in-cylinder combustion control and exhaust gas after treatment technology. But the exhaust emissions of heavy-duty diesel vehicles play a massive role in environmental pollution by emitting NOx and soot (PM). The PM emissions can be reduced through engine modification such as the use of very high injection pressure etc. NOx may be reduced to some extent by retarding the injection timing or by employing exhaust gas recirculation system. However suitable catalysts are yet to be established.
DME (Dimethyl ether) is a new alternative fuel that can be used to solve the environmental pollution problems along with providing many other utilities. Several experiments have been carried out on the fuel and satisfactory results have been obtained. Lower emissions are produced and other advantages include thermal efficiency and low engine noise with DME compared to the diesel engine operating with conventional diesel fuel. The cost of DME is much lower than diesel on an equal energy basis. DME is an excellent and environmental friendly alternative fuel for diesel.
Alternative fuels such as CNG, HCNG, LPG, LNG, Bio-Diesel, Ethanol, Methanol, Di-Methyl Ether, Producer gas, P-series have been tried worldwide.Dimethyl ether(DME) is one such fuel that has been
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attracting notable attention of researchers as a clean alternative fuel for compression ignition engines without large sacrifice in vehicle performance[1]
Dimethyl ether (DME), whose chemical formula is CH3–O–CH3, is the simplest ether compound and has been known tobe both non-toxic and environmentally benign. DME can be made from a wide variety of resources including coal, coalbed methane, natural gas and biomass etc. For engine use, DME has a high cetane number of approximately 55–60, which makes DME ideal for use in a compression ignition (CI) engine. The chemical structure of DME with its high oxygen content promises a smoke-free combustion.DME is a relatively new alternative fuel for engine and vehicle. Researches on DME as fuel were initiated in 1995. will be a potential and promising fuel for more efficient and cleaner engine and vehicle. It is of great importance to develop clean and alternative fuels for internal combustion engines and vehicles. DME will be a solution for energy security and environmental protection.
Researches have been conducted on DME as alternative fuel for CI engine and vehicle,including DME fuel injection system ,spray and combustion ,engine performance and emissions,engine reliability and DME-tolerant seal material by the authors at Shangai Jiaotong University since 1996.Furthermore,a turbocharged 6114ZLQB DME engine and a DME city bus were successfully developed. [2]
II MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF DME
Traditionally, dimetyl ether has been produced in a two way step process(a.k.a.the cnventional route) where syngas(typically generated from the steam reforming of methane) is first converted to methanol- followed by methanol dehydration to dimethyl ether
Methanol synthesis:
CO + 2H2 ------CH3---OH, ∆H⁰rxn= −90.3 kJmol−1
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• Methanol dehydration:
2CH3OH ------CH3-O-CH3 + H2O, ∆H◦rxn= 23.4 kJ mol−1 • Water–gas shift:
H2O + CO ------H2 + CO2, ∆H◦rxn= 40.9 kJmol−1 • Net reaction:
3H2 + 3CO ------CH3-O-CH3 + CO2,∆H◦rxn= 258.6 kJmol−1.[3]
fig 0 traditional oberon fuel manufacturing plant[12]
IV PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROERTIES DME DIESEL Property Chemical formula CH3-O-CH3 - Boiling point(⁰C) -24.9 180-360 Liquid 0.668 0.84 density(g/cm3) 0Liquid 0.15 4.4-5.4 viscosity(cP) Ignition 235 250 temperature(⁰C) Cetane number 55-65 40-45 Latent heat of 460 290 evaporation(KJ/Kg) Low heating 28.4 42.5 value(MJ/kg) %weight of oxygen 34.8 0 table 1[12]
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V EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
In this study ,experiments were conducted on a naturally aspirated direct injection (DI) CI 2135 diesel engine and a D6114 turbocharged heavy-duty CI engine respectively
table 2 technical parameters of 2135 DME and Diesel engine[6]
table3 technical parametres of D6114 Turbocharged DME
and Diesel engine[6]
1) Combustion Characteristics
The figure 1 shows the indicator diagrams and rates of pressure rise of DME and diesel engine. It can be seen that DME engine has lower maximum cylinder pressure and much lower rate of pressure rise compared with that of diesel engine. Therefore DME engine has the advantages of low mechanical load and lower combustion noise.[10]
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fig 1[10]
2) Engine torque and brake power
fig2[6]
fig2 shows the comparison of engine torque power between DME and diesel fuel engine.It is found that both the torque and the power of DME are greater than those of diesel at all engine speed[6]
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3) DME exhaust emissions
fig 3 Comparison of Nox emissions between DME engine and Diesel engine [6]
fig4 Comparison of Hydrocarbon emissions[6]
fig 5 Comparison of Smoke Emissions[6]
following figures shows the comparison of Nox emissions between DME and diesel fuel under the different engine loads and at engine
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speeds of and . It is illusrated that the Dme engine Exhibits substantial reduction in NOx emissions at all test range of loads and engine speed .At the BMEP of 1.52MPA and engine speed . Nox emission of the DME engine is reduced by 28.1%.,in comparison with that of diesel engine . At 2200 r/min, the NOx emission is reduced more significantly for the DME engine. Reduction of NOx is mainly attributed to the physicochemical properties of DME. For the DME engine, retardation of ignition timing due to longer fuel injection delay, shorter ignition delay due to high cetane number and larger latent heat of DME lead to a decrease in cylinder pressure and local temperature which result in a reduction of NOx emission. HC emission of DME is significantly lower than that of diesel fuel at all test range of loads and speeds. Meanwhile, with the increase of engine load, HC emission tends to decrease. It is supposed that the low boiling temperature and high vapor pressure of DME will promote fuel atomization, mixture formation and combustion which result in low HC emission as shown in fig 4
The comparison of smoke emission between the DME engine and the diesel engine under different loads at an engine speed of and is indicated in Fig5. DME presents almost zero emission of smoke at all test engine loads and speeds. High oxygen content and absence of C–C bonds in the molecular structure of DME promises a smoke-free combustion. Figure 9 shows the results of ESC emission test[6]
VI ESC Emission test
Figure 6 shows the results of ESC emission test of the DME engine. Thirteen modes of ESC tests were conducted. The results show that without common rail injection system, EGR and after-treatment system, NOx, HC, CO and PM emissions of the DME engine are 19.7%, 80.5%, 62.5% and 50% below Euro III respectively. The requirements for EURO III are satisfied with the DME engine with in-line fuel pump. The baseline diesel engine can only narrowly meet EURO ΙΙ.[6]
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fig 6[6]
VII HOW DOES DME REDUCES EMISSIONS?
The C–O bond energy is smaller than that of the C–H bond (414 kJ/mol [8]) and the distortion of the C–O bonds in the DME molecule weakens the bonding strength; thus, the C–O bond breaks easier than the C–H bond. Therefore, the pyrolysis mechanism may be more able to start the chain reaction at relatively low temperatures, which would result in the low auto-ignition temperature. The physical delay of DME is thus much shorter than that for many conventional fuels, resulting in a shorter total ignition delay and a higher cetane number the breaking of C--O bond is easy which do not result in incomplete combustion which ultimately leads to more amount of emissions . Also due to oxygen content, thus seriously limiting the possibility of forming carbonaceous particulate emissions during combustion.[7]
VIII DME ENGINE DEVELOPMENT
Volvo, together with AVL(an engine development consultancy in Austria),TNO(a Dutch research institute), Danish Technology University (DTU0 BP (in United Kingdom) and Vaxjo municipality was awarded a project for the development of DME engines under the AFFORHD program.The scope was to develop a DME single cylinder CI
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engine with a dedicated fuel injection system using combustion optimization assisted by modeling and experimental bench testing fig shows the two view of DME engine
The engine used for conversion to DME operation was the Volvo D9A engine. It was a six cylinder, in-line engine with a 9.4 litre swept volume and power ratings from 260-340 hp. The engine had four valves per cylinder, overhead camshaft, diesel unit injectors,turbocharger and intercooler for charge air. the reason for selecting this engine was it's presence in truck and bus fleet in Europe.The DME engine so developed reprents state of the art technology, and will be produced in high numbers for many years to come. The performance of engine converte to DME fuel was reported to be roughly equivalent to that of the diesel engine before conversion.An improvement in the engine noise was also recorded with DME.[9]
IX APPLICATIONS
DME is a fuel having versatile utilization. DME is already used as an aerosol propellant. It is used as a propellant for cosmetic and coating material and worldwide requirement is about 1,50,000tonnes/year. Presently, Japan has a requirement of 10,000tonnes/year. This utilization is the substitution of Freon, which destroys the ozone layer.
It is expected that, in the future, DME will also be used in such applications as fuel for power generation, diesel vehicles and consumer applications, as a raw material for chemical processes and as a cooling medium.[11]
X ADVANTAGES
1) High oxygen content: Together with the absence ofany C–C bonds it is responsible for its smokeless combustion; low formation and high oxidation rates of particulates would therefore be expected under compression-ignition (CI) engine operation.
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2) Low boiling point: Leads to quick evaporation when a liquid- phase DME spray is injected into the engine cylinder
3) High cetane number: Results from the low auto-ignition temperature and almost instantaneous vapourization. Teng et al. [11] examined the high cetane number (>55) of DME from the viewpoint of its thermochemical characteristics. Its critical temperature, 400 K (127 _C) is lower than the compressed air temperature at the later stages of the compression stroke, which allows the DME injected into the cylinder to evaporate immediately. When the temperature of DME is higher than 400 K, it becomes superheated vapour and no evaporation is associated with the mixing.[7]
XI DISADVANTAGES
The weak points of DME as a fuel are poor lubrication and viscosity. Another weak point of DME as a fuel is the relatively low heating value. Also there is no infrastructure of fueling system of DME. Dimethyl ether has a high vapour pressure that requires a special handling such as a pressurized fuel container to avoid the fire hazard. Because of low boiling point temperature, DME is likely to be subjected to a supercritical point in the CI engine injector. Then, when fuel is suddenly issued out of injector, cavitation is expected to accompany the fuel flow that would damage the nozzle hole.
By using dimethyl ether-diesel blended fuel the viscosity and low heating value can be increased. When DME is mixed with diesel fuel (60:40 v/v), the fuel leakage can be decreased by about 7 percent that is half of the neat DME operation.[3]
XII VOLVO'S POSITION ON FUTURE FUEL
Conventional diesel fuel will remain the dominant fuel for at least two decades.
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Natural gas and biogas will be used regionally.
1) DME is a strong candidate for a more long term future fuel:
Best well-to-wheel energy efficiency from bio
source.
Close to CO2 neutral if produced from biomass.
2)Implementation will require joint forces.
Political system Energy sector
Vehicle producers Vehicle customers
3)Transforming an energy system comprising vehicles, fuel and
infrastructure takes a long time.
Requires extensive resources from everyone involved
fig[7][12]
XIII CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
Based on experimental studies and evaluation dimethyl ether is an excellent and environmental friendly alternative fuel for diesel engines. The toxicity of DME is lower than that of methanol. There is
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no green house effect and problem of ozone layer depletion. The relatively high cetane number and low soot emission offset the disadvantages of the fuel for the use in CI engine.A substantial reduction in NOx and HC emissions and promises a smoke free combustion at all test range of loads and speeds. The cost of dimethyl ether is much lower than the diesel fuel on an equal energy basis. Also the fuel has a versatile utility and can be derived from abundant natural resources such as natural gas coal and vegetation (via methanol). Thus dimethyl ether has all the qualities to satisfy the requirements of an alternative energy source, especially for automobiles. Current research on DME as an autofuel is limited, and hence there is a need for further work in design and optimization of DME fueled engines for better efficiency.THE challenge for DME as a fuel would be its economical production and distribution. India having a vast reserves of coal would benefit from DME fuel technology. It is hoped that the use of DME vehicles will become widespread in the near future.
Refrences
1 K.R. PATIL,DR. S.S. THIPSE, the potential of DME -Diesel Blends as an alternative fuel for C.I.engine . IJETAE((ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 10, October 2012)
2 Suichi Kajitani and Zhili Chen, “Fundamental research on next generation fuel (dimethyl ether) engines”, Journal of Scientific and Industrial research, vol.62, No.2, pp133-144, 2003.
3 Semelsberger TA, Borup RL, Greene HL. Dimethyl ether (DME) as an alternative fuel. J Power Sources 2005;156(2):497–511.
4 California Dimethyl Ether Multimedia Evaluation Tier report
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5 Zhou Longbao, Wang Hewu, and Wang Ying, “Experimental study on performances and combustion characteristics of DME powered vehicle”, SAE paper 950064
6 Zhen HUANG, Xinqi QIAO, Wugao ZHANG, Junhua WU, Junjun ZHANG, Dimethyl ether as alternative fuel For C.I. engine and vehicle Front. Energy Power Eng. China 2009, 3(1): 99–108 DOI 10.1007/s11708-009-0013-1
7 Constantine Arcoumanis, Choongsik Bae, Roy Crookes, Eiji Kinoshita, the potential of dimethyl ether as an alternative fuel for compression-ignition engines: a review Fuel 87 (2008) 1014-1030
8 Masterton WL, Slowinski EJ. Chemical principles. W.B. Saunders Company; 1997.
9 Alternative Fuels Concepts, Technologies and Developments Dr. S.S. THIPSE
10 Yotoro Ohno, Norio Inoue, Takashi Ogawa, Masami Ono, Tsutomo Shikada and Hiromasa Hayashi, “Slurry phase synthesis and utilization of dimethyl ether”, SAE Paper 950064
11 G. Bercic, “Catalytic dehydration of methanol to dimethyl ether, kinetic investigation and reactor simulation”, Ind. Eng. Chem.res, vol.32, pp 2478-2484,1993
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IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON FOOD SECURITY IN INDIA
Seema Sharma Department of Economics S.S.Jain Subodh P.G.(A)College Jaipur Abstract
India is the second largest country in terms of population and seventh largest in terms of area. Being a developing country there are many socio-economic issues where India needs to do much work. For India, food security continues to be far above the ground on its list of development priorities because the country’s relatively high rates of economic growth have not led to a reduction in starvation and under nutrition. One of the biggest issues confronting Indian agriculture is the low productivity. India’s cereal yields are drastically lower than those of developed regions. Climate change affects food security in multifarious ways. It affects crops, livestock, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture adversely. However, it is important to note that the net impact of climate change depends not only on the extent of the climatic disasters but also on the underlying vulnerabilities. The impact of climate change on water availability will be particularly severe for India because large parts of the country already suffer from water scarcity, to begin with, and largely depend on groundwater for irrigation. According to Cruz et al. (2007), the decline in precipitation and droughts in India has led to the drying up of wetlands and severe degradation of ecosystems. This paper seeks to analyze the relationship between the Floods, agricultural yields and availability of food through various schemes launched by the Government to fight against the hunger. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (2016), both biophysical and social vulnerabilities determine the net impact of climate change on food security.
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In regions with high food insecurity and inequality over the years reflects that there is need to understand the economic and environmental aspects for the food security, and this paper suggests various programs and multilateral steps to control the adverse effects of climate change with a focus on extensive facilities that is needed for the farmers, and their administrative effectiveness.
Keywords: Climate Change, Food Security, India, Agriculture
1. Introduction
Food security means availability, accessibility and affordability of food to all people at all times. Food security depends on the Public Distribution System (PDS) and government vigilance and action time to time when there is a need. Since India isan Agro-Based and over populated country,therefore, the problem of climate change and its impacts on the population to attain the food availability is a matter of study. Though there is continuous enhancement of the technology bestow the higher and higher agricultural output to fulfill the requirement of the country. However, the fact is that the country is still facing the serious problem of hunger. Some of the climatic factors are responsible for the problem i.e. floods, irregular rainfall, temperature etc. Moreover, the inappropriate implication of the policies of the Government is highly critical. It is estimated that as much as one-fifth of the total agricultural output is lost due to inefficiencies in harvesting, transport, and storage of government-subsidized crops. While the relationship between climate change and food security is complex, climate change affects food security in many ways. It affects crops, livestock, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture, and can cause grave social and economic consequences in the form of reduced incomes, eroded livelihoods, trade disruption and adverse health impacts. However, it is important to note that the net impact of climate change depends not only on the extent of the climatic shock but also on
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the underlying vulnerabilities, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (2016). Most studies have the center of attention on one dimension of food security, i.e., food availability. This paper provides an overview of the impact of climate change on India's food security, keeping in mind the following dimensions — availability and impact on hunger. It finds that ensuring Food security in the face of climate change will be a terrifying challenge and recommends, among others, the espousal of sustainable agricultural practices, greater stress on urban food security and public health, provision of livelihood security, and long-term relief measures in the event of natural disasters. Climate change has added to the enormity of India's food-security. According to World Bank estimates, based on the International Energy Agency's current policy scenario and other energy sector economic models, for a global mean warming of 4°C, there will be a 10-percent increase in annual mean monsoon intensity and a 15-percent increase in year-to- year variability in monsoon precipitation. The World Bank (2013) also predicts that droughts will pose an increasing risk in the northwestern part of India while southern India will experience a 13-percent increase in wetness. The impact of climate change on water availability will be particularly severe for India because large parts of the country already suffer from water scarcity, to begin with, and largely depend on groundwater for irrigation.
2. Methodology
In this paper, some of the variables are taken as independent variable that affects the food security directly or indirectly, like flood, rainfall, storage capacity of food grains, crop production etc. This paper tries to illustrate the trends of these variables and the food security and problem of hunger. Some of the data and the literature have collected through FAO, FCI,and the literature of MALANCHA CHAKRABARTY.
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3. Floods in recent years
Climatic conditions are the main causes of flood, some of the flooded areas affected badly for survival. The following are the floods India witnessed in the recent years :
Himalayan flash floods of 2012 in the Himalayan region of Northern Indian states. The reason being landslide and flash floods were triggered by sudden cloudburst. The affected areas were Utrakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir. Brahmaputra floods 2012, flooding commenced across many districts in Assam, The reason was due to significant monsoon rains.
Uttrakhand floods of 2013 were the country’s worst natural disaster since the 2004 Tsunami. Over 5,700 people were presumed dead. These floods and landslides led to widespread damage of vegetation, property and life.
Indo-Pak floods in 2014 occurred at Jammu and Kashmir, the reason was torrential rainfall. Affected areas: 2600 villages were reported to be affected in Jammu and Kashmir, out of which 390 villages in Kashmir were completely submerged.
South-Indian floods in 2015 due to heavy rainfall. They affected the Coromandel Coast region of the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, and the union territory of Pondicherry, with Tamil Nadu and the city of Chennai particularly hard-hit.
Floods in 5 states in 2015, namely, Rajasthan, Gujrat, Odisha, West Bengal and Manipur led to widespread death and destruction.
Assam floodsin 2016 took place due to the heavy rain over the Indian state of Assam.The flooding has affected 1.8 million people and flooded the Kaziranga National Park. The northeastern states of India saw heavy rain falls in July 2016. The state of Assam faced around 60% more rains compared to July 2015.
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India has witnessed numerous floods, cyclones, droughts and extreme weather conditions in the recent years. These Natural Calamities have not only led to loss of life, property but also the Vegetation, Agricultural lands and increased the salinity of the Productive lands making them unsuitable for production. Moreover, it takes many years to fully recover from the damage caused by the Natural Calamities. Natural Calamities which have increased in the recent years pose a great risk to food security in India.
4. FOOD SECURITY THROUGH STORAGE PLAN
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food, which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO).
Storage plan for food securityby FCI is primarily to meet the storage requirement for holding stocks to meet the requirements of Public Distribution System and Other Welfare Schemes undertaken by the Government of India. In addition, buffer stock is maintained to ensure the food security of the nation. Adequate scientific storage is pre- requisite to fulfill the policy objectives assigned to the Food Corporation of India for which FCI has a network of strategically located storage depots including silos all over India.
Besides having own storage capacity, FCI has hired storage capacities from Central Warehousing Corporation, State Warehousing Corporations, State Agencies and Private Parties for short term as well as for guaranteed period under Private Entrepreneurs Guarantee Scheme.
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As on Capacity Storage Capacity Total with FCI Other Agencies 01-04-2011 316.10 291.32 607.42 01-04-2012 336.04 341.35 677.39 01-04-2013 377.35 354.28 731.63 01-04-2014 368.90 379.18 748.08 01-04-2015 356.63 352.59 709.22 01-04-2016 357.89 456.95 814.84
Table 1. Storage Capacity for Central Pool Stocks for the last five Years (Lakh MT):
Sources: FCI Report.
1000 800 Capacity with FCI 600
400 Storage Capacity 200 Other Agencies 0 Total
From the above table, data of the food storage capacity is not so sufficient with FCI but the other agencies have more capacity with them. Since FCI is mainly accountable to meet the storage requirement for holding stocks to meet the requirements of Public Distribution System and Other Welfare Schemes undertaken by the Government of India. As seen by the table that storage capacity should be rise, but in 2014 FCI and in2015 both FCI as well as other agencies capacity go down greatly. Thus, there is a big question mark to fulfill the food security for the rising population.
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Policy makers at the national and international level and those developing investment strategies to enhance economic development face many challenges with the altering face of agriculture in the 21st century. While agriculture is the primary source to feed, clothes, and current material supply for fuel and housing for a rising world population, the confront is at the same time to lift millions of people out of poverty and hunger, trim down the shock of agriculture on the environment and global warming, and sustain water and land resources. These issues go away from national borders.
Coarse Total Rice Wheat Cereals Pulses Foodgrains 1980-81 to 1990-91 2.7 3.4 2.6 2.0 3.0 1990-91 to 2000-01 0.9 1.7 1.3 -0.6 1.7 2000-01 to 2010-11 1.6 1.0 4.1 2.4 1.7 2010-11 to 2014-15 1.6 -1.0 3.1 1.9 1.8 Table 2. Growth rate of yield per hectare (%) of foodgrains
Source: Reserve Bank of India database
5 4 3 2 1980-81 to 1990-91 1 1990-91 to 2000-01 0 2000-01 to 2010-11 -1 2010-11 to 2014-15
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The above data chart clearly shows a negative growth rate of wheat in 2010-2015, causing floods are occurring in these years as shown in the above description. Thus, the food storage capacity with FCI going down in 2013-2015, as it shown the impact on the availability of the food grains. In 1991 there was adverse climatic condition like some of the regions suffering from flood where as some of the region facing drought, hence growth rate of Rice, wheat, coarse cereal were less and negative growth rate in the production of pulses.
Time series data of food supply has taken from FAO, data shows Continuous rising trend of the food supply except some of the year. These years are 1978 and 1990.
The food insecure people are disproportionately large in some region of the country. Hunger is another aspect that indicates food insecurity. The attainment of food security therefore involves elimination of current hunger and reducing the risk of future hunger.
5. Percentage of households with ‘Hunger’ in India
The percentage of seasonal as well as chronic hunger has declined in India as shown in the table.
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Year Type of Hunger Seasonal Chronic Total Rural 1983 16.2 2.3 18.5 1993-94 4.2 0.9 5.1 1999-2000 2.6 0.7 3.3 Urban 1983 5.6 0.8 6.4 1993-94 1.1 0.5 1.6 1999-2000 0.6 0.3 0.9 Source: Sagar (2004)
6. Large Scale Impact on Hunger and Malnutrition
India, with a population of over 1.2 billion, has seen terrific growth in the past two decades. Gross Domestic Product has increased 4.5 times and per capita consumption has increased 3 Times. Similarly, food grain production has increased almost 2 times. However, despite phenomenal industrial and economic growth, while India produces sufficient food to feed its Population, it is unable to provide access to food to a large number of people.
Hunger in India is a complex issue. It is widespread and the causes are different across various Regions. According to latest FAO estimates in ‘The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2015” Report, 194.6 million people are undernourished in India. By this measure India is home to a Quarter of the undernourished population in the world. Also 51% of women between 15 to 59 years of age are anemic and 44% of children under 5 are underweight. Malnourished children have a higher risk of death from common childhood illnesses such as diarrhea, pneumonia, and Malaria. The Global Hunger Index 2014 ranks India at 55 out of 76 countries based on three leading indicators -- prevalence of underweight children under 5 years, under 5 child mortality rate, and
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the proportion of undernourished in the population. On the other hand, it is estimated that nearly 40 percent of the fruits and vegetables, and 20 percent of the food grains that are produced are lost due to inefficient supply chain management and do not reach the consumer markets.
7. Facts about hunger in India
India is home to the largest undernourished and hungry population in the world.15.2% of our population is undernourished,194.6million people go hungry everyday, 30.7% of children under 5years of age are underweight, 58% of children stunted by 2 years of age, 1 in 4 children malnourished, 3,000 children in India die every day from poor diet related illness, 24% of under-five deaths in India and 30% of neo-natal deaths in India
India Food Banking Network with its 10 Food Banks, numerous local NGOs and more than 25
Corporate partners are serving over million meals every year to alleviate hunger in India. We strongly believe that hunger alone cannot be eliminated by feeding, but by strengthening the support ecosystem, climate change and breaking the viscous cycle of undernourishment and poverty. Food banking is an effective approach in alleviating the food crisis because:
•Bridging the Gap – Food banks attempt to meet the needs of the hungry by efficiently delivering the food already available in the country.
•Scalable – Food Banks can start at the community level, and can expand their network to feed a larger population over time.
•Adaptable – Food Banks can operate in different ways to suit different regional cultures and economies.
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•Non-competitive – Food Banking does not interfere with the commercial channels of
food distribution.
•Prevents Wastage – The food which would have otherwise been wasted is effectively distributed among the poor by Food Banks.
8. The National Food Security Act, 2013 is an Act of the Parliament of India which aims to provide subsidized food grains to roughly two thirds of India's 1.2 Billion people. It was signed into law on 12 September 2013, retroactive to 5 July 2013. The National Food Security Act, 2013 (NFSA 2013) converted into legal entitlements for existing Food security programs of the Government of India. It includes the Midday Meal Scheme,Integrated Child Development Services scheme and the Public Distribution System. Further, the NFSA 2013 recognizes maternity entitlements.
a. Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) Allocation under NFSA
In order to make food grains available to the people at cheaper r ates, Government has enacted National Food Security Act (NFSA) under which food grains are to be provided to the States/UTs fo r distribution to the people at a highly subsidize prices of Re.1/- , Rs.2/- and Rs.3/- per kg for coarse grains, wheat and rice respectively based on Census 2011. As per the Act, Up to 2/3rd population in the country will be roofed under Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS). Total estimated outgo of food grains under the Act is 614.4 lakh tons.
b. Other Welfare Scheme
The Ministry of Human Resource Development launched the Midday Meal Scheme on 15.08.1995 with a view to enhance enrollment, retention, attendan
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ce and simultaneously improve ng nutritional levels among students in primary schools, initially i n 2408 blocks in country. By the year 1997-98 the scheme was introduced in all the blocks of the country. The Scheme presently covers students of Class I-VIII of Government and Government aided schools, Education Guarantee Scheme/Alternative and innovative Education Centers (EGS/AIE).
The Department of Food & Public Distribution makes allocation o f annual requirement of food grains under the Scheme to Depart ment of School Education & Literacy, Ministry of Human Resourc e Development. Annual allocation/off take of food grains under the scheme during the last three years & current year is as under:
(Figures in lakh tons)
Year Allocation Allocation Allocation Offtake Offtake Offtake - Rice Wheat Total Rice Wheat Total 2011-12 22.29 4.84 27.13 19.17 4.49 23.66 2012-13 23.83 4.67 28.50 20.74 4.23 24.97 2013-14 22.79 4.67 27.46 19.86 3.91 23.77 2014-15* 23.42 4.20 27.62 20.07 3.63 23.70 *offtake up to March,2015.
The above tabledepicts the data of the allocation and off take of Rice Wheat in different years. There is large amount is under the allocation but not the sufficient amount that is off take to the poor class. The amount of the allocation of food grains is left over is not properly saved, as it is rotted many a times.
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70 60 50 40 procurement total 30 Offtake total 20 Stocks total 10 0
1972-73 1975-76 1978-79 1981-82 1984-85 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1996-97 1999-00 2002-03 2005-06 2008-09 2011-12 Above graph is taken the time series of 1972-73 to 2011-12 data of the procurement total, off take total and stock.
9. Results and findings
Climate change will intensify India's presented problems of urban food insecurity. The highest risks related to climate change are likely to be concentrated among the low-income groups residing in informal settlements, which are often located in areas exposed to floods and landslides and where housing is especially vulnerable to extreme weather events such as wind and water hazards. Mumbai and Chennai are especially prone to withstand the worst of climate change. Dasgupta et al (2012) add Kolkata to the list of cities that are particularly vulnerable to climatic risks, as climate change is likely to intensify the frequent flooding in the Hooghly River during monsoon. The poor inhabitants of Kolkata are most vulnerable as their homes are located in low-lying areas or wetlands that are particularly prone to tidal and storm surges. Given that food is the single largest expenditure for poor urban households, displacement, loss of livelihood or damage to productive assets due to any such extreme weather event will have a direct impact onHousehold food security. The urban poor has also been
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identified as the group most vulnerable to increases in food prices following production shocks and declines that are projected under future climate change. To ensure the availability to all section of the society the Indian government carefully designed the food security system, which is composed of two components: Buffer stock and Public Distribution System. In addition to the role of the government in ensuring food security, there are various cooperatives and NGOs also also working intensively towards this direction.IFBN (India Food Banking Network) envisions a hunger and malnutrition free India. To achieve this, a strong and efficient network of Food Banks throughout the country should be establish, so that every district has access to at least one Food Bank by 2020. A Food Bank is a not-for-profit distribution enterprise that serves the community. It acquires donated food and makes it available to people who are hungry or lack nutritional food.
Appendix 1
Item Year Unit Value Wheat and products 1961 kg 27.86 Wheat and products 1962 kg 29.74 Wheat and products 1963 kg 27.99 Wheat and products 1964 kg 31.96 Wheat and products 1965 kg 33.12 Wheat and products 1966 kg 33.78 Wheat and products 1967 kg 32.17 Wheat and products 1968 kg 34.07 Wheat and products 1969 kg 35.61 Wheat and products 1970 kg 36.23 Wheat and products 1971 kg 36.72 Wheat and products 1972 kg 44.75 Wheat and products 1973 kg 41.88 Wheat and products 1974 kg 38.55 Wheat and products 1975 kg 39.69 Wheat and products 1976 kg 28.18
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Wheat and products 1977 kg 40.48 Wheat and products 1978 kg 44.44 Wheat and products 1979 kg 46.71 Wheat and products 1980 kg 44.86 Wheat and products 1981 kg 45.56 Wheat and products 1982 kg 45 Wheat and products 1983 kg 50.79 Wheat and products 1984 kg 49.46 Wheat and products 1985 kg 48.59 Wheat and products 1986 kg 52.92 Wheat and products 1987 kg 55.29 Wheat and products 1988 kg 54.06 Wheat and products 1989 kg 54.98 Wheat and products 1990 kg 41.29 Wheat and products 1991 kg 60.34 Wheat and products 1992 kg 59.93 Wheat and products 1993 kg 58.11 Wheat and products 1994 kg 58.25 Wheat and products 1995 kg 61.07 Wheat and products 1996 kg 58.12 Wheat and products 1997 kg 60.81 Wheat and products 1998 kg 62.13 Wheat and products 1999 kg 62.35 Wheat and products 2000 kg 65.66 Wheat and products 2001 kg 62.2 Wheat and products 2002 kg 62.02 Wheat and products 2003 kg 58.51 Wheat and products 2004 kg 57.93 Wheat and products 2005 kg 55.19 Wheat and products 2006 kg 57.98 Wheat and products 2007 kg 59.8 Wheat and products 2008 kg 60.75 Wheat and products 2009 kg 58.73 Wheat and products 2010 kg 60.32 Wheat and products 2011 kg 58.85 Wheat and products 2012 kg 57.08 Wheat and products 2013 kg 60.56
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Source: FAO STAT
Appendix-2 Year procurementOfftake Stocks total total total 1972-73 7.51 10.93 2.6 1973-74 8.46 10.13 3.54 1974-75 5.54 9.93 3.34 1975-76 10.01 9.92 10.76 1976-77 11.82 9.59 18.27 1977-78 9.73 11.38 15.44 1978-79 11.62 9.95 16.17 1979-80 12.42 12.92 13.91 1980-81 11.2 13.39 9.87 1981-82 13.61 13.43 11.07 1982-83 14.85 15.59 11.1 1983-84 15.87 15.12 14.92 1984-85 19.12 13.33 21.2 1985-86 19.97 19.12 20.75 1986-87 19.9 19.38 19.53 1987-88 14.92 22.89 9.43 1988-89 14.17 17.74 6.18 1989-90 20.17 14.99 10.52 1990-91 23.99 16.49 15.81 1991-92 17.16 20.74 11.07 1992-93 19.1 17.95 12.67 1993-94 26.4 18.6 20.54 1994-95 24.99 19.44 26.8 1995-96 22.16 24.35 20.82 1996-97 20.04 25.63 16.41 1997-98 23.84 18.96 18.12 1998-99 24.2 20.73 21.82 1999-00 30.76 23.05 28.91 2000-01 35.29 18.21 44.98 2001-02 41.75 31.3 51.02
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2002-03 38.03 49.84 32.81 2003-04 36.58 49.33 20.65 2004-05 40.83 41.47 17.97 2005-06 41.48 42.25 16.62 2006-07 35.53 36.77 17.93 2007-08 37.42 37.43 19.75 2008-09 55.53 39.5 35.58 2009-10 57.98 48.86 43.36 2010-11 56.79 52.87 44.35 2011-12 66.35 56.28 53.44 Sources: Department of Food and Public Distribution, Government of India
References :
Department of Food and Public Distribution, Government of India http://pdsportal.nic.in/main.aspx http://dfpd.nic.in/writereaddata/images/ebook17Janc2017english.pdf http://cewacor.nic.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11 7&Itemid=57&lang=en http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/peoreport/peo/peo_tpds.pdf https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Food_Security_Act,_2013 https://www.indiafoodbanking.org/hunger http://fci.gov.in/ http://www.ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/iess204.pdf http://www.indianstatistics.org/pds.html http://dfpd.nic.in/basic-plan-overview.htm http://www.ifpri.org/country/india Some other useful links : http://pdsportal.nic.in/main.aspx http://dfpd.nic.in/writereaddata/images/ebook17Janc2017english.pdf http://cewacor.nic.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11 7&Itemid=57&lang=en http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/peoreport/peo/peo_tpds.pdf https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Food_Security_Act,_2013 https://www.indiafoodbanking.org/hunger http://fci.gov.in/
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LABOUR LEGISLATION IN INDIA
Suresh Chennam Research Scholar Department of Commerce & Business Administration Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, A.P Abstract
The present paper analyzes the present labour legislation in India. The paper focuses on the need for labour reforms in the country. The paper also presents the recent initiatives taken by the government of India towards labour reforms. Investors find labour laws in India restrictive. Although progress has been made since reforms began in 1991, the labour market is still subjected to huge number of labour rules at the Central and State level. India, a democracy, has found it harder than China — where labour laws are more flexible and business friendly — to undertake important reforms. Labour policy reforms in India are due for a long time, as the context in which they were framed has changed drastically. The Laws framed mainly to cater the manufacturing sector, do not address the problems of the service sector, which today, accounts for 55 per cent of our GDP. The outdated and inflexible nature of labour laws protects a handful of say 6-7 percent of the workforce, seriously hampering employment generation capacity of the organised sector and most of the 10-12 million youth joining labour force every year, are forced to join informal economy, where the working conditions are pathetic and earnings are also abysmally. There is a general talk about the labour reforms being necessary in the industry and business house especially in the context of FDI. There is also demand from the trade union that the labour reform is highly necessary because some of the labour laws are outdated. In the context of the demand from the employer and workers particularly the business communities it is necessary to examine the above subject deeply and some meaningful decision should be taken in this regard.
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Introduction
The present paper analyzes the present labour legislation in India. The paper focuses on the need for labour reforms in the country. The paper also presents the recent initiatives taken by the government of India towards labour reforms. Investors find labour laws in India restrictive. Although progress has been made since reforms began in 1991, the labour market is still subjected to huge number of labour rules at the Central and State level. India, a democracy, has found it harder than China — where labour laws are more flexible and business friendly — to undertake important reforms. Labour policy reforms in India are due for a long time, as the context in which they were framed has changed drastically. The Laws framed mainly to cater the manufacturing sector, do not address the problems of the service sector, which today, accounts for 55 per cent of our GDP. The outdated and inflexible nature of labour laws protects a handful of say 6-7 percent of the workforce, seriously hampering employment generation capacity of the organised sector and most of the 10-12 million youth joining labour force every year, are forced to join informal economy, where the working conditions are pathetic and earnings are also abysmally.
India’s labour laws are restrictive in nature and hurt investments in the manufacturing sector. They discourage firms from introducing new technology that might require retrenching workers. Multiplicity of labour laws – 44 central and about 100 state laws – present operational problems in implementation and compliances that need to be looked into. Besides, using different terminologies like – employee, workman, worker to denote a worker or wages, basic wages, salary referring to the compensation, yet covering different components in each legislation, have made compliance very cumbersome multiplying litigations. India is in a jobs emergency; 1 million kids will join the labour force every month for the next 20 years besides the 300 million current workers who need to be moved to higher productivity
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occupations (50 per cent of our labour force working in agriculture only generates 15 per cent of GDP).
There is a general talk about the labour reforms being necessary in the industry and business house especially in the context of FDI. There is also demand from the trade union that the labour reform is highly necessary because some of the labour laws are outdated. In the context of the demand from the employer and workers particularly the business communities it is necessary to examine the above subject deeply and some meaningful decision should be taken in this regard.
Indian Labour Legislation
Indian labour law refer to laws regulating labour in India. Traditionally Indian governments at federal and state level have sought to ensure a high degree of protection for workers, but in practice, legislative rights only cover a minority of workers. India is a federal form of government and because labour is a subject in the concurrent list of the Indian Constitution, labour matters are in the jurisdiction of both central and state governments. Both central and state governments have enacted laws on labour relations and employment issues. Indian labour law is closely connected to the Indian independence movement, and the campaigns of passive resistance leading up to independence. While India was under colonial rule by the British Raj, labour rights, trade unions, and freedom of association were all suppressed. Workers who sought better conditions, and trade unions who campaigned through strike action were frequently, and violently suppressed.
After independence was won in 1947, the Constitution of India of 1950 embedded a series of fundamental labour rights in the constitution, particularly the right to join and take action in a trade union, the principle of equality at work, and the aspiration of creating a
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living wage with decent working conditions. 1921 Buckingham and Carnatic Mills Strike 1926 Binny Mills Strike 1928 South Indian Railway Strike Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) 1974 railway strike in India Great Bombay Textile Strike in 1982 Harthal in Kerala 2012 HCL recruitment issue in 2012 Multiplicity of Labour Laws.
Currently, there are 44 labour laws under the purview of Central Government and more than 100 under State Governments, which deal with a host of labour issues. Unfortunately, these labour laws protect only 7-8 percent of the organised sector workers employed at the cost of 93 per cent unorganised sector workers. The entire gamut of the labour laws should therefore be simplified, clubbed together wherever possible and made less cumbersome to make the environment more employment friendly.
Initially we can start with reducing these to four sets of labour laws as following-
Laws governing terms and conditions of employment, which may consolidate:
(a) Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 (b) Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act, 1946 (c) Trade Unions Act. 1926
Laws governing wages, which may consolidate:
(a) Minimum Wages Act, 1948 (b) Payment of Wages Act, 1936 (c) Payment of Bonus Act, 1965
Laws governing welfare which may consolidate:
(a) Factories Act, 1948 (b) Shops and Establishments Act (c) Maternity Benefits Act, 1961 (d) Employees’ Compensation Act, 1952 and (e) Contract Labour (Regulation & Abolition) Act, 1970
Laws governing social security, which may consolidate:
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(a) Employees Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Pro visions Act, 1952 (b) Employees State Insurance Act, 1948 (c) Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
Constitutional rights
In the Constitution of India from 1950, articles 14-16, 19(1)(c), 23-24, 38, and 41-43A directly concern labour rights. Article 14 states everyone should be equal before the law, article 15 specifically says the state should not discriminate against citizens, and article 16 extends a right of "equality of opportunity" for employment or appointment under the state. Article 19(1)(c) gives everyone a specific right "to form associations or unions". Article 23 prohibits all trafficking and forced labour, while article 24 prohibits child labour under 14 years old in a factory, mine or "any other hazardous employment". Articles 38-39, and 41-43A, however, like all rights listed in Part IV of the Constitution are not enforceable by courts, rather than creating an aspirational "duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws". The original justification for leaving such principles unenforceable by the courts was that democratically accountable institutions ought to be left with discretion, given the demands they could create on the state for funding from general taxation, although such views have since become controversial. Article 38(1) says that in general the state should "strive to promote the welfare of the people" with a "social order in which justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of national life. In article 38(2) it goes on to say the state should "minimise the inequalities in income" and based on all other statuses. Article 41 creates a "right to work", which the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 attempts to put into practice. Article 42 requires the state to "make provision for securing just and human conditions of work and for maternity relief". Article 43 says workers should have the right to a living wage and "conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life". Article 43A, inserted by the Forty-second Amendment
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of the Constitution of India in 1976, creates a constitutional right to codetermination by requiring the state to legislate to "secure the participation of workers in the management of undertakings".
State laws
Each state in India may have special labour regulations in certain circumstances. Gujarat -- In 2004 the State of Gujarat amended the Industrial Disputes Act to allow greater labour market flexibility in the Special Export Zones of Gujarat. The law allows companies within SEZs to lay off redundant workers, without seeking the permission of the government, by giving a formal notice and severance pay. West Bengal - The West Bengal government revised its labor laws making it virtually impossible to shut down a loss-making factory. The West Bengal law applies to all companies within the state that employ 50 or more employees
Need for labour reforms
For a long time now, labor has been the whipping boy for the advocates of reform in India. It is held that if you can get rid of some antiquated legislation and bring the trade unions into line, foreign investors will rush in to set up shop. The reality of what needs to be done is rather different, says Wharton legal studies and business ethics professor Janice Bellace in this opinion piece. Studies about the need for labor reform in India usually descend into sweeping statements highlighting poorly-thought-out legislation with the author then concluding that India needs to do away with most labor laws in order to attract investment. Such thinking confuses the problem (inappropriate legislation combined with bad administration made worse by corruption) with the solution (appropriate legislation, combined with efficient and honest administration).
The Industrial Disputes Act of 1947 was enacted a few months before India’s independence and guides the hiring and firing rules of
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the industrial sector. It is a good example of a well-meaning policy that is founded on antiquated economics and a handsome misunderstanding of the way markets function. The “network of chaotic laws” is easy to criticize. But the number of statutes is not particularly relevant. What is relevant is the logic and order of the laws.
The best-performing economies in the world have a considerable body of labor law. Some of the fastest-growing economies over the past two decades also have a substantial body of labor law. This demonstrates that it is not the number of statutes that is relevant, but their content. The second major criticism of Indian labor law is that it is antiquated. But how long ago a statute was written is not very important. Key pieces of American labor legislation date to the 1930s. The relevant question is whether the statute is still timely and appropriate. Here, a caveat must be given: The best-designed legislation can be undermined by stultifying bureaucracy. This type of bureaucracy tends to be a feature of a country’s civil service and affects the administration of all regulations (not just labor laws).
The urgency for the need to reform labour laws was brought into front after the recent spat in Gurgaon (Honda Motorcycle and Scooter India case) . It is considered to be a watershed event that turned all eyes to wards the urgency to delve into the matter seriously. Yet the labour and the management communities differ in their opinion in what reforms can actually be done to the laws. The employees are of the opinion that the central and the state labour laws have been flouted continuously, whereas, the employers are of the opinion that the ‘labour laws in the country seek employment at the cost of employability’.
Labor protection legislation is one of the basic features of welfare state and aims at providing social justice. The main aim of such laws should be to create more, safer, and rewarding jobs for the labor.
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This includes standards on minimum wages, working conditions, overtime controls, right against unjustified retrenchment, strengthening of Labor unions, Right of worker to compensation in case of accident at work place, post-retirement benefits, Personal progress , skill development ,Social security and Dignified and respectful job etc. Issues which arise from point of workers and industries For the fulfillment of above needs, there are numerous overlapping, rigid and isolated acts, which are applicable to firms at any point of time. This gives immense powers to public officials and results in harassment of employers. It leaves room for corruption and increases compliance costs in terms of money and time. This type of policy runs counter to above stated desirable objectives. This makes our firms uncompetitive to foreign firms. It is quite apparent from the perpetual dismal performance of Indian manufacturing sector.
India have about 85 -90 per cent of the workforce employed in informal sector on which these laws are not applicable. These are micro firms employing as low as 5-10 persons. These employers are discouraged to expand their businesses, by such huge number of regressive laws. Neither they have understanding of laws to that level and services of Lawyers to ensure compliance is much expensive. Further, huge majority of workforce get no formal training. This results in low productivity and low value addition.
Entry and exit Barriers for firms and Job security for workers - This issue is of retrenchment, Law for this provides that government approval should be taken before retrenchment of the workers. As a rule for good economic environment, there should least entry and exit barriers for Firms in any business. But in addition, social security of the workers is indispensable. It should be noticed that a businessmen will scale down his operations almost only in face of losses or in drive of modernization.
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Many observers have argued that India's labour laws should be reformed. The laws have constrained the growth of the formal manufacturing sector. According to a World Bank report in 2008, heavy reform would be desirable. The executive summary stated, India's labor regulations - among the most restrictive and complex in the world - have constrained the growth of the formal manufacturing sector where these laws have their widest application. Better designed labor regulations can attract more labor- intensive investment and create jobs for India's unemployed millions and those trapped in poor quality jobs. Given the country's momentum of growth, the window of opportunity must not be lost for improving the job prospects for the 80 million new entrants who are expected to join the work force over the next decade. The World Bank criticised the complexity, lack of modernisation and flexibility in Indian regulations. Efforts to roll out labour reforms and make it easier for companies to do business in India are set to reach a milestone
Currently, four different bodies of the labour ministry— the Central Labour Commission, Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO), Employees State Insurance Corporation (ESIC) and Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS)—are involved in running the labour law compliance process to aid 1.3 million companies. But if one single window system is in place, this number (of companies) will come down to around 700,000 as duplicacy of records are only adding up numbers. Once, the number comes down, the inspection system would become more transparent and data driven. Multiplicity of labour laws has promoted multiple inspections, returns and registers. To avoid these, a single Labour Authority dealing with all aspect of labour, self-certification and a single consolidated return should be put in place. We are given to understand that the Labour Ministry has initiated developing a single web portal to address the issue of self- certification and return. So far the applicability of labour laws is
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concerned the MSME sector is treated at par with large scale enterprises with similar rigorous provisions in the legislations. Whereas, MSME enterprises should be subjected to few simple and less cumbersome labour laws which make compliance easier.
Demographically favourable
India is in a demographically favourable phase. This implies that the ratio of working age population to total population ratio is on the increase, leading to a need to provide productive livelihoods to the increasing number of young entering the workforce and also to those who are unemployed or under-employed. India’s total labour force in 2011-12 is estimated to be about 480 million, only about 40 per cent of the total population. In particular, the participation of women is quite low at about one-third of the working age population — that in the 15-59 years category — while for men it is around four-fifth. Thus, reforming labour laws to bring about moves such as permitting women to work in night shifts, as has been proposed, would improve gender equality and, potentially, the economic growth.
Shifting labour from agriculture to non- agricultural occupations is essential and so is encouraging manufacturing — through initiatives such as ‘Make in India’. India’s employment elasticity was negative for the years 2009-10 and in 2011-12. This cannot be allowed to continue if the country’s economic progress is to be sustained and a certain social cohesion maintained. Under the current constitutional provisions, labour is a subject in the Concurrent List. Individual States can amend labour laws. The Union government’s role is to forward them to the President. If the President assents, the States are free to implement the amended laws. This is the avenue States such as Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh are likely to pursue to implement labour reforms. Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Haryana, are reportedly considering labour reforms to
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attract investments. Also, with a BJP government having been elected in Maharashtra — an important State in terms of the economy as Mumbai is the financial and commercial Centre of the country — labour reforms are also likely to be initiated there. This avenue of State initiation-Central consent-presidential acceptance permits initiation of context-specific labour reforms and allows experimentation and flexibility, making the costs of policy reversal less severe.
Labour Reforms
To undo the malady in India’s labour market, some changes have recently been initiated in the three acts that largely govern India’s labour market: the Factories Act (1948), the Labour Laws Act (1988) and the Apprenticeship Act (1961). Amendments to some restrictive provisions of all these acts have been cleared by the Cabinet and are set to be tabled in Parliament. Key changes proposed include dropping the punitive clause that calls for the imprisonment of company directors who fail to implement the Apprenticeship Act of 1961.
The Government is also going to do away with a proposed amendment to the Act that would mandate employers to absorb at least half of its apprentices in regular jobs. In order to provide flexibility to managers and employers, the amendment to the Factories Act includes doubling the provision of overtime from 50 hours a quarter to 100 hours in some cases and from 75 hours to 125 hours in others involving work of public interest. This is seen by some as being anti-labour as it imposes greater working hours without ensuring their security and welfare. However, the penalty for violating the Act has been increased so as to deter exploitation. Increasing the working hours might also have to do with low worker productivity in India. However, even as productivity issues should be addressed in part by bringing in quality FDI, it is important that maximum-hour protection is strictly enforced so as to prevent worker exploitation. The norms for the employment of
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women in certain industry segments have been relaxed. The number of days that an employee needs to work to be eligible for benefits like leave with pay has been reduced to 90 from 240.
The amendments to Labour Laws Act, 1988 meanwhile, will allow companies to hire more people without having to fulfil weighty labour law requirements as it is proposed that companies with 10-40 employees will be exempt from having to furnish and file returns on various aspects. This will help avoid procedural delays, a feature of doing business in India. Rajasthan shows the way With the finance minister encouraging States to bring in appropriate labour reforms, Rajasthan has gone the Chinese way. Henceforth, it will be easier for firms there to adopt hire and fire policies.
The Rajasthan government’s labour reforms are manifold. For one, industrial establishments employing up to 300 workers are now allowed to retrench employees without seeking the prior permission of the Government. In addition, the threshold of the number of employees required for the purpose of applicability of the Factories Act has been increased from 10 to 20 (in electricity-powered factories) and from 20 to 40 (in factories without power). This is expected to reduce bureaucratic delays. Finally, membership of 30 per cent of the total workforce needs to be recorded for a union to obtain recognition, up from 15 per cent, a move that will halt productivity losses out of politically motivated petty strikes. The reality is that manufacturing has to grow to absorb millions of semi-skilled young Indians, a difficult task without rationalising labour reforms.
The labour reforms are also, rightly, linked to improving worker benefits — like providing for a minimum pension under Employees’ Pension Scheme; making Provident and Pension Funds portable; and increasing the maximum work hours. There is also stress on easing the compliance burden for small and medium businesses, like by permitting
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self-certification in some areas; restricting the powers given to labour inspectors, and by modernising labour laws. Also, various initiatives to increase the skilled manpower include the amendment to the Apprenticeship Act, 1961 which was passed by the Lok Sabha in August this year but is pending before the Rajya Sabha and steps to modernise the governance of the Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs). “Reforming labour laws to bring about moves such as permitting women to work in night shifts would improve gender equality”.
In considering how to build a new corpus of labor law, a government should seek to cover the following areas in statutory law:
1. Safety and health at work and fair labor standards. Examples are maximum length of the workday, rest periods, safety measures and restrictions on child labor.
2. Unfair Dismissals. This should be broken down according to the two different types of dismissal: a. Dismissal of an individual for cause (e.g., poor performance, excessive absenteeism). b. Dismissal for reasons of redundancy (the worker or workers are not needed because there is lack of work for them to do). So the progress made in 2014 seems unbelievable.
Recent Labor Reforms
There are amendments in the following Acts in 2014.
Apprenticeship Act
In apprentice system, trade workers, engineers (both diploma holder and graduates), 10+2 passed vocational students, need to undergo training in industry to enhance their skill. On completion of this they become regular workers. For this they get stipend in form of remuneration. New amendment increases Stipend to 70 per cent of wage of regular unskilled worker in first year, 80 per cent in second
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year. Non engineers can also be appointed, and their total number could be up to 10 per cent of the total workforce. Now students other than engineering can also seek apprenticeship. About 500 new trades are added. It also removes the some penalties for Industry – employer can’t be jailed for non-compliance.
Factories act
Overtime ( normal hours increase) , better working conditions, Allows women for overnight work provided there is adequate safeguards and transport facility.
Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay Shramev jayate Karyakaram
Employees Provident Fund Organization in the Employees Provident Fund Organization about Rs 27,000 crore was lying unclaimed. This was due to manual procedures and formalities to get the amount released. When worker change city then it was not possible for him get his balance from new city. Other reason is that some employers deposit his contributions in name of ghost employees so that they can themselves claim the amount. Universal Account Number would help addressing both problems and in the money reaching the poor with the portability provided for Employees Provident Fund Organization.
Self-certification of documents
This aims at elimination of troublesome submission procedures, under which returns was to be certified by officials. Now by self- certification method, compliance will be checked randomly through firms/employers selected by computer.
Inspector Raj
A transparent Labor Inspection Scheme for random selection of units for inspection would end undue harassment of the “Inspector
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Raj,” while ensuring better compliance. Now officials have power to select units on their discretion. This results in rent seeking and corruption. Number of forms related to compliance with labor laws that employers have to file will drop from 16 to 1.
Apprentice Protsahan Yojana
The Apprentice Protsahan Yojana and the Effective Implementation of revamped Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) for labour in the unorganized sector were also launched today.
Shramev Jayate
Skill development of youth would be created through initiatives under ‘Shramev Jayate’. It is one of the most important elements of the “Make in India” vision and aims to create an opportunity for India to meet the global requirement of skilled labour workforce in the years ahead.
Conclusion
In the context of above discussions, there are many things needed to be looked upon. Even though steps involving greater flexibility in labour laws making it easier to implement greater flexibility in the labour market are taken leading to creation of greater employment opportunities, one need to know whether this would lead to long term generation of employment creation or would it result in just a short term planning. And above all any step should take into account the interests of both the employers and the workers with greater emphasis on social protection of workers. Because labour in the new industries would face different types of insecurities like job security in the wake of contractual work, lack of minimum wage s legislation, housing and health facilities and most importantly old age benefits. Emphasis should first and foremost be laid on decent work practices along with proper implementation of minimum wages in both
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formal and informal sectors which call for commitment from he employer’s side as well. Another important issue is the enforcement of labour laws which is of particular concern. So any alternative framing of labour laws need to reconsider and assess these aspects before moving forward with the conception of ‘rigid labour laws and its hindrance to employment growth’. Labour reform was almost a political untouchable for decades; so the progress made in 2014 seems unbelievable.
References
Pravakar Sahoo (2014), “No easy task for India’s labour reforms”, East Asia Forum, Economics, Politics and Public Policy in East Asia and the Pacific, http://www.eastasiaforum.org Datta R. C. and Milly Sil (2007), “Contemporary Issues on Labour Law Reform in India: An Overview”, Discussion Paper No. 5/2007, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. Anant, T. C. A, Hasan, R; Nagaraj, R and Sasikumar, S. K. (2006) ‘Labour Markets in India: Issues and Perspectives’ in Felipe and R. Hasan (eds), Labour Markets in Asia: Issues and Perspectives, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, pp 205-300 http://forbesindia.com/article/special/labour-law-reforms-little-to-do- with-firing-employees/39281/1 http://www.insightsonindia.com/2014/10/20/labor-issues-and-need-for- reforms/ http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/comment-reforming-labour- laws-creating-livelihoods/article6545494.ece http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/india-labor-law-reform- sabharwal/ http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/finally-a-push-for-labour- reforms/article6528145.ece http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/india-can-craft-effective- labor-reforms/
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MYANMAR’S ROHINGYA CRISIS: AN ANALYSIS OF SECURITY THREATS FOR SOUTH ASIA Md Intekhab Alam Khan Ph.D Research Scholar Nelson Mandela Centre for Peace and Conflict Resolution Jamia Millia Islamia University New Delhi Abstract
This paper analyses the security threats emanating from the cross- border movement of displaced Rohingya Muslims from Myanmar’s Rakhine State. The paper presents a brief background of the ethnic conflict involving Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims to explicate its historical context. The objective of the analysis is to understand the consequences of escalation of latest crisis in Myanmar. For analysing the threats, reports of leading international organizations such as International Crisis Group, Human Rights Watch, UN’s Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and first-hand accounts of leading international media houses have been consulted. In the conclusion of the study, the author concludes that why is it imperative to prevent further escalation of the ethnic conflict and how.
Keywords:Rohingya Crisis, Ethnic Conflict, Security Threats, Refugee Crisis, Rakhine Conflict.
Introduction
Myanmar’s restive Rakhine State is a theatre of invisible genocide. The world community is watching in awful silence as Myanmar government has unleashed a reign of terror on hapless, haggard, impoverished and the stateless Rohingyas – the world’s most persecuted ethnic group according to the United Nations (UN). The decades’ long cruelty against the community transited into a new phase of systemic persecution after a group of 400 armed Rohingyas attacked three
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Burma Guard Police (BGP) bases on 9 October 2016. Consequent to this attack the government launched a massive crackdown against the community on the pretext of anti-terrorist search operation, which is described by the President’s office as “clearance operations.” The crackdown led to widespread displacement of population from northern Rakhine to neighbouring Bangladesh as well as India.
Large-scale population migration often accompanies security threats to a region. In a recent report by UN’s Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), more than 66,000 Rohingyas have arrived in Bangladesh since October 2016.1 The latest flight of Rohingyas is in continuation with the earlier massive displacement triggered by 2012 communal riots in northern Rakhine. Most of the 140,0002 displaced people of 2012 are settled in refugee camps at Cox’s Bazar district of Bangladesh. A large number of these uprooted Rohingyas have also sneaked into India through the porous borders with Bangladesh. As per a report in The Quint, nearly 36,000 Rohingyas are living in different locations in India.3 Although Myanmar is part of the Southeast Asian regional block but Rakhine State is closer to South Asia sharing borders with the southernmost tip of Bangladesh. Escalating crisis in Rakhine raises serious concerns of security in the immediate neighbourhood. There is also the fear of a renewed Muslim insurgency in Rakhine. This paper analyses the nature of security threats emanating from the extremely volatile situation in Rakhine in the larger South Asian context.
1 Interviews with Rohingyas fleeing from Myanmar since 9 October 2016, Report of OHCHR Mission to Bangladesh, 3 February 2017, pp.3. Available at www.ohchr.org 2 This figure is recorded by International Crisis Group in its report Myanmar: The Politics of Rakhine State, 22 October 2014. Report is available at www.crisisgroup.org 3 Are Myanmar’s Rohingya Muslim a Threat to India? 20 June 2016. Available at www.thequint.com
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Conflict Genesis
Latest crisis in Myanmar is a manifestation of deep-rooted historical grievances between Rohingya Muslims and Arakanese Buddhists (also called Bamar). Ethnic hostility goes back to the emergence of British colonial period in Burma (Myanmar). The First Anglo-Burmese war (1824-1826) led to the annexation of Arakan (now Rakhine State) to British India. Post the Burma conquest, Indian labourers from regions part of today’s Bangladesh were brought to the province for labour works. The demographic change owing to British-engineered immigration in the sparsely populated Arakan caused socio-economic distress that engendered conflict of interest between the Rohingyas and Buddhists.4
Nevertheless the conflict of interest between the two communities hardly manifested through overt violence till 1940. Incompatibility between the Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims began to manifest during the 1940s decade. In the Second World War, both the communities found themselves on opposing sides; Rohingya Muslims supported the British colonizers while the Rakhine Buddhists took sides with the Japanese imperialist forces. This growing hostility became worse when economic conditions led to the alleged killing of 80,000 Rohingyas by hyper-nationalist Buddhists.5 Crisis between these communities deepened further when a mujahidin rebellion erupted in 1948 with irredentist tendency of annexing northern Rakhine state to the erstwhile East Pakistan. The Muslim insurgency of the 1940s created deep ethnic divisions leading to a protracted ethnic conflict that persists to this day.
4 Moshe Yegan, The Muslims of Burma: A Study of Minority Group, (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1972), pp.29 5 Mujtaba RIzvi, The Problems of the Burmese Muslims, Pakistan Horizon, Vol. 31, No. 4 (Fourth Quarter, 1978), pp. 86
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Historians contest the origins of the Rohingyas in the state. Few claim that they are indigenous people inhabiting the region for centuries. Others point to their origins to 1824 when the British Empire engineered a settlement of Bengalis from Bangladesh. Myanmar government, however, denies both these claims. In fact, the government strongly objects to the use of Rohingya as it will give credence to community’s claim of being indigenous.6 The government asserts that most of the Muslims in Rakhine have illegally migrated after 1948. According to Citizenship Law of 1982, those immigrants who have settled in parts of Burma before independence in 1948 will be considered legal but the rest lacking valid proofs of immigration of their ancestors before 1948 will be termed illegal Bengali immigrants from Bangladesh. While Rohingyas reject the ascription of Bengali to their identity by Myanmar government. Based on the 1982 Citizenship Law, Myanmar government began the verification process without breaking the deadlock with Rohingyas. Myanmar’s government failure to resolve this impasse has spawned most of the violence in Rakhine since 1982.
Ethnic conflict in Rakhine is a heady cocktail of long-standing hostility, hate-filled inter-communal tension between Buddhists and Muslims, and excessive poverty and lack of development. The conflict can suitably be explained by the primordialist theoretical explanation promulgated by Anthony D. Smith. According to this theory ethnic conflicts ultimately are rooted in “differences of ethnicity”. Nonetheless primordialists agree to that warfare is not a persistent state of affairs. In Rakhine’s case, proximate factors, such as poverty and volatile economic conditions, further exacerbated the inter-ethnic relations. Scholars like David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild differ with the primordialist explanation of ethnic conflict. For them, ethnicity per se
6 Crisis Group Report, Myanmar: The Politics of Rakhine State, pp.ii
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is not a cause of violent conflict.7 Violence erupts over strategic interactions between and within ethnic groups. However, in the case of Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims, the deep-rooted ethnic animosity has been the main driving force behind a genocide-like crisis against the Rohingyas.
Latest Escalation of the Conflict
The latest escalation in Rakhine is a sordid tale of torture, indiscriminate killings, arson, sexual violence, and gross human rights violations. According to Reuters, death toll has crossed 1,000 following the military crackdown since October 2016.8 Some UN officials estimate the death tolls to be greater but lack credible data based on ground reporting. According to Amnesty International, a systematic campaign of violence is going on against men, women, children, and entire villages. Amnesty International’s Director for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Rafendi Djamin, said in a statement that the entire community is being abused as a form of “collective punishment.”9
The crackdown by the Burmese military has been termed as humanitarian disaster by UN’s Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and various other international observer groups. Based on inputs from over 220 interviewees who have fled reprisal from Myanmar security forces, the report highlights the plight of the
7 David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, Spreading, Fear: The Genesis of Transnational Conflict, in David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild (eds.). The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998, pp.7 8 Antoni Slodkowski, More than 1,000 feared killed in Myanmar army crackdown on Rohingya - U.N. officials, 8 February 2017, available at www.reuters.com 9 Amnesty International, Myanmar: Security forces target Rohingya during vicious Rakhine scorched-earth campaign, 19 December 2016, available at www.amnesty.org
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refugees and potential human rights violations.10 Commenting on OHCHR’s Flash Report, UN Special Adviser Adama Dieng said that the report bolstered the credibility of the alleged claim of human rights violations by Myanmar security forces.11 Since human rights groups are barred from entering the secluded areas where Rohingyas have been confined the enormity of humanitarian disaster is difficult to assess. Few independent observer groups have raised the possibility of even greater disaster than what is being reported by Human Rights Watch, International Crisis Group (ICG) and OHCHR.
Fear of Radicalisation?
ICG has reported that Rohingyas are not yet a radicalised population; community members, elders and religious leaders have previously eschewed from violence as they think it will prove to be counterproductive in the long run.12 Their struggle is for attaining citizenship rights through amendment in the Citizenship Law of 1982, which made them a stateless people. This utterly discriminatory law, in one stroke, made the Rohingyas a people of nowhere. Myanmar wants them to return to Bangladesh and Bangladesh does not consider them as Bengalis. Moreover, geopolitical interests of regional powers like China and India have constrained to raise the issue of Rohingyas with Myanmar. Happymon Jacob, a professor of disarmament and national security at Jawaharlal Nehru University, writes for the Hindu that Rohingyas are of no strategic value to either China or India.13 Jacob also explains the reluctance of both US and UN in meddling in the Rohingya crisis.
10 Interviews with Rohingyas fleeing from Myanmar since 9 October 2016, Op. Cit. 11 Violence in Myanmar's Rakhine state could amount to crimes against humanity – UN special adviser, 6 February 2017. Available at www.un.org 12 Crisis Group Report, Myanmar: The Politics of Rakhine State, Op. Cit. 13 Happymon Jacob, The Nowhere People Next Door, The Hindu, 23 January 2017.
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Until now, the Rohingyas have abstained from taking recourse to armed resistance. With no hope of a political solution and relentless oppression, the Rohingyas could turn to violent means in the near future. Attacks on the BGP post in October 2016 could well prove to be a game-changer in Myanmar. Since the attacks the officially- sanctioned” violence against the community has intensified. Civilians are indiscriminately tortured, looted, sexually abused, and killed. Security forces are making anti-terrorist “clearance operations” an alibi for inflicting unimagined cruelty on the hapless population. They have no place to hide and save themselves from the inhuman treatment being meted out.
A pathetically grim situation prevails in the northern Rakhine State. Experiences from other conflict zones in the world have shown that denial of rights lead to radicalization of minds. However, it would be early to arrive at a conclusion that a new phase of insurgency has yet started. ICG has dismissed the resistance against the military as anything resembling a secessionist movement for internal autonomy or independence; the political objective of the Rohingya’s resistance is limited only to securing rights of the community through recognition as legal citizens of Myanmar, which is a comforting sign for the moment. Government of Myanmar still has time in its hand to engage with the community and resolve the dispute without allowing it to escalate to a point of no return. Once the disgruntled community takes up arms there will be large-scale bloodshed. If this happens the conflict over citizenship rights will transform into a civil war or a secessionist movement. Given the risks of transformation of conflict into armed struggle new complexities will emerge in the conflict that will make it much more difficult to resolve.
The continued gridlock could add another dimension to the ongoing crisis in Rakhine. Transnational jihadist group active in South Asia could fill the void created by the current crisis. They could easily find
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recruits from the disenchanted Rohingya Muslim youths for carrying out terror attacks on Myanmar soils. This poses a grave security challenge for the Myanmar government in the coming years if the crisis continues on the escalation trajectory. Once the disenchantment over citizenship and fundamental rights gets co-opted by transnational jihadists who will insert their own agenda in the local insurgency, the canvass of attacks could expand dramatically beyond Rakhine and civilians may become the target of such terror attacks. Myanmar government must not turn a blind eye to such developments as it will create problems for their own national security.
ICG has reported that Harakah al-Yaqin (HaY, Faith Movement in Arabic) has claimed the responsibility for attacks on BGP. HaY is a militant organisation controlled by a coterie of senior Rohingya leaders sheltering in Saudi Arabia. The group is reported to receive funding from the Rohingya Diaspora in the Middle East. But the official statement from the Myanmar government has held Rohingya Solidarity Organization (RSO), a militant group operating from northern Rakhine, responsible for the attacks on BGP. This is the main reason behind the massive crackdown against the Rohingyas since October 2016.
Security Concerns for South Asia
The entrenchment of the conflict is a grave concern for South Asia. The large influx of refugees into Bangladesh and India raises credible threats to the larger South Asian security complex. Bangladesh is perennially embroiled in internal ethnic divisions. The country is grappling with right-wing terrorism for some years now. Besides, transnational jihadist groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS are also operating in the country through local affiliates. Local radical groups incessantly carry out assassinations, bomb blasts and target secular voices. With more and more Rohingyas are settling in different refugee camps they
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could become a potential target for recruitment by transnational terrorist organizations. They could be used to carry out strikes within Bangladesh and across the border in Myanmar. If that happens, Bangladesh will be left to handle an emerging interstate tension with Myanmar in addition to the increasing internal security threats.
A good chunk of displaced Rohingyas have crossed into India through the porous borders with Bangladesh. As per a report by Indian Express, nearly 5700 Rohingyas are living in shanties in Jammu.14 Recently the overtly right-wing Hindu organization, Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) has demanded from the government to deport the Rohingya from Jammu as it could pose security threat in the future. In a recent interview to NDTV India’s leading strategic analyst, Brahma Chellaney has alerted the government of the possible security challenges in the future. Among the major concerns Chellaney raised, the fear of recruitment by militant organization operating in the politically vulnerable Jammu and Kashmir is the most troublesome for Indian security establishment. Although state Chief Minister Mehbooba Mufti has dismissed any such claims. Mufti clarified that there has not been any evidence of the involvement of Rohingya Muslims in militancy related incidents to date.
India being the biggest nation in the region with vast territory, it faces more challenges to its mainland security due to the refugee crisis. The disgruntled youths of the community would become an easy target for the transnational Jihadist groups. Once the youths get attracted they could be used by Jihadists like ISIS and Al-Qaeda in India to push through their agenda. This could prove to be very noxious for India’s security as it is already grappling with insurgency in Northeast and
14 About 5700 Rohingya Muslims Residing in Kashmir, Indian Express, 20 January 2017. www.indianexpress.com
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Kashmir. Reports of increasing radicalization among Rohingya community should ring a bell to the Indian security establishment.
Moreover, the low intensity Bodh Gaya bomb blast in July 2013 could be seen in this continuum. This was probably a response to the growing hate attacks against the Rohingya Muslims following the rape and murder of a Buddhist woman by three Muslim men on 28 May 2012. If the Rohingya crisis in Myanmar is not resolved the symbols of Buddhism, religious places, and Buddhist shrines across India may well be possible targets for the transnational jihadist groups.
Conclusion
Resolving the Rohingya crisis is in the best interests of Myanmar. The country has just got a democratically elected government after more than half a century of military rule. Peace in other regions has made it a favourable destination for foreign direct investment. Western powers are showing keen interest in development projects in the country. Myanmar has been one of the least open markets for outside world because of the decades’ of military rule. The Southeast Asian nation has been under a US sanction for nearly 20 years. With the country’s transition to democracy under the leadership of Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, the Obama administration lifted the economic sanctions in October last year. For the people of Myanmar, this is a hard-earned phase of transition which stands to usher in rapid economic development. The Myanmar government must not allow this historic opportunity to slip out of its hands. The government should make all possible efforts to bring normalcy and restore peace in Rakhine.
Resolution of the Rohingya crisis is also in the best interest of India and Bangladesh. Happymon Jacob exhorts the Indian government to use creative diplomacy to resolve the Rohingya crisis.15 India could use
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persuasive tactics to pressurise the Government of Myanmar without undermining its geopolitical interests in the country. Even if violation of human rights is least of India’s concerns, it is in the country’s national interest to make every effort to bring peace in Rakhine. Political instability in a bordering country when reaches a crisis situation leads to mass exodus. Since Rakhine is close to India’s Northeast, which is also a conflict zone for decades, the refugee spill- over could spawn new threats in the South Asia region. The stateless people may become a potential target for exploitation by the insurgent groups who could use the disenchanted youths as pawns in cross-border illegal activities. The Myanmar government should learn from escalation of ethnic conflicts elsewhere in the world. Since the Rohingya’s resistance against military oppression has not turned into insurgency movement, Myanmar still has time to proactively engage with the community to prevent further escalation of the conflict. In case its Rohingya policy move in the same direction the country could plunge into protracted ethnic conflict which will make conflict resolution more complex and extremely difficult to achieve.
References:
Coclanis, Peter A.2013. Terror in Burma: Buddhists vs. Muslims, World Affairs, Vol. 176, No. 4 (November / December 2013), pp. 25-33
Gellner, Ernest. 1983. Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Publishers Limited.
Gurr, Ted Robert and Barbara Harff. 1994. Ethnic Conflict in World Politics. Boulder: Westview Press.
Lake, David A. and Donald Rothchild (eds.). 1998. The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
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International Crisis Group. 2016. Myanmar: A New Muslim Insurgency in Rakhine State. 15 December 2016. Available at http://www.crisisgroup.org
International Crisis Group. 2014. Myanmar: The Politics of Rakhine State. 22 October 2014. Available at http://www.crisisgroup.org
International Crisis Group. 2013. The Dark Side of Transition: Violence Against Muslims in Myanmar. 1 October 2013. Available at http://www.crisisgroup.org
International Crisis Group. 2011. Myanmar: A New Peace Initiative. 30 November 2011. Available at http://www.crisisgroup.org
Smith, Anthony D. 1988. The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
Smith, Anthony D. 2009. Ethno-Symbolism and Nationalism: A Cultural Approach. Abingdon: Routledge.
UN’s Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2017. Interviews with Rohingyas fleeing from Myanmar since 9 October 2016, Report of OHCHR mission to Bangladesh. 3 February 2017. Available at www.ohchr.org
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MODULAR TEACHING APPROACH IN UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAM AND ITS IMPLICATION ON QUALITY EDUCATION: THE CASE OF MIZAN-TEPI UNIVERSITY
Matheas Shemelis Miressa Yadessa Eba M.A in Educational Research and M.A in Educational Leadership Development and Management Lecturer at MTU Lecturer at MTU
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to examine the views, practice and challenges of modular teaching approach at MTU from teachers, students and academic administrator’s perspective. The study is explanatory in its design. Data were collected through Questionnaire, focus group discussion and observation. The study targeted at all colleges of Mizan-Tepi University and randomly selected 353 students and 62 teachers were participated on quantitative part and different groups have participated on the focus group discussion. The following conclusions were derived from analysis made using cluster analysis and ANOVA. The general picture of the response shows as majority of students perceived modular approach positively and reported as the practice is good. But, most of the teachers in the study perceived it as it is not appropriate for undergraduate program and the practice is not going in a good manner. The ANOVA result confirmed the existence of statistically significant difference among the students of the six colleges and one school at F (6,343) =8.126, P<.001 in perceiving modular teaching approach and F(6,346) =3.401, P<.005 in evaluating the practice of modular teaching approach. Finally, the result from cluster analysis shows 65% (n=222) of students and 37% (n=23) of teachers in the sample perceived modular teaching approach positively and viewed the practice as effective while 35% (n=122) students and 63% (n=39)
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teachers perceived it as less desirable and the practice is not good. The comparison made among colleges shows there is no significant difference between teachers view of modular teaching practice at F(6,55) = .613, P>.05. Students background, scarcity of resources, mode of delivery, teachers workload and students lack of awareness on the approach found to be the main factors which are hindering the effective implementation of modular teaching approach. Of the factors listed above block system of course delivery is taken as the main problem for its success. Generally, it can be concluded that, the practice of modular teaching approach in Mizan-Tepi University needs a great attention. Therefore, immediate solution should be taken in order to implement the approach effectively and bring quality education.
Key Words: Modular approach, quality education, university teaching
INTRODUCTION
Quality teaching is the use of pedagogical techniques to produce learning outcomes for students. It involves several dimensions, including the effective design of curriculum and course content, a variety of learning contexts (including guided independent study, project-based learning, collaborative learning, experimentation, etc.), soliciting and using feedback, and effective assessment of learning outcomes (Prosser M. and Trigwell K. 2001). It also involves well- adapted learning environments and student support services.
University education, and the mode of learning whilst at university, will need to prepare students for entry to world of work and equip them with appropriate skills, knowledge, values and attributes to thrive in it. There is a strong drive to build and create knowledge together with an understanding of working life and reformulate the concept of knowledge in learning situations. Strong connections with working life through different academic projects provide authentic opportunities to
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learn both generic and professional competencies as well as to build networks and pathways for employment after graduation.
In order to meet these requirements of higher education institutions, evaluating the overall aspect of teaching-learning in higher education should become important. By considering this fact, Ethiopia has conducted a study on curriculum and delivery system of higher education institutions and identified problems like poor organization (more fragmented), not flexible, disciplinary approach rather than competency based approach, poor as a system to promote students’ engagement, poor alignment between the objectives of courses and the world of work not practice based and not participatory nature of the previous curriculum.
In order to overcome these problems, the ministry of education harmonized the curriculum and started to change the delivery system across all universities in the country. With this the modular teaching approach became the preferred approach and implemented with aim of, promoting students’ engagement, develop the habit of good time management and academic motivation, give teachers chances for constant monitoring of their students, creates more opportunities to perform tasks in the realization of the specified outcomes.
The desired outcomes of the new approach can be taken as a guiding principle in bringing quality teaching from pedagogical perspective. So as to achieve these objectives effectively, assessing the practice and identifying the challenges encountered and seeking solution becomes important.
Statement of the problem
It is believed that the former curriculum gave more opportunity for the teacher to transmit their expertise knowledge to the students rather than creating an environment by which students engage actively in the
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learning process and knowledge’s were fragmented. However, in recent years there has been a paradigm shift taking place, moving the emphasis from teaching to learning and a more student-centered curriculum. Modular approach became the preferred approach to bring these changes.
This paradigm shift has impacted the process on curriculum design with a greater emphasis on the learning in terms of knowledge, skills and competencies within courses and modules. How learners learn for understanding and apply their knowledge in different context in the world of work became the focus. It is believed that this approach gives more chance for students to: engage in their learning actively, get non fragmented knowledge, make learners very competent, and increase independent learning.
In order to bring all this outcomes, the teaching learning process should be implemented as per the principles of modular approach. To bring the desired change and know the impact of modular teaching approach in the process of ensuring quality education, assessment and follow up on the implementation of the system becomes crucial. To this end, the study targeted to respond the following basic questions:
1) How do academic communities of Mizan-Tepi University perceive modular teaching approach?
2) How the practice of modular teaching approach is progressing in the University?
3) What are the challenges hindering the effective implementation of the approach?
4) What is the implication of the overall practice of modular teaching approach in ensuring quality education at MTU?
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Objectives of the study
The general objective of this study was to examine the implementation of modular teaching approach at MTU. With this general framework, the study aimed:
1) To analyze the perceptions of the academic community of MTU on the new approach.
2) To examine the progress and practices of modular teaching approach
3) To identify the challenges of modular teaching approach
4) To infer the implication of the practice on quality education. METHODS OF THE STUDY
Research design
The study employed explanatory design of mixed approach. This enabled the study to look the issue of investigation in quantitative and qualitative way.
Population, sample and sampling techniques
All teachers and students of Mizan-Tepi University were the population of the study. Including these two groups helps to look the issue from both perspective of teaching and learning.
All colleges of the university were included purposively and a total of 14 departments were selected by using simple random sampling (lottery method). Stratified random samplings were employed in selecting individual units/participants/ from each department and a total of 380 students were included. A total of 70 teachers from the whole colleges who thought their courses through modular approach were participated in the study by using simple random sampling. Key informants were
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selected for the qualitative part of the study by using purposive sampling.
Data collection tools and method of analysis
Data were collected by using three basic data collection tools. These are Questionnaire, Focus group discussion and observation. Using these three tools of data gathering enabled us to get data of different nature. The instruments developed for quantitative part of the study were pre tested to check their reliability and validity.
Based on the nature of data obtained, both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis were used. For the quantitative part of the study cluster analysis, ANOVA and independent t-test were used and description is made for the qualitative data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Perception Towards Modular Approach
To know how individual teachers and students perceive modular teaching approach and its practice at the university level, a cluster analysis was computed with the aim of identifying subgroups of classes with similar scores on the key variables of the study. Standardized scores on the variable perception were used in hierarchical cluster analysis using the Wards method in identifying an appropriate number of clusters (based up on the increasing value of the squared Euclidean distance between clusters). The analysis indicated that the two clusters solution was the most acceptable for both teachers and students. The clusters have significant difference on the variables used for comparison at p<0.001 in both cases.
The score of students identified in the cluster analysis shows consistent, but different sets of relations on the variable. The first group composed of 222 students, on average, have perceived modular teaching approach positively while students in cluster 2 (N=122)
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perceived it negatively. Therefore, 65% of the student participants of this study reported as the modular teaching approach is appropriate and suitable for them. While the remaining 35% of them in the sample perceived modular teaching approach as it is not appropriate and not comfortable for them. Hence it can be concluded that, most students perceive modular teaching approach as a good system for their learning.
There is significant difference between cluster I (with a N=222, x = .43, S=.83) and cluster II (with a N=122, x = -.76, S=.77) on the variable perception at p <.001
The ANOVA result confirmed the existence of statistically significant difference among the students of the six colleges and one school at F (6,343) =8.126, P<.001 in perceiving modular teaching approach.
Similarly, the same procedures were followed to know how teachers perceive modular teaching approach. The groups score identified in the cluster analysis shows consistent, but different sets of relations between variables. The first group composed of 23 teachers who, on average, have perceived modular teaching approach positively while teachers in cluster 2 (N=39) perceived it negatively. Therefore, 37% of teacher participants of this study reported as the modular teaching approach is good for them while the remaining 63% of teachers in the sample perceived as it is not appropriate for them. There is significant
difference between cluster I (with a N=23, x = .62, S=1.02) and cluster II (with a N=39, x = -.36, S=.79) on the variable at p <.001. Therefore, majority of sampled teachers perceive modular teaching approach as it is not good system for quality teaching. The practice of modular teaching approach
The practice of modular teaching approach constitutes the delivery system, assessment, learning resources, teacher’s workload, and
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students’ engagement. The two clusters were identified based on their ratings on these elements which finally showed the overall practice. With this, students in cluster one and two scored the following points of mean and standard deviation on a standardized z-score.
Table 1: Mean (and standard deviation) cluster scales Z-score for students view of the practice
Variable Cluster 1 Cluster 2 P (N=222) (N=122) Practice .63(.56) -.76(.77) .000 Delivery .56 (.51) -1.03(.86) .000 Assessment .57(.52) -1.04(.79) .000 Resource .34(1.00) -.65(.57) .000 Workload .45(.77) -.82(.85) .000 Engagement .49(.62) -.76(.81) .000
This implies the two groups are significantly different in perceiving the practice of modular teaching approach in the University. Like that of perception, the first group consisting of n=222 students reported as the practice of modular teaching in their college is good while the rest 122 students perceived it as it is not good. This is confirmed with their significant difference at p<0.001.
The ANOVA result confirmed the existence of statistically significant difference among the students of the six colleges and one school at F(6,346) =3.401, P<.005 in evaluating the practice of modular teaching approach.
Accordingly, cluster analysis is computed to know how teachers view of modular teaching practice and the following result is obtained.
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Table 2: Mean (and standard deviation) cluster scales Z-score for teacher’s view of the practice
Cluster 1 Cluster 2 N (23) teachers N (39) teachers P Practice 1.03 (.58) -.61(.62) .000 Delivery .76 (.62) -.45(.90) .000 Assessment .70 (.99) -.42(.75) .000 Resource .83(.77 ) -.49(.77) .000 Workload .67 (.68) -.39(.95) .000 Engagement .86 (.89) -.51(.66) .000
The first cluster/group which is composed of 23 individuals perceived modular teaching practice as it is progressing in a good manner while, the second cluster (N=39) perceived as the practice is not appropriately practiced. This tells a great caution for the university to intervene and find solutions by which modular teaching practice becomes more effective.
Beside the quantitative survey of the modular teaching practice, qualitative data were obtained from the discussion made with participants and session observation. The analysis is made based on the following themes.
Curriculum Harmonization
The practice of modular teaching approach starts from module harmonization across the whole university in the country. In this regard each similar department across all university provided with similar curriculum with 20% flexibility in its implementation. Almost all respondents have appreciated the way modules with related themes are brought together and they have justified that it enable students to
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acquire knowledge in uninterrupted way. The evidences obtained from this study shows, there is no clear statement about how the 20% of flexibility is going to be used. Instructors are not clear for what purpose it is used. So it has to be clear whether it is used for course add and drop, its mode of delivery, way of teaching or for other purposes. In addition to this, it is also confirmed that some teachers have critics/complain on the mode of delivery decided for some courses. They believe that the nature of the course needs to be studied in semester based than in block mode.
Mode of Delivery
Three modes of course delivery are implemented in the university. Some departments offer courses semester wise, others use block system while the rest use mixed system of delivery. Though the problem is not belongs to those departments who deliver courses semester wise, the rest two of them (block and mixed) are facing problems. On the discussion made with teachers, it is inferred that it is too difficult to cover the courses within two weeks and it is also challenging for students to capture the intended objectives of the course.
Teachers believe that, the curriculum harmonizing committee has made a mistake in deciding the courses how it is going to be offered. The courses assigned for block doesn’t consider the nature of the course and students background. In addition to the focus group discussion, all teachers involved in filling the questionnaire have chosen semester based mode of delivery as the most appropriate mode of course delivery.
Teaching Methods and Students Engagement
The extent to which teachers employ active learning method and level of student’s engagement during the instructional process is very determinant points in modular teaching approach. The evidences show that, most teachers failed to use active learning method and increase
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student’s engagement. According to the discussion made with staffs and observation conducted in the classroom, when the course is offered in block mode, most teachers rely on power point presentation. They justified that the time allotted for the course and the bulkiness of the module created difficulty to cover using student centered approach rather they preferred to deliver the course using lecture method and power point presentations. Apart from block courses, the number of students in the classroom in some colleges is a problem which is very challenging. So, most teachers are using lecture type of teaching which doesn’t give students a chance to actively engage in the process.
If students are to learn desired outcomes in a reasonably effective manner, then the teacher’s fundamental task is to get students to engage in learning activities that are likely to result in achieving those outcomes. It is helpful to remember that what the student does is actually more important in determining what is learned than what the teacher does (MacGregor, 2007). This shows student’s engagement in the teaching learning process is very crucial in bringing quality teaching.
Student engagement is most powerful in the process of quality teaching when it involves dialogue, the students’ experience and teacher. As students are the intended beneficiaries of quality teaching, they are able to provide crucial “customer feedback” not only on what works well but also on what they would like to be done differently and how (Fry H.et al, 2003). If we look from modular teaching perspective students’ active involvement in the classroom and outside the classroom is very essential. Therefore, to do this awareness creation is needed on the side of students and teachers. First, teachers must believe that, students learn better when they become active participant and create an environment which gives an opportunity for
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students to engage into learning. Second, students must take responsibility for their learning and work hard to achieve the desired objectives.
Independent Learning
With the history of successful engagement with content that is personally meaningful, the student both builds up the knowledge base needed for deep learning and, motivationally, develops the expectations that give confidence in future success (Biggs and Tang, 2007). They should develop a feeling of what psychologists call self-efficacy or more simply ‘ownership’. If graduates of this university are expected to have such feeling, they should be encouraged to pass through independent learning. But, the practice in this university is no to the expected.
Though there is syllabus for each course in the curriculum to guide students what to do, there is no trust from teachers’ side to let students to learn/cover contents by themselves. This lack of trust emanated from students background of learning, their maturity, the time given particularly for block courses, students expectation of teachers, lack of reference books in some departments, and etc. Since independent learning have a crucial importance in making students to take responsibility for their learning, they should be encouraged and provided with opportunity to benefit from it.
Assessment and prompt feedback
Assessment is an integral part of quality teaching. It tells how the learners are progressing in their learning. In modular approach different assessment techniques should be employed to make sure that students are achieving the module objectives. Though most of the participants of the study reported the assessment practice is going well, it needs great improvement to impact students learning positively.
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Again courses delivered through block system are encountering challenges to use continuous assessment. This is due to the time given for courses do not give opportunity to implement formative assessment rather it led to continuous testing.
If there is any single factor that supports good learning it is formative feedback: teaching is good or poor depending on how readily students receive feedback on how they are doing (Black, P.and Wiliam, D. 1998). For feedback to be effective students need to be clearly aware of what they are supposed to learn and to be perfect they need information as to where their deficiencies lie they will work for improvement.
Challenges Encountered
Data obtained through focus group discussion and classroom observation revealed different challenges hindering the effectiveness of modular teaching approach. The areas of the challenges encountered include:
i. Students’ background- learning style and subject knowledge
ii. Scarcity of learning resources- the provision of learning resources is not adequate
iii. Mode of delivery- block mode of course delivery is not suitable for the existing situation.
iv. Teachers overload- teachers are assigned for more than two section simultaneously to deliver courses in block mode
v. Students and teachers lack of awareness on modular teaching Implication on Quality Education
Answering the question of how the modular teaching practice is contributing for enhancement of quality teaching is another crucial point to be dealt in this study. It is obvious that, many strategies and packages were designed to ensure quality education of which one is
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using modular teaching approach. As an approach, it has its own advantages and limitations in the process of ensuring quality education. Different question have been raised regarding its feasibility/applicability of the approach particularly offering courses through block system and many justifications were listed. On the other hand, there are good practices that make modular teaching approach to be preferable.
The world of employment is changing rapidly. The only solution to make graduates competent and flexible with the changing environment is to equip them with required knowledge, skill, and values during their stay in universities. To make them quality graduates they should understand all the required knowledge and skill of their discipline. The learning outcome they posses determine their performance in the world of work. Therefore, modular teaching approach is aimed to make the curriculum relevant for the work demand and preparing students as per the principles underlining modular teaching approach.
Even though the assumptions behind modular teaching approach are important in bringing quality education, the actual practice in Mizan- Tepi University needs some adjustment to maximize its positive effect on students learning. Almost all the activities done in the curriculum harmonization are very important but needs some amendment regarding the way courses are delivered i.e semester wise and block system. According to the data obtained from the samples of this study, students who are learning through block system do not have positive perception about modular approach. Again, teachers have provided with choice regarding their preference to offer courses and all of them have chosen semester wise. This also confirmed on focus group discussion made with the staffs. Therefore, the course assigned for block system should be given revisited and look for other solutions. By making the course provision semester wise and letting students to
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actively engage in their learning we can make them to achieve the intended objectives.
Conclusions
All the activities done on curriculum harmonization has played a significant role in bringing courses with similar themes together and avoided fragmentation of knowledge’s and skills students are learning. This is very important in making the curriculums studied to be relevant for the world of work. But, in some cases the way courses are delivered brought negative impact in the process of bringing quality teaching. Therefore, due attention should be given to adjust the way courses are delivered. In addition the challenges identified in this study have their own negative impact on the effectiveness of the approach. Hence, all the concerned bodies should strive to avoid them and bring the desired quality.
References
Black, P.J. and Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education, 5(1), 7-74. John Biggs and Catherine Tang (2007) Teaching for Quality learning at University (3rd ed); what the student does. The McGraw-Hill companies Prosser M. and Trigwell K. (2001) Understanding Learning and Teaching: the experience in higher education : SRHE and Open University Press Robert R. MacGregor (2007) The Essential Practices of High Quality Teaching and Learning: The Center for Educational Effectiveness, Inc. Heather fry, Steve ketteridge and Stephanie marshall (2003)a handbook for teaching & learning in higher education (2nd Ed). kogan page
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ZILLA PRAJA PARISHAD ADMINISTRTION IN ANDHRA PREDESH M.Saravara Kumari Research Scholar Dept of Political Science and Public Administration S.V. University ,Tirupati Introduction:
The administrative set-up of the Mandal Panchayats in Andhra Pradesh in accordance with the 73rd Constitutional Amendment, its position at the intermediate level. It also covers the functions of chairman, powers and functions of Mandal Praja Parishads, its committees, sources of income, hierarchical set-up of Mandal Praja Parishads, the importance of Mandal Praja Parishad Officer in the Mandal Parishad and so on. Zilla Praja Parishad has been functioning in the State from 01.11.1959. Earlier to 1959 there used to be District Boards constituted under AP Andhra Area District Boards Act, 1920 and AP Telangana Area District Boards Act, 1955. The Balwantrai Mehata Committee has recommended constitution of three tier Panchayat Raj system as instruments of decentralization of power at various levels i.e., Village, Mandal, (or Block) and District level. Before the present enactment, the Zilla Praja Parishads and Mandal Praja Parishad were constituted under the AP Mandal Praja Parishads and Zilla Praja Parishads and Zilla Abhivriddi Sameeksha Mandals Act, 1986.The present Act i.e., AP Panchayat Raj Act, Act. No.13 of 1994 which came into force 30.05.1994 replacing the AP Gram Panchayat Act, 1964 and AP Mandal Praja Parishads, Zilla Praja Parishad, Zilla Abhivriddi Sameeksha Mandals Act, 1968. It is an integrated Act covering the provisions of Gram Panchayats, Mandal Praja Parishads and Zilla Praja Parishads bringing out some uniformity matters like elections, convening and conduct of meetings, relationship between each tier, administrative reports, budget and etc.
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The Commissioner Panchayat Raj is the Head of the Department for the three tier Panchayat Raj Institutions and is the Government’s agent for implementing the A. P. P. R. Act, 1994. The Lowest tier of Panchayat Raj Institutions at the Village level is the Gram Panchayat, the middle tiers the Mandal Parishad and the Highest tier at the District level is the Zilla Parishad.
Functions of the parishad may be classified into two broad areas:
(1) Provision of civic amenities
(2) Fulfilment of development functions. The first category comprises the following functions normally entrusted to the parishad.
(1) Construction and upkeep of roads within the jurisdiction of the mandals but other than purely gram panchayat roads.
(2) Supply of drinking water.
(3) Opening of drains and soak pits.
(4) Establishment of primary health centre’s and maternity centre’s.
(5) Provision of medical and health services.
(6) Provision of primary and basic schools, establishment of adult education centre’s and adult literacy centre’s. Assistance to village roads which serve as feeders.
(7) Establishment and popularization of libraries.
(8) Establishment of youth organizations, mahila mandals, farmer clubs etc.
(9) Encouragement to physical and cultural activities.
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The parishad implements the community development programmes in its areas. Its functions to name a few extend to agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, cottage industries, co- operatives etc. The following may be considered to be a representative list of functions which fall within the development programme.
The Department is responsible for planning and execution of the programs for rural development including communications, provision of drinking water, minor irrigation and poverty alleviation programs. The main schemes undertaken by the department can be classified under the following heads
Rural Water Supply& Rural Sanitation
Jawahar Gram Samrudhi Yojana (J. G. S. Y)
Community Development
Construction of Mandal Buildings
Construction and maintenance of rural roads
Employment Assurance Scheme (E. A. S.)
In addition the maintenance of secondary, upper primary and primary schools in rural areas, maintenance of minor irrigation tanks with an ayacut upto 40 hectares and construction of school buildings from the grants released by other departments are attended to by Zilla Parishads and Mandal Parishads. , The Gram Panchayats provide civic amenities to the people living in the respective villages and also maintain the Panchayat roads and other assets. Grants-in-aid are released to Panchayat Raj Institutions for developmental activities, maintenance of roads, buildings, and assets and for salaries of establishment. The sources of revenue of Panchayat Raj bodies are Taxes and fee like House Tax, License Fee levied by Gram Panchayats etc. , Assigned revenues collected by Government and transferred to P. R. is like
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Entertainment Tax to Gram Panchayats and Mandals. , Land Cess, Surcharge on stamp duty etc. , to all Panchayat Raj Institutions.
Grants given by Government like Statutory Per Capita Grants.Grants for specific development works like Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgor Yojana (SGSY), Jawahar Gram Samrudh Yojana, Rural Water Supply, Sanitation, Minor Irrigation etc., Grants for maintenance of Roads,Grants for salaries of provincialised staff. Tenth Finance Commission Grants, Eleventh Finance Commission Grants,Functions of extension officer (panchayats) are to Exercise supervision over and provide guidance to the Gram Panchayats and their executive authorities in his jurisdiction in the administration of Gram Panchayats. Visit all the Gram Panchayats in his jurisdiction not less than twice a year for the purpose of inspection and superintendence irrespective of his visits for holding enquiries etc. and shall visit all Gram Panchayats once in a quarter as such each Extension Officer has to do 100 to 120 inspections per year.
Hold enquires and submit reports to higher authorities on complaints of mal- administration of Gram Panchayats, Maintain necessary statistics about the working of Gram Panchayats in his jurisdiction and submit periodic reports with regard. To JGSY, Tenth Finance Commission / JBP etc., Bring to the notice of the District Panchayat Officer and the Divisional Panchayat Officer, the disqualification of members, sarpanches of Gram Panchayats and the casual vacancies in a Gram Panchayat and also, conduct elections. Provide guidance to executive authorities of Gram Panchayats in the matter of preparation of annual administration reports, periodical returns, replies to the audit reports, budget estimate, attend Gram Sabha meetings etc., and Assist the Gram Panchayats wherever necessary in the matter of realisation of taxes, fees or other sums, due to the Gram Panchayats.
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Functions of divisional panchayat officer are to exercise supervision and control over the Extension officers (Panchayats) and their offices within his jurisdiction. Exercise supervision and provide guidance to Gram Panchayats and their executives in his jurisdiction in the administration of Gram Panchayats.
Visit all the Gram Panchayats in his jurisdiction at least once a year for the purposes of inspection and superintendence, irrespective of his visits for the holding enquiries etc., A Divisional Panchayat Officer has to inspect about 300 Panchayats in a year Visit Offices of the Extension officers (Panchayats as often as necessary and not less than twice a year for the purpose of inspection, the number of Extension officers under each Divisional Panchayat officer would be between 4 to 6. Hold enquires and submits reports to higher authorities on complaints on mal-administration of Gram Panchayats. Maintain necessary statistics about the working of Gram Panchayats in his jurisdiction and submit periodical reports on progress of works. Inspect works under the matching grants and revision of taxes.
Functions of the district panchayat officer are to Exercise supervision and control over the Divisional panchayat officers, Extension officers (Panchayats) and their offices within his jurisdiction. Exercise supervision and provide guidance to Gram Panchayats and their Executives in his jurisdiction in the administration of Gram Panchayats. Visit as many Gram Panchayats as possible for the purpose of inspection. Superintendence, conducting of enquiries etc. and shall inspect all the Gram Panchayats at least once between one ordinary election and another ordinary election. Visit the offices of the Divisional Panchayat Officers and Extension Officers (Panchayats) as often as necessary and at least once a year for the purpose of inspection; Hold enquiries and submit reports to the higher authorities on complaints of mal-administration of inspection; Maintain necessary statistics about the working of Gram Panchayats within his
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jurisdiction; Maintain personal files of (1) Executive officers within his jurisdiction. (2) Extension officers (Panchayats) and (3) Divisional Panchayat Officers, Review the audit replies to audit reports only in respect of the notified Gram Panchayats. Duties of mandal parishad development officer of mandal parishad The Mandal Parishad Development Officer shall be responsible for implementing the resolutions of Mandal Parishad and shall also exercise such powers and perform such functions as may be entrusted to him by the government. He shall also exercise such powers of supervision over the Gram Panchayats in the Mandal as may be prescribed. The Mandal Parishad Development officer shall, convene the meetings of the Mandal parishad and attend the same. The Staff borne on the establishment of the Mandal Parishad and the Staff working in institutions and schemes transferred by the Government to the Mandal Parishad shall be under the administrative control and supervision of the Mandal parishad Development officer.
Functions of the Zilla Parishad are to Examine and approve the budgets of Mandal Parishads in the District. Distribute the funds allotted to the District by the Central of state Government among the Mandal Parishads. Co-ordinate and consolidate the plans prepared in respect of the Mandals in the district and prepare plans in respect of the entire district. Secure the execution of plans, projects, schemes or other works either solely relating to the individual Mandal Parishads or common to two or more Mandals in the District. Supervise generally the activities of the Mandal Parishad. Exercise and perform such of the powers and functions of the District Board including the powers to levy and tax or fees. Exercise and perform such other powers and functions relating to any development programme as the Government may by notification confer on or entrust to it. Advise government on all matters relating to developmental activities and maintenance of services in the district, whether undertaken by local authorities or
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government . Advise government on the allocation of work among gram Panchayats and Mandal Parishads and co-ordination of work between the said bodies and among various departments. Advise government on matters concerning the implementation of any saturator or executive order specially referred by the government to the Zilla parishads. Collect such data as it deems necessary. Publish statistics or other information relating to the activities of the local authorities. Establish, maintain, or expand secondary, vocational and industrial schools.The administration of the Zilla parishads will be under the control of the chief executive officer who has the following powers. The executive power for the purpose of carrying out exercise all the powers and perform the functions specially conferred or imposed upon him by of under the Act. Lay down the duties of all officers and servants of, or holding office under Zilla parishad provisions of APPR Act. vest in the chief executive officer The chief executive officer is entitled to
Attend the meeting of the Zilla parishad or any of its standing committees.ii) Call for any information, return, statement of account or report from any officer or servant or holding office under the Zilla parishad or a Mandal parishad. Exercises supervision and control over he acts of the officers and servants holding office under the Sill Parotid or the institutions thereunder in matters of administration and those relating to accounts and records of the Zilla Parishad or the institutions thereunder. Have the custody of all papers and documents connected with the proceedings of the Zilla Parishad and of its standing committees. Be responsible for implementing the resolution of the zilla parishad and of the standing committees. Supervise and control the execution of all activities of the Zilla parishad.Take necessary measures for the speedy execution of all works and development schemes of the zilla parishad. Have the power to enter upon and inspect any work. Scheme or institution under the management of the zilla parishad. Have the power to enter upon and inspect any work, scheme or
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institution under the management of a mandal parishad if the zilla parishad or any of its standing committees so direct.
Be the competent authority to enter into agreements and to sign and executive them in the name and on behalf of the zilla parishad from time to time. The chief executive officer, with the approval of on the direction of the chairman convene the meeting of the Zilla Parishads. The staff borne on the establishment of the Zilla Parishad and the staff working in institutions and schemes transferred by the Government to the Zilla Parishad shall be under the administrative control and supervision of the chief executive officer. Functions and duties of the commissioner, Panchayat RajThe commissioner, Panchayat Raj is the head of the department for the panchayat Raj institutions. The commissioner, Panchayat Raj has the following duties to attend to Distribute the funds allotted to state by the Government of India and the Government of Andhra Pradesh among the Zilla parishads, Mandal Parishads and Gram Panchayats. Co-ordinate and consolidate the plans prepared in respect of the Zilla Parishads, Mandal Parishads and Gram Panchayats. Supervise and review the activities of Zilla Parishads, Mandal Parishads and Gram Panchayats. Monitor the powers and functions in relating to any development programmes taken up or conferred on the Zilla Parishads, Mandal Parishads and Gram Panchayats. Advice and assist the Government on all matters relating to development activities and maintenance of services in the state, whether undertaken by Panchayat Raj institutions of the government.. Advice and assist the government on the allocation of work among zilla parotids, Mandal Parishads and gram Panchayats and co-ordination of work between the said bodies.Advice and assist the government on matters concerning the implementations of statutory or executive duties. Advice and assist the government on matters relating to training of officials and non-officials. Advice and assist the government on matters relating to rural
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employment and rural environment. Monitor the conduct of training on Rural Development, Rural Employment, Rural Environment, role and functions of Panchayat Raj Institutions, Democratic decentralization etc. Collect,compile and publish the statistical and other information regarding Panchayat Raj Institutions.Conduct elections to Panchayat Raj Institutions under the supervision of the state election commission. Deal with the Establishment matters relating to the officers and staff of the Panchayat Raj Department.
Organization :The Commissioner, Panchayat Raj and Rural Employment is required to supervise the working of Zilla Parishads, Mandal parishads and Gram Panchayats.At the erstwhile block level, which consists of about three mandals, there will be an Extension officer (Panchayats). There are 330 Extension Officers (Panchayats in the State. Each extension officer will have about 40-50 Panchayats in his jurisdiction.At the Revenue division level, there will be a Divisional Panchayat Officer to supervise the work of about 300-400 panchayats. There are 82 Divisional Panchayat Officers in the State.
At the District level, the department organisation has one District Panchayat Officer. There are each District Panchayat Officer has about 900 to 1000 Gram Panchayats in his jurisdiction. At the state level the Head of the Office is the Commissioner, Panchayat Raj and Rural Employment. At the village level, there will be Gram Panchayats. They are administered by the Executive Authorities. In the case of Notified / Major Gram Panchayats there will be exclusive Executive Officers and in the case of Non – Notified / Minor Gram Panchayats, the Sarpanch himself is the executive authority. There will be a village Development Officer for a group of five to six villages to look after the developmental works. At the intermediate level, i. e. , Mandal level there will be Mandal Parishad. The Mandal Parishad Development Officers are not only the Executive Authorities for the Mandal Parishads, but are also the Executive Agencies for various other Departments / Organisations
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which do not have executive agencies of their own.At the District level, there will be Zilla Parishads. It is the apex body at the District level as far as developmental works are concerned. It has several wings such as General Administration, Engineering, Education, Accounts etc.Organisation of panchayat wing. The departmental organisation at the District level consists of four levels – first the executive officers of Panchayats at the village level, second at the erstwhile block level which is headed by an Extension Officer (Panchayats), at the divisional level headed by a Divisional Panchayat officer and at the District level headed by the District Panchayat Officer. All the above said officers deal with the subjects relating to Gram Panchayats only.Administration of panchayats at the erstwhile block level At the erstwhile block level on an average one Extension Officer (Panchayats) is posted for three Mandals and there would be bout 50 to 60 Gram Panchayats under each Extension Officer. He is now a Gazetted Officer. Constitution of gram panchayats
The Commissioner, Panchayat Raj, by notification declares any revenue village or hamlet thereof or any part of a Mandal to be a Gram Panchayat. This excludes the following areas: Municipal Corporations, Municipalities, Mining Settlements, Cantonment areas, Nagarapalika Areas Township Areas Composition of gram panchayats
A Gram Panchayat Consists of members ranging from 5 to 21 depending upon its population. The members and the sarpanch are directly elected by the voters of the village. The members are elected for a term of five years. Elections to gram Panchayats are conducted by the Andhra Pradesh State Election Commission for local bodies. The last elections to Gram Panchayts were conducted in June, 1995. the elections to Gram Panchayats are not on political party basis. There is reservation by rotation to scheduled tribes, Scheduled Castes, backward classes and women. The reservation to scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribes is in proportion to their population. Whereas, reservation to
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backward classes is 34% and for women it is one-third in all the categories including the open category.There are two types of Gram Panchayats viz. , notified Gram Panchayat (Major Gram Panchayats) and Non-Notified Gram Panchayats (Minor Gram Panchayats). This distinction between the Gram Panchayats is brought about basing on the average income of the Gram Panchayat.As per existing rules, a Gram Panchayat where an Executive Officer is appointed is called a Major Panchayat. Whereas, a Gram Panchayat which has been not notified for appointment of an executive officer is called a non-notified Gram Panchayat or a minor Gram Panchayat. There are 1472 notified Gram Panchayats and the remaining 20, 471 Gram Panchayats are non-notified Gram Panchayats. As per the existing rules a Gram Panchayat with income of Rs. 40, 000/- per year and more can be notified as Grade. II Notified Panchayat and an Executive officer Grade. II is appointed. Whereas, a Gram Panchayat with an income of Rs. 60, 000/- per year and above can be notified as Grade I notified Gram Panchayats, and an Executive Officer Grade I is appointed. However, these Gram Panchayats which have either full time or part time staff. Further, the full time employees of the Gram Panchayats are provincialised and the Government is meeting the expenditure on their salaries and the salary grant is being regularly released by the Government.Constitution and composition of mandal parishads A Mandal Parishad is constituted for a revenue Mandal, as such, both the Mandal Parishads and the revenue Mandals are coterminous. A mandal parishad is composed of the following members:
Mandal parishad Territorial constituency members.
Members of the Legislative Assembly having jurisdiction over the Mandal.
Members of the House of people having jurisdiction over the Mandal.
Members of the council of States who are voters in the Mandal.
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One co-opted member, belonging to minorities.
The Mandal Parishad Territorial constituency (MPTC) members are directly elected by the voters, whereas, the Mandal President is elected by the MPTC members. The members are elected for a term of five year. The elections to MPTCs is done on political party basis. The elections are conducted by the State election commission.The Sarpanches of the Villages in the Mandal are permanent invitees to the Mandal Parishad meetings.The reservation to scheduled castes and scheduled Tribes will be in proportion to their population, whereas reservation to backward classes in the State is 34% and for women it is one-third in all the categories, including the open category. The last elections to Mandal Parishads were held in March, 1995.
The developmental administration of the Mandal vests in the Mandal Parishad. It shall exercise all the powers conferred on, and perform all the functions entrusted to it by or under APPR Act, 1994 and such other powers and functions as may be conferred on, and entrusted to it by the Government for carrying out the purposes of the said act. It shall do extension and review functions at the Mandal level. It shall also exercise and perform such of the powers and functions of the District Board including the powers to levy and tax or gees as may be transferred to it under the Act. Every Mandal parishad shall exercise such powers and perform such functions as may be entrusted to it by rules.Every Mandal Parishad may levy a duty in the form of a surcharge on any tax by a Gram Panchayat or on land chess or local chess levied within its jurisdiction in such manner and subject to such maximum as may be prescribed.The Chief Executive of a Mandal is the Mandal Parishad Development Officer and all the activities at the Mandal level will be under his control.Administration of gram panchayats at the division level The jurisdiction of a Divisional Panchayat Officer is coterminous with the jurisdiction of a Revenue Division. A Divisional Panchayats Officer has about 300 to 400 Gram
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Panchayats under his jurisdiction. Also, the span of control would be over 6 to 8 Extension Officers (Panchayats).Administration of gram panchayats at district level.
The development officer is the secretary and the chief executive officer of the panchayat and as such, performs the following functions: He is responsible for implementation of various resolutions of the panchayat and of its standing committees.He exercises supervision over the panchayats in his block under guidance of the president of the mandal parishad. He issues notices for meetings of the parishad and its standing committees and he records and maintains proceedings of the meetings.
(1) He participates in deliberations of the panchyt at meetings but has no right to vote.
(2) He draws and disburses money out of the parishad’s funds. He signs and authenticates all letters and documents of and on behalf of the mandal parishad.
(3) He reports to the president of the mandal parishad and also to the district collector all cases of fraud, embezzlement and theft of money and of other property of the panchayat samiti or the panchayat.
(4) He is responsible for execution of all plans and programmes approved by appropriate authority.
(5) He inspects, on behalf of the parishad, the financial position of the panchayats within his block.
(6) He exercises supervision and control over officers and servants of the mandal parishad including staff on its establishment.
(7) He executes contracts for and on behalf of the parishads subjects of course to its prior approval.
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The Gram Panchayat administration at District level will be under the supervision of District Panchayat Officer. On an average there will be about 900 to 1200 Gram Panchayats in a District. A District Panchayat Officer is required to inspect all the Gram Panchayats in his jurisdiction between two ordinary elections, inspect all notified Gram Panchayats annually.
Administration of zilla parishads Constitution and composition of zilla parishads A Zilla Parishad is constituted by the Government for a District. A Zilla Parishad is composed of Following members:
ZillaParishad territorial constituency members.
Members of the Legislative Assembly having jurisdiction in the District.
Members of the House of people having jurisdiction in the District.
Members of the Council of States who are registered voters in the District.
PATTERN OF REPRESENTATION OF HIGHER LEVEL ELECTED
REPRESENTATIVES IN PANCHAYAT RAJ BODIES.
State Zilla Parishad Mandal Parishad
Andhra Pradesh MLAs and MPs are full MLAs and MLCs are members
members of the Zilla of the Mandal Praja Parishad
Parishad without the power to vote.
Two persons belonging to minorities who are to be co-opted. Elections to Zilla parishad territorial constituency (ZPTC) members are conducted directly, whereas, the chairperson is elected from among the members of Z. P. T. C. The members are elected for a term of five years on political party basis. The Mandal Parishad presidents are permanent invitees to the Zilla Parishad meetings. There is reservation for the
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categories of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in proportion to their population, whereas, the reservation for the categories of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in proportion to their population, whereas, the reservation to backward classes will be 34%. Further, reservation to women will be one- third in all the categories including open category. The last elections to Zilla Parishads were held in March, 1995.To assist Commissioner, Panchayat Raj and Rural Employment, as also the District Collectors there are departmental Officers, viz. District Panchayat officer at District level. Divisional Panchayat Officer at Divisional level and the Extension Officer (Panchayats) at the erstwhile block level. The said Officers assist Commissioner, Panchayat Raj only with regard to the administration of Gram Panchayats. Whereas, for the other two tiers, i. e. , Mandal Parishads and Zilla Parishads, Officers of Panchayat Raj Department Function as Executive Authorities viz. Mandal Parishad Development Officers and Chief Executive Officers. Government Initiatives Arogyashree, Indiramma, Jalayagnam
The Chairman of the Parishad is called President in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and West Bengal, Chairman in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Orissa and Punjab. Pramukha in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and Pradhan in Rajasthan is at present elected by members of the Panchayat Samiti in all the States except Rajasthan. In Rajasthan the President of the Panchayat Samiti is elected by an electoral college comprising all members of the Panchayat Samiti and all panchas of the gram and nagar panchayats falling within the area. He can be removed from his office by a no-confidence vote of the parishad passed with a special majority.
Andhrapradesh Districts
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District Headquarter Revenu Manda Populati Area Densit s e ls on (2011) (km²) y divisio (/km²) ns
Anantapur Anantapur 5 63 4,083,315 19,13 213 0 Chittoor Chittoor 3 66 4,170,468 15,15 275 2 East Kakinada 7 64 5,151,549 10,80 477 Godavari 7
Guntur Guntur 4 57 4,889,230 11,39 429 1 Kadapa Kadapa 3 50 2,884,524 15,35 188 9 Krishna Machilipatna 4 50 4,529,009 8,727 519 m
Kurnool Kurnool 3 54 4,046,601 17,65 229 8 Nellore Nellore 5 46 2,966,082 13,07 227
6 Prakasam Ongole 3 56 3,392,764 17,62 193 6 Srikakulam Srikakulam 3 37 2,699,471 5,837 462
Visakhapatn Visakhapatn 4 43 4,288,113 11,16 340 am am 1
Vizianagara Vizianagara 2 34 2,342,868 6,539 384 m m
West Eluru 4 46 3,934,782 7,742 490 Godavari
References
Mill.JS. Reprasentative Government, Everyman’s Library Edition,Londan.1925. Mehta, B, "Panehayat Samiti at the Block Level - As Basic Unit of Panchayati Raj”, The Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol.8, No.4. Report of the Committee on Democratic Decentralization, Bombay, The Government of Maharashtra, 1961,
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Report of the Committee on Panchayati Raj, Bangalore, Director of Printing, Stationery and Publications, 1963, Report of the Committee on Panchayati Raj Elections, Ministry of Community Development and Co-operation, Government of India, New Delhi, 1965,. S.R.Maheswari, Local Government in India. Lakshmi Narain Agarwal,, (New Delhi), M. VenkataRangaiah and G.Rami Reddy . Panchayati Raj in Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh Chamber of Panchayati Raj. 1967. The Andhra Pradesh Panchayati Raj Act,1994, Section 4
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VOLUME 6, ISSUE 3(6), MARCH 2017
EMERGENCE OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES AND THEIR SOCIAL CHANGE IN ANDHRA PRADESH
M. Indira Santhi Research Scholar Department of History Rayalaseema University,Kurnool.A.P.
The main thrust of the missionaries in India during the nineteenth and early twentieth century was education and spread of Christianity. The paper provides historical overview of Christian missionaries amongst the Andhras. Education at the mission field reflected the dominant old humanist tradition. Christianity has always been associated with education during the colonial period. However, where mission’s education acts as social control, it also tended towards as a social transformation. The article deals about the mssionaries activities in the Indian administered Andhra Pradesh areas. The study brings about how the changes occurred in the Andhras ’ society after the coming of the Christian missionaries.
The introduction of European ideas and knowledge system were mainly responsible for the emergence of modern ideas of dissent and social protest and socio-religious awakening in the 19th century in India. Whereas, some of the historians’ opined that British rule had manifold blessings bestowed upon people of India by spread of western knowledge. Its consequences brought out manifold advantages towards Indian people, which were almost immeasurable. It gave access to the modern English literature which was one of the richest in the world. According to Aparna Basu1 ‘the primary purpose of introducing English had been educational. But the new language bringing with it a new world of ideas and leading to new political institutions developed a unity which had not recognized before and English as an emblem and medium of expression of that unity. Educated Indians were aware that
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as long as they had depended on their regional languages there had been little interchange of ideas among them and English had made discussion in a common language.1
Christianity in India Today:
The 1991 census indicated that there were 23 million Christians in India, making up 2.3 percent of the total population. However, Christian executives and demographers estimate the number of Christians at 50 million, or 5 percent of the population. Whatever the correct figure, the number of Christians in India is growing. This is supported by the fact that there are more than six hundred churches in Delhi, with services conducted in almost any major language. In Bangalore, a city of 6 million, there are 970 churches and at least twelve accredited theological institutions, with three or four offering doctoral degrees. In Chennai (Madras) 10 percent of the population is Christian, worshiping in more than two thousand churches. Some of these congregations are small (60 to 100 people), and some meet in residences rather than churches. However, there are many congregations whose attendance is above a thousand, even five thousand in all of the three cities noted. At the same time there are two churches in Chennai, the New Life Assembly of God and the Apostolic Christian Assembly, whose average attendance on Sundays as of 2004 is 23,000 and 15,000, respectively. Christianity is thus making an impact on India's urban populations as well as on the rural and tribal peoples.2
The idea of conversion from one faith to another does not sit well with many Hindus, who are upset by the Christian claim concerning the uniqueness of Jesus Christ as the one and only Savior. Christians, however, believe in the proclamation of Jesus Christ, which can take many forms: social, educational, works of compassion, disaster rehabilitation, and offering forgiveness. Nita Kumar, writing in September 1993 in the Economic Times (Bangalore), took a rather
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different perspective when expressing her concern that India had not until then been able to successfully forge a path to modernity. The missionaries organized their institutions, she says, in such a way that they did succeed where others had failed in modernizing those who studied in them. The central contribution of Christian missionaries then, she asserts, has not been so much conversion to Christianity as it has been conversion to modernity. This she describes as a no-nonsense rationalistic and humanistic approach to life. Those who are thus converted are what Kumar refers to as "true 'modern' Indians." Moreover she reckons it is they who are "the builders of the new India."3
The fact that the Christian community has contributed positively to nation building is uncontested. Today there are Christians integrated into the very fabric of all areas of Indian society, both in the public and private sectors, from members of Parliament, chief ministers, corporate executives, physicians, engineers, and down to chauffeurs, chefs, and guards at the gate. To paraphrase the late Bishop Stephen Neill of the Trinelveli Diocese, Church of South India: for the Christian Church and its mission in India, the task has been challenging, and along the journey a number of mistakes have been made, but equally surprising, perhaps, is the fact that such a considerable measure of success has been accomplished.
Christianity in Andhra Pradesh:
The Christian churches established in Andhra Pradesh have been the result of the efforts of foreign Christian missionaries. With a high cause of spreading Christianity to the entire universe, the Anglicans the congregations, and the presbeterions united together and formed into. London Missionary society (CSI) in January 1795. The London Missionary Society sent Augustus Des Granges and George Crane to Madras and Visakhapatnam and with the help of the then
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district Collector William Brown, they started Gospel work. In 1810 John Wands, as a representative of London Missionary Society started preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ. In 1701 the society for propagation of Gospel (SPG) was established in London.4 This mission sent John Henry side to Madras as missionary. In 1835, the American Baptist Missionary Union (ABMU) was established by the youth in U.S.A. This mission sent Rev. Samuel Day to India. He reached Srikakulam district and learned Telugu Language and started preaching the Gospel. He then moved to Nellore district.5 In 1842, the Andhra Evangelican Lutheran Church (AELC) was formed in USA and this mission sent Rev. John Christian Frederick Heyer to India. He reached Guntur district started his propagation of Christ Gospel. The Church Missionary Society (CMS) was established in 1842 in England. On behalf of Church Missionary Society Robert T. Noble and Henry Fox reached Madras to preach Gospel.6
They learned Telugu language at Madras and came to Bunder (Machilipatnam) Krishna District for Gospel work. The Canadian Baptist Church (CBC) was established in 1867 in Canada. On behalf of this mission Rev. A.V. Timhoney and his wife reached Nellore in 1867 and started Gospel work. The Weslieon Methodist Mission (WMM) was established in England in 1879. This had sent William Burges and Henry Little to Hyderabad in 1879 to take up Gospel work in that area.7 The Episcopal Methodist Society (EMS) was started in 1886 in America. They sent J.H. Gordon in 1886 to Bellary to take up Gospel Work. The Salvation Army Mission was started General William Booth in London in 1865. It stated its Gospel work in areas like Eluru, Tanuku, Nellore, Tenali, Bapatla, Nidubrolu, Gudivada, Rajahmundry, Madras, Hyderabad and so on. The Indian Mission was established in 1930 by Rev. Benjamin Davidson. He came from Scotland and started Gospel work in the areas like Warangal, Karimnagar, Nalgonda, Adilabad districts in Andhra Pradesh.8
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In addition to the-above churches there are various other splinter churches and missions like India pentecostal Mission (1932), Tirunavelli Mission (1903), Mulugu Mission (1917), Arakuloya Mission (1934), Alampu Mission (1924), Parakal Mission (1927), World Missionary Evangelism (1960) India Bible Mission (1938), Brethren Mission (1969) Christ Church (1963), and Roman Catholic Churches which are engaged in the propagation of the Gospel of Jesus Christ and involved in converting non-christian into Christian faith.9
In Andhra Pradesh the work done by the foreign Christian missionaries has been continued by the established churches in the state. In addition to this, various individuals, on their own accord, and volunterily also busy in spreading the Gospel of Christ and converting the people into Christianity though baptism and various other methods. This has no doubt resulted in the increase of Christianity and Christian population in Andhra Pradesh. As Christianity is an alien religion to India most of the Christians are converts from various Indian religions. In Andhra Pradesh, most of the Christians are of Harijan in origin who were untouchables once in the Indian social system.
Emergence of Missionaries in Andhra:
Emergence of Missionaries in Andhra In early 1874, the Baptist missionary society has established its first station in Telugu country at Coconada (Kakinada) and slowly spread to places like Tuni (Godavari district) Gunnapudi, Akividu and several villages along the Krishna river basin10 . The Serampore missionary society played a crucial role in spreading of Baptist ideology in the 19th century. The American Baptist mission started its work in Andhra under Rev. Samuel Day who was the founder of the American Baptist mission in the Telugu speaking districts of the Madras Presidency. From Srikakulam he began to tour the surrounding villages. Apart from that in 1837 he organised extensive tours between Vizagapatnam and Kodern. Rev.
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Samuel Day moved from Madras to Nellore in 1840, which was the permanent settlement of mission stations for the Telugu mission of the Americian Baptists. Another mission, the Baptist church at Kurnool, opened a new centre in 1875, by Rev. D. H. Drake. Rev. W. G. Boggs opened a church at Cumbham in the following year and at Narasarao pet, Bapatla, and Vinukonda, Podali, Donakonda and Sathenapalli in 1894 and at Gurazala in 1895. And the church mission society, founded by M. V. John Goldingheus who was collector of Machilipatnam district, invited Mr. Nobel to Machilipatnam. The mission work began in 1841 with R.T.Nobel and H.Eoxvi at Machilipatam where they began evangelical and educational work. Later, it was spread to Ellore and Bezawada in 1854. This was followed by Raghvapuram in 1870, Amalapuram in 1876. The Free Church mission and the American Baptist mission conducted their activities in Nellore District and in the districts of Cuddapah, Kurnool and Bellary the L M. S. (Lutheran Missionary Society) was carrying its activities. In the Godavari district, missionary activity started in the first half of I9lh century. Around 1840, the north German missionary society began its operation around Rajahmundry, which was continued by the American German Lutheran in 1851. A new mission was established at Samurllotah (Samarlakota in present East Godavari dist) by Rev. A. Long who came from America in 1858, but there was already a provincial school at Rajahmundry So, the missionaries opened a museum and a reading room instead of starting another school, which were frequented by local people. Missionary work was spread into the interior areas and Protestant mission at Palcole (Palakol, Godavari district) and Naraspure were started11 .
As seen above, the missionaries’ activities embraced the whole of the Andhra region education, which was their main interest even though they were running orphanages, medical centres and industrial establishment. Missionaries tried to seize control of education through which they could mould men’s minds better at their most
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impressionable age. Even though with the establishment of Anglo- vernacular schools, through which they desired to, conduct the higher castes, the missionaries established several elementary schools in the colonial Andhra. All the missionary schools influenced to grasp or gain a status in society which was derived to them by castes Hindu down the ages and to win the favour of the government through the conscious motive of spreading intercession of the missionaries.
Faith and Power:
In contemporary India, the Christian missionaries’ undertakings (in the spiritual as well as material realm) could be interpreted as a form of “religious territorialization.”12 Aggressive and relentless in its pursuits and successful in its endeavors, the missionaries have come to be associated with a form of colonialism of the past. According to this thesis, missionary activities including conversion to Christianity were a fait accompli in the preindependence colonial period. Going by this particular thesis, territorialization should have come to an end following the country’s independence.
However, if one were to make an assessment of Christian missionary expansionism in the post independence period, they would appear to be going from strength to strength. Instead of reduction of religious space, the missionaries appear to have acquired new territories.13 A substantial rise in lower caste Hindu and indigenous peoples’ conversion to Christianity in recent years is often highlighted to make a point about this expansionist undertaking. Christian missionaries’ acquisition of substantial prime properties in important urban areas and the purchase of vast tracts of rural land have given credence to arguments about Christian territorialization.
Acquisition of such spaces is made possible owing to several underlying causes. Thanks to the presence of large pools of poor, destitute, and stigmatized populace struggling to escape the oppressive
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caste system, there is no such place as India, so far as proselytization goes. According to its critics, Christian missionary activity is a big business in India. It is almost a competitive market with various denominations of Christianity and their churches vying with each other to convert these people. In the last few decades alone, there has been a surge of various churches and their particular brand of Christianity in all those areas where Christian proselytization is taking place. Although there is a long-established presence of the Roman Catholic Church in Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa, other denominations, such as Anglican, Lutheran, Methodist, Pentecost, Seventh Day Adventist, Southern Baptist, and so on, have flocked to the region in ever greater numbers.14
For all these spiritual fortune seekers, the inaccessible tribal and lower caste-dominated mountainous region of Eastern India is Klondike country. This cowboy spiritualism has unsurprisingly led to massive social upheaval. Christianity’s rude entry into many hitherto settled cultural communities, its detractors argue, has severely restricted the traditional societal values and mores and has led to the “reduction of spiritual, material and physical space” of the non- Christians.15
This is to put it, “thanks to their economic power they [the Christian missionaries and their local associates] have suffocated the traditional lifestyle of several indigenous groups and in turn created a two-tier system of existence of haves and have-nots.” Faced with this challenge, the choice of many of these people has been to face perpetual marginalization or abandonment of their culture, faith, and way of life in lieu of a better standard of living and adoption of an alien God.
Recently in various areas in South India prove that the change of religion did not bring any fortune to the untouchables except the sense of satisfaction that comes from having a religion which they could
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claim as their own and a place for worship with their own priest, and other needed religious facilities. The conversion to Christianity does not seem to make a real economic difference and that the absence of purchasing power has been evidenced everywhere among the Christians who came from "outcaste" communities. However, it would be a misinterpretation to conclude that there was nothing done by the Christian Church for these converts. The Church helped them to improve their living conditions and health through the Schools and Health Institutions. But these facilities were not limited to Christians alone. Andhra Pradesh region was prone to frequent severe storms (similar to that of one which occurred in November 1977) and famines. It was during these times that the Church helped the people, Christians and other alike, who were affected. This kind of Christian relief work was not motivated by the desire to win the converts. Rather Christian organizations seemed unable to keep themselves away from responding to the situations of need to help the victims in whatever manner they could. If some of the victims thus touched by the charity of Christian missions entered the Church in masses they might have done so on a voluntary basis.
Conclusion:
In the context of India, conversion to Christianity is best understood as a reaction against the deep-seated stifling hierarchy existing within the Hindu social order. It is the message of equality propounded by Christianity—as against the exploitative face of the Hindu caste system—that has proved irresistible to many new converts to Christianity. Yet, on balance, it must be stressed that many of those who have embraced Christianity have done so not because of some deep theological quest but very often to alter their economic standing for the better.
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In the major findings regarding the political awareness among the Protestant Christians of Andhra Pradesh, it is clear that the Protestant Christians in general possess high political awareness in the sense that they are familiar and conversant with the political developments at national and international levels and their enthusiasm to emerge themselves as the active partners of the political system and political process. But majority of the Protestant Christians are educated and employed in the government and private services, thus have to abide to the rules and regulations imposed by the Government. Consequently these Protestant Christians are restrained from propagating or practicing on behalf of any political party. However these Protestant Christians are contributing their mite to the political process by not only casting their votes but also acting as presiding officers and polling personal at the time of elections in Andhra Pradesh with great belief and faith in democracy.
References:
1. Aparna Basu, The Growth of Education and Political Development in India: 1898-1920, (Oxford University Press, Delhi), 292, (1992)
2. Firth, Cyril Bruce. An Introduction to India Church History. Madras: Christian Literature Society, 1968.
3. Kumar, Nita. "The Missionaries Provided the Only Alternative." Economic Times (Bangalore) 19 (September 1993): 16.
4. M.K. Kuria Kose, "The History of Christinitv in India", p.p. 100 & 101.
5. Perumadil A.C "The Appostels in India", p.p. 65 noted in Kuriakose M.K., The History of Christianity in India. Bangalore I.T.L. 1978, p.p.10.
6. Devaraj B.E., History of Christian Church in India. Andhra Christian Sabha Rajamundry, 1969, p.p.20 & 21.
7. Op.Cit. p.p. 342.
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8. Donald Fosset Ebright, "The National Missionary Society of India.1905-1942, p.p.79-81.
9. Krupachari, G. Teluau Sahitva Christavulu Seva. (Telugu) Nagarjuna University 1988, p.p.26-66.
10. Oddie G.A, ‘Christian Conversion in the Telugu Country, 1860- 1900: A Case Study of one Protestant Movement in Godavari, Krishna Delta’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, XII, 63, (1975)
11. Henry Morris, A Descriptive and Historical Account of the Godavari District in the Presidency of Madras, (London), (Madras State Archives, Madras), 24-26, (1878)
12. Seen in the wider context of radical Hindu opposition to external cultures and practices the argument against Christianity can be framed along these lines: “Don’t make outside cultures your own. . .. When foreign influences become implanted in the minds and practices of the nation’s citizens, turning them into something new and provocative, into internal aliens thus impurities in their own city and community does that influence pose a threat.” I am paraphrasing Thomas Blom Hansen’s reflections on Hindu right- wing Shiv Sena ideology in this context. For details see, Thomas Blom Hansen, Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Post- Colonial Bombay (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), 215.
13. The overall religious demographic projection in Joshi et al., Religious Demography, 21–23.
14. For a forceful discussion, see Lewis, The Missionaries. 15. Ashutosh Varshney, Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 76.
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APSRTC – A COSMIC WHEEL FOR SAFE TRAVEL
K.V.Chidambaram Dr.C.S.Sukumar Reddy Lecturer in Commerce Lecturer in Commerce P.V.K.N.Govt.College Govt. Degree & PG College Chittoor Nagari
Transportation is a vital means of communication. The present age is computer tremendous age. Still 30% to 40% communication is carried through our pride mode of Indian postal communication. Goods or services are reaching to the needy persons through commerce only. Commerce is a term which is called the services rendered to Business to make comfort. There many types of commerce tools rendering services to the customer society. One of the commerce tools is Transport. Transport is the most important tool of commerce among the all. It avoids the hindrance of place. It associates the business for moving the goods and services from one place to another place. Other components of commerce are Banking, Warehouses, Advertising, Insurance etc are also for confronting the hindrances like Exchange, Time, awareness on the product and services, Risk coverage respectively. Among all the commerce components Transport is the major and important element to reach the goods or services to the customer. Literally, conveyance and Transport are not the synonyms. Conveyance is related to the human beings for travel from one place to another place. Transport is related to the goods for the carriage from one place to another place.
Transport is a constituent group of vehicles. Some vehicles can take the policemen to the scene of crime within a few minutes to do the justice and to control offences and sometimes they act as the preventive measures for not occurring the disastrous & unethical events. Some times the same vehicles may act as the fire Engines to rush into the area of fire accidents soon after the news is reached to the
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public. Vehicles like invisible gods at the time of saving a person from death in the form of ambulance. So, transportation can help to the people in many ways like in famines, floods, earthquakes etc. We can not imagine the situation of the society without transportation. Transportation indicates our sign of the development and the growth of our civilization. Economic growth, consumption of goods and services, travelling facilities etc all dependents of Good transportation of the nation. There are three types modes of transport. a) Roadways b) Waterways and c) Airways
Roadways : It includes Railways also. Transport of roads has vital role in playing for economic development and agricultural development. Road transport has no limit for the development and it enters in any type of development. Without convenient roads farmers can not get proper reward for their crop. Even industrial development also need s good roads for their raw material purchase and for supplying of their finished goods. International business and development also depends upon the road transport. Like lorries, trucks, rickshaws, goods trains are highly required for all necessities and they direct the overall development whether it national or international. Roadways in India is for goods and services to the public. Transport means by which people and goods move from one place to another. It helps in better utilization of the resources of the backward areas by linking them with the more advanced areas. After Independence, a 20 year road plan was initiated in 1961. Its main aim to improve the condition or roads. Since then, the road net work has been expanding as if possible extent. At present India boasts of a huge net work of 3.35 million kilo metres. The net work includes both paved and unpaved roads.
National Highways which fare main highways running through the length and breadth of the country connecting major ports, state capitals, large industrial and tourist centres. National
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Highways in India are designated as NH followed by the highway number.
State Highways are constructed and maintained by the respective state governments. These highways provide linkages with the National Highways, district headquarters, important towns, tourist centres and minor ports within the state. Besides, these arterial routes provide connectivity to important towns and cities as well as with National highways or State Highways of neighboring states.
District Roads connect the areas within a district. These also connect small cities or towns with one another or with the state Highways and National Highways.
Rural Roads in India form a substantial portion of the road network. These roads constitute about 80% of the total road length in the country. Initially, most of these were sand roads. Now the roads are formed as well as state highways.
APSRTC
Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (APSRTC) was established on 11th January,1958 under the Road Transport Act, 1950. It has registered steady growth over the years from 610 buses, 16 depots and a personnel of 5090 in 1958 to 13,114 buses in July 2015. Now it has the infrastructure of 126 bus stations, 224 depots and nearly 2000 bus shelters. It covers a network of 80.04 lakh kms and provides transportation or conveyance to the people of 128.89 lakh passengers every day. Since the date separation from Telangana, Andhra Pradesh State RTC has been showing its existence towards the service rendering. There is a trademark symbol on each and every bus that “the wheel of the bus indicates progress of the traveler”. In telugu “bassu chakramu pragathiki chihnamu”. Truly speaking there is an
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efficacy in the objective of APSRTC. In the initial stage of transport development and the APSRTC Establishment, people were not able to go to their villages from the nearest town of them due to the lack of buses after 6 pm even. Now the situation is different. The employees also were used to reside in their actual working places for scarce arrangement of conveyance.. With the effective fulfillment of the motto of APSRTC employees also are enjoying with the comforts of town residing. They are now able to come to the towns without any hindrances of conveyance because of APSRTC well organization and maintenance of bus facility. Awareness among the people also improved at all sorts. Benefits of APSRTC can not be analysed because the terms of measure is invaluable comfort provided by the firm. The wheel of the bus is running for the weal of passenger, by the passenger and for the passenger. It is one of the biggest non trading organization or service organisation in the state. There is no exaggeration or overstatement in speaking the espousing travel comfort taken up by the firm is not imaginary but is a rapture enjoying by the passengers. Everything must not be measured with profits or financial outlook. Hence, APSRTC has two eyes or visions of responsibility. One is providing adequate travel facility to their passengers. Other one is the weal of itself because all the employees are the dependents of APSRTC for their livelihood. Nevertheless, the main objective in terms of weal of both the passengers and the employees of APSRTC, the analysis towards financial position is essential. All the roads and routes are covered by APSRTC in an admirable manner by all sorts. As per financial records also it shows good record but that it has been facing some financial crises for the last years.
Vision of APSRTC : the corporation is committed to provide consistently high quality of services and continuously improve and services through a process of team work for the utmost satisfaction of
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the passengers and to attain a position of preeminence in the Bus Transport Sector.
Mission : the corporation does not have a stated mission statement but has a corporate philosophy and guiding principles.
APSRTC is the one transport firm in Andhra Pradesh having only the objective of service motto of the travelers on all most all the buses publicize that travelling in the buses APSRTC is safe and comfort. Obviously, it is true and it has been rendering services of travel to the passengers by operating the bus services to the remote places also at any time of the since its inception.
Financial analysis is the process of identifying financial strengths and weaknesses of the firm by properly establishing relationships between the profit and loss account and the balance sheet. APSRTC could fulfill the following
It is able to meet its current obligations
Efficiently using the assets although there is some criticism.
Long term finance on vehicles and solvency is also in satisfactory level.
It wa in position of earning adequate income. The records showing that a huge is noted during the last two years. Easily the firm will come in position of the past. So the hope is at all sides.
The achievements of APSRTC :
APSRTC is entered in the Guinness book of world Records in 31st October, 1999 for the largest bus fleet in the world i.e.22,000 buses are functioning in the service of passengers.
Highest KMPL fuel efficiency for the year 2011-12 – Mofussil services and Vijayawada
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The Best Road Safety record for 2012–13 Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation has a number of firsts to its credit in India
First to nationalize passenger Road Transport Services in the country-1932.
First to introduce long distance night express services.
First to introduce A/C Sleeper, Hi-tech, Metro Liner, Inter-City Services and Metro Express.
First to introduce Depot computerisation-1986.
First to appoint Safety Commissioner for improving the safety of the passengers.
All the 126 Depots in the State are computerized. APSRTC has the following service objectives like :
To provide efficient, effective, ethical management of the business
To treat customer i.e. passenger, as central concern of the corporation . it is designed for the best possible service.
To associate with the state administration in attaining good governance.
To regularly and constantly improve the capabilities of employees for higher productivity
To fulfill its obligation to the state and central governments by optimizing return on investment
To consciously conform to the policy guidelines of the state in its business operations.
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To emphasize environmental and community concerns in the form of reducing air and noise pollution.
In the service of passengers APSRTC has the following special allowances in terms of comforts to its travelers. It is not so overstatement that no such Transport corporation in India providing like many concessional allowances.
NAVYA CAT (Concessional Annual Travel) CARD The existing CAT card is re changed into Navya CAT card duly rationalizing the denominations. Navya CAT cards have been introduced w.e.f 06.03.2013.. Any passenger intending to purchase Navya CAT Card must be above 5 years of Age and there is no upper age limit to become member of Navya CAT Card. The customer will be issued with an identity card, duly affixing a photograph incorporating user’s personal profile. The existing CAT card holder can continue with the CAT card till its expiry. A concession of 10% is given to the Navya CAT card holders in all types of Intra & Interstate services except AC and City services. An additional compensation of Rs 1.75 lakhs for fresh card and Rs 2 lakhs for renewal card shall be provided in case of death of Navya CAT card holder, while traveling in APSRTC bus due to accident. “Add on Navya CAT Card” holder is also eligible for additional compensation as of parent Card i.e., Fresh / Renewal Navya CAT Cards. The card cost is now Rs.250 and its subsequently reduced cost is 200/ and Rs.150 for third year renewal.
VANITHA FAMILY CARD : cost of the card is Rs.100/- Vanitha Family Card isuued in the name of Woman. 10% concession will be extended to the family members either to travel individually or in group. The validity of the card is two years and valid to travel on all Pallevelugu and Express Buses. Compensation payable to the extent of Rs. One Lakh per member
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for loss of life in case of accident while travelling in APSRTC Bus.
VIHARI CARD : Vihari cards are introduced w.e.f 06.03.2013 replacing JHT, IJHT and CGC.
Vihari card is Rs.550. It is valid for 7 days in all Intra and Interstate services (Non A/C) except
Indra, Garuda, Garuda Plus and Vennela services (A/C) of APSRTC. The card holder is
entitled for 50% concession in all types of services except AC buses during the validity period.
Reservation of ticket is allowed at Bus Station and ATB counters in advance. It has many advantages like the sight seeing / tour / Pilgrimage experience more joyful and cost efficient. It give the benefit of travel more save Purse.
Other cards such as Silver Card, cards etc with a multiple benefits are in practice for comfort journey of the passengers.
The firm concentrating the aim on the welfare of the employees and the passengers rather than earning income. It is the evidence that the funds contributed towards the welfare schemes during the years 2009-10 to 2013-14. The details are given in the table and the facts are presented in the Figure.1 that the volume of funds contributing is gradually increasing.
Table : Showing the contribution to welfare funds during 2013-14 and 2014-15
Contribution to welfare Contribution YEAR funds (Rs. In Lakhs) Per Vehicle Km 2013-14 50615.78 169.90 2014-15 52314.89 170.16 Figure : showing the contribution per vehicle
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Contribution Per Vehicle Km
170.2 170.15 170.1 170.05 170 Contribution Per 169.95 Vehicle Km 169.9 169.85 169.8 169.75 2013-14 2014-15
For the last two years many other transport buses(i.e. Private travels) have faced many fatal accidents and many travelers lost their lives. In this scenario, the contribution of APSRTC increased from Rs. 25573.03 lakhs to Rs. 50615.78 that it is doubled within a span of five years. Contribution per kilo metre is also in the same trend. The financial figures show that the corporation has been allocating the funds towards the welfare of the employees for the last two years. It can be observed that the allocation is gradually increasing. It shows the wheel of the bus is rotating towards the weal of the employees or ethical objective. The cosmic wheel of APSRTC is for the weal of travelers.
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THE TRANSFORMATION OF WOMEN CHARACTERS IN R.K. NARAYAN NOVEL “THE GUIDE”
Kabyashree Baruah Research Scholar Singhania University Rajasthan
‘One is not born but rather becomes a woman. No biological psychological or economic fate determines the figure that the human female presents in society it is civilization as a whole that produces this creatures.
(Simone de Beauviour in the second sex)
As regards the women characterization and transformation in the novels of R.K. Narayans which is one of the important aspects in his literary work. Indeed, we find very common realization of human kind in almost all his novels, where the novelist has penetrated the women characters in a natural way. Without women character the novelist attempted to proof it that it will be incomplete in the eye of the readers and similarly he presets the male and female both in his imaginative world “Malgudi” and similarly and truly, it can be seen in the material world in which we have been living since time in memorial. Although the importance of the character depend on the time and the blade of combination of male and female in the universe is a beautiful creation in which the female is in the centre otherwise the process of creation are look a kind of fanfic light. That is why, the novelist tried to proof it appropriate according to nature, therefore the transformation of women is one of the special features of the novel.
Perhaps the first decade of the 19th Century was the beginning of English writing in our country Indian writing in English made
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history recently when the Sahitya Academy conferred for the first time, the highest honour it could for the most distinguished writing in English since 1959.
Literature particularly novel is intimately bound ‘to’ life characters or what E.M. Fostier calls ‘people’ form that most essential aspect of the novel. People react and respond to the actions of other people or to the situations in their lives. In R.K. Narayan novels characters are clearly more important than the situations. His novels make a delectable study of Characters.
Like Fielding, Dickens and many other illustrious novelists Narayan is deeply interested in character portrayal. A characters in a situation is to him, as to Jayce Cary, the central and starting point in a fictional work. Naturally, in reply to the questions : “Which hold the primary place in his composition – situation or character?” he spontaneously remarked : “Character in situation” (Atma Ram, Perspectives, 97)
R.K. Narayan is one of the India’s great novelist of pre and post independence era. He is one of the most popular literacy figures along with Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao. These three Indian novelists have the credit of bringing Indian English Literature into worlds notice. These three were colossal figures of their generations who put Indian Literature in English on the world map he has produced more that a dozen0 novels and short stories. Art of characterization is one of the most significant aspects of his writings. He has established himself as a master of characterization by depicting middle class families in his novels. His novels deal with the life of average middle class men and women of South Indian society however, the element that perhaps operates most effectively behind Narayan’s wide appeal in his rootedness in Indian myth and lores.
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As can Indian writer in English Narayan is unique. His education has been completely native. He had not been to England or any Western Country before he did the best part of his work. This innocence of alien influence is reviled in his original and un-self conscious handling of the language Narayans English is pure, sensitive but simple idiom of its native, England. It is sufficient and satisfying as a means of expression for Narayan. He has built up himself into the stopple of a nations literature. Hi is the professional writers, with a great combination of art and acumen.
R.K. Narayan is undoubtedly one of the greatest novelist and short story teller of Indian writing in English. He is the most artistic of the Indian writers his sole aim being to give aesthetic satisfaction and not to use his art as a medium of propaganda or to serve some social purpose as it is the case with Mulk Raj Anand and R. K. Narayan holds a unique place among the greatest Indian writers writing in English. In his novels Narayan depicts Indian life and sensibility in its pristine glory. He presents the truthful pictures of society in the course of his presentation. His socialization and moralization but view the social happenings from a distance quite dispassionately. In his novels the systematic and minute observation creates a sense of innocent behaviour in the characters. He is essentially a writers of middle class characters of Malgudi a place of imagination in south India. The heroes are typical human beings from amongst the common people and heroines are the replica of usual housewives of middle class families. The essence of Narayan’s novel writing lies in the ironic interplay between the traditional values and socio cultural conflicts carry the moving beauty and unexpected nobility of everyday life. Social realism is the thematic foundation of R.K. Narayan’s fictional world standing away from politics ramantic analysis Narayans Portrays social realism in it totality Irony and Humour are the major devices for the presentation and picturization of events.
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The delineation of women characters in his novels has been one of the unfailing considerations. His novels from Swami and Friends of the world of Nagraj present a great Portrail gallery of women. Though all the female characters belongs to the same imaginary place of Malgudi, they are much different from one another. All these women are different individuals with different merits and demerits of characters. Thus Narayan has successfully presented the whole milieu of the Indian society and has given rich, opulent plethora of women.
Britta olinder Remarks :
“They fall into three main groups : first, domineering powerful women. Second Powerless, frustrated, oppressed women, and third, women accepting the system – in this case, the Indian society of strong masculine, dominance but at the same time findings ways and means to informal indirect control of their situations.
R.K. Narayan successfully deals with women character as he does with male protagonists. They are fully drawn and developing characters. He has portrayed in them what he has felt about. He presents their feelings and emotions and thought and ideas. He is more interested in the inner conflicts of their life. It is in relationship with the male protagonist that female one can be better understood and this is what are find in his novel throughout. In each of his novel, there is at least one female character who occupies an important place in the story. R.K. Narayan such as novelist who has dealt with such a new women who to establish herself in married society in Narayan cannon the women can be seen to go through a process of evaluation if we study closely the four different novels of R.K. Narayans “The Dark Room” (1938) Mr. Sampathi (1949) “The Guide” (1958) “The Painter of Sign’s (1976). The women character in “The Dark Room” is a traditionally suppressed housewife submitting to the demands of patriarchal. Shanti in Mr. Sampath” and Rosil in “The Guide” reflect
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the true blending of the traditional and the western culture. In “The Painter of Signs” the transformation gets complete with her sexual frankness and individual stubborn identity surprises us by her western motives. Thus “Rosee” is a character who represents the middle phase of the female evaluation describing the social change under the impact of West. She belongs to subtly to “feminist” phase indicating the clash between the male and female class and yet she never leaves the traditional norms and never does she breaks free of it Tragically she is the heroine who can not follow her art successfully to the destined end.
M.K. Naik Remakrs :
“Narayan’s is the art of quiet surfacing and self landing, not of headlong diving or vertiginous take off. His characters are entrapped in and discomfited by a variety of illusions, self deception, and miscalculations and mischance. They are made to have strange assignations with a circumstantial world which is full of ambiguities and ironies.”
Now I would like to describe the transformation of women characters in Narayan famous and unique novel Sahitya Academy Awarded (in 1960) “The Guide” which is the first time an award given to a work in English by the Sahitya Academy Award, Narayans. “The Guide” has been a milestone in the post independence, Indian English fiction. The Guide is an Excellent novel depicting “social tradition in which the comic and the sand are not sharply marked off from are another”. Naraya is one of the most vibrant authors of India today there is so much of universal appeal in his works that he is often compared with Gaham Green.
Commenting about the talent of Narayan, Iyengar rightly observes ‘There are no ‘good’ and ‘bad’ characters in Narayan’s novels. Human nature is presented veraciously and interestingly and memorably and there is no overall condemnations for praise. Thus
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Narayan is an author who depicts true picture of life in his fiction. As almost all his novels are written against the back drop of Malgudi so is “The Guide” too. It is here in this imaginary town that Raju, the Chief Protagonist from innocence to maturity.
The unique novel “The Guide” is his masterpiece and one of the immoral classics of the would literature. There are three female characters in “The Guide” – Rosie, Rajus mother and Velans sister. “Rosie” is the main female character who occupies and important place in the story and she represents a modern women who is educated and ambitions and strives to allain independent economic entity according to her own taste and talent although she has to pay a heavy price for it. Rasie is not only the main female character of the novel but also ranks among well known female characters delineated by R.K. Narayan.
The other female character Rajus mother represents the conservative and orthodox women who follow tradition and culture. She is a dutiful wife and a loving mother. She advice Raju and Rosie what is right and what is wrong. But when no heed is paid to her advice she leaves her home and goes with her brothers to live with him. And velans sister plays a very brief role but her role is important in making Raju appear as a saint in the novel.
Rosie, her name is only starting paint of her unorthodox life. She traditionally belongs to a Devadast family who are dedicated to the temples as a dancer. Rosie the westernized name, the name ever heard in Malgudi. This westernized of Rosie situates her as an outsider in the conventional world of Malgudi which is ruled strictly by the long established tradition and customs. Uday Trivedi remarks – “The name of the heroine Rosie, denotes on unconventional modern non Hindu girl and one wonders what she is doing in Narayan’s novel which endorses traditional values”,
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But in reality Rosie is thoroughly an Indian who always wears Indian dress like a saru and has long hair.
“She were sarees of bright hues and gold lace, had curly hair which she braided and be flowered wore diamond earring and a heavy gold necklace” (The Guide Page – 5)
Even Raju the main hero of the novel wonders “Why did she call herself Rosie? She did not come from a foreign land. She was just on Indian, who should have done well with Devi, Meena, Lalita or any one of the thousand names are have in our country”. (The Guide Page – 4)
Malgudi’s traditional domestic setting has no place for any such women having non traditional identity. Her Indianess is more confirmed in her being a traditional classical Bharatnatyam dancer. Rosie an M.A. in economics challenges the orthodox Hindu conception of what a woman should be. Rosies husband Macro, when she leaves her husband who shown his apathy and indifference towards her feelings and desires for dance, and thus moves out of the walls of her family on a path usually uncharactered for women in an Indian society Raju in parody of an explorer Marcos name Macro Polo. Macro is obsessively devoted to his pursuit of deciphering ancient art and painting is known or unknown remote caves and temples to the point of total neglect of his wife’s desires wishes and tastes.
The transformation of Rosie from a dependent housewife to self made women is indicated with the image of a snake. A snake generally sloughs off its old skin and is reborn. Rosie herself shows her talent as a dancer before a dancing cobra. Later when she becomes a famous dancer her masterpiece in the “snake-dance”. Rosie is an attractive young wife on Macro. Her marriage has been like as course in disguise to her as Macro, is totally apathetic and unemotional to her she is very passionate about dancing but her thousand does not allow her to dance. In fact Rosie reads ancient works an dancing such as Bharat Munis
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Natya sastra and even employs a pundit to explain the old Sanskrit verse. She is like a traditional Indian wife, her husband is like a God to her. Macro calls her dancing skills as street acrobatics and compares it to monkey dance. Despite all these insults she continues to be his wife. The most important as s Devdasi she learns to use it for professional gains. At first Rosie become her way to achieve spiritual sanctity which later becomes her means of gaining independent identify. (Rosie as a dancer is associated with cobra, the snakes Raju narrates the scene in which Rosie watches the king cobra dance – “The whole thing repelled me, but it seemed to fascinate the girl she watched it, swaying with the rapt attention. She stretched out her arm slightly and swayed it in imitation of the movement. She swayed her body to cobra dance: (The Guide)
Raju narrates of scene in which Rosie watches the king cobra to dance Rosies attraction to the snake and her performance of the snake dance are richly symbolic and suggestive.
“The whole thing repelled me, but it seemed to fascinate the girl. She watched it swaying with the rapt attention. She stretched out her arm slightly and swayed it emulation of the movement. She swayed her body to cobra a dance” (The Guide).
Like the snake which belongs to the world of undergrounds, Rosie too belonged to the socially stigmatized class of Devdasi’s reforming herself like the snake to become closer to Lord Shiva – Nataraj. The spiritual transformation is therefore evident here and it is cleared that the metaphor of dance that brings troubles into her life. She gets frustrated with Macro because her forbids her to dance, and get duped by Raju because she appreciates her dancing. However, Raies attitude to dance is completely different from Raju’s. For Raju dance is a cultural commodity which can be exploited for money and fame. For
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Rosie dance is a vacation symbolizing her independent attitude and being nearer to God.
When Macro knowing about the relationship between Rosie and Raju he became very upset and didn’t talk to her and completely ignored her presence. Rosie sincerely apologirl’s to Macro. She explains to Raju “I followed him, day after day, like a dog waiting on his grace” (The Guide). She tries to persuade her husband and bears all the insult. But Macro reacts by categorically disowning his life. “I am lying to forget even the earlier fact that I ever look a wife you are free to go and that what you please.”
This incident shows her tremendous tolerance power and her optimistic attitude. She is basically kind and loving towards her husband’s. Rosie appreciates the fact that he gives her freedom, security and does not kill her for her betrayal. Rosie was a dreamer and human desire is visible in Rosies character, she tells Raju “I’d preferred any kind of mother in law, if it had meant one real, live husband. But Macro on the otherhand is only interested in “dead and decaying things. “not in his wife who as a dancer was the living embodiment of those images.
When Rosie was left by Macro in Malgudi and was living with Raju she devoted herself completely to dancing she loves dance and that is why she woke early in the morning and practiced hard for three hours regularly. She is always willing to talk about dance and even tried to teach Raju some tips of it. In the end though she loses her husband and her lover she continues to dance. Dance is her life whatever comes to her way according to Raju “Neither Macro no I had any place in her life, which had its own see staining under estimated all along.
Rosie – Raju relationship reaches the breaking point after the revelation of Raju’s trickery and deceit. Rosie is totally disillusioned
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with him because of his fraudulent acts of misusing all her money and forging her signatures on a legal document sent by Macro for the release of her jewellery box kept in the bank under their joint custody. Still she helps him till the disposal of law suit against him. She manages her performances independently order to earn money to pay for the lawyers fees. After Raju’s conviction to a jail term she leaves Malgudi, settlers in Madras and continues her performances in different parts of India. Thus, she succeeds in surviving the ups and downs of her life on account of the inherent strength of her adjustability to the changed adverse conditions.
Uday Trivedi Remarks :
She is presented as a women who can rise above the humdrum and has the strength to be true to herself. In her the ideals are redefined social castigation is not necessarily justified. Nor is it the end of the world.
Another female character is Raju’s mother. She is an ordinary and orthodox lady. Her sphere of concern is limited to the world of her husband and son. She is prudent frugal and vigilant housewife. Like a dutiful wife, she keeps awake till her husband who runs a shop selling coffee, edibles and peppormints, comes back home al midnight. She advises him not be to be casual in taking his food as it will tell upon his health. Raju’s mother is a loving and affectionate mother. She takes care of all the needs of Raju when he is a child. Raju tells about his mother “she told me a story every evening we waited for father to close the shop remained open till midnight. (The Guide 19) Further he says, “Her presence gave me a feeling of inexplicable cosiness”. (The Guide 20)
After her husband’s death she advises Raju to keep himself to the running of the shop at the railway station she doesn’t approve his job as a tourist guide. But Raju Puts her off by assuring her that he is
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keeping proper care of the shop accounts. Her fears come true when the porter’s boy to whom Raju has entrusted the job of running his shop cheats him and Raju loses his shop to him. She warns Raju against the danger of getting involved with one whom she calls a serpent girl i.e. Rosie. But Raju doesn’t care about her caution and the result is the loss of his source of income.
When Rosie stay of Raju’s house it reveals the mother’s qualities of tolerance, kindliness, understanding and traditional wisdom. Despite her disapproval of Rosie’s stay with Raju, she does not maltreat or misbehave her. She believes like a traditional Hindu wife that the right place for a married women is always with her husband and a women, in no circumstances should leave him. She suggests all this to Rosie through recounting to her problems and anecdotes. Raju describe about his mother, “After a few days she began to allude to the problems of husband and wife whenever she spoke to Rosie and filled the time with anecdotes about husband : good husbands, bad husbands, savage ones, slightly deranged ones, moody ones and so on and so forth, it was always ones and so on and so forth, it was always the wife, by her doggedness, perseverance and patience, that brought him round” (The Guide, 155)
She tenders her advice to Rosie suggestively through oblique references so that she may not feet hurt. This shows her tender, sympathetic and human heart.
There is a third minor women character in the novel. She is the sister of velan who is a villager of Mangala and somes in contact with Raju at the deserted shrine on the bank of the river and later on becomes his typically devoted disciple. Velan wo has a lot of affection for this fourteen years old girl wants to marry her with his cousin’s son. But she does not agree and runs away from home and when brought back she sulks lying in a room without eating or speaking anyone. This
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sadness velan a lot. As Raju’s advice she agrees to marry the boy of Velains Choice and regents her past conduct. This unexpected transformation in the girl confirms to the superstitious and naïve mind of velan that Raju as a saint who can work wonders. This a incident of Velan’s sister is significant as it is the first occurrence in the novel which makes Raju appear in the role of a saint.
While summing up the article on the topic concern, it is clear to the best of my opinion the novelist has given maximum emphasis on the beauty and reality of the picture with the help of this picture which is found throughout his novels as well. Therefore, the philosophy of the novelist is based on the real picture of the women from starting to the end. As a whole the novelist questioned the male dominance in his novels is a burning question and the readers are bound to think on this issue without any bias. R.K. Narayan has clearly mentioned in his literacy peace of works that the women characters all inevitable to make it perfect, although nothing is perfect in the world, similarly I have tried my level best to highlight scene of the important characters as per my observation but it needs more development to make it authentic.
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MAKING POLICY IN THE "NEW ECONOMY": THE CASE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN KARNATAKA, INDIA Kumar.K.S Assistant Professor Department of Economics Government First Grade College Turuvekere, Tumkur District Karnataka, India Abstract This paper is a story of the making of a policy, one that included many different players, located across a variety of sites. By tracing the origins of the millennium biotechnology policy in Karnataka state, south India, examining the content of and participants in the debate that led up to it, and analysing the final result and some of its consequences, the paper attempts to understand what policy-making means in practice. Who are the policy-makers? What is a policy? What are the technical, political and bureaucratic inputs to policy-making? These questions are asked for a much hyped, hi-tech sector — biotechnology — seen by some as a key to future economic development, and central to the “new economy” of the postreform era in India. The paper argues that a new style of politics is emerging in response to the changing contexts of the “new economy” era. This is particularly apparent in the hi-tech, science-driven, so-called knowledge economy sectors, where a particular form of science-industry expertise is deemed essential. The paper shows how the politics of policy-making is a long way from previous understandings of the policy process in India, based on the assumptions of a centralised planned economy where states danced to the centre’s tune and the private sector was not a major player. Biotechnology with its global R and D chains, its internationalised market for products or contract research, its multi-million dollar venture capital requirements and its need for top-level scientific expertise is worlds away from this earlier context. The new politics of policy-making, the paper argues, is characterised by the involvement of an influential business-science elite, able to push their demands through groups, task forces and commissions. Being associated with success in a global, competitive economy, key individuals provide iconic symbols of great value to politicians, and become important policy entrepreneurs in the new space opened up by the postreform, federal
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politics of India. But such individuals, while projecting the assured image of global success, are also local, and great play is made of their Bangalore roots. Biotechnology in Karnataka, this paper argues, has got intimately wrapped up in such a new politics of policy-making, and this has some major consequences for how biotechnology is seen in the context of the economic development of the state, and the policy prescriptions that flow from this.
1 Introduction This is a story of the making of a policy, one that included many different players, located at a variety of sites. By tracing the origins of the millennium biotechnology policy in Karnataka state, south India, examining the content of and participants in the debate that led up to it, and analysing the final result and some of its consequences, the paper attempts to understand what policy-making means in practice. Who are the policymakers? What is a policy? What are the technical, political and bureaucratic inputs to policymaking? These questions are asked in a particular context: for a much hyped, hi-tech sector — biotechnology — seen by some as a key to future economic development, and central to the “new economy” of the post-reform era in India. The paper argues that a new style of politics is emerging in response to the changing contexts of the “new economy” era. This is particularly apparent in the hi-tech, science-driven, so-called knowledge economy sectors, where a particular form of science- industry expertise is deemed essential.1 This presents particular challenges for assuring a democratic and inclusive approach to policy- making, one that allows the promotion of new technologies, such as biotechnology, in response to wider societal needs. By analysing the details of a policy-making process, the paper aims to dispel some of the mystique surrounding policy-making. For some policy-making is a simply technical process, separate from political debate. It emerges, in this view, through a process of technical and bureaucratic decision-making guided by the political priorities of an elected government. Thus policy and politics are clearly delineated, and bureaucrats and technical advisors are seen to be simply
1. It remains an open question as to whether the patterns described in this paper are evident in other policy areas such as social policy, agriculture etc.
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responding to broader political demands through applying their technical knowledge and administrative skills. This view, then, conjures up a simple, linear view of policy-making.2 This contrasts, however, with a more complex and nuanced view which sees policy- making as distinctly non-linear, and where the political and the technical are deeply intertwined in processes of mutual construction. Policies are thus shaped by competing narratives, informed by divergent interests, and articulated by different discourse coalitions. In this view, then, policy can be seen at one time as a technical prescription, a symbolic device and a political instrument. The shaping of policy emerges over time, both in its formulation and in implementation, by the interaction of a range of actors — politicians, bureaucrats, technical experts, civil society players and so on — in a variety of networks. In order to understand policy-making, then, one has to delve into this social and political melee, and to contextualise the process with insights into particular political, bureaucratic and socio-economic settings.3 Much has been written about policy-making in India, but relatively little has focused on the emergent dynamics in the post-economic reform era.4 The period since 1991 has seen some major changes in the
2. See, for example, Hill (1997) and John (1998) for comprehensive reviews of different approaches to understanding policy processes. 3. A huge and varied literature informs this approach, ranging from more discursive approaches to understanding policy knowledge/power to more structural analyses of political interests to approaches looking at actor- networks, agency and practice. This is brought together in Keeley and Scoones (2003, chapter 2). This draws on a range of key concepts, including: policy narratives (e.g. Roe 1991), policy networks (e.g. Jordan 1990), discourse coalitions (Hajer 1995), epistemic communities (Haas 1992), mutual construction (Shackley and Wynne 1995), and policy space (Grindle and Thomas 1991), among others. 4. For some of the classic treatments see Frankel (1978); Bardhan (1984); Rudolph and Rudolph (1987), for example. These offer useful, though now somewhat out-dated assessments of the relationships between policy and politics. However, they do not look extensively at policy processes, and the importance of science- technology expertise in policy-making (although see Varshney (1989) for a rare exception). More recent assessments focus to some extent on the post reform
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way the centre and states interact, the degree of fiscal independence of state governments, and the importance of attracting external (often foreign) investment. With the decrease in state support, and particularly centrally-directed state planning, has meant also that the private sector has taken on a new significance. All these factors suggest the possibility of new styles of politics and policy-making. The term “new economy” connotes a number of elements in the popular, and particularly media, imagination: a neo-liberal turn (although, as many have pointed out, this has been fairly half-hearted in some sectors, notably agriculture) and the encouragement of private sector investment to support economic growth are usually defined as the major factors. The new economy is also driven by new industries — particularly knowledge-based ones — and information technology and biotechnology are seen as very much part of the piece. Thus understanding policy-making processes in the “new economy” era suggests some important questions. Does the new economic and political dispensation mean a different politics of policy-making? Does the “new economy” provoke alternative approaches? And what does this mean for processes of inclusion or exclusion, the types of interest groups who mobilise, the levels of democratic accountability and the role of different forms of expertise? The biotechnology case provides a useful lens through which to explore these wider issues. Biotechnology is seen as a prime exemplar of the “new economy”, offering products ranging from transgenic crops to new forms of medical intervention. In India biotech entrepreneurs are aiming high, with all sorts of claims being made about the potentials of the sector.5 Unlike in previous eras, where state support and plan
context: for example: Jenkins (1999); Corbridge and Harriss (2000) and certain chapters in Sachs et al. (eds) (1999) and Kohli (ed.) (2001). Also see, Rudolph and Rudolph (2001a, b); Joseph (2001) for relevant commentaries on new patterns in politics and governance. Again these works remain surprisingly silent on the key interactions between science, business and politics in the new economy era. However, for a literature review/bibliography on policy process literature on India see Mooij and Vos (2003). 5. See various releases from the Confederation of Indian Industries, www.ciionline.com. Also see: www.bangalorebio.com/survey for a recent Karnataka-based assessment (see also Scoones 2002, and
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budgets were allocated by the centre, biotech is driven largely by the private sector, and often through direct or joint venture arrangements with large, foreign multinational companies. As a knowledge-based industry, requiring a highly skilled workforce, and a reliance on good infrastructural support and the import of key materials, biotechnology requires a different type of backing from the state. This paper looks at the biotechnology sector in general within Karnataka, but highlights in particular some of the tensions between different applications, with agricultural products (notably Bt cotton) generating much controversy, whereas health applications or those based on information processing (bioinformatics) being less controversial. As a new industry, with a range of scientific uncertainties associated with potential risks to health or environment, and one which has generated much public controversy globally, the state must also enter as a regulator, as well as facilitator of emergent industrial enterprise. This is a central function of the Department of Biotechnology based in New Delhi. Perceptions of a slow, cumbersome, bureaucratic approach to regulation dominate business concerns in Bangalore, and the tension between state-level flexibility and autonomy and centralised control of regulatory affairs is a key issue (see Newell 2003; Scoones 2003). Thus, in terms of policy- making, biotechnology brings together a number of key ingredients which highlight the role of the “regulatory state” in the post-reform period “federal market economy” in India (cf. Rudolph and Rudolph 2001a,b; see also Evans 1995). In this paper the setting is the state of Karnataka in southern India, and particularly the state capital, Bangalore6. While the focus of analysis is state-level policy-making processes, the connections outwards to the national level, and Delhi in particular, and through global networks and interactions is also part of the story. Karnataka has a population of around 50 million, with around 30 per cent being urban-based. The most significant occupation in the state is agriculture, with around 70 per cent of the workforce being somehow
below). 6. For details see: Karnataka Agriculture: A Profile (2000), Karnataka State Department of Agriculture: Bangalore; Indian Planning Experience: A statistical profile (2001) at: www.planningcommission.nic.in; World Bank, Karnataka at a Glance: www.worldbank.org
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engaged in farming. However, agriculture makes up only around a third of the gross state domestic product and economic growth areas are in the urban, industrial sectors. High industrial growth of around 6 per cent has characterised the state over the past 10—15 years, and the gross state domestic product of US$20.57 billion is relatively high compared to other Indian states. The information technology sector, based in and around Bangalore the state capital, in particular saw a massive boom in the 1990s. Bangalore has a population of some 6.5 million and is a base for over 10000 industries. It is, according to some, the fastest growing city in Asia. The state government has invested in a number of major infrastructure projects with the aim of creating an “investor-friendly” city: the Bangalore-Mysore corridor expressway, the International IT Park at Whitefields and the Bangalore International Airport are some of the higher profile investments. At 21, the city has the highest number of engineering colleges in a city in the world, along with some of the best educational institutions, including the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), ranked as the 18th best university globally. Alongside this technology-led economic success story, there is, however, a downside. Although not as extreme as some parts of India, there remains a marked inequality in income and opportunity which means there are pockets of extreme wealth, but also large areas of extreme poverty, with over 20 per cent of the population below the poverty line. Despite Karnataka being regarded as a relatively prosperous state, with comparatively high indicators of human development (literacy rates, for example, are 67 per cent), the stark contrasts between rich and poor, economic success and livelihood vulnerability are very evident, and must necessarily be part of any broader political assessment. The careful balancing act between encouraging investor-friendly policies, with appropriate sops to new industries, and the demands of a largely poor rural electorate is therefore one at the front of every policymaker’s mind. Thus, as a site to look at the political and policy-making dynamics of the new economy, as well as the underlying tensions and contradictions, Karnataka as a case study presents a good starting point. One feature of contemporary policy-making in India is the increasing importance of state-level processes. In contrast to the past when central planning and budget allocation from the centre dominated as part of five-year planning regimes, today states have more autonomy in the context of the federal system, although such autonomy may be
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substantially limited by lack of resources (cf. Weiner 1999; Harriss 2000; Manor 2001; Jenkins 2002 among others). With the fiscal squeeze hitting hard, raising external investment is seen as key. As a “modern”, “progressive”, “forward-looking” state, the Karnataka state government is keen to present new policies that will reinforce its image, and attract the requisite investors.7 The IT boom which so successfully boosted the state’s economy during the 1990s is seen to be faltering, and there is a perceived need to encourage new hi-tech industrial investment to boost employment. Biotechnology therefore seemed to offer the answer. With Bangalore’s impressive array of elite science institutions on hand, a readily available highly educated and skilled workforce, Bangalore, as the “garden city”, was potentially an important investment destination for biotech. In 1999 SM Krishna took over as Chief Minister of Karnataka, having won back the state for the Congress from the Janata Dal.8 He was keen to make his mark and, with backing from leading business and science figures in the state, he was quick to establish a policy rhetoric which saw the hi-tech sector as key to economic growth in the state. In 2000, Krishna announced in his budget speech the formation of a Vision Group on biotechnology, to be chaired by local biotech entrepreneur and CEO of the successful
7. There are regular newspaper and magazine profiles that add to the Bangalore image. For example, ‘Bangalore: knowledge capital of India’ (Economic Times, 15 August 2002); ‘Investor-friendly destination: amalgam of lofty traditions, latest technologies. State government aims at making Karnataka the no 1 destination in India’ (Fortune India, 15 July 2002). 8. Karnataka politics has been characterised from the 1970s by regular shifts between parties. Electoral patterns are finely balanced with all parties having to put together a complex coalition covering a range of different interest, class and caste groups (see below). The Janata Dal government up to 1999 had performed particularly badly, so a Congress victory was more or less assured. But, to put a distance between the perceived incompetence and lack of vision of his predecessor, Krishna was on the look out for new ideas and perspectives. Advisors, such as Jaraim Ramesh, were also well placed to encourage the new government to back a hi-tech vision, and capitalise on Bangalore’s increasing global profile as a hi-tech hub (for more details, see below).
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Bangalore-based business, BioCon, Kiran Muzumdar-Shaw.9 The CM observed: While Karnataka is the acknowledged leader in Information Technology. I would like the State to lead the next revolution in Biotechnology. Karnataka already has the training and knowledge base necessary to drive the revolution. We have the critical mass of biotech companies and the best research institutions. The immediate challenge is how to nurture that innovation, promote entrepreneurship and facilitate technology transfer to the end users. I am happy to announce a Vision Group on Biotechnology is being set up to advise the government on future strategies.10 The group met for the first of four times in early May 2000 in the CM’s office.11 In the early part of 2001, a number of events provided
9. Government order no ITD/10/PRM 2000 Bangalore, 27 April 2000. The order identified nine areas which the Vision Group could periodically advise the CM on. The first was to ‘harness biotechnology for the development of Karnataka’. The second to ‘set up centres for advanced learning’, and the others to identify mechanisms for accessing novel technologies, effective technology transfer, effective IP protection, increasing consumer and farmer awareness, understanding regulatory hurdles, evaluating opportunities for new start-ups. 10. Paragraph 117 of 2000—2001 budget speech by Sri SM Krishna. 11. See press reports ‘K’taka rolls out new biotech policy initiative’ (Economic Times, 14 May 2000); 12. ‘Karnataka constitutes biotech vision panel (Economic Times, 29 April 2000); ‘Karnataka sets up panel on biotechnology’ (Business Line, 1 May 2000); ‘Karnataka sets up fund for biotech sector’ (Chemical Weekly, 30 May 2000). ‘Karnataka’s new biotech policy aims at carving a niche for it in the emerging arena’, (Deccan Herald, 18 December 2000); ‘State biotechnology policy on the anvil’, (Hindu, 16 January 2001); ‘State to unveil policy soon’, (Deccan Herald, 15 January 2001); ‘Rs 20 cr. venture capital fund likely’, (Hindu, 31 January 2001); ‘Policy a milestone: CM’, (Deccan Herald, 25 February 2001); ‘State unveils biotech policy. Tax breaks, other incentives offered’, (Deccan Herald, 25 February 2001); ‘State wakes up to biotech’s new sunrise’, (New Indian Express, 25 February 2001); ‘CM launches millennium bio-tech policy’, (Deccan Herald, 25 February 2001).
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opportunities for the profiling of the forthcoming policy, and it was eventually launched on 24 February 2001,12 in advance of the major trade show and conference — Bangalore Bio — held in mid April 2001. The policy announced the establishment of a new biotech institute in Bangalore’s technology park, the creation of a “genome valley” biotech development corridor in Bangalore, linking a range of public science institutions and providing space for private investment, the granting of tax concession for importing inputs and capital goods along the lines already offered to the IT sector, the creation of a biotech fund to be co- financed by private venture capital, and the granting of Rs 5 crore13 for an agricultural biotechnology centre at Dharwad Agricultural University in the north of the state14. But in addition to the specific commitments (of which there were remarkably few) made in the pages of the glossy policy document, the policy, it will be argued below, carries more implications for understanding policy and politics in Karnataka, and possibly more broadly in India. In the following sections the paper documents what happened in the three years since April 2000, tracing the emergence of the policy, and through an analysis of its political and bureaucratic origins, assesses its significance more broadly. The first section looks at the political space within which the policy emerged, showing how the policy is symbolic of a new politics in the state, and perhaps in India more generally. The next section moves to the bureaucratic context for the new policy, looking in detail at the internal procedures and processes in the civil service and the blurring of the technical, administrative and political in the actual process of policy-making. The following section examines the role of the Vision Group, and highlights the importance of such an “independent” group for the credibility of a new policy, particularly in new, high-tech, science-based areas like biotechnology. The next section then turns to look at how, combining actors in the political, bureaucratic, commercial and scientific arenas, a new discourse coalition was created in the process of making the policy, one that could advocate a distinct perspective on policy to a range of
13. Rs1 crore is Rs 10 million, approximately £150,000. 14. The Millennium Biotech Policy, Bangalore the Biotech City, Department of IT and Biotechnology, Government of Karnataka, released 24 February 2001.
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audiences. While the focus of much of the discussion in this paper is on the local specifics of Karnataka state, the connections to both national and international policy debates around biotechnology are explored in the following section. These are seen to be important in allowing a framing of the policy in a particular way, and, in so doing, marking out a distinctive technical, commercial and Bangalore-based politics of biotech. The creation of a core discourse coalition, and the positioning of the policy politically, allowed for the dissipation of dissent. How dissent was channeled and sidelined, particularly through bureaucratic maneuvering, is the subject of the following section. This, in turn, leads into a section on the selling of the policy, focusing on the presentation and media relations around the policy development and launch. This constructed a particular vision of what biotechnology is about in the Karnataka context, which, of course, is contested. The partial unraveling of the policy effort is documented in the next section which looks at how the real politics of Karnataka bit back. The conclusion finally reflects on the broader implications of the analysis for our understanding of policy-making processes in the new economy.
2 The political space for biotech policy While this paper focuses on the period between 2000 and 2003, policies for biotechnology had been discussed many times before both in Karnataka and in India more broadly. The explosion of interest in the biotech debate was fuelled by the “terminator controversy” in late 1998, and the subsequent discussion over Bt cotton trials (cf. Scoones 2003). In Karnataka this included dramatic protests, burning of crop fields and intensive media commentary on the pros and cons of biotech, and the associated discussion of the role of multinationals in agriculture. This was tricky territory for any politician, and most steered firmly away from biotech as a result. Not wanting to get embroiled in the complex politics of rural protests from the Karnataka farmers’ movement (Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha, KRRS), nor wanting to get caught out by proclaiming on a still being tested technology, most ministers kept quiet, deferring to the formal regulatory process overseen by the Department of Biotechnology of the Union government. This began to change with the reinstatement of the Congress party at the state level in 1999, and, particularly, with the installing of SM Krishna as the Chief Minister. Here was a man who wanted to
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present himself and the state government he was leading as part of the new generation, bravely entering the new economy, and making the most of new technologies to generate wealth. In neighbouring Andhra Pradesh, the CM Chandrababu Naidu had already gained a reputation as a “tech-savvy” CM, one who would create new wealth and a new politics. SMK potentially could follow in his footsteps, although with perhaps a more measured tone. He certainly had the qualifications — qualified lawyer, ex-Fulbright fellow, former Union minister for industry under Indira Gandhi and finance minister under Rajiv Gandhi. The local press named him “Oxford Krishna” on account of his academic credentials. His rural roots in Mandya in southern Karnataka, although regularly mentioned as part of his electoral positioning, were some way away. His curriculum vitae on the Government of Karnataka website15 mentions his interests as tennis and the design of men’s clothing, rather far from traditional rural pursuits in any assessment. Somewhat frustrated by what he saw as the backward vision of some of his political compatriots soon after his election he began to assemble a group of advisors and associates, both within the civil service, in the Congress party, and, importantly, in the business world of Bangalore. As one informant put it: ‘The CM has a vision. He collects good advisors around him. Task forces, commissions and so on. The civil service is then coopted, but the impetus comes from him’. The same informant argued that this drive came from his commitment to technology transformation: ‘The CM’s experience is moulded by Mandya district. In Mandya the first god is Visvesvarya,16 the engineer who built the dam. It used to be a dryland area, but was transformed by irrigation. He is committed to technological transformation today.’17 In relation to the biotech debate he berated his “country cousins” for their Luddite views,18 and made it clear that he supported biotechnology, and would back Bt cotton and other
15 www.kar.nic.in/kla (for the Legislative Assembly). 16. See V.S. Narayana Rao (1988) Mokshangundam Visvesvarya. National Biography. Book Trust of India, Delhi. In speeches SM Krishna often refers to visionary Dewan Visvesvarya, often making links with his own strategy as CM. 17. Interview, Bangalore, 8 January 2001. 18. See: ‘My country cousins are allergic to going high-tech’’, Krishna, Times of India, 6 September 2001.
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controversial products as long as regulatory approval was granted. As holder of the treasury portfolio as well as being CM, SMK was keenly aware of the dependence of the Bangalore economy (and to some extent the state more broadly) on the IT sector. The bursting of the dot.com bubble, the downturn in the US economy and the resultant drop in contract research opportunities potentially spelt serious problems for the future. While the now big global players like Infosys and Wipro no doubt could weather the storm, many problems looked to be in store for the smaller players. Although numerically the IT sector’s employees are not large in electoral terms, the professional, urban middle class in Bangalore have become an increasingly important lobby group politically. Perhaps even more importantly, the successful IT entrepreneurs, now able to purchase expensive Bangalore real estate, enjoy foreign holidays and drive smart, imported cars are key aspirational symbols for many. As “icons” of the new economy — and Bangalore an economic success story, the “IT kings” — Narayana Murthy of Infosys and Azim Premji of Wipro in particular — have become key figures in the media and more broadly in the public imagination.19 The huge investments often relatively poor families make in private education and the massive growth in such institutions in response is witness to the commitment of a wide mass of people, and not just the present beneficiaries — to the hopes of the IT revolution. Presiding over the demise of this dream would of course be electorally disastrous, and SMK and his advisors were well aware of this. Biotech (or BT) needed to be promoted as the natural successor to IT, and with this the dreams of many could be sustained.
19. As one IAS officer observed: ‘Icons are seen as important. Narayana Murthy for primary schools, for waste disposal, for everything’ (Interview, 22 February 2001). His and others’ role (particularly Infosys’ Nandan Nilekani and BioCon’s Kiran Muzumdar Shaw) in the Bangalore Agenda Task Force is key. This offers an alternative private sector led alternative to what is perceived as a poorly functioning urban authority, although many feel that as an unaccountable body it should not be the basis for providing public services in the city (see, for example, ‘CM snubs politicians for opposing BATF’, Deccan Herald, 25 February 2001). See also Pani (2002) for a discussion, particularly on the importance of icons in the new politics of Karnataka.
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Some key Bangalore-based individuals were important in selling this idea. Jaraim Ramesh, a senior Congress party official and deputy chair of the Karnataka Planning Board, is an important advisor to the CM. An astute observer of political and economic trends, which he comments on in his column in the national weekly, India Today, Ramesh was keen to promote an alternative to a reliance on IT. Biotech seemed to offer an opportunity. Kiran Muzamdar-Shaw, the CEO of a successful biotech firm, and very much part of the elite social circles in Bangalore, where politicians, senior civil servants and industrialists mixed at drinks parties and receptions, was also close to the CM, and lost no opportunity in encouraging him to back biotech. Professor Sharat Chandra, a leading biotech scientist at the Indian Institute of Science, and unusually for the science community not part of the Brahmin elite, but instead from the same caste background as the CM, also encouraged the CM to back biotech. A year after he took over control of the state, the CM launched a major drive to promote biotechnology in the state in the budget speech of 2000. The Vision Group became the key vehicle for this initiative. Chaired by Muzumdar Shaw and with members from industry and academia (see below) it offered both the profile and credibility to carve out a biotech niche for Karnataka. Although very much presented as an independent, advisory group, it was to have direct links with the Department of Information Technology, and the departmental secretary, Vivek Kulkarni, was to be the member secretary. This all took place against a backdrop of growing concern about the consequences of adopting biotechnology applications in the agricultural sector — transgenic, GM crops. With the regular protests being orchestrated by NGOs, farmers movements and others in Karnataka, politicians were naturally worried though about the public backlash against GM crops and the ramifications this might have for the attraction of external investment and the establishment of a successful biotech sector in the state. Dr C.S. Prakash, a former University of Agricultural Sciences (Bangalore) student, now a US based scientist, advisor to the US Department of Agriculture and international advocate of GM crops via his web site AgBioWorld and frequent comment pieces in the Indian press,20 was encouraged to establish an
20. See for example, ‘Expert endorses Bt cotton decision’ (Business Standard, 12 April 2002), among many others. See agbioworld.com for
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advisory and advocacy group. K-GANGA (Karnataka Global Advisory Network Group on Agriculture) was a network of overseas-based Indian scientists working on biotechnology with Bangalore connections. It was aimed as a route to encouraging wider public acceptance of biotechnology, and GM crops in particular. K-GANGA was launched with much fanfare in August 2000, and represented the first government initiated attempt to put across a positive PR spin on biotech. Yet, as will be seen below, attempts at shifting public and media opinion on agricultural biotechnology and GM crops in particular proved difficult. Instead, the tactic adopted in Karnataka was to create a political space for biotech which put it as the natural successor to IT, and part of the economic miracle of Bangalore, the global technopolis (to quote a rather overblown feature in one of the Indian weeklies),21 rather than as part of a new Green Revolution, and a solution to the “farming problem” of rural India.22 By focusing on particular — non- transgenic, non-agricultural — biotech applications
more from Prakash. 21. In 1999 Bangalore was rated as one of top ten “hottest tech cities” in a Newsweek cover story. It was also considered to be one of the top ten ‘21st century global hot spots’ in a Business Week cover story in the same year. The hype about Bangalore as a biotech city grew to a frenzy in 2001 around the time of the release of the biotech policy and the first Bio.com event. See, for example: ‘Bangalore Bio.com will redefine Indian biotech’ (Hindu, 13 February 2001); ‘Bio.com 2001 will herald the next sunrise industry’ (New Indian Express, 13 February 2001); ‘Government launches road shows to promote Bio.com’, 22 February 2001; ‘India has the instinct to be a global player in biotechnology’, (Hindu, 14 March 2001); Special feature in Economic Times. ‘Homing in on Bio Power @ bio.com 2001’, had the following headlines: ‘Krishna sees immense scope for biotechnology’, ‘India set to emerge as global bio power’, and ‘Karnataka blooming into a biotech state’ (16 April 2001). 22. This narrative is much more often heard, for example, in Tamil Nadu, where the influence of Professor M.S. Swaminathan is particularly important. It is also more the focus of the national and global biotech debate, with this line being pushed by the likes of Monsanto, Norman Borlaug and many in the Department of Biotechnology and ICAR in Delhi.
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the state government avoided some of the regulatory dilemmas posed, and meant that the regulatory control by the Union government’s Department of Biotechnology was less of an issue. Also, by compartmentalising the biotech policy in this way, dissent and controversy could be managed and a certain type of biotech could be incorporated into the mainstream rhetoric of economic growth through the stimulation of the “new economy”. The political space thus created was very much urban and industrial, linked to middle class, professional and entrepreneurial interests, and hitching on to a future which envisaged the “new economy” creating wealth and employment (at least for a few), with positive “trickle down” effects for the rest of the state.23 While not as baldly stated as this, this vision of development has been very much part of the approach adopted by the Chief Minister at the core of the state government’s economic policies. State resources have been invested in encouraging external investment: major infrastructure projects have been commissioned, most notably the new airport and the growing maze of fly-overs that criss-cross the city; trade fairs, high profile conferences and international visitors have been lavishly hosted; and concessions to business have been offered through tax deals, industry parks, and government support for starting up. This is not a classic “free” market economy, the state government is there as a significant backer. There have certainly been new investments in the
23. Given the large preponderance of the rural poor in the electorate this of course is a risky electoral strategy if pursued alone. While considerable amounts of state resources have been spent in encouraging external investment, this does not mean that the rural electorate have been totally ignored. According to the Finance Department of the Government of Karnataka in the 2003-04 budget of plan and non-plan expenditure of around 20000 crore, 5 per cent of the budget is to be spent on agriculture, 8 per cent on irrigation, 2 per cent on rural development and 22 per cent on education, health and social welfare (www.kar.nic.in/ statebudget/bud2003). Around election time this regular expenditure may be further focused with special schemes and projects announced, particularly in more marginal constituencies. Playing to particular interest groups (castes, sub-castes and so on) is all part of the complex electoral calculation in which budget allocations play no small part.
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state in recent years, although how the balance sheet comes out in terms of jobs created, investment secured as against state incentives offered remains unclear.24 With fiscal constraints hitting hard, putting public money into backing new, often highly speculative business ventures, alongside high profile but not exactly “basic needs” infrastructure investments, is of course controversial. It inevitably results in trade-offs. It remains an open question as to the net impact of this diversion of funds on those areas more conventionally associated with state support such as health, education and social sector services, small-scale enterprises and rural development.25 It also remains a question as to whether this strategy is one that is saleable to the electorate, or one best kept parceled off, conveniently compartmentalised for consumption by urban-based policy elites only. In order to make the “Bangalore as high-tech business destination”
24. According to the joint Karnataka Vision Group and CII survey (see ‘Karnataka BioBusiness profile: a 2002-03 update’ presented by Kiran Muzumdar at Bangalore Bio 2003 and available as a PowerPoint file at www.bangalorebio.com/survey). In 2001-02 Karnataka attracted Rs 300m in investment in the biotech sector, nearly half of which was from AstraZeneca (Financial Express, 18 April 2002). The survey claimed that the biotech sector generated Rs 700 crore of revenue per annum, of which Rs 250 crore was for export. The biotech sector, it was claimed, employed 5000 people, of which 3500 were scientists (Business Standard, 16 April 2002; Business Line, 16 April 2002; Economic Times, 15 April 2002). There has been much commentary in the financial press about the lack of venture capital investment in the biotech sector, despite all the government backing (see for example, Business Today, 12 May 2002), although the Hindu reports that Karnataka had received Rs 70 crore of venture capital funding to 72 biotech ventures in the state over the last two years, with only Rs 200 million from the central Department of Biotechnology (Hindu, 16 April 2002). 25. Of course these remain the major sources of state expenditure. As Vivek Kulkarni argued: ‘My department [IT and BT] gets a small fraction of the total budget. Does that sound like a hi-tech focus? Nothing has changed. This government has always spent most on rural development. The hi-tech thing is more image than budget’ (Interview, Bangalore, 22 March 2002).
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rhetoric palatable, particularly to sceptical Congress party members and a largely rural electorate, especially those groups central to Congress electoral support in the state,26 such a hi-tech focused prescription has to be mixed in with liberal doses of populist rhetoric about the importance of rural development and farming communities, along with some tangible commitments of support. Thus speeches on biotech by the CM and other leading ministers are typically an interesting, often disconnected, mix of futuristic visions of the new economy, based on science and technology, and traditional political rhetoric of poverty reduction and support for agriculture. Much as other “third way” politicians throughout the world, the heady mix of different positions hides many contradictions and ultimately choices. In the end one vision must be backed, although political concessions can be offered to the others. Biotech presents politicians with a dilemma: what to choose? For the time being at least, the Chief Minister clearly has chosen the new economy route, centering his hopes on an economic revival based on new investment in the biotech industry. This may be politically sustainable with the support of a tight, reliable grouping of people with political and economic weight, alongside scientific credibility, combined with effective support from the bureaucracy. The Vision Group and the Department of IT, and the IT secretary in particular, provided this support, as explored in the next two sections. Electorally though it is more questionable, and, as we shall see below, it is only more recently, particularly in the context of the build up to forthcoming state elections and during some recent by-elections, that some more circumspection about the overall strategy has entered political
26. Electoral politics in Karnataka is a complex affair, with any winning party needing to appeal to a range of different interest group and caste/classes (including many different sub-groups). Two “middle caste”, essentially rural, groupings — the lingayats and vokkaligas — are important who make up 30 per cent of the electorate, while Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 21 per cent. Muslims make up 16.5 per cent of the electorate and are key swing voters in upwards of 100 constituencies (cf. Manor 1989, 1992; Shastri 1999; Assadi 1998, 1999, 2002; Pushpendra 1999; Gould 1997; Srinivas and Pannini 1984 among others).
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rhetoric.27 3. Conclusion There appears, then, to be a new politics of policy-making emerging in the new economy, one that has received remarkable little critical commentary. In recent years there has been plenty of commentary in both academic and popular writing about the impact of an increasingly federal arrangement in India both politically and economically. The demise of the Nehru-inspired model of a centrally planned, top down policy process has been extensively documented. But what has replaced this in the new “federal market economy” (Rudolph and Rudolph 2001b) has been less talked about. This paper has attempted — for one state, for one time period, around one issue — to elaborate on how a new politics of policy-making has emerged.28 This is characterised by a new business-science elite, able to push their demands through groups, task forces and commissions. Being associated with success in a global, competitive economy, key individuals provide iconic symbols of great value to politicians, and become important policy entrepreneurs in the new space opened up by the post-reform, federal politics of India. But such individuals, while
27. The degree to which the Congress — and SMK in particular — continue to push the “new economy” stance will depend a lot on what happens in opposition politics. If other parties fail to put together an effective opposition, then the Congress will feel secure in its current position. If electoral competition is felt however party members and Members of the Legislative Assembly in danger of losing their seats may put pressure to shift approach, and adopt a more directly pro-poor, pro-farmer stance. In the meantime, however, a continued compartmentalisation of political messages and approaches remains possible [I am grateful to James Manor for this qualification]. 28. Of course there is nothing new in the world. The patterns described here have many resonances in past practices, particularly in Mysore state in the early part of the twentieth century. The hi-tech, industrialisation focus, involving public-private partnerships and independent commissions of experts for policy advice was very much part and parcel of the “Mysore model” of development initiated by Visvesvarya as Dewan (1912—18), and pursued by Mizra Ismael later (1926—1941) (see Hettne 1977).
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projecting the assured image of global success, are also local, and great play is made of their Bangalore roots. Biotechnology in Karnataka, this paper has argued, has got intimately wrapped up in such a new politics of policy-making. This has some major consequences for how biotechnology is seen in the context of the economic development of the state, and the policy prescriptions that flow from this. The paper shows how the politics of policy-making is a long way from previous understandings of the policy process in India, based on the assumptions of a centralised planned economy where states danced to the centre’s tune and the Indian private sector, let alone global multinationals — with a few notable exceptions — were barely to be seen. Biotechnology with its global R and D chains, its internationalised market for products or contract research, its multi- million dollar venture capital requirements and its need for top-level scientific expertise is worlds away from the state-supported industries that fuelled the Bangalore economy from the 1950s.29 Instead, the hype about biotechnology in Bangalore is about selling the state — and Bangalore in particular — in the global market place, and so competing with other “tech-savvy” Chief Ministers, while keeping Delhi’s interfering regulatory embrace at bay. Yet in the Karnataka setting at least we do not see a completely free market doctrine being applied, despite the neoliberal rhetoric. The state is intimately involved in supporting the biotech enterprise. The Bangalore biotech entrepreneurs have convinced the government — and the CM in particular — that biotech is a winning ticket, and state backing is needed. So tax concessions, support for export/import clearance, intellectual property advice, a proposed biotech fund, and a biotech park with core facilities have all been supported with state funds.30 And this is on top of the considerable investment in the upgrading of Bangalore to be an international, hi-tech city — in the
29 See Heitzman (1999); Pani (1998) and others. 30. Figures for total state support to the biotech sector are difficult to come by, and some projects — like the biotech fund — remain only notional, and may not mean new cash being given to agencies such as the Karnataka Industrial Development Corporation in any case (see Financial Express, 18 April 2002; Economic Times, 21 January 2002).
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mind of the CM, just like Singapore.31 This also requires state backing for the requisite infrastructure, ranging from a new airport, to fibre optic cabling to interlocking flyovers. Constructing, and in turn selling, the Karnataka biotech policy narrative has involved intensive effort over the past few years. High profile events, policy launches, glossy brochures, trade fairs, laying of foundations stones, eye-catching surveys and so on have occupied the Vision Group and the Department of IT and BT. This has required the engagement of key individuals who together combine entrepreneurial flair with bureaucratic skill, scientific credibility and an ability to market and brand a policy idea. Despite drawing on global and national connections, the network that was constructed and the storyline that was developed was very much one located in Karnataka. It was in particular responsive to the political needs of a CM eager to demonstrate his ability to pitch the state out of the economic doldrums and to make an impact politically on a growing middle class professional elite in Bangalore and the vast mass of aspirants to this (often imagined) lifestyle and success outside. The core network, as the paper shows, has been dominated by an elite business and science group, operating outside the realm of democratic politics, who gain their position by virtue of their economic success, their social profile in the state and their personal connections with the political elite, notably the CM. Their project has been ably supported by some of the “new breed” of IAS officers, committed to the new economy and to changing the way government works, with the explicit backing of the CM. This “partnership” between the private sector and the state, with the backing of experts from elite science, has, as we have seen, been hailed as a new model for policy-making, casting aside the corrupt patronage politics of the “license permit raj”, and opening a new vista of scientifically supported, economically sound policies developed by those who know best. But can such an elite, technocratic vision of policy-making stand the test? Surely the interests of the new policy elite are played out within the new politics? As we have seen, there are of course opportunities for gain in the new economy, whether from
31. See: ‘Singapore’s biotech ambitions’ (Hindu, 18 January 2001), although see Nair (2000) for a more sceptical commentary on the likelihood of Bangalore becoming like Singapore.
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raising share value expectations, various forms of trading on insider information, real estate dealing, or direct support and access to government. None of these are necessarily illegal practices, but, by serving the interests of a particular elite, with a particular vision of what future economic development should be, the new politics of biotechnology in Karnataka creates a defined trajectory for change, one isolated from a broader and more inclusive, democratic debate. Yet, as the last few years have demonstrated, the possibilities of capture by an elite policy network remain inevitably constrained. In part the volatile electoral politics of the state set limits. While business interests may of course help in buying votes in elections, this appears to have relatively little impact on electoral outcomes it seems. A full balance-sheet assessment of the fiscal implications of the hi-tech, new economy strategy and its political knock-on effects (assuming that if state budgets are diverted there are less resources to support more popular, rural, election-winning concerns) has yet to be attempted. If the hi-tech policy is relatively inexpensive in relation to the overall state budget, then it can continue to be compartmentalised in terms of policy-making, and there is no particular need to seek mass support in electoral terms for the strategy. If such a strategy requires substantial diversion of resources and acquires the status of a contentious electoral issue, however, it will have to enter the realm of mass politics. Politicians, and the CM in particular, must then sell the vision to a largely poor, rural electorate. The dream of a life in town with a good IT or BT job seems very far off to many, and no matter what aspirational hype is offered it will not always wash, especially if opposition parties persuasively develop the anti-farmer, anti-rural line in their campaign stance. In addition, the biotech policy network itself remains fragile. It is dependent for its maintenance on continued commitment from a small group, plus ongoing interest and support from the state government. If this wanes, others will enter the fray with different policy narratives on biotechnology. So far this has not happened, but all policy networks of this sort are inevitably fragile and, as the UAS biotech park debacle showed, may be weak at key points. In the end, though, both the core biotech network and their political allies must demonstrate practically the success of their policy prescriptions. The biotech hype and policy gloss will only last for so
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long. Can the requisite amount of foreign investment be secured to avoid the damaging consequences of the IT downturn and sustain the growth of a new knowledge industry which will really produce economic growth and jobs which will benefit the wider population? The jury is still out.
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ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC WORK DEVELOPMENT IN TAMILNADU UNDER BRITISH PERIOD M.Rajeswari Head & Associate Professor Department of History Kamaraj College, Thoothukudi, Tamilnadu
Legacy from The Past
The rulers of Chera, Chola, Pandyan and Pallava kingdoms were very sensitive to creation of irrigation facilities. The British who came after 1800 had not constructed any irrigation tanks. They had done only major works like Periyar Dam and Cauvery Mettur project and installed anicuts or regulators across rivers and channels in Cauvery, Krishna and Godavari basins in 1850. They had inherited over 39000 irrigation tanks which account for 45% of the area brought under irrigation through channels tanks and wells. When East India Company took over the state, they had realized the important role played by irrigation tanks in preventing famines and therefore appointed Sir Arthur Cotton as Inspector of tanks. Therefore the tanks formed the infrastructure for irrigation development and it is worthwhile to record when such tanks and related facilities were installed by native rulers before the establishment of PWD by the British in the year 1858.1The information on the history of tanks is embedded in the poems of sangam period, and engravings from the stone – edicts and etchings in the walls of the ancient temples which date backwards to the period before birth of Christ. Literatures like Silappadhikaram, Thiruvilayaadal Puranam and Puranaanooru and Aganaanooru give indirect information.2 The stone sluices and surplus weirs have been left with some engravings of names of rulers or donors and their periods. Collection of such information is beyond the scope of
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this article. However some information is given from ready materials cited in the bibliography. 3
Aganaanooru (76) states that Cauvery was always flowing full breaking the banks. Puranaanooru (35) describes the Cauvery would never fail to feed the populace even if sun were to change its direction of movement. Poem 68 declared that Cauvery suckled her children like a mother.4 Manimekalai refers to the myth that Cauvery originated from the pot of saint Agasthya.
3. Poets in Karnataka preserve episodes on battles that took place on the banks of Cauvery river between the ruling families of Karnataka (Chalukyas and Rashtra Kootahs) and of Tamilnadu (Cholas and Pallavas). The massive army of Pulikesi, Vikramadihtya and Vimaladitya checked the flow of Cauvery between Uraiyur and Puhar while marching against Chola capital. In the 18th century Chikkadevaraya Wodaiyar completed building a dam and some Tamil Chieftains of Madurai region are stated to have hastened to Mysore and made unsuccessful attempts to destroy it.5
Though Cauvery is born in Western Ghats, and flows hundreds of miles before entering into present day Tamilnadu, it was exploited more by the Tamils than by Kannadigas. This is satirically observed by a 13th century Kannadya grammarian named Kesiraja, author of Sabdamaniderpana. He wants to know from Tigulas (Tamils) whether they were borrowing the water from Kannadigas or appropriating in the name of past debt.6
Restoration of old tanks and introduction of minor works between 1800 and 1810 by Dewan Poorniah of Mysore and constitution of PWD in 1856 of the Mysore state were viewed with suspicion and Madras Government formally expressed its concern on these developments in 1870.7 This brought the two states to the negotiating table at Ooty, in 1890, leading to conclusion of 1892 agreement.
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Records say that Irrigation facilities in Mysore state in 1900 was sufficient for cultivating 1.1 lakh acres and that this increased to 4.4 lakh acres in 1971. Records say that before the completion of Mettur dam the ayacut was only 14.4 lakh acres and this got increased to 45 lakh acres after commissioning of the dam.8
British Period
The British formed a fully fledged PWD in 1858. The military engineers were assigned on permanent basis.9 There were 3 branches in 1866 of (i) Military works (2) Civil works including irrigation and (3) Railways. By 1895 military works became heavy and were formed into a separate branch. Sir Arthur Cotton was in front of fame in 1850’s with successful execution of works in Cauvery, Krishna and Godavari basins. Irrigation projects appeared like goldmines and private persons entered into the field under guarantees provided by G.O. I who assured 5% return on capital outlay.10 Two Irrigation companies were floated in 1858 to exploit coastal areas of Orissa and adjoining areas. Madras Irrigation Company was formed in 1863 but failed in their ventures and GOI took over these companies.11 In 1866 major change took place in the policy of GOI and they ruled that irrigation projects shall be executed to prevent famines and they shall be financed from grants and loans from GOI without any consideration of state boundaries.12 Though Railway projects were more remunerative, famine occurrences opened eyes of many engineers who felt that priority should be given to irrigation. When the East India Company took over the state administration, all irrigation structures were in a state of ruin and neglect due to frequent wars and behaviors of many small rulers and kings. People were diverting water from streams and rivers by means of temporary korambus and mud-dams which were renewed after every flood. Farmers were satisfied with yields from fields even though they were very meager and large land holdings easily made good their requirements. 13
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In response to demands of farmers, British were obliged to construct many anicuts and regulators in the places of mud korambus. But no irrigation tanks seem to here been formed except Chembarambakkam (1893) Periyar and Mettur and Wellingdon reservoir took most of their meticulous planning and investigation. Such works executed during British period (upto independence in 1947).14
Evolution of PWD Structure
The origin and development of the departments executing the Public Works in the State could be briefly stated as follows :
A. Prior to the year 1858
All Public Works were carried out and maintained by three distinct and independent departments in the presidency. 15
(i) The Maramath Department of the Board of Revenue:
Irrigation works, navigational canals, all civil buildings, all minor roads and bridges not on the trunk roads or cantonments.
(ii) The Trunk Road Department:
All trunk roads or great links of communication.
(iii) The Engineering Department of the Military Board:
All fortifications, all cantonments, all military buildings in the Province All roads, bridges, public buildings in the Presidency town of Madras.
Evolution of PWD Structure
The origin and development of the departments executing the Public Works in the State could be briefly stated as follows :
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A. Prior to the year 1858
All Public Works were carried out and maintained by three distinct and independent departments in the presidency. 16
(i) The Maramath department of the Board of Revenue:
Irrigation works, navigational canals, all civil buildings, all minor roads and bridges not on the trunk roads or cantonments.
(ii) The Trunk Road Department:
All trunk road or great links of communication.
(iii) The Engineering department of the Military Board:
All fortifications, all cantonments, all military buildings in the Province All roads, bridges, public buildings in the Presidency town of Madras.17
I. The Maramath Department :
This department was practically in charge of the majority of the public works of all kinds and was thus a very important department of the Government in the early British period. At first the collectors assumed the charge of these works without adequate professional assistance which resulted in unprofitable outlay and waste of public money. 18
P.W.D. Secretariat
With the success of the Public Works Department in Punjab, as distinct from the Military Boards, similar Departments were set up in Bengal, Madras and Bombay in 1854. Each was placed under the charge of a Chief Engineer under the Lt. Governor of the Province. To co- ordinate and have budgetary control over the Provincial P.W.Ds, a Secretary of the Department of Public Works was appointed in the Government of India for the first time in year 1854. 19
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He was also vested with all powers of the Military Boards. The workload of the Public Works throughout the country during the year 1850 was Rs. 60 lakhs, which rose to Rs. 226 lakhs by the end of year 1854. Of this, nearly Rs. 100 lakhs were spent on communications including navigable canals, about Rs. 54 lakhs on irrigation, nearly Rs. 56, lakhs on military works, Rs. 3 lakhs on land for railways and the rest on other miscellaneous works.20
During the year 1863-66, the Department of Public Works in Government of India was split in three separate branches to deal with Military works, Civil and irrigation and railways works.21 These branches were placed under the charge of an Under Secretary each in the Government of India in year 1867 and had an Inspector General of Works attached to each of them to co- ordinate the functions of each wing throughout the country. By year 1870, the posts of Under Secretaries controlling these three Branches were upgraded to those of Deputy Secretaries. In 1872, it was decided that the Branches dealing with the Military Works should be transferred from the Secretariat to the Military Department.22 Although this transfer was completed by year 1890, Public Works in frontier towns in Baluchistan and Frontier Provinces were continued to be carried out by the Military Engineering Department so as to avoid dual work agencies in the places of strategic importance.23
References
1. Madras Presidency Administrative Reports from the Connemara Library for year 1925 to 1939, 1944 to 1948; 1967 to 1990.
2. New Irrigation Era of Tamilnadu PWD
3. Madras information 1955-50 from Connemara Library
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4. Poriyaalar Bulletins of Association of Engineers of Tamilnadu PWD
5. News Letters of Ground water
6. Eripaasanam from Minor Irrigtion (DRCS) wing.
7. 150 years History of PWD by Er. C.S. Kuppuraj
8. Nucleus Cell report of T.N.P.W.D
9. Irrigation Management – role National Water Management by P.C. Mathur
10. Irrigation Reservoirs of Tamilnadu published by Irrigation Management Training Institute, Tiruchi.
11. Papers read in the Seminar at Platinum Jubilee of department of Indian History of University of Madras on 26 to 28 in March 2003.
12. Articles published by Dr. A Mohanakrishnan in his book “Selected Papers on Irrigation”.
13. Articles and papers read at Eighth National Water Convention held from 9 to 11 of February 2000 at Udhagamandalam
14. Irrigation cultivation statistics of the department of statistics of Tamilnadu Government
15. Policy Notes and budget speech copies of Minister for PWD for years 1996 to 2006
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PASSING TECHNICAL SKILL EXECUTIONS OF THE U17 MALE YOUTH SOCCER PLAYERS’ OF ETHIOPIA, 2015/16 LEAGUE SEASON Laake Reda Hailu Dr. A. Pallavi Research Scholar Research Advisor Dept. of Physical Education and Dept. of Physical Education and Sport Sport Science Science Andhra University Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, India Andhra Pradesh, India
Abstract
Passing techniques plays a multi-function in the game and it is the action of giving the ball to a team-mate. It allows a team to keep ball possession, set up attacks, change the direction of play, counter-attack and provide a decisive or final pass. This study was done to describe the U17 male youth soccer premier league players’ of Ethiopia regarding on target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempt ball frequency count executions in the league, players playing positions (defender, midfielder, and attacker players), and league zones in the 2015/16 league season to understand passing technical skill executions quantitatively. In the league, 126 games were conducted in three zones (central, south-east, and qualified) in during the 1st, 2nd and final rounds. Data were obtained from 96 games, sampled from each zones of the league using stratified random sampling method. The data was collected from every defender, midfielder, and attacker players who participate in the sampled games by recording videos of these games. Sample size was determined from each stratum of the league games using Yamane’s (1967) simplified formula (n = N / [1 + N (e) 2]) for proportions with 95% confidence level and p=0.5 assumed. Where, “n” is the sample size, in this study it is represented as “g”, “N”,
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represented here as “G”, the population size (total games of the U17 male youth league), and “e” is the level of precision.
IBM SPSS Statistics Version-22 was used to analyse the data statistically using descriptive statistics. As a result, means score of on target pass, off target pass was so near in the league. So, coaches should work to increase the number of on target pass ball frequency count per game per player during games than the off target pass ball frequency counts. Mean score of total passing attempt executions in the league, excluding goal keepers, was also not more and need work to increase. Mean score of off target pass ball frequency count by defender and midfielder players were executed more than the attacker and also the ball frequency count score gap between was small. Because of the nature of the game defender and midfielder players get the ball frequently and if off target passes increases, a risk of conceding goals happened easily by the opposite team. So, coaches should effort to minimize the number of off target pass ball frequency counts by defender and midfielder players during games per game per player using different training drills.
Keywords: Ethiopia, Male player, Passing, Soccer, Technique, U17 (Under seventeen).
1. INTRODUCTION Performance in soccer has been described as the interaction between several factors such as technical, tactical, physical and psychological ones (Stolen, Chamari, Castagna, & Wisloff, 2005). Coaches and scientists need to develop their knowledge about mentioned factors during competition with special reference to playing position.
Soccer techniques are one of the four components of soccer; fitness, tactic, and psychology. The actual execution of a movement is always in the realm of technique, Sam (2010).
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From this we can understand that soccer techniques are the tools to play the game which we apply using the mind and the physique. Passing technique, one of the techniques of the soccer sport plays a multi-function in the game and it is the action of giving the ball to a team-mate. It is an essential part of team play. Sam (2010) strengthens this also by explaining as passing technique is the core of the game, it allows a team to keep possession of the ball, set up attacks, change the direction of play, counter-attack and provide a decisive or final pass. Crosses are a type of short or long pass, usually leading to a shot.
Technical or skill-related abilities of players are important for success in soccer (Ermanno Rampinini, Impellizzeri, Castagna, Coutts, & Wisløff, 2009).
In order to execute effective pass, the physical body should develop physically and to implement the mind decision regarding the ball on the foot of the player, when to pass, to whom to pass and which part of the body will use to pass. Sam (2010) supports this as technique is the body’s mechanical execution to affect the ball; for example receiving, catching, shooting, dribbling, deflecting, etc. It is one of the four components of the game and leads to ball skill. Skill is being able to execute a technique under the pressure of opponents in tight space and most likely on the move. Without ball skill a player cannot execute tactics. Some players will be able to do a technique in an activity but fail to apply it as skill when under pressure from opponents, be competent with the ball but not outstanding, be technical but not skilful, while others will be skilful but not technical, and be capable of executing some skills against one level of opponent but not another.
This study was done to describe the U17 male youth soccer premier league players’ of Ethiopia in the passing technical skill executions in the league, based players playing positions (DF, MDF, and ATTK), and league zones in the 2015/16 tournament season.
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It is necessary to describe players technical skill executions during games or training in order to understand their technical skill execution performance quantitatively and to work on it if need to increase or decrease the quantity of the technical skill executions as necessarily and also to compare among different playing position players, league zones, and league rounds so as to give clear evidence about players for coaches, relative soccer/football federation and offices, soccer technical directors, soccer scout teams, clubs and players.
According to the (Ethiopian football federation [EFF], 2013/14), Unpublished, the main premier league participant clubs of Ethiopia was ordered to form U17 male youth soccer teams with the purpose of thinking that the U17 league can be the root league for the main premier league clubs of the country.
As Thierry et al. (n.d) explained, the game soccer has developed “Faster, stronger, higher, more technical”. This succinct formula perfectly sums up the development of football over the last few years. So the technical skill executions of soccer players have a deep view and impact in performance during the game in integration with the other soccer coaching components; fitness, tactics, and psychology.
1.1. Purpose of the Study The core purpose of this was to comprehend the descriptive statistics of the passing technical skill executions in the U17 male youth soccer players of Ethiopia in the 2015/16 league season. Mainly, to describe players:
On target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempt ball frequency counts during the games of the league
On target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempt ball frequency counts by players based on their playing positions (DF, MDF, and ATTK) in the league
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This study benefits coaches, technical skill scout teams, Ethiopian football federations, players to have evidence about the players passing technical skill executions during the games of the U17 male youth soccer tournament in the league. Basically, in order to overview understands about the players on target pass, off target pass, total passing attempt ball frequency counts in the league as a whole, in the league zones, league rounds and based on the players playing positions to take lessons from the players and to predict the same age level players passing executions for reference and players selection process
1.2. Objectives The objectives of this study were:
to identify the passing technical skill executions of players during the games in the league as a whole
to identify the passing technical skill executions of players during the games based on players playing positions (DF, MDF, and ATTK) in the league
to compare passing technical skill executions of players during the games in the league between the playing positions (DF, MDF, and ATTK) players
1.3. Scope of the Study This study was scoped to the male U17 youth soccer club players and the games in the 2015/16 league season of Ethiopia. The variables of this study were passing technical skill executions during the games (on target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempt ball frequency counts).
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2. Methodology
2.1. Subjects The study participants of this study were the Ethiopian U17 male youth soccer tournament league club players and games they perform in the 2015/16 league season.
2.2. Procedure At first, information regarding list and address of the U17 male youth soccer clubs, total over view of the league, fixture schedule, players some profiles (list, playing positions, jersey number), and legislation of the league was taken from the competition department of Ethiopian football federation (EFF) and the respective club offices. Then after, list of defenders, midfielders, and attackers’ players and their jersey number of every club was taken from the clubs and refereeing officials before and on the game date respectively.
In order to record the matches of the sampled games, six (6) video camera persons was hired and they were assigned to record videos of the games beginning from competitor’s entry up to game finish. Direction was given to the video camera persons regarding how to take videos of the games. The camera persons were oriented to follow the movement of the ball and the immediate surrounding actions for the duration of the game and players around the ball in any circumstances whether the ball is in play or out of play. After, getting the video records of the game, the videos were replayed on a computer monitor and a hand notation system was used to tally and frequency count the passing executions of defender, midfielder, and attacker players within the ball based on their paying positions. Specifically, frequency counts of on target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempts from all lined up defender, midfielder, and attacker player/s was collected from every sampled games. And the ninety six (96) sampled recorded video games were distributed randomly to the thirty two (32) data
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numerators, three recorded video games for each data numerator to tally every competitor team defenders, midfielders, and attacker’s technical skill of passing as on target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempt ball frequency counts per each game for each competitor teams using frequent observation count/tally form.
2.3. Inclusion and Exclusion The U17 male youth soccer tournament clubs and the players who were registered for the league season by the Ethiopian football federation competition department were included in this study. All players, except goal keepers, who lined up for any game in their respective zone round games and final round game tournament was included in this study, except, players who do not participate in the games and trainings because of illness, injury and any other reasons. Only passing technical skill executions (on target pass, off target pas, and total passing attempt ball frequency counts) were considered in the study. Passing part of foot or body was not considered and the players who don’t participate in any games of the league totally were not included.
2.4. Data Source/s The core data sources of this study were the U17 male youth soccer tournament games, clubs and players of league season. The clubs of this year’s league season was from two league zones namely; central zone league and south-east zone league. The central zone clubs were Dedebit, Defense (Mekelakeya), Ethiopia-Coffee (Ethiopia-Buna), Ethiopia Nigid Bank (Ethiopia-Bank), Ethiopia-Electric (Ethiopia Mebrat Hayl), Harar City, Addis Ababa City, Afrotsion Construction, Kidus Giorgis (St. Giorgis), and Ethiopian Youth Sport Academy (EYSA).
The south-east zone league clubs were Adama City, Hawassa City, Wolayta Dicha, and Sidama Buna. The total number of clubs participated in the sampled ninety six (96) games from the U17 male
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youth tournament schedule of the 2015/16 was fourteen (14) clubs. Defender, midfielder, and attacker players who lined up in any game of the sampled ninety six (96) games of these clubs were included in this study. From the mentioned U17 male youth soccer clubs of the league season, both primary and secondary data were collected.
2.4.1. Primary Data The primary data of this study were the technical skill executions of players in the sampled games by defender, midfielder, and attacker players. At first the games was recorded using video camera of Sony HDR-PJ410 Camcorder; Model HDRPJ410B.CEN, Model year 2015, 2.7 inches screen size, had image stabilization, 30X optical zoom, 350X digital zoom, 2.29.Megapixels Max resolution, 2.2 Megapixels Optical Sensor Resolution, 1/10000 s Seconds Max Shutter Speed, 16 Seconds Min Shutter Speed, 1.9 Millimetres Min Focal Length. The game condition technical skill executions of defenders, midfielders, and attackers were identified as on target pass, off target pass and total passing attempt balls frequency counts for the passing technique. And these data was recorded every sampled game and the players of each sampled competitor clubs based on the clubs league zone, league round and players’ selected playing position. Table1. Number of clubs and games in each league zone and round of the 2015/16 U17 male youth soccer premier league tournament of Ethiopia
SN. Game zone and Game round Number of Number of clubs in each games in each zone and zone and round round 1 Central Zone 1st Round 10 clubs 45 games 2 South-East Zone 1st Round 4 clubs 6 games 3 Central Zone 2nd Round 10 clubs 45 games 4 South-East Zone 2nd Round 4 clubs 6 games 5 Qualified zone Final Round 10 clubs 24 games Total 126 Games Source: EFF, Competition department, annual competition Report, (2015/16), unpublished
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2.4.2. Players The U17 male youth soccer premier league players of Ethiopia who have played in the ninety six (96) sampled games was sampled using stratified sampling method and simple random sampling technique from the total of 126 games of the league in the league season. And the players who participate in the sampled games was considered as study players by categorizing them based on their playing positions as defenders (DF), midfielders (MDF), and attackers (ATTK). The players were used to get the passing technical skill execution of players’ in each sampled games. The players jersey number, name, and playing position was taken earlier from their respective club coaches and sport club offices. And also for rechecking, purpose player’s jersey number, name, and playing position was also again taken from the game referees game sheet (score sheet) and the respective club coaches and offices before game.
2.4.3. Sampling Methods and Technique/s The sample design addressed in this study was probability sampling with the sampling method of stratified sampling technique. Then after from each stratum (individual groups), simple random sampling (start with first game of every stratum and then after, every second game to the selected one) method was used to select proportional sample games from every identified stratum. Then after, all players’ and clubs of the sampled games was identified. Finally, all sampled games, all clubs of these sampled games, and all players of these sampled games were taken. Later the players playing position was identified from the players’ list sheet of every club.
The U17 male youth soccer premier league clubs in the two zones and league five rounds was not have similar (homogeneous) variables in players’ age level, league name, league season, playing date, players’ playing experience, match time and club establishment years.
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As C.R. Kothari (2004) explained, in order to obtain a representative sample from heterogeneous population, it is better to take sample from heterogonous groups based on some common attributes or characteristics, it is better to use stratified random sampling strategy to take representative samples by grouping the heterogeneous population in to different homogenous groups. As a result, the U17 male youth soccer premier league games was sampled using stratified sampling method and selected using systematic random sampling method.
Based on this, the games of the league were stratified in different strata using the common characteristics of league round and league zone as follow:
Table3. Classification of study games strata based on league zone and rounds
SN Stratum Stratum name Number of Clubs 1 Stratum one Central Zone 1st round 10 games 2 Stratum two South-eastern zone 1st 6 round games 3 stratum three Central zone 2nd round 10 games 4 Stratum four South-east 2nd round 6 games 5 Stratum five Final (generalization) 10 round games Source: EFF (2015/16), U17 male youth soccer premier league legislation, unpublished
2.4.4. Sample Size
2.4.4.1. Sample Games and Players According to the Ethiopian Football Federation’s U17 male youth soccer premier league clubs’ competition legislation (EFF U17)
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(2015/16), the competition were held in two zones, namely, central zone, which includes premier league clubs around the capital city, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and south-east zone, south and east parts of Ethiopia (premier league clubs from south nation nationalities and people (SNNP), Oromiya and Harar). As the data from the federation about the tournament schedule of the league indicates the total games addressed by 14 clubs were 126 games in the league.
Out of the total one hundred twenty six (126) games addressed in two league zones both in first , second and final rounds, sample size was determined using Yamane (1967) simplified formula (n = N / [1 + N (e) 2]) for proportions with 95% confidence level and p = 0.5 assumed was used. Where, “n” is the sample size, in this study it is represented as “g”, (total sampled U17 male youth soccer premier league games of the 2015/16 Ethiopian season), “N” represented here as “G”, is the population size (total games of the U17 male youth soccer premier league games of the 2015/16 Ethiopian season), and “e” is the level of precision.
All players, except goal keepers, who participate in the sampled games, were considered in the study.
As a result the following sample games were determined using the sampling method.
Table4. Distribution of Sample Strata, and total sampled games of each stratum
SN Game round & Game Number of Number of Sampled zone clubs in games in games each zone each zone using and round and round stratified sampling st 1 Central Zone 1 Round 10 clubs G1=45 34 games games st 2 South-East Zone 1 4 clubs G2=6 5 games
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Round games nd 3 Central Zone 2 10 clubs G3=45 34 games Round games nd 4 South-East Zone 2 4 clubs G4=6 5 games Round games
5 Qualified zone Final 10 clubs G5=24 18 games round games games Total 14 Clubs 126 96 games Games Source: Authors’ survey, 2015/16
2.5. Data Collection The necessary data for this study was collected from Ethiopian U17 male youth soccer premier league games, participant clubs and players in the league season. The data regarding game situation technical skill executions was collected by recording the games of the sampled matches/ games and observing the recorded games by displaying in laptop computer screen to take data regarding DF, MDF, and ATTK players’ technical executions of on target pass, off target pass, received- controlled, not received-controlled, on target shot and off target shot balls frequency counts. Data regarding DF, MDF, and ATTK players’ game free designed technical skill test drills was collected by recording the players as they executing the designed drills based on their playing positions. And later, DF, MDF, and ATTK players technical skill executions of passing, receiving-controlling, and shooting was taken by displaying in laptop computer screen and observing the and counting the players on target pass, off target pas, received-controlled, not received-controlled, on target shot, and off target shot balls frequency counts.
2.5.1. Collection of Soccer Players Game Conditioned Technical Skill Execution Data
The soccer game conditioned technical skill execution data of the variables of this paper in the sampled games of the U17 male youth
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soccer tournament players was recorded as follow for defender, midfielder and attacker players (selected playing positions) in the league zones and league rounds separately as number of on target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempt ball frequency counts in the U17 male youth soccer tournament of the 205/16 season.
Table5. Technical skill execution variables and their concepts
SN Variable/s Definition of variable and variable measurement 1 On target Passing technical skill executions done by pass balls defender (DF), midfielder (MDF) and attacker frequency (ATTK) Players’ during soccer game and game count free designed test drills. And the executed pass was identified as On target Pass and finally counted. And the measure was done as if the pass ball arrives to the receiving-controlling player, the ball may be received-controlled or not received-controlled by the player, it was considered as on target pass. 2 Off target Passing technical skill executions done by pass balls defender (DF), midfielder (MDF) and attacker frequency (ATTK) Players’ during soccer game and game count free designed test drills. And the executed pass was identified as Off target Pass and finally counted. And the measure was done as if the pass ball not arrived to the receiving- controlling player; it was considered as off target pass. 3 Total The sum of on target pass and off target pass passing by the DF, MDF, and ATTK players was attempts recorded separately for each playing position frequency players. count Source= Author’s identified technical skill execution study variables, (2015/2016)
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Every sampled team’s defender, midfielder, and attacker players passing technical skill execution (on target pass, off target pass and total passing attempt) was determined using frequency count tally for each execution and playing position in the soccer players.
3. Data Analysis Data about passing technical skill execution balls frequency count of on target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempts were statistically analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics software Version 22 for windows (SPSS, Chicago, IL. USA). In this analysis for finding the reliability of the data collection method (Cronbach’s alpha) internal constancy coefficient were examined and the results were found 0.880 which is above the recommended value of 0.70.
Descriptive statistics were used to identify and describe the passing technical skill executions of the on target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempt ball frequency counts by players in the league, based on players playing positions, and based on the players league zones.
4. Result/s and Discussion/s Table6. Reliability test
Scale: ALL VARIABLES
Case Processing Summary N % Valid 288 100.0 Cases Excluded 0 0 Total 288 100.0 Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure.
Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Cronbach's Alpha Based on N of Alpha Standardized Items Items .880 .928 3
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Table6 indicates the data reliability was tested using the Cronbach’s Alpha test and was found 0.880, which was above the recommended value, 0.70 and this shows that the internal consistency of the data.
Table7. Descriptive statistics of players passing technical skill execution variables in the U17 male youth soccer tournament games of Ethiopia in the league season 2015/16
Descriptive Statistics Passing N Minim Maxim Sum Mean Std. Varianc technical skill um um Deviatio e execution Ball n Count 28 4942.9 17.16 10.4489 109.180 On Target Pass 2.20 46.00 8 8 31 3 28 3819.4 13.26 30.044 Off Target pass 3.00 27.38 5.48127 8 5 20 Total Passing 28 8762.6 30.42 14.5908 212.892 5.60 73.38 Attempt 8 4 58 0 Valid N 28 (listwise) 8
Table7 indicates that the descriptive statistics of the players on target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempt balls frequency count per game per players in the U17 male youth soccer tournament games of Ethiopia in the league season. As a result, the mean on target pass was (M=17.1631, SD=10.44893) in the league per game per player. The off target pass ball frequency count was (M=13.2620, SD=5.48127) and the total pass attempt balls frequency count was (M=30.4258, SD=14.59080) per game per player in the league games.
Table8. Descriptive statistics of passing technical skill executions of the U17 male youth soccer tournament games of Ethiopia in the league season 2015/16 based on players playing poisons
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Report Players Playing Position in the On Target Off Target Total Games Pass Balls pass Balls Passing frequency frequency Attempt count count balls Frequency Count Defender Mean 18.7709 13.5557 32.3279 Player N 96 96 96 Std. 5.88840 3.39935 5.64807 Deviation Minimum 4.36 7.64 19.63 Maximum 31.67 22.25 46.76 Sum 1802.01 1301.35 3103.48 Variance 34.673 11.556 31.901 Midfield Mean 26.5901 18.6788 45.2696 Player N 96 96 96 Std. 8.24459 3.19402 8.87156 Deviation Minimum 8.70 12.73 26.50 Maximum 46.00 27.38 73.38 Sum 2552.65 1793.17 4345.88 Variance 67.973 10.202 78.705 Attacker Mean 6.1284 7.5514 13.6800 Player N 96 96 96 Std. 3.42517 2.51305 4.78166 Deviation Minimum 2.20 3.00 5.60 Maximum 33.75 14.25 42.00 Sum 588.33 724.93 1313.28 Variance 11.732 6.315 22.864 Total Mean 17.1631 13.2620 30.4258 N 288 288 288 Std. 10.44893 5.48127 14.59080 Deviation Minimum 2.20 3.00 5.60 Maximum 46.00 27.38 73.38 Sum 4942.98 3819.45 8762.64 Variance 109.180 30.044 212.892
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Figure1. Mean values of on target, off target, and total pass attempt ball frequency of DF, MDF, and ATTK players in the 2015/16 U17 male youth tournament league of Ethiopia in the league
Both Table8 and figure1 indicates the descriptive statistics of the players passing technical skill executions during games based on players playing positions in the 2015/16 U17 male youth tournament. And the mean on target pass of defender, midfielder, and attacker players in the league games was (M=17.7709, SD=5.88840), (M=26.5901, SD=8.24459), and (M=6.1284, SD=3.42517) correspondingly.
The mean score of the on target pass ball frequency count indicates that midfielder players were executed more than the defender and attacker players per game per player in the league games.
Regarding the mean of the off target pass by DF, MDF, and ATTK players in the league games (M=13.5557, SD=3.39935), (M=18.6788, SD=3.19402), and (M=7.5514, SD=2.51305) individually. The mean score of off target pass indicates that midfielder players were executed
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more than the defender and attacker players per game per player in the league games. About the total passing attempt, the mean score for DF, MDF, and ATTK players was (M=32.3279, SD=5.64807). (M=45.2696, SD=8.87156), (M=13.6800, SD=4.78166) respectively. This shows that the mean score of total passing attempts by players in the league games per game per player and defender and midfielder player execute more total passing attempt ball frequency count than attacker respectively.
Table9. Descriptive statistics of passing technical skill execution variables in the U17 male youth soccer tournament games of Ethiopia 2015/16 league season, based on players league zones (Central, South- East, and Qualified zones)
Report Players League Zones On Target Off Target Total Pass Balls pass Balls Passing frequency frequency Attempt count count balls frequency Count Central Zone Mean 15.7732 13.2300 29.0036 N 204 204 204 Std. 9.35999 5.16609 12.72342 Deviation Minimum 2.20 3.67 7.20 Maximum 38.00 26.00 58.00 Sum 3217.73 2698.91 5916.74 Variance 87.609 26.689 161.885 South-East Mean 19.7599 12.2549 32.0157 Zone N 30 30 30 Std. 12.12199 5.85770 17.89179 Deviation Minimum 2.75 4.25 8.00 Maximum 38.25 23.63 60.88 Sum 592.80 367.65 960.47 Variance 146.943 34.313 320.116
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Qualified Mean 20.9714 13.9424 34.9154 Zone N 54 54 54 Std. 12.21590 6.37542 18.10707 Deviation 2.60 3.00 5.60 Minimum 46.00 27.38 73.38 Maximum 1132.46 752.89 1885.43 Sum 149.228 40.646 327.866 Variance Total Mean 17.1631 13.2620 30.4258 N 288 288 288 Std. 10.44893 5.48127 14.59080 Deviation Minimum 2.20 3.00 5.60 Maximum 46.00 27.38 73.38 Sum 4942.98 3819.45 8762.64 Variance 109.180 30.044 212.892 Figure2. Mean Score values of on target, off target, and total pass attempt ball frequency counts by DF, MDF, and ATTK players in the 2015/16 U17 male youth tournament league of Ethiopia based on their league zones
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Both Table9 and figure2 reveals the descriptive statistics of the players passing technical skill variables based on the players’ league zones. And the mean on target pass of defender, midfielder, and attacker players in the central, south-east, and qualified league zone games was (M=15.7732, SD=9.35999), (M=19.7599, SD=12.12199), and (M=20.9714, SD=12.21590) respectively. The mean score of the on target pass ball frequency count indicates that players in the qualified league, which were the clubs who qualified from both central and south-east league zones, were executed more than the central and south-east zone players per game per player in the league games.
Regarding the mean of the off target pass by central, south-east, and qualified zone league players (M=13.2300, SD=5.16609), (M=12.2549, SD=5.85770), and (M=13.9424, SD=6.37542) individually.
The mean score of off target pass indicates that both central and qualified zone players were executed more off target ball pass ball frequency count than the south-east zone in the league in their respective league zones.
About the total passing attempt, the mean score by central, south-east, and qualified zone league players was (M=29.0036, SD=12.72342), (M=32.0157, SD=17.89179), (M=34.9154, SD=18.10707) respectively. This shows that the mean score of total passing attempts by players in league zones per game per player and it was seen that qualified zone players were executed more total passing attempt ball frequency counts than the central and south-east zone players in the league.
5. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1. Summary Regarding the passing technical skill executions of on target pass, off target pass, and total passing attempt ball frequency counts by players
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in the U17 male youth soccer tournament games of Ethiopia, 2015/16 league season, the followings results are summarized:
The on target pass ball frequency counts mean score per player per game was (M= 17.1631, SD= 10.44893) in the league.
The off target pass frequency ball counts per game per player in the league was (M=13.2620, SD= 5.48127).
Total passing attempt ball frequency counts mean score was (M=30.4258, SD=14.59080) per game per player in the league games
The mean score of on target pass ball frequency count by defender, midfielder, and attacker players in the league games per game per player was (M=17.7709, SD=5.88840), (M=26.5901, SD=8.24459), and (M=6.1284, SD=3.42517) correspondingly.
The mean of the off target pass ball frequency count per game per player by DF, MDF, and ATTK players in the league games (M=13.5557, SD=3.39935), (M=18.6788, SD=3.19402), and (M=7.5514, SD=2.51305) individually.
Mean soccer of total passing attempt ball frequency count for DF, MDF, and ATTK players per game per player was (M=32.3279, SD=5.64807). (M=45.2696, SD=8.87156), (M=13.6800, SD=4.78166) respectively.
The mean score of on target pass by defender, midfielder, and attacker players in the central, south-east, and qualified league zone games was (M=15.7732, SD=9.35999), (M=19.7599, SD=12.12199), and (M=20.9714, SD=12.21590) respectively.
Regarding the mean of the off target pass by central, south- east, and qualified zone league players (M=13.2300, SD=5.16609), (M=12.2549, SD=5.85770), and (M=13.9424, SD=6.37542) individually.
About the total passing attempt, the mean score by central, south-east, and qualified zone league players was
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(M=29.0036, SD=12.72342), (M=32.0157, SD=17.89179), (M=34.9154, SD=18.10707) respectively.
5.2. Conclusion/s And Recommendation/s
The mean score of on target pass and off target pass ball count in the league games per game per player was not so separate and coaches should work to increase the on target pass frequency counts per game per player
The mean score of total passing attempt executions per game per player in the league, excluding goal keepers, was also not more. So coaches should work to increase it. Sam (2010) strengthens this also by explaining the as passing technique is the core of the game, it allows a team to keep possession of the ball, set up attacks, change the direction of play, counter-attack and provide a decisive or final pass. Crosses are a type of short or long pass, usually leading to a shot.
The mean score of off target pass ball frequency count by defender and midfielder players per game per player were executed more and related. As a result, as defender and midfielder players get the ball frequently because of the nature of the game, and if their off target passes increases, a risk of conceding goals can be happened easily by the opposite team. So, coaches should effort to minimize the number of off target pass ball frequency counts by defender and midfielder players during games per game per player.
The mean score of the on target pass ball frequency count indicates that players in the qualified league, which were the clubs who qualified from both central and south-east league zones, were executed more than the central and south-east zone players per game per player in the league games.
Regarding the means score of total passing attempt ball frequency counts, central and south-east zone players in the league should do efforts to increase.
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Reference
1) C.R. Kothari. (2004). Research Methodology Methods and Techniques (second revised edition). New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd, 2004
2) Ethiopian Football Federation. (2015/16). U17 male youth soccer clubs league legislation, (Unpublished).
3) Sam Snow (2010). Fundamental ball skills: US youth soccer coaching, Published by US soccer department
4) Rampinini E, Impellizzeri FM, Castagna C, Coutts AJ, & Wisløff U. Technical performance during soccer matches of the Italian Serie A league: Effect of fatigue and competitive level. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport; 2009; 12(1):227-233.
5) Stolen T, Chamari K, Castagna C, & Wisloff U. Physiology of soccer: an update. Sports Med; 2005; 35(6):501-536.
6) Thierry Barnerat, Jacques Crevoisier, FIFA, Frans Hoek , Philippe Redon, Michel Ritschard, (n.d) FIFA Coaching, Published by Druckerei Feldegg AG, 8125 Zollikerberg, Suisse
7) Yamane, Taro. (1967). Statistics, an Introductory Analysis, 2nd Ed., New York: Harper and Row.
8) C.R. Kothari. (2004). Research Methodology Methods and Techniques (second revised edition). New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd, 2004
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BEYOND MILK- RURAL WOMEN EMPOWERMENT THROUGH DAIRYING IN RURAL INDIA
DR. Shashikumar Assistant Professor& HOD Department of Sociology Government First Grade College for Women Hassan Abstract
The dairy scenario is fast changing with the increasing recognition of the dynamic role played by women and the inherent advantages of women empowerment for an economy in transition .It helps to structure superior community building . Studies from a gender perspective on rural dairy women to analyze their progress, problems and prospects at the grassroots are considerably few. This paper aims to contribute towards bridging gaps by examining the growth of economic status of women in dairy sector in rural India. It spotlights the issues women are facing in progressive dairy farming & emerging as rural dairy entrepreneurs.
KEY WORDS: Dairying , Dairy Industry , Shortfalls In Rural Sector, Women Empowerment ,
INTRODUCTION-Presently, India is the world's largest milk producer, accounting for more than 13% of the world's total milk production. India's dairy sector is expected to triple its production in view of expanding potential for export to Europe and the Western countries . The urban market for milk products is expected to grow at an accelerated pace of around 33 % per annum to around Rs. 43,500 crore by 2015 -2016.The emergence of a significant middle-class, urbanization and the expansion of modern shopping habits by busy, health conscious and well-informed consumers is raising the
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consumption of packaged milk in India. Economic growth is sustaining the purchasing power rural families also.The global opportunities available to the Indian dairy industry arise primarily out of availability of a large quantity of competitively priced milk. Most of the traditional health and wellness products sold through the dairy sector are represented by processed dairy products such as malt beverages and infant nutritional products.The visible trends are that the consumption of milk products is on the rise. While it is growing at about 1-1.2 percent elsewhere in the developed world, India and China are beating these trends. A number of categories which are highly dependent on organised retail like frozen food products are expected to witness significant growth in the years ahead.(Meera, M. and Krishna Gowda, (2013) Towards Economic Empowerment: Study of Rural Women in Dairy Cooperatives). Dairy enterprise is a recognized sector in rural India and is playing a vital role in generating additional income and employment to rural people. In India, dairy development is an encouraging area of rural development, because dairying contributes highly towards milk production, marketing, and processing of various dairy products in India. The microfinance programmes extended in dairy sector are supportive to take up dairy as main occupation among economically backward communities in the rural areas especially women.
DAIRYING & WOMEN
Women contribute to nearly 60% of labour in farm production in India. They form the backbone of agriculture, comprising the majority of agricultural laborers in India. Women play a significant and crucial role in agriculture and animal husbandry development. Despite the fact that women in India share most of the work in animal production, their work remains mostly invisible. This may be carried out within the confines of homesteads. Gender divisions in agriculture are stark, with all activities involving manual labour assigned to women, while all
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operations involving machinery and drought animals are generally performed by men. Female agricultural labourers are among the poorest sections of Indian society.The major activities involved in dairy farming include collection of fodder/cultivation of fodder, grazing the animals, feeding & watering, cleaning the animals and shed, milking and marketing of milk. The operations are flexible and staggered depending upon the convenience of the family members and need not necessarily be attended foregoing wage employment opportunities.
DAIRYING AS A SUSTAINABLE RURAL ENTERPRISE FOR WOMEN
1. LOW ON CAPITAL INVESTMENT- Dairying does not require heavy capital investment as the rural people can begin with the available non-descript cows or purchase cows easily in local markets. The local cows are enduring , sturdy ,tough they can be maintained even by landless rural farmers.
2. LOW ON LABOR DEMAND-Dairy farming does not demand heavy labour and hence the rural families can undertake this activity without altering their present engagements.
3. LOW ON TECHNOLOGY -The technology is simple and most of the local people are aware of the skills.
4. INCREASING TRENDS OF DEMAND -Finally there is good demand for milk even in local markets and there are several indigenous techniques to handle unsold surplus milk.
5. BEST SUITED FOR WOMEN-Dairy business provides good opportunity for women to develop this activity as an enterprise and ensures steady cash returns throughout the year.
6. LOW MAINTENANCE-Livestock consume agricultural by- products and in turn supply farmyard manure and biogas. Such mixed farming ensures an excellent nutrient recycling which is
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an eco-friendly practice. Biogas reduces the dependence on wood for household fuel. Breed improvement and good dairy husbandry practice can promote stall feeding which in turn helps to utilize the dung for biogas and manure and conserve our forest and pasture resources.
CONSTRAINTS –
1. Diary sector in facing several issues such as low milk production by local breeds, shortage of green fodder, lack of pure water, shortage of milk preserving facility,
2. There are issues connected with support thorough micro finance, high maintenance of breeder cattle, livestock feeds
3. Rural people lack knowledge of livestock diseases
4. veterinary services are very low sometimes nil
5. Artificial insemination facilities are not available
6. Poor housing to dairy animals
7. Rural people do not have any information on conversion of raw milk in value added products such as chocolates , ice creams , curds , butter milk, yoghurts , flavored milk , desserts , etc
8. Dairy cooperatives are not reaching vast mass of rural population as their number are inadequate as compared to population
9. Inadequate loan facility for dairying
10. High cost of production THE STRATEGIES TO EMPOWER WOMEN
1. ENHANCING SUPPORT THROUGH SELF HELP GROUPS-Enhancing support through self help groups for rural women(SHGs).United efforts of these SHGs, Government
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and NGOs are required to fight against the constraints of dairy farming practice.( VeerankiMaheswaraRao-Co-operatives and Dairy Development: Changing Destiny of Rural Women).
2. ESTABLISHING MILK COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES - Government and Milk Federations must take corrective action for formation of village level Milk cooperative societies especially for women , so that they get proper market for their milk with reasonable cost.( Kumar& Others-Sustainable Dairy Farming – A Tool For Rural Women Empowerment ).
3. CONDUCTING SKILL-ORIENTED & LONG TERM TRAINING PROGRAMS-State level / district level dairy development department must conduct skill-oriented &long term training programs for production of value added milk products, so that the rural people get more prices, from milk. This will add to their family revenues as well. Milk cooperative societies also should conduct skilled oriented training for women in healthy milk production & preservation. Milk cooperative societies should conduct training programmes for milk producers for better management of milchanimals. The training should include programs coupled with importance and techniques of clean milk production & preservation.( VeerankiMaheswaraRao-Co-operatives and Dairy Development: Changing Destiny of Rural Women).
4. HELPING ENTERPRENURSHIP THROUGH MICRO FINANCING- Local & regional branch banks should encourage rural women for dairy business through Micro financing. Easy availability of short term & long term loans with reasonable interest will help especially women to generate more income from dairying.( Kumar& Others-Sustainable Dairy Farming – A Tool For Rural Women Empowerment). Banks
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should provide subsidies to dairy farmers by the Dairy Development Department or Milk cooperative societies for promoting dairy business.
5. SCHEDULING REGULAR VACCINATION PROGRAMS - The animal husbandry department must conduct vaccination/ deworming/ health care programme with the help of agricultural scientists/ veterinary scientists to improve knowledge among farmers about importance of schedule vaccination, deforming and health care of dairy animals
6. PROVISION FOR VETERNARY SERVICES-Government should take proper action for controlling the high medical expenses charged by government veterinary doctors / personnel /staff for performing medical assistance in rural areas.It is necessary that government as well as Non-government organizations must take proper initiatives for suitable functioning of animal health centers.Veterinary and animal husbandry officers, district dairy development officers and scientists must organize training programs about creating awareness to the farmers regarding practices of scientific feeding of dairy animals.
FUTURE PROSPECTS& VISIBLE TRENDS
1. SHIFTING TRENDS IN CONSUMERISM -These days there is a shift in the trend of people as consumerism inclination has changed. People are penchant towards consuming dairy products such as chocolates ice creams etc. This shift in the dynamics of the sector has proved beneficial for manufacturers, as margins in the case of value added products are more than double the margins in the liquid milk segment.
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2. PRODUCT INNOVATIONS-Product innovations are likely to accelerate India’s dairy market, which is anticipated to improve margins by attaining greater scale, higher capacity use and an increasing contribution from new milk variants.
3. TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGIES -Promoting dairy enterprise through transfer of technologies improved farm financing supply chain management & better market access
4. VALUE ADDITION TO TRADITIONAL MILK PRODUCTS-Value addition to traditional milk products through application of new processes, packaging and mechanised manufacturing systems
5. FOCUS ON PURE MILK PRODCUTION -Clean milk production with a focus on emerging health concerns is the need of the hour
6. RAISING PRODUCTIVITY OF DAIRY ANIMALS-Raising productivity of dairy animals through improved feeding strategies, efficient nutrient utilisation and use of non- conventional feed resources
7. ENHANCING LIVESTOCK PRACTICES -Development of state-of-the-art dairy production systems using better housing, fertility management practices for livestock
8. TRAINING HUMAN RESOURCESThe expanding dairy industry, privatisation of enterprise and globalisation of the economy will result in an increased demand for people trained in specific areas of dairying. It is imperative to improve allocations to meet the growing demand of the human resources and also involve the industry in the research projects.
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CONCLUSION
Thus dairying has been considered as a potential means of alleviating large scale unemployment, especially in rural areas. As Women play a key role in animal, farm and home management dairying can be the best solution to generate family income levels. Successful dairy husbandry enterprise not only improves the socio-economic status of rural women, but also assures a sustained and assured means of income to supplement their income from the main enterprise. If all stake holders contribute to overcome all the constraints in dairy development women can become modular dairy entrepreneurs.
REFERENCES
1. Meera, M. and Krishna Gowda, (2013) Towards Economic Empowerment: Study of Rural Women in Dairy Cooperatives of HeggadaDevanaKoteTaluk in Mysore District. Journal of Media and Social Development, 1 (1). pp. 17-36.
2. Kumar & Others-Sustainable Dairy Farming – A Tool For Rural Women Empowerment krishisewaedu hub
3. VeerankiMaheswaraRao-Co-operatives and Dairy Development: Changing Destiny of Rural Women 2000
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