Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District

Oxfam Zimbabwe Block 9 Norfolk Road Arundel Office Park Mount Pleasant Box 4590 Harare, Zimbabwe Tel: +263 4 2918473 facebook/oxfaminzim twitter/oxfaminzim www.oxfaminzimbabwe.org ScalingScaling UpUp AdaptationAdaptation inin Zimbabwe,Zimbabwe, withwith aa FocusFocus onon RuralRural LivelihoodsLivelihoods ProjectProject

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District i

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District

Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, ii with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project Acknowledgements This biophysical and socio-economic profile was made possible through the hardwork and commitment of a number of stakeholders at district level including staff from the District Administrator’s office, Rural District Council, President’s Office, Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Agritex, Livestock Production Department, Veterinary Services Department, Zimbabwe National Water Authority, Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, Department of Irrigation, Department of Mechanisation, Oxfam, Plan International and Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE), farmers, WARD councillors and community leaders from the targeted subcatchment and Wards. The following experts led the field assessments, analyses and write-up: Bertha Nherera (livelihoods), Mhosisi Masocha (Ph.D, Water resources), Hatirarami Nezomba and Christopher Chagumira (Soils), Paradzayi Tagwireyi (Ph.D, vegetation and livestock), and Munyaradzi Shekede and Isaiah Gwitira (climate). Leonard Unganai (Ph.D) and Sheila Mlambo from the Project Management Unit provided conceptual guidance to the team leaders. Jeanette Manjengwa (Ph.D) and Leonard Unganai (Ph.D) edited the report. Photos: Michael Mushunje/Innocent Katsande Citation: This report may be cited as: Oxfam-UNDP/GEF Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on rural livelihoods (2015). Profile of the Save subcatchment in Buhera District. Technical report, Harare, Zimbabwe. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District iii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Main messages

• The majority of streams in the Save sub-catchment of Buhera District are seasonal and are dry for most of the year. Therefore, investing in ground water is essential to support domestic and productive needs of rural communities. There is an urgent need for the construction of new water sources such as dams, weirs and drilling boreholes. • No households in the targeted wards 25, 28 and 30 have access to a functioning irrigation scheme. • Alternative non-farm livelihoods, such as natural product enterprises, including the production, processing and marketing of honey, baobab, “nyii” (Berchemia discolor), need to be promoted and supported. • Irrigation development in suitable locations must be one of the most important investments that can make communities in Buhera resilient to the negative impacts of climate change.

Adaptation requires a good understanding of the impact and responses) Framework; the Ecosystems interaction between climate change including Services Framework; and the Sustainable Livelihoods extremes and the biophysical and socio-economic Framework. DPSIR allows for the identification of environment. This report, ‘Profile of the Save Sub- the linkages between the driving forces that are catchment in Buhera District’, presents findings behind the direct pressures on climate and land that from the rapid assessment that was conducted cause change, the current state of land resources in April 2015 in the Save sub-catchment, Buhera and their dynamics (the direction and magnitude of District for the UNDP/GEF supported project any change), the impacts of climate variability and ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a environmental degradation on human livelihoods, and focus on Rural Livelihoods’. The assessment possible responses of communities to the impacts covered biophysical and socio-economic aspects of climate change and variability. The Ecosystem providing a better understanding on the current Services Framework focuses on the benefits people state of climate, water resources, soil resources, obtain from ecosystems. The Sustainable Livelihoods vegetation and wildlife, livestock and livelihoods. This knowledge can assist in the development of Framework approach is used for understanding appropriate climate change adaptation plans. how household livelihood systems interact with the natural, socio-economic and policy environment and The main objective of the UNDP/GEF project is how the different capitals (physical, human, financial, to scale up adaptation measures that reduce the social, natural) can be used to adapt to climate vulnerability of rural communities, particularly women change including extremes. Soil degradation was smallholder farmers affected by climate variability assessed using the Land Degradation Assessment and change in the targeted project areas. The project in Drylands (LADA) process developed by the Food intends to diversify and strengthen livelihoods and and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United sources of income for vulnerable people; and to Nations (FAO, 2011). increase knowledge and understanding of climate variability and change-induced risks in targeted vulnerable areas. The project is being implemented FINDINGS by Oxfam in partnership with the Environmental Management Agency (EMA), University of Water resources Zimbabwe (UZ), Southern Alliance for Indigenous Most streams in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera Resources (SAFIRE) and Plan International over District are seasonal, with the exception of the period 2014 to 2018. Murambwe and Save Rivers. Such streams usually dry up by October. However, in years with below average rainfall most streams dry up by April. Methodology Groundwater, which is the main source of drinking The rapid assessment and the profiling process water in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District were guided by the DPSIR (drivers, pressures, state, is characterised by high levels of turbidity. High Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, iv with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

turbidity in groundwater has negative implications Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) dominated for human health considering that pathogens such the landscape in ward 30 with a tree stand density as bacteria, viruses and protozoa typically attach to of 0.05 m-2. particulates. Several of the 28 water samples from wards 25 and 28 tested positive for salinity. 47% of groundwater samples including from boreholes, Livestock as well as unprotected shallow and deep wells in The population of cattle, goats and sheep is the three wards tested positive for faecal coliform declining as a result of forced sales from drought bacteria. Only one sample out of 11 surface water and declining pastures. sources tested positive for faecal coliform bacteria.

Soil resources Livelihoods The main livelihood strategies in Buhera wards Buhera District is experiencing severe soil 25, 28 and 30 include (1) rainfed crop and livestock degradation (physical, chemical and biological) particularly in Wards 25 and 28. In these wards production, (2) village savings, (3) bee keeping , (4) (25 and 28), both croplands and grazing lands are wild fruits harvesting including Baobab (Adansonia practically in a degraded state. More than 90 per digitata), Nyii (Berchemiah discolour), Makwakwa cent of the cropped and grazing land in ward 25 was (Strychnos madagascariensis), (5) Casual labour in in a degraded state. Given that crop and livestock exchange for food and cash, and (6) illegal selling of production are the major sources of livelihoods in fire wood/charcoal and crafts. Drought is the main these communities, and also that there is limited climatic hazard interacting with the socio-economic productive land for expansion, any interventions and biophysical environment to heighten livelihood that seek to improve food production should focus vulnerabilities in the sub-catchment. on rehabilitating the degraded lands. In Ward 30, From the results of the Rapid Assessment it can an opportunity exists for expanding small scale be concluded that the current state and trends in irrigation schemes given that the ward is dominantly covered by irrigable soils (Vertisols). land degradation, pasture depletion, water stress and socio-economic pressures are interacting with climatic stress to heighten vulnerabilities among Vegetation rural communities in the district. To build resilience, central government, local authorities and individuals The three wards were semi-arid with about 89 will need to scale up investments in water resources, per cent of the land cover being bare ground. The natural ecosystem management, climate smart bare ground can be associated with continued land agriculture, infrastructure, tailored climate services clearance for arable farming. Tree stand density was and disaster risk reduction. estimated to be about 0.03 m-2 for the three wards. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District v TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive summary 1 Chapter 1: Introduction to the profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 5 Chapter 2: Climate Profile for Buhera District 12 Chapter 3: Biophysical profile of Buhera 16 Chapter 4: Livelihoods assessment for Buhera District 27 Chapter 5: Impacts of climate hazards and coping strategies 33 Chapter 6: Conclusion and recommendations for a climate resilient Buhera 40 References: 42 Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, vi with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Abbreviations

AGRITEX Agricultural Extension CMIP3 Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project Phase 3 CRU Climate Research Unit DPSIR Drivers, pressures, state, impact and responses FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation GCM Global Climate Model GEF Global Environmental Facility IPCC International Panel on Climate Change LADA Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands NTU Nephelometric turbidity unit QGIS Open layers in Quantum Geographic Information Systems Oxfam Oxford Committee for Famine SAFIRE Southern Africa for Indigenous Resources SRES Special Report on Emissions Scenarios USD United States dollar UNDP United Nations Development Fund WHO World Health Organisation ZimVac Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee ZIMSTAT Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 1

Introduction to the profile of Save Chapter Sub-catchment in Buhera District 1

The impact of climate change including extremes variability, Oxfam in Zimbabwe is implementing is one of the biggest threats facing humankind a climate change adaptation project named today. Climate extremes are already having ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus adverse impacts in Zimbabwe, in particular in the on Rural Livelihoods’ from November 2014 to rural areas where the majority of the population October 2018. The project is a collaboration with live and mostly depend on agriculture-based Plan International, SAFIRE (Southern Alliance “The impact livelihoods. The severest impacts are being for Indigenous Resources) and the University of climate experienced in the driest regions where rainfall of Zimbabwe, and is supported by the United is becoming more unpredictable. Onset of the Nations Development Programme and Global change rainy season is frequently delayed, mid-seasons Environment Facility (UNDP/GEF). including dry spells protracted, sometimes lasting from extremes 30 and 50 days, and the rains often finish early ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013). focus on Rural Livelihoods’ is being implemented is one of predominantly in Agro-Ecological or Natural Zimbabwe is classified into five natural or agro- Region V, in parts of Buhera, Chimanimani and the biggest ecological regions on the basis of rainfall and land Chiredzi Districts, and addresses a number of threats potential for agriculture (Vincent and Thomas, climate related risks faced by smallholder farmers facing 1961). Rainfall and agricultural productivity in these dry areas (Figure 1.1). decrease from Region I to V and consequently humankind there are wide fluctuations in agricultural production potential across Zimbabwe. Region today.” V occupies lowland areas below 500 metres, covering 27 per cent of the country and is mainly arid, receiving erratic rainfall below 450mm. The Region is suitable for extensive livestock production and game ranching (Anderson et al., 1993). Communities living in Region V tend to be the most impoverished in the country. There is little irrigation infrastructure development and recurrent crop failure and food shortages characterize these areas. Climate change presents critical challenges to such communities which are already suffering high incidences of poverty.

Introduction to the Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe Project

The challenge for the country is how to develop adaptation strategies that can reduce and mitigate the diverse and complex impacts of climate change and climate variability (Government of Zimbabwe, 2015). Building on the Government’s efforts to identify and implement strategic investments that build resilience to impacts of climate change and Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 2 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

“The capacity of smallholder farmers, particularly women, to manage Figure 1.1 : Position if the target districts in the ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on Rural Livelihoods’ productive project assets and The main objective of the project is to scale up The ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with adaptation measures that reduce the vulnerability of a focus on Rural Livelihoods’ project seeks to climate risk rural communities, particularly women smallholder strengthen participatory integrated sub-catchment within their farmers affected by climate variability and change planning to produce sub-catchment level climate catchment in the targeted project areas. The project intends change adaptation investment plans, adapt to diversify and strengthen livelihoods and sources planned baseline investments and implement will also be of income for vulnerable people in targeted areas. concrete adaptation measures that diversify and enhanced”. The project also intends to increase knowledge and drought-proof rainfed agriculture and smallholder understanding of climate variability and change- farmers’ other livelihood strategies. The productive induced risks in targeted vulnerable areas as well potential and sustainability of semi-arid lands as at country level. will be increased through various watershed The project uses river sub-catchments as entry interventions focusing mainly on land and water points, namely the Save Sub-catchment in Buhera; management practices. This will help to create a the Odzi Sub-catchment in Chimanimani; and the sustainable natural resource base that assists in Runde/ Nuanetsi Sub-catchment in Chiredzi District. buffering climatic extremes particularly droughts, The elements that make up a sub-catchment are floods and heavy rainfall events at community level. linked by movement of mass and energy. Human The capacity of smallholder farmers, particularly activities form an important social element of women, to manage productive assets and climate the catchment system which interacts with the risk within their catchment will also be enhanced. biophysical elements. The interactions between Rapid assessments were conducted in April-May anthropogenic activities and other elements of 2015 to produce profiles of the targeted river sub- the drainage basin need to be properly managed catchments of Odzi in Chimanimani District, Save so that adverse effects such as reduction in water in Buhera District, and Nuanetsi/Runde in Chiredzi resources are minimised. District to capture trends of livelihood supporting Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 3 natural resources and adaptation deficits in baseline and falls in Agro-ecological Regions III, IV and investments. These reports will provide information V in the proportion of approximately a third of the that will contribute to development and climate change district in each Region. Figure 1.2 shows the spatial adaptation programming in the three sub-catchments. distribution of Agro-ecological regions across wards in Buhera district. Introduction to the rapid assessment Three wards in Buhera District, 25, 28 and 30, were of the Save Sub-catchment in selected for the assessment on the basis of being in Buhera District the Lower Save sub- catchment area, and in Agro- ecological region V. This report, ‘Profile of the Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District’, presents findings from the rapid Approach and methods assessment that was conducted in the Save sub- catchment, Buhera District for the project ‘Scaling The rapid assessment and the profiling process up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on Rural were guided by the DPSIR (drivers, pressures, state, Livelihoods’. The assessment covered biophysical impact and responses) Framework; the Ecosystems and socio-economic aspects providing a better Services Framework; and the Sustainable Livelihoods understanding of the current state of weather Framework. DPSIR allows for the identification of services, water, soil resources, vegetation and the linkages between the driving forces that are wildlife, livestock and livelihoods that can assist behind the direct pressures on climate and land that in the development of appropriate climate change cause change, the current state of land resources adaptation plans. and their dynamics (the direction and magnitude of any change), the impacts of climate variability and The study sites environmental degradation on human livelihoods, and possible responses of communities to the “understanding Buhera district is situated in Manicaland Province impacts of climate change and variability. the current state of weather services, water, soil and vegetation can assist in the development of appropriate climate change adaptation plans”.

Figure 1.2: Agro ecological classification and wards in Buhera District Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 4 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

The Ecosystem Services Framework focuses on by the Climate Research Unit (CRU), University of the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, that is, East Anglia, UK. Future climate projections were natural resources and ecosystem services, such as based on the World Climate Research Programme’s supply of clean water. This framework supports the Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project Phase assessment to investigate the range and scale of 3 (CMIP3) Global Climate Model (GCM) multi- impacts of climate change on the environment. model projections for Special Report on Emissions Scenarios A2 emissions scenario. The A2 scenario is The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework approach at the higher end of the Special Report on Emissions is used for understanding how household livelihood Scenarios emissions scenarios, although not the systems interact with the natural, socio-economic highest, and is useful because, if an adaptation to and policy environment and how the different capitals larger climate change can be planned for, then the (physical, human, financial, social, natural) can be smaller climate changes of the lower end scenarios used to adapt to climate change and variability. can also be adapted to. The main methods used in the rapid assessments Stakeholder consultations were conducted in were: the selected wards of Buhera District in which i) Focus group discussions incorporating information provided a basis for determining priority participatory tools such as historical timeline, climate information needs for climate risk reduction. ranking and livelihood calendar. Discussions The study methods included interviews with farmers, were held with groups of men and women on the local leadership, agricultural experts and other various topics, including livelihood strategies, relevant stakeholders. The elderly, youth, women, soil degradation and water resources. non-governmental organisations, local authorities, ii) Key informant interviews were held with extension officers, water users and managers were relevant stakeholders and experts with specific represented in the multi-stakeholder consultations. “This knowledge. This approach ensured that diverse perspectives and iii) Analysis of soil and water samples, both in climate information needs across all relevant sectors framework situ and in the Biological Sciences Laboratory, were captured. supports the University of Zimbabwe. assessment iv) Field observation including transect walks. Water assessment v) Analysis of satellite imagery. to investigate Information about the state of water in the targeted the range wards was obtained from the community as well as Literature review. from water quality tests, thereby integrating local and scale knowledge with empirical assessments to gain a Questions and check lists were used to guide of impacts better understanding of water resource management the focus group discussions and key informant practices. of climate interviews. Focus group discussions were held with water users change on the The rapid assessment was undertaken by a and key informants in the selected wards to evaluate team comprising experts from the University environment”. the current status of water resources. The following of Zimbabwe, SAFIRE, Buhera Rural District five topics were discussed: Council, and government departments, including local government and livestock, irrigation and * Main uses of water. mechanisation departments of the Ministry * Adequacy of supply for various uses. of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation * Water harvesting techniques. Development. * Water allocation and access rules. * Quality of water for human consumption, domestic and agricultural uses. Climate profile and climate The community groups also discussed the variation information services assessment in hydrogeology which influences groundwater occurrence and borehole yield. Secondary sources of climate data for current and past climate trends were obtained from rainfall Water quality assessments involved microbial and temperature records from the Department of analysis and chemical quality of drinking water. Meterorological Services, Ministry of Environment, These were based on World Health Organisation Water and Climate as well as from data sets developed (WHO) guideline values for drinking water, which Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 5 were established on the basis of international risk had local knowledge of the area, such as farmers, assessments of the health effects associated with local leaders and AGRITEX officers. Aspects of exposure to pathogens and chemicals in drinking degradation investigated included incidences water. of gullying, severity of soil erosion, siltation of water bodies and sediment loading in waterways, Twenty eight water samples were collected for compaction and crusting. Biological attributes laboratory analysis. Sample sites were purposefully included micro-faunal activities as well as indicator selected, distributed in all the main hydrogeological plant species. formations in the targeted wards, as hydrogeology influences groundwater occurrence and borehole In addition to physical and biological degradation yield. The samples comprised of water sources that assessments, soil samples were collected randomly local communities considered to be primary sources on each land use unit for laboratory analysis of various chemicals, including nitrogen, organic of drinking and irrigation water as well as potential carbon and base nutrients. These tests established hotspots of water pollution. chemical fertility and assessed the chemical Seventeen groundwater samples were collected degradation of the soil. from privately owned unprotected, school and local communal boreholes. Eleven surface water samples were collected from perennial rivers, namely the Save Vegetation, livestock and wildlife and Murambwe, seasonal streams and annual dams assessments such as Mondo Dam. Assessment of the vegetation, crops, and wildlife All water samples were analyzed using standard and livestock resources was carried out through protocols for chemical and micro-biological analyses. focus group discussions in the wards, transect In the field, water samples were analysed for walks and satellite imagery. salinity, total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity “drought coping and temperature at source using a portable multi- The focus groups consisted of 6-10 community parameter meter. The water quality parameters members who had extensive experience in using strategies measured in the laboratory were nitrates, pH, and managing the local environmental resources, regarding turbidity and faecal coliforms. including grazing land, cropping land, fuelwood and other forest products. The participants provided data changes in on: types of livestock reared and crops grown, trends crops grown Soil assessment on the quality and quantity of grazing, occurrence of and livestock bush encroachment, presence of invasive species A rapid assessment of soil degradation in Buhera on both rangeland and grazing land, frequency and stocks were District was conducted using the Land Degradation severity of bush fires, fire control measures and explored”. Assessment in Drylands (LADA) process developed by-laws governing fire. In addition, drought coping by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of strategies regarding changes in crops grown and the United Nations (FAO, 2011). The objective of the livestock stocks were also explored. rapid assessment was to produce a soil degradation profile for the targeted sub-catchment in Buhera Two 600 metre transect walks were conducted to guide the development of appropriate climate at least 5 kilometres apart in each of the target change adaptation plans. wards, incorporating vegetation gradients. The transect walks gathered data regarding vegetation Participatory community land use mapping was type, vegetation cover, vegetation composition and conducted with groups of farmers and other key stakeholders within the target wards such as local species diversity and plant health in terms of grazing extension workers from AGRITEX and Ministry of quality in pastures and rangelands. Transects were Lands and Rural Resettlement officers, to gather used to note bush encroachment, invasive and local knowledge of soil degradation and mapping poisonous species, overgrazing, and general plant of land use patterns. The participants constructed condition. a ward land use sketch map indicating locations of Satellite image interpretation was used from degraded and productive fields, grazing lands and GeoEye. Images available via Open layers in other natural resource pools such as woodlands Quantum Geographic Information Systems (QGIS) and wetlands. were downloaded and the images classified into Participatory transect walks to assess soil physical three distinct vegetation density categories. The and biological degradation as guided by the land categories are thick vegetation (more than 40 per use sketch map were conducted with people who cent canopy cover), sparse vegetation cover (10- Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 6 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

40 per cent canopy cover) and bare ground (less strategies and v) livelihood outcomes within than 10 per cent canopy cover). Field data obtained communities in the targeted sub-catchments. during the transect walks was used to groundtruth * Identify gender inequalities in accessing satellite-based classification. livelihood assets and opportunities especially for women. * Map existing producer groups that the project Socio-economic and livelihoods can build up on. assessments The main method used to obtain information about The livelihood assessments sought to: livelihoods was focus group discussions with community members. Key informant interviews * Collect livelihood related data for improved were also used to gain specialised knowledge on understanding of the impact of climate related specific issues. hazards. * Identify who is being affected by climate Participants, consisting of both men and women, change and variability and what the discussed climate hazards and other hazards that relationship is between climate change and communities were facing, how they coped and variability and specific to livelihood features how their coping could be strengthened to build and strategies. resilience against climate hazards. Households were * Identify important socio-economic, institutional categorised into different wealth groups according to and policy drivers for climate vulnerability. the assets that they own. The group also looked at * Identify how policy facilitates or hinders who owns which assets, who has the right to use climate change adaptation engagement. and the right to dispose of the assets. * Identify roles that social (community In order to get gendered perspectives the participants organisation), financial, human (capacity, were divided into separate groups of men only and knowledge) and physical (infrastructure) women only. Within these groups, participants forms of capital (assets) play at the local level discussed their main livelihood strategies and in influencing perspectives on land and its how these strategies can be strengthened to build management. resilience to future droughts in the Save Sub- * Identify the linkages between i) vulnerability, ii) catchment in Buhera wards. These gendered groups livelihood assets, iii) institutions, iv) livelihood also recommended priority investments that could Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 7 be made by the project. Participatory livelihood objectives, approach and methods used. ranking was undertaken using small stones to * Chapter 2 provides the climate profile of reflect the importance of each livelihood. Buhera District, from scientific data and community perceptions. The chapter tackles Key informant interviews were carried out with future climate scenarios. representatives from the Rural District Council, * Chapter 3 contains the rapid assessment of government departments including AGRITEX, the biophysical resources, including profiles health and youth, as well as community leaders of water resources, soil, vegetation, livestock namely village heads and councillors and non- and wildlife. The chapter includes suggested governmental organisations. An institutional analysis interventions for improving each resource. was carried out with key informants to gather * Chapter 4 presents the socio-economic information about what institutions are doing and assessment, focusing on livelihood profiles. what they would consider to be priority investments * Chapter 5 elaborates on the communities for building resilience. coping strategies to address the hazards of climate change. * Chapter 6 presents the conclusion and Structure of report recommendations for interventions to build The report is organised into chapters as follows: resilience to climate change amongst communities in Buhera. * Chapter 1 introduces the ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on Rural A number of main messages have been identified Livelihoods’ project and gives a background to from the rapid assessment as being key for the rapid assessment and profiling of the Save programming for scaling up adaptation to climate Sub-catchment in Buhera District, including change and possibilities for future action in Buhera. Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 8 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Climate Profile For Buhera Chapter District 2

Introduction areas in Region V receive less than 500 mm a year. The temperature and rainfall vary in a north An understanding of historical and current weather south direction following the pattern of elevation and climate is important for assessing current with the northern part (high elevation) having higher livelihood options as well as understanding the rainfall and being cooler and the southern part (low potential impacts of climate change on these elevation) of the district characterised by low rainfall livelihoods so as to find ways of adapting. This and high temperatures. chapter presents a climate profile of Buhera District, Buhera experiences hot summers (30-400C) and focusing on the project target wards 25, 28 and mild winters (6-250C) with mean temperatures of 30 that fall in Agro-ecological Region V, located in 220C (Figure 2.1). In June the minimum temperatures the south of Buhera District that are hot, dry areas sometimes reach below zero degrees Celsius. and have the lowest rainfall. The low and erratic rainfall is too unreliable for rainfed crop production, therefore extensive cattle or game ranching are Extreme climate events in Buhera the recommended viable land use options, except Droughts are a characteristic feature of Agro- for situations where water for irrigation is available ecological Region V. The Standardized Precipitation (Moyo, 1994). Index (SPI), which is the number of standard deviations that observed cumulative precipitation Climate of Buhera District deviates from the climatological average, was used to calculate the frequency of occurrence of extreme The pattern and quantity of rainfall in Buhera District climate events. The frequency of occurrence of varies widely within the district. Areas within Agro- extreme events from 1970 to 2011 using the SPI is ecological region III receive 650-800 mm, while shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.1: Mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures for Buhera Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 9

Figure 2.2:Annual Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) Values for the period 1970 to 2011 region for Buhera: Source of Data: Zimbabwe Department of Meteorological Services

Droughts have increased in Agro-Ecological Region cessation of rainfall. V since the 1970s (Figure 4). From the 1980s The region of Buhera that falls in Agro-ecological onwards, there were more drought years than wet Region V normally receives about 55 per cent of the years. The highest frequency of drought was in the normal rainfall, based on a 41-year average from 1990s when most of the years were drought years. the 1960/61 season to the 2000/2001 season. The The major impacts of these droughts are shortage normal decadal rainfall graph for Buhera is slightly of water for humans and livestock, crop failure, bi-modal with a dip in early to mid January and two death of animals and food shortages. Most of the peaks, one in mid-December and the other towards droughts in Zimbabwe are characterised by late the end of January (Figure 2.3). onset of rainfall, mid-season dry spells and early

Figure 2.3: Mean decadal rainfall for Buhera Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 10 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

The mid-season dry spell experienced in Buhera intraseasonal characteristics such as onset/ coincides with the critical period when crops are in cessation dates, frequency of droughts and floods their most vulnerable physiological state. Therefore (often back to back in one season), mid-season dry early maturing crop varieties are important. spells and the frequency of occurrence of heavy rainfall events have undergone significant shifts. Participants perceptions of climate Projections of future climate trends in Zimbabwe using 10 of the 21 available Global Climate Models change in Buhera (GCMs) used in the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report suggest The participants of the focus group discussions possible impacts associated with such changes were aware that there have been changes in climate (Table 2.1). over the years and seasonal rainfall changes have been observed. They indicated that in the past the There is a high level of agreement between the rains started in mid September /mid October up to projections of temperature generated by the end of April and were well distributed throughout the different Global Climate Models. Therefore we can season. Currently the season starts from end of have high confidence in the resulting information. November/early December to the end of March/ mid Projected changes are in the range of 2°C to 2.75°C April. During the 2014/2015 season rains came in by the 2050s across the different models for the early December 2014 and rained heavily up to early Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) A2 January 2015. Then there was a long dry spell up emissions scenario, which is the estimated global to early April 2015 and the rains started again. This emissions in a world of independently operating resulted in the first crop planting being negatively nations, a growing global population and regionally affected by too much rain, and crops that managed orientated economic development. Greater to survive the heavy rain dried up during the dry increases are expected across the western parts of spell. The erratic rains make it difficult for farmers to the Zimbabwe. plan for future cropping seasons. Increases in temperature may change the areas in which various crops can be grown and decrease crop productivity Historic and future national climate relative to current levels. An increase in temperature may trends make Zimbabwe more suitable for forest biomes found in “The erratic the subtropical climates than the temperate climates that rains make Zimbabwe’s rainfall and temperature patterns have currently exist. Higher temperatures affect soil moisture undergone significant variation and modification in content, thereby altering the supply and quality of water, it difficult for the last 100 years. Mean annual surface temperature as well as the demand for agriculture and domestic use, farmers to has risen by ±0.1º C every ten years. Total annual particularly in the rural areas. plan for future rainfall does not show any significant trend, but cropping seasons”. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 11

Table 2.1: A summary of past and future climate trends in Zimbabwe

Climate Key messages Possible impacts Source Confidence feature in projections Past climate High variability, Historical variability frequent drought rainfall years and flood records events Past climate Increasing Historical trends temperatures temperature (~0.1°C/decade) and rainfall No conclusive records changes in precipitation

Future climate 2 – 2.75o C Changes in crop yields World Climate High confidence trends temperature Changes in forest Research increase by the biomes Programme’s middle of the Decreased supply and Coupled century (the period quality of water Model Inter- 2046-2065) Melting of tar on roads comparison Changing crop patterns Project Phase Low confidence Possible decrease Increased erosion loss of 3 (CMIP3) in rainfall particularly soil water retention Global during the onset Wells and boreholes Climate stage of the rainy dry up Model (GCM) season (Sep-Nov) Decreased water multi-model and later onset availability leads to projections of Dec-Jan rainy poor sanitation and (for Special season is expected its associated health Report on by the middle of the impacts Emissions century (the period Disruption to Scenarios 2046-2065) hydroelectric power (SRES) A2 emissions scenario) Source: Adapted from the Department for International Development, UK support to the Strategic Programme Review for Climate Change, Zimbabwe

Uncertainty

While projections of future climate change are important, they should not be seen as the starting point of the adaptation process. Rather, adaptation efforts should focus on those places and people most vulnerable to, and at risk from, current climate conditions. Therefore, adaptation efforts should start by looking more closely at analyses of observed records and how the range of conditions currently experienced impact on different people. Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 12 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Chapter Biophysical profile of Buhera 3 Introduction water, especially perennial rivers, is important in administration of smallholder irrigation. More than 70 per cent of rural communities in Zimbabwe derive their livelihoods directly or indirectly from crop and livestock production as well as goods Chemical aspects of water quality and services from common pool natural resources. This chapter of the rapid assessment examines the biophysical aspects of the targeted wards in pH Buhera and proposes some intervention strategies to improve the situation. The chapter begins with an pH is a term used to indicate the alkalinity or acidity assessment of water resources essential for human as ranked on a scale from 1.0 to 14.0. Acidity wellbeing and productive livelihoods. The quality increases as the pH gets lower. pH is a measure of water is examined by investigating the chemical of hydrogen ions and affects many chemical and and microbial attributes, while investigation of the biological processes in the water. quantity aspects focuses on problematic access to water resources. In general, the pH of the water sampled in all The second part of the biophysical chapter presents hydrogeological formations in the rapid assessment the soil assessment, illustrating the extent of was between 7.5 and 8.5, which is within the WHO degradation. Appropriate management of the soil guideline range of pH 6.5 to 8.5 for drinking water resource base, where livelihood activities are (Figure 3.1). Water samples that were above the anchored, is key to sustaining livelihoods in rural recommended pH guidelines were from Mondo Dam “Appropriate communities, particularly in the face of climate and a communal borehole close to Chapanduka management change and variability. The final part of the chapter Clinic in ward 28. examines the vegetation, wildlife and livestock of the soil issues of Buhera. resource base, where livelihood Water Resources Assessment activities are In semi-arid districts of Zimbabwe like Buhera, rainfall unpredictability is a major contributor to anchored, is key crop failure and water scarcity and has the potential to sustaining to undermine rural livelihoods. Climate change, increasing population pressure and water quality livelihoods degradation are expected to further compound the in rural problem of inadequacy of surface and groundwater communities” supplies for domestic, irrigation and other uses. A rapid assessment of the present status of water resources in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District was carried out to provide evidence to improve the management of water in a changing climate. The water assessment explored the adaptation options focusing on water quality issues, water demand and supply, and competition for water with different users. Surface and groundwater are important for socio- economic development in Buhera. Groundwater is the primary source of water for domestic use. Surface Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 13

Figure 3.1: pH of water samples and hydrogeology of target wards in Buhera Turbidity bacteria, viruses and protozoa typically attach to particulates. Turbidity is the measure of relative clarity of a liquid. It is an optical characteristic of water and is an expression of the amount of light that is scattered by material in the water when a light is shined through the water sample and is reported in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). Material that causes water to be turbid include clay, silt, finely divided inorganic and organic matter, algae, soluble coloured organic compounds, and plankton and other microscopic organisms. The turbidity of groundwater and surface water in samples from all three wards assessed in Buhera District exceeded the guideline value of 5 NTUs (Figure 3.2). Groundwater, which is the main source of drinking water in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District is characterised by high levels of turbidity. Excessive turbidity, or cloudiness, in drinking water is aesthetically unappealing, and may also represent a health hazard considering that pathogens such as Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 14 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Figure 3.2: Spatial variation in turbidity (NTUs) in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District “Excessive Salinity Microbial quality of water amounts of dissolved salt in Salinity is a measure of the content of salts in soil or Faecal coliform bacteria generally originate in water. Excessive amounts of dissolved salt in water the intestines of warm-blooded animals and their water can affect can affect agriculture, drinking water supplies and presence in water may indicate that the water agriculture, ecosystem health. has been contaminated with the faecal material drinking water Several water samples from wards 25 and 28 tested of humans or other animals. When levels are positive for salinity. These were collected from high there may be an elevated risk of waterborne supplies and borehole water at Romorehoto Clinic, Ngomayevise gastroenteritis. ecosystem Primary School, and from a borehole close to a dip Contamination with faecal coliforms was detected health”. tank near Zvenyika Primary School. Water samples in surface and groundwater samples in wards 25, from individual wells close to this dip tank were also 28 and 30 of Buhera District (Figure 3.3). Water saline. samples from boreholes, as well as unprotected shallow and deep wells, tested positive for faecal Nitrates coliforms.

Nitrates in water can be advantageous for Faecal coliform bacteria likely enter unprotected agriculture. However, excess nitrates in drinking wells through runoff or via use of contaminated water can be harmful. The concentration of nitrates containers used to abstract water. With regard to in all the water samples from the three wards boreholes, seepage from on-site pit latrines is a analysed was less than 1 mg/l which is lower than likely source of faecal bacteria. the WHO guideline value of 50 mg/l. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 15

Figure 3.3: Distribution of water sampled for faecal coliforms in Buhera District.

Water demand and supply issues

With the exception of Murambwe and Save rivers, most streams in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera districts are seasonal. Such streams usually dry up by October. However, in years with below average rainfall most streams dry up by April. For example, seasonal streams had dried up at the time of the rapid assessment in April 2015. In light of the seasonality of these rivers, groundwater is the main source of water for domestic and agricultural use including livestock watering. Four communities without easy access to potable water were identified during discussions with stakeholders (Figure 3.4). In each of these communities, people travel for more than three kilometres to the nearest borehole to access water. Most households in these communities use privately owned wells that often dry up after continuous abstraction and refill after an hour or more. This unreliable water situation tends to trigger conflicts among water consumers. Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 16 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Figure 3.4: Distribution of priority communities for establishment of boreholes in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District. Status of smallholder irrigation with stakeholders and direct observations. Bonde schemes smallholder irrigation scheme (Figure 3.5) in the south west of ward 30 was the only irrigation scheme The status of irrigation schemes in the target wards in the target wards. However, it is not functional. in Buhera was assessed through consultations Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 17

Figure 3.5 Location of Bonde Irrigation Scheme in Ward 30 of Buhera District Interventions to enhance water There is an urgent need to improve the situation of “Bonde quality and quantity the four communities in the target wards that lacked easy access to drinking water, by drilling boreholes irrigation Groundwater in wells and boreholes in wards 25, in each community and strengthening maintenance scheme 28 and 30 of Buhera District were contaminated and management. This will help to alleviate water by faecal coliforms. This finding is in conflict with shortage and improve rural livelihoods. should be the widely held view that groundwater is protected Bonde irrigation scheme should be resuscitated and resuscitated against bacteria of faecal origin (Conboy and Goss more irrigation schemes established. In a changing 2000). Several waterborne pathogenic diseases climate, rural communities with dams and access and more including dysentery and bacterial gastroenteritis to irrigation water tend to have more resilience and irrigation tend to coincide with faecal coliform contamination. greater adaptive capacity to climate change (Walker schemes Given how widespread bacterial contamination of et al. 2002). drinking water was, boiling drinking water before it established”. is consumed must be a priority. The alternative to Soil assessment boiling the water is treating the water with chlorine. Increased frequency of droughts and other extreme However, this is not feasible given that chlorine is weather conditions linked to climate change and not readily available. variability reduce the productivity of soils. The High salinity recorded in water from three sights is nature of soil degradation at farm and community cause for concern. Participants in group discussions levels varies due to factors such as soil type and thought that drinking water with a high salinity is farming practices. Assessment of soil degradation at local level is therefore crucial to adopting climate harmful to human health, as well as for livestock change adaptation investment plans in order to build watering and crop irrigation. This rapid assessment resilience of rural communities. did not investigate this link. There is need for more research on the relationship between salinity of Local indicators of degraded and productive fields drinking water and the health of consumers. and grazing lands highlighted by communities in Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 18 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Buhera included indicator plant species and soil collected from both cropped land and grazing land physical attributes. Degraded croplands were showed low pH (less than pH 4) and low levels of characterised by high abundance of witch weed nitrogen, phosphorus, organic carbon, exchangeable (bise/rutiti), low herbaceous plant abundance bases (calcium, magnesium). The fertility of these and diversity, presence of gullies and rills and soil soils is too low to support any meaningful crop capping. Indicators of degraded grazing lands production or establishment of pastures. included low browse abundance and diversity, In ward 28, more than 50 per cent of the cropped land poor growth and regeneration of pastures, and the is degraded (Figure 3.6). The degraded croplands presence of tsinde (Sporobolus pyramidalis) and occupy most of the north-western part of the ward thatching grass (Hyparrhenia). bordering ward 25. Similar to ward 25, the soils were sandy with low pH (acidic), and low levels of nitrogen, Extent of degraded lands in the phosphorus, organic carbon and exchangeable target wards bases (calcium, magnesium). Pockets of moderately fertile croplands and grazing lands were restricted to The rapid assessment in Buhera District indicated the south-eastern part of the ward. severe degradation (physical, chemical and biological) of both croplands and grazing lands, The soils in ward 30 were more fertile pale brown particularly in wards 25 and 28 (Figure 3.6). More deep alluvial clay soils of calcium-based parent than 90 per cent of the cropped and grazing land in material commonly known as vertisols. Soil physical ward 25 was in a degraded state (Figure 3.6). degradation (gullies, rill erosion, and silted rivers) in ward 30 was low (Figure 3.6). Soils sampled Ward 25 has granite-derived shallow sandy soils from most of the fields and grazing lands showed of low inherent fertility, which are prone to physical, high clay content, nitrogen, organic carbon and biological and chemical degradation. Gullies and exchangeable bases (calcium, magnesium), silted streams were prevalent in both cropped fields indicating suitability for cropping and establishment and grazing areas indicating severe soil erosion. Soil of pastures for livestock. chemical analyses results (Table 3.1 ) of samples “Degraded croplands were characterised by high abundance of witch weed (bise/ rutiti), low herbaceous plant abundance”

Figure 3.6: Spatial distribution of degraded and productive croplands and grazing lands in wards 25, 28 and 30 in Buhera District, Zimbabwe Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 19 Irrigation Scheme Degraded grazing land Productive grazing land Degraded field Productive field Ward 30 Degraded grazing land Productive grazing land Degraded field Productive field Ward 25 Degraded grazing land Productive grazing land Degraded field Productive field Ward 28 Table 3.1 Soil Analysis - Physical, chemical and biological properties of soils sampled from croplands and grazing lands in Buhera District during April 2015. (%) Clay 31 28 8 32 7 9 11 8 9 8 8 9 (%) Sand 33 35 77 29 81 76 81 78 78 78 81 77 (%) Silt 36 37 15 39 21 15 8 14 12 14 11 14 (%) Organic C 1.6 1.4 0.4 1.6 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.5 (mg kg Available P 12 9 4 10 4 5 5 6 4 7 5 7 -1 ) HTotal N pH 5.8 6.3 3.9 6.5 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.9 3.8 3.7 4.0 me% (%) 0.14 0.13 0.03 0.15 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.04 aM Na me% K me% me% Mg Ca 7.3 8.8 0.3 9.8 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.4 8.1 6.9 0.2 7.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.9 0.5 0.03 1.3 0.04 0.4 0.04 0.3 0.04 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.09 0.1 0.02 0.08 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 status Overall fertility High High Low High Low Low Low Low Low Low to medium Low Low to medium Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 20 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Possible climate change Vegetation degradation in Buhera interventions Recurrent drought was found to be the main driver A number of climate change interventions are of the degraded state of vegetation. As droughts proposed to address land degradation and low become more frequent there is a decrease in crop productivity. yields per hectare. In reaction to this, farmers in the target wards increase the hectarage under crops in an effort to improve yields. Consequently there Increase crop production on is a shortage of arable land and farmers resort to dryland fields converting marginal lands, such as the remaining riverine vegetation and woodlands on hill slopes, to Most of the landscape is in a degraded state, arable land. This increase of arable land has led to particularly dryland cropped fields and grazing the depletion of forest, biodiversity loss and decline lands in wards 25 and 28. There is little room for in ecosystem services such as graze and browse. expansion and therefore, there is need to increase crop production on the existing land. Loss of biodiversity can lead to wildlife-human conflicts, such as baboons raiding crops and quelea Opportunities exist for rehabilitating degraded birds, which normally feed on grass seeds, raiding fields and increasing crop productivity using such sorghum crops. Farmers are moving towards growing practices as integrated soil fertility management. more sorghum and millet instead of maize as a These include consistent use of combinations of coping strategy to the recurrent droughts. However locally available organic nutrient resources (manure, red billed quelea birds are major pest that reduce woodland litter), liming and multi-nutrient mineral the yield. Grain in storage is under increasing attack fertilizers as well as the inclusion of nitrogen fixing from weevils, some species of the weevils are said legumes in the cropping sequences. Given that these to be resistant to known and available remedies. wards are in low rainfall areas, integrated soil fertility management could be employed in combination The recurrent droughts have also driven the local with soil and water management practices such as people to over rely on wild fruits, in particular baobab conservation agriculture. fruit (Adansonia digitata) and “nyii” berries (Berchemia “In southern discolor), as a coping strategy. Overharvesting can Once the soils have been rehabilitated, farmers can lead to local extinction of these species. Africa, maximize crop production during good rainfall years and use the surplus grain as reserves for drought Cattle, sheep, goats and donkeys are grazed grassland is years. Small grains such as sorghum and millets are in the rainy season on communal rangelands described as the most adaptable crops in such low rainfall areas. characterized by remnants of uncleared woodland. sweet or sour In the dry season, cropland which is regarded as Prevention of soil erosion private property in the rainy season, becomes a veld. Sweet common pool resource during the dry season as Given that gullies and dongas are also prevalent in cattle graze communally on the harvested cropland. veld maintains these wards, there is also need for extension and In southern Africa, grassland is described as a high the rural district council to enforce construction of sweet or sour veld. Sweet veld maintains a high contours and storm drains to curb soil erosion. nutritional nutritional content as well as being very palatable to content” the species that browse the grass, while sour veld Enhance irrigation lacks a constant nutritional value and palatability. The major factor constraining crop production is The grassland in the targeted wards was sweet veld low rainfall. Therefore a key strategy in a potential consisting of nutritious grass species such as Milinis climate change adaptation plan investment strategy repens, Heteropogon contotus and Bouteloua would be to establish new irrigation schemes in ward dactyloides. Community representatives indicated 30. An opportunity exist for expanding small scale that there was a shortage of grazing for livestock irrigation schemes given that the ward is dominantly particularly cattle during the dry season when the covered by irrigable soils (vertisols). sweet veld is depleted. Goats and sheep are less affected as they browse during the dry season Enhance livestock production on Acacia karroo bushes that are ubiquitous on disturbed land. To supplement livestock feed, fodder legumes Farmers collect all crop residue and store it for and grasses could be established in some of the supplementary feed for cattle during the dry season. fallowed fields. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 21

The rainy season of 2014/15 yielded very little crop cleared land. The few mature trees had evidence of residues because of drought. their branches cut off to provide fencing material for gardens or fuelwood, with limited understory Vegetation degradation indicators such as presence of weeds, Acanthospermum hispidium, Acalypha vegetation. The few grasses present were heavily spp, Chenopdium spp, Sporobolus spp and grazed and there was no evidence of seed Lantana camara were common in the three targeted production of the annual species, thus threatening wards of Buhera. their local extinction, and further exacerbating land degradation. The most abundant tree species were Combretum State of vegetation in Buhera spp and Terminalia spp with a combined tree stand -2 The three wards were semi-arid with about 89 per density of 0.01 m for wards 25 and 28. Mopane cent of the land cover being bare ground (Figure (Colophospermum mopane) dominated the 3.7). The bare ground can be associated with landscape in ward 30 with a tree stand density of -2 continued land clearance for arable farming which 0.05 m . has removed the vegetation cover to below 10 per Trees were generally in good health. However, a cent in almost all land of relatively flat gradient. 20 per cent sooty mould disease infection rate Remnant woody cover was observed on hill tops, for baobab trees was recorded during the rapid cropland boundary hedges and in riverine habitats. assessment. In addition, a 95 per cent red/blue gum Tree stand density was estimated to be about 0.03 infection was found on eucalyptus trees in the study m-2 for the three wards. area. These tree infections are cause for concern as The majority of trees, which are in the sparse both diseases kill infected trees within a few years vegetation category, were regenerating on previously of infection.

Figure3.7: Vegetation cover maps for three wards in Buhera Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 22 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Grass cover was constrained under Acacia number of sheep and goats have been killed by karroo bushes. The prevalence of these invasive hyenas. As a result very tall fences have been put thorn bushes represents bush encroachment on around goat enclosures in ward 30 to thwart hyena cropland and road sides, as they crowd out grasses raids. and herbaceous species. However, this has the Participants emphasized the shortage of grazing advantage in that they also shield the grass species and fodder for cattle, and indicated that they would from grazing, giving the grasses a chance to seed face severe food shortages from mid-winter when and regenerate. The observed herbaceous species the remaining grass will be totally dry and depleted. on cropland were Acanthospermum hispidium, The cattle were observed to be generally in good Acalypha spp, Chenopdium spp and black jack condition during the rapid assessment. (Bidens pilosa) whereas grass species were dominated by Melenis repens, Sporobolus spp and Farmers indicated that tick born and other diseases Heteropogon contotus. such as heart water, anthrax and black leg in cattle and acute heart water in goats and sheep were increasing. Newcastle disease in poultry was also State of livestock and wild animals of concern. in Buhera District Bee keeping is on the rise particularly in wards Participants of focus group discussions indicated 25 and 28. It was reported that honey was being that cattle, goats and sheep numbers are declining harvested in such large amounts that supply due to livestock sales as a coping strategy, as well exceeds demand. as deaths associated with droughts. A significant Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 23

Livelihoods Assessment for Chapter Buhera District 4 Introduction

A livelihood system comprises of the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources), and activities required for a means of living. The combination of assets and activities, undertaken usually at the household level is often referred to as the household’s livelihood strategy. The Sustainable Livelihood approach illustrates how, in different contexts, sustainable livelihoods can be achieved through access to a range of livelihood assets or capitals (natural, social, financial, physical, and human) which, within the context of personal, institutional, and environmental provisions and constraints, are combined in the pursuit of different livelihood strategies (Chambers and Conway, 1992). These livelihoods provide tools that protect rural communities from the extremes of poverty as well as ensuring food security and self-sustenance. In that regard, livelihood profiling is important in understanding the vulnerability of communities to climate variability and change. Further, livelihoods are key determinants of the adaptive capacity of communities and as such there is need to come household size in Buhera District was 4.4 and 67 per up with context-specific livelihood strategies. This cent of the population were engaged in agriculture provides important information on the ability or (ZIMSTAT, 2013). There has been an inter-census potential of a community to respond successfully growth rate of 2.3 per cent between 2002 and to climate variability and change. Further, livelihood 2012 in Manicaland Province (ZIMSTAT, 2013). profiling is key in informing interventions to enhance The increase in human population has resulted in coping strategies and resilience within the context pressure on natural resources, particularly land. of climate change. The purpose of adaptation is Due to this increase, areas that had been reserved to reduce risks and vulnerabilities faced by the for livestock grazing are now being opened up for marginalized communities. crop farming and for homesteads thereby reducing This chapter outlines the socio-economic aspects, the already limited grazing area. Some communities assets and livelihood strategies, with a focus settled in hilly regions and places that had been on dryland cropping and livestock farming for reserved for fields. communities in the target wards 25, 28 and 30 Settlement patterns in the targeted wards are varied, in Buhera District, which are in the Save Sub- with separate areas for homesteads, fields and catchment. grazing areas in some wards, while in other wards the homestead and the fields are in one area with Socio-economic profile other fields away from the homestead and separate grazing areas. The total population of Buhera District is 245,878 of which 46.4 per cent were males and 53.6 Christianity and traditional practices predominate per cent were female (ZIMSTAT, 2013). The average in the three targeted wards. About 80 per cent of Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 24 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

people practice Christianity and main the churches Generally men own the land and women have the are the Apostolic sects, Zion, Zvapupu, Jeke Mishini, right to use it. Women own land in cases where their Roman Catholic, Zimbabwe Assemblies of God husbands have died. In addition to land, households Africa, Apostolic Faith Mission and Reform Church in owned a range of assets including livestock and Zimbabwe. farm implements (Table 4.2). Most of these assets are perceived to be owned by men who also hold The literacy rate for Buhera is high at 95 per cent, the right to dispose of them. Women tend to own while a relatively high percentage, 15.1 per cent, smaller livestock namely goats and poultry. Some of the adult population had never been to school women also own cattle as mhombe yehumai, given (ZIMSTAT, 2013). during lobola transactions for their daughters. Assets Natural resources, such as thatching grass and wild fruits, were owned by the community. Table 4.2 lists Traditional leadership has the authority to allocate the various assets and indicates their ownership communal land. Land for fields and homesteads can and rights to use and dispose of them, as perceived be privately owned, however grazing areas, rivers, by the participants of the focus group discussions. boreholes, wild fruits and firewood are communally owned, and use is controlled by the community.

Table 4.1: Ownership of assets and rights to use and disposal of them

List of Assets Who owns the Who has right to use Who has right to asset the asset dispose/sell the asset Cattle Men Family Men Goats Men and women Family Family Donkeys Men Men Men Poultry-Indigenous Women Women Family chickens Sheep Men Family Men Scotch cart Men Family Men Wheel barrow Men Family Men Cultivator Men Family Men Machetes Women Family Women Car Men Family Men Land (fields and homestead) Men Family Men or a widow Pastures-grazing area Community Community Village head can allocate Firewood Community Everyone but consult Not allowed for village head if one wants commercial purposes but to use undried fire wood. it is happening illegally Thatching grass Community Community Community can harvest and sell Wild fruits Community Community Community can harvest fruits and sell

Wealth groups in Buhera 4.3 shows the wealth groups and the average assets for Buhera, with the majority, 56 per cent, being Participants were asked to list the assets that are in the poor category, with about one third in the owned by households. The asset lists were then moderate category and only 14 per cent classified used to categorise the affluence levels of the as better-off. households into poor, moderate and better-off. Table Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 25

Table 4.2: Proportions of wealth groups in Buhera Assets Wealth group Poor Moderate Better Off Cattle 0-3 4-10 6-20 Goat / Sheep 0-5 6-10 11-30 Poultry 0-10 6-20 21-30 Buildings 1-2 Huts, and granary, 2 rooms on galvanised Hut, well, 3-6 roomed house toilet, Hut made of pole and iron, hut and granary bathroom ,deep well, fenced dagga, toilet made from and well poles or no toilet (uses neighbour’s toilet) Implements Plough, scotch cart, Hoes, cultivator, harrow, Scotch wheel barrow, hoes cart, 2-3 ploughs, and wheel Hoes barrow Others Car, businesses, generator Proportion of 56% 30% 14% the community

Livelihood Strategies hulling and roasting it is unpalatable. Farmers in ward 30 indicated that they have stopped producing The main livelihood strategies in the target wards in white sorghum, the Marcia variety, because it does Buhera are: crop production (rainfed and gardens) not do well in severe drought years as well as livestock rearing, illegal selling of fire wood/charcoal, being affected by weevils. Field observations and crafts, village savings and lending, and bee keeping. consultations with farmers in April 2015 indicated Wild fruits such as baobab (Adansonia digitata), nyii that red sorghum is the most drought tolerant crop. (Berchemia discolour) and makwakwa (Strychnos It is also not eaten by quelea birds which prefer madascariensis), as well as casual labour, are white sorghum. exchanged for food and cash. Farmers used to grow cotton, however due to “Small declining prices most have abandoned this crop Crop production and only a few farmers remain producing it. The grains have main crops being grown for cash are red sorghum a potential to A variety of crops are grown in Buhera including and roundnuts. improve food white and red sorghum, maize, pearl millet, finger Small grains have a potential to improve food millet, cow peas, roundnuts/ bambara nuts and security in security in dry regions because of their adaptability ground nuts. Most crops are marketed through sales to such arid environments. Farmers in Buhera dry regions or barter trade amongst the community. Some are are increasingly putting more land under drought also bought by some private buyers. Red sorghum because tolerant crops, rather than maize. A trend analysis is purchased at specific points in the farming area by of small grain crop production in Buhera indicates of their Delta Corporation for the manufacture of beverages. that there have been fluctuations in production over adaptability There are a number of groups in ward 28 who the years, with a peak in 2014 and a sharp decline to such arid grow red sorghum for contract farming with Delta in 2015. Pearl millet has the highest production Corporation. These groups, such as Mvurere, amongst the small grains in Buhera and reached a environments”. Sorwe, Nendanga, Kubatana and Mujeje have peak in 2014. about 50 to 70 members. Table 4.4 gives an estimation of the area planted Farmers prefer white sorghum as a food crop to red by the households for various crops, out of a sorghum due to its colour and palatability, although total of approximately 1.8 hectares cultivated by they do consume red sorghum in times of food households in the targeted wards in Burhera. An shortages. Red sorghum needs to be dehulled, indication is given of the prices obtained for each roasted and then milled. If it is milled without de- crop in a good year (Table 4.4). Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 26 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Table 4.3: Estimates of area planted under different crops and prices of products Crop Area planted (Hectare) Percentage (%) Average price in good year (USD) Per tonne Per 20 litre tin Red sorghum 0.2 11 285 White sorghum 0.4 22 6 Finger millet 0.1 6 6 Pearl millet 0.2 11 5 Bambara nuts 0.6 33 5-8 Ground nuts 0.2 11 4 Maize 0.1 6 6 Total 1.8 100

Farmers indicated that there had been a reduction this irrigation scheme is not functional as the pumps in red sorghum as the money sometimes came late. need to be rehabilitated. Therefore, no households More land is being put under bambara nuts which in the targeted wards 25, 28 and 30 have access to are grown both as a source of food and for cash. an irrigation scheme.

Crops that were perceived to be most helpful during Gardening drought periods are millets, sorghum and roundnuts. Although millets and sorghum are good for coping Consolidated community gardens and individual with drought, grinding them for meal is expensive. gardens are found in the targeted wards. The gardens For example, sorghum/millets costs USD 2 to grind are concentrated near water bodies such as rivers, a 20 litre bucket compared to USD 1 to grind a 20 dams, boreholes, and dambos. Some gardens have “Crops litre bucket of maize. In addition, sorghum and millets crops throughout the year depending on the water require another USD 1 for dehulling. Some farmers source. In some gardens production was discontinued that were do not have access to dehullers. After dehulling when the source of water dried up, especially in the perceived the grain needs to be toasted. This process means case of boreholes drying up. Some organisations that the grain has to go through the milling process have introduced consolidated gardens at existing to be most twice, first to dehull and then to grind, which is more water points such as boreholes and this has resulted helpful during expensive and laborious. in too much pressure at such points as the water is also used by livestock and for domestic use. drought Sources of seed The crops that are grown in gardens are maize for periods The main sources of seed are retained seed by the green maize, green leaf vegetables, (covo, tsunga, are millets, farmers. The farmers indicated that 90 per cent of rape), onions and tomatoes. sorghum and the seed they use is from retained seed whilst 10 Consolidated gardens tend to create a glut of a per cent is purchased, predominantly maize seed. particular produce as a number of people will roundnuts”. The challenge is that the retained seed is no longer produce one type of crop at the same time. Those true to type and not very vigorous. There is need to with individual gardens can grow crops before others buy seed from other regions. have them and those individuals make more money. Households can make 50 USD per month for about Stocks 4 months from June to September which was found to be the main gardening months. In a good year cereals produced by farmers last about 5 to 6 months. However, in a poor rainfall year stocks may last up to just one month. Livestock rearing Irrigation The main livestock reared are cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, poultry (indigenous chickens, turkeys, broilers There is only one irrigation scheme in the three and guinea fowls). Cattle breeds are mainly the targeted wards. This is Bonde Irrigation Scheme Mashona type and in some cases crosses with with water from Dewure River, in ward 30. However, exotic breeds, usually Brahman. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 27

There were two markets for cattle sales in the to 2012 with a marked increase between 1995 and sampled wards, at Mutiusinazita and Gwama. 2004, when cattle numbers reached a peak of over Deductions are made on cattle sales at organised 160,000 (Figure 4.1). However, there was a decline markets by the Livestock Division of the Ministry in numbers since 2008. of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation There is need for more investment by the livestock Development for grazing and by the Council for departments and research organisations into conducting auctions and maintenance of the market. compiling and disseminating information for Prices of livestock vary depending on size and commercial production of indigenous poultry and quality (Table 4.5). Buyers come from Masvingo, goat products. Goats and indigenous chickens Mutare, Harare as well as local buyers. Regular are drought tolerant and are not easily affected by cattle buyers are Omega, Surrey, Montana Meats, diseases, unlike broilers in the case of chickens. Koala Park, Molusi and Madziro.

Table 4.4: Average prices of livestock in the targeted wards in Buhera Selling firewood Firewood is sold for commercial purposes at Type of livestock Price (USD) business centres such as Murambinda town. Women Cattle 250-500 and children collect firewood from surrounding hills Goats 20-35 in the early morning and sell bundles in town for between USD 0.50 and USD 1.50. Smallholder Indigenous chickens 5-12 farmers indicated that those who sell firewood can Turkeys 10-15 make as much as USD20 a month. Selling firewood Guinea fowls 6 is used as a coping mechanism by about 86 per cent of households in the poor and moderate wealth The carrying capacity to guide the livestock numbers group. Consequently there is serious pressure on that can be supported in communal grazing areas tree resources during drought periods, causing has not been assessed since 1992. The number of deforestation. cattle in the Buhera District has fluctuated from 1989

180000

160000

140000 Cattle Number

120000

100000 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 YEAR

Figure 4.1: Livestock numbers in Buhera District Source: Calculated from dip tank records Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 28 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Crafts Bee keeping

Crafts, in particular mats, are made mainly from Two groups in wards 28 and 30 undertake bee baobab tree bark. Some people process the baobab keeping. Bees require water and they do well in bark and sell it to mat-makers, making up to USD 20 places where there are water sources throughout a month. The prices of mats range from USD20 to the year. In ward 28, Chapanduka group has 54 USD150 depending on size, ranging from 0.5m2 to beneficiaries (31 men and 23 women) and in ward 4m2. Selling of processed baobab bark and mats is 30 Gunura group has 39 beneficiaries (21 men usually undertaken during the off-farming season. and 18 women). Honey marketing is the biggest challenge for the bee keepers. Another challenge is that the traditional bee hives used do not produce Wild fruits good quality honey. There is need to encourage Wild fruits are both a source of food and cash. The farmers to have more of the Kenyan type bee hives fruits that are mainly for food are makwakwa, tsubvu for good quality honey. (Vitez mombasane) whilst nyii and baobab provide both food and cash. A 20 litre bucket of baobab seed Village savings and lending is sold for USD 1 and a household can make as much There are organised groups of village savings and as USD 20 per month, whilst a 20 litre bucket of nyii lending in all the wards, however none were formally can make USD 3. The fruits are usually sold on the registered. The groups ranged from between 10 to road side. Traders buy and resell at urban markets 15 members and they contributed between USD such as Mbare in Harare and Sakubva in Mutare. 5 and USD 10 per month. For cash, interest rates There are a number of small enterprises that have for members were 10 per cent and 15 per cent been formed by non- governmental organisations for non-members. Some groups used indigenous that are processing baobab into a number of high chickens instead of money and when a member value products such as powder, oil and coffee. had a number of chickens these could then be sold. The market is Cresta Oasis Lodge in Harare There is need to undertake economic valuation of which serves traditional meals and has agents common natural resources such as baobab and that purchase indigenous chickens in Buhera. nyii, so that the economic value can help establish The veterinary department inspects the chickens, correct prices for the products from the wild which are transported to Harare where they are resources. In addition, there is need to research on slaughtered. Chicken prices range from USD 5-8. the effects of removing bark on baobab trees and how long it takes for them to recover. Funds from village savings and lending are used to buy assets such as goats; pay for school fees; buying fertiliser and other crop inputs; funding small businesses such as selling mobile phone air time, peanut butter making and selling second hand clothes from Mozambique; and sometimes for paying lobola. This is usually done at the end of the year when proceeds are shared and an individual may get as much as USD 400-500. Conclusion The majority of households in the targeted wards of Buhera are subsistence farmers, relying on rain-fed agriculture. Households also engage in a range of other non-farm activities, many of which depend on natural resources. Natural product enterprises have the potential to increase income and improve wellbeing. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 29

Impacts of Climate Hazards Chapter and Coping Strategies 5 Introduction experienced in the years 1992, 2002, 2008, and 2015. The droughts of 1992 and 2002 were regarded The chapter examines climate and other hazards as the most severe. The drought of 2008 was experienced and the various strategies adopted exacerbated by the economic crisis at the time. The to cope with them. It looks at policies, institutional 2015 long mid-season drought affected productivity frameworks, practices and support for facilitating of even the drought resistant crops being grown such climate adaptation and building resilience. as pearl millet, finger millet, sorghum, bambara nuts and cow peas. Impacts of hazards and coping In Table 5.1 participants of the focus group strategies discussions narrated the experiences of previous hazards on different groups and natural resources. The major climate hazard experienced in the target wards in Buhera was drought. Droughts were Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 30 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Table 5.1: Impacts of previous hazards on communities and natural resources, as perceived by focus group participants in Buhera

Men Lost their livestock; were stressed because of shortage of food and lack of jobs; and were under-nourished. Whilst looking for food in places such as Mozambique some were affected by malaria and died.

Women Stressed because they had to look for food for the children; were malnourished.

Aged Starved, were malnourished and some died.

Disabled Starved, were malnourished and some died.

Out of school of youth Stressed because of lack of employment and having to look for food. They were malnourished. School going youth Dropped out of school. Performance decreased. Children Malnourished, suffered from kwashiorkor. Livestock Incurred injuries from going into mountains to eat ‘murakwani’-dry leaves on the ground under trees; defecated sand as they ate soil.

Livestock was stolen. Water resources Rivers, dams, boreholes and wells dried up. Vegetation Most dried up. Infrastructure Houses collapsed due to lack of maintenance.

Table 5.1 highlights the suffering by all groups in times of drought, in particular hunger and starvation.

Participants in the focus groups listed the various coping strategies that were put in place in addition to their usual livelihood strategies, and how their coping strategies could be strengthened (Tables 5.1 and 5.2) Table 5.2: Coping strategies put in place and how they can be strengthened

Group Coping strategies that were put in place How can their coping mechanisms be strengthened Men Went to Rusape, Chimanimani and Irrigation for income generation. Mozambique and other areas looking for food. Dams, boreholes for water. Exchanged labour for food. Food for Work programmes. Weaved baskets from baobab (Adansonia To be assisted with seed to produce digitata) bark and ilala (Hyphaene petersiana) small grains. trees as these do not dry in drought period. To be assisted with markets for selling produce form irrigation scheme. Women Prepared porridge for children from baobab Income generating projects such as fruit. poultry, sewing, baking bread. Boiled baobab seed to make it soft and gave Increase the contributions to village children to eat. savings and lending groups. Some went back to their parents’ homes if they Closer markets for buying and selling. had food. Gardening where water sources did not dry. Clay moulding. Aged Relied on the active group. Need food aid. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 31

Disabled Relied on the active group. Need food aid. Out of Boys helped the elders to look for food. Income generating projects-vocational school of Boys hunted for birds. centres for building, carpentry and youth Girls turned to sex work to get cash and buy sewing. food, got married or were married off to better families. School Were given food at schools through food aid School feeding schemes. going youth programmes. Looked for nuts from marula trees. Children Given porridge at feeding points like clinics Need to be given balanced diet from food and village centres. aid.

Table 5.3: Coping strategies put in place for natural resources and how they can be strengthened

Resource Coping strategies that were put in How can their coping mechanisms be place strengthened Livestock Cattle ate dry leaves. Provide grazing land, and reduce number Donkeys ate bark of baobab or stems of of livestock. pawpaw plants. Reserve food to be used in future-stover. Provided supplementary feed, such as Buy processed salt. maize stover for animals. Create paddocks. Cattle died from anthrax. Enforce reserving areas for grazing. Cattle were provided with local veld Limit the number of livestock. products (Rusungwe) and Goats browsed Dose cattle and other livestock. Muunga (Acacia spp.). Water resources Nothing was done because even when Avoid stream bank cultivation. they dug wells they could not get water. Drill boreholes and deep wells. Vegetation Some shed leaves. Afforestation and enforcing of policies that protect cutting down of trees. Infrastructure Nothing was done. Build strong houses to avoid the need for thatching grass every year which might not be available during a drought year. Maintain infrastructure.

Policies and practices for the environment (Table 5.4). The Environmental facilitating climate adaptation and Management Act is an over-arching Act that provides building resilience for environmental protection and sustainable management of natural resources. A number of policies and legislation support climate adaptation, the majority of which proactively protect Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 32 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Table 5.4: Acts that proactively protect the environment

Legislation Key elements Implementing authority Forest Act (1949) Provides for demarcating forests and nature Ministry of Environment, reserves, conserving timber resources, regulating Water and Climate trade in forest produce, and regulating the burning of vegetation. Parks and Wildlife Act Establishes national parks and nature reserves, Ministry of Environment, (1975) conserving timber resources, regulating trade Water and Climate in forest produce and regulating the burning of vegetation Communal Land Forest Controls the use of wood resources within Ministry of Environment, Produce Act (1988) communal lands. Such resources in communal Water and Climate lands should be used for domestic purposes by the residents only Rural District Councils Allows for the establishment of Rural District Ministry of Local Act (1989) councils responsible for initiating and regulating Government and National development in rural areas. Housing Environmental Creates a framework for environmental Ministry of Environment, Management Act management, makes provisions for the formulation Water and Climate (2002) of environmental quality standards (water, air, noise, effluents, waste and hazardous substances), and development of the national environmental “In times of action plan. drought there is an increase Challenges to building resilience to towards drought. Markets, especially for horticultural the impacts of climate change produce are difficult to access due to the poor in school state of gravel roads. This makes the produce drop outs During group discussion, farmers indicated that they more expensive and less competitive. Regarding were aware of the policies that prohibit cutting down marketing of field crops, farmers indicated that and also poor of trees to protect forests, stream bank cultivation although the Grain Marketing Board price is good, performance within 30 metres to protect water sources and veld farmers were not receiving cash so could not plan due to (bush) fires to protect pastures. They were also for the next season. Farmers are not able to build aware that they are required to have contours in their their asset base that would help with resilience due exhaustion fields to conserve moisture and the soil. However to poor access to markets. of walking enforcement of policies remains a challenge which In times of drought there is an increase in school for long may hinder adaptation to climate change. For drop outs and also poor performance due to example, regarding stream bank cultivation within exhaustion of walking for long distances. Primary distances”. 30 meters of the stream, farmers say that there is schools tend to be nearer whilst secondary schools moisture close to the river, particularly during dry are 12 to 20 kilometres away. periods, and in addition, there are limited alternative water sources away from the river. Regarding tree People travel as far as 15 kilometres to the nearest cutting, most business centres were using fire health centre. Such distances exert a lot of strain on wood for commercial purposes such as cooking communities and this situation is exacerbated during and heating water in lodges. Firewood is a cheaper drought. source of energy for businesses compared to either In some cases police stations are far from most electricity or gas. Challenges of enforcing policies households, for example, it was reported that relate to limited alternatives and the open access to people at times have to travel for 28-38 kilometres. communal resources. This makes it very difficult to get clearance to sell The state of infrastructure and services has a cattle. Transport for the police has to be paid for and bearing on the ability of rural communities to adapt this affects one’s coping strategies during drought to the impacts of climate change and build resilience periods. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 33

Some areas have a good mobile communication such as the Dewure Sub-catchment Council and network thus people can receive and send money the Buhera Rural District Council are undertaking a and also notify each other on issues of importance. range of programmes that support farmers towards Information and communication technologies building resilience against future drought hazards. have potential to disseminate climate and other The activities include: information such as markets and prices, especially * Lobbying for the rehabilitating of Bonde to farmers. Irrigation Scheme Rural electrification can help support income * Promotion of drought tolerant crops generating projects and assist in building resilience * Training in conservation agriculture both towards droughts. mechanised and manual * Awareness on importance of protecting the environment such as wetlands, and trees Support towards building resilience * Establishment of nutrition gardens * A local practice known as Zunde Ramambo is Training and building standard granaries * Pegging contours around field areas, and a community based concept that helps to build conservation works around gardens resilience in the local communities. The practice * Bee keeping varies from one locality to another, and generally * Tree planting involves a field being set aside by the headman, or village head where people from the community The Environmental Management Agency provided come to cultivate. The proceeds are put in a seed packs for drought tolerant crops, namely red separate granary that is managed by a committee. sorghum, white sorghum-Marcia and cowpeas, as A village head brings a report of households that well as fertiliser. The Agency also imparts knowledge are struggling and need assistance from Zunde on climate change and supports consolidated Ramambo. The committee makes an assessment gardens and fish farming. of the request and one 20 litre bucket of grain is No non-governmental organisations, apart from “The provided to each needy household. This does not World Vision in ward 25, were reported to be active work very well if there is a drought as there are too Environmental in the target wards. The farmers indicated that some many cases requiring assistance. It would be useful of the operational consolidated gardens were set up Management to strengthen the governance and transparency of through assistance from Christian Care and Africare. Zunde Ramambo, as well as scale up the practice. Agency provided A number of local organisations support activities Government departments and other organisations that help to build resilience (Table 5.5). seed packs for drought tolerant Table 5.5: Local organisations that support building resilience in Buhera crops” Organisations /clubs Benefits Activities being undertaken to promote resilience Village savings and lending groups Access to finance and loans Payment in kind and finance projects Garden groups Food and income Barter trade produce from garden with food Apiculture groups Food and income Selling honey Bonda Irrigation Committee Organising rehabilitation of When scheme is operational scheme it will provide food and cash to surrounding community

Strategies for strengthening * Construction of contour ridges in fields to resilience to climate hazards encourage moisture retention and conservation of the soil. Participants elaborated how their current strategies * The Bonde Irrigation Scheme needs to be for crop production could be made more resilient to supported. There were plans to set up an future droughts: irrigation scheme at Masekwe but the project never took off. Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 34 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

* Seed should be provided on time so that farmers * There is need to keep on encouraging conservation have the seed by October so that they can use the agriculture both manual and mechanised. first rains. * Practice early planting, planting short season * The retained seed is now of varying quality and varieties and continue training in good farming there is need to inject new seed from other areas. practices. For example, there is need to introduce a short season sorghum variety that is true to type as the Participants elaborated how their current strategies retained seed is now over used. for livestock production could be made more resilient to future droughts: * There is need for training on how to prevent post-harvest losses particularly on seed through * There is need to provide more water for livestock, weevils. for example by scooping small dams. There is need to drill boreholes that can be driven for * There is need to strengthen the processing side example by windmills. The cattle condition for small grains as it is cumbersome. There is deteriorates from August to September until the need for research into machinery required for rains come. There is need to consider the depth threshing, winnowing, dehulling and roasting the when drilling boreholes so that they do not dry in grain. There is need to also create a demand from the most extreme drought events such as the one urban areas for small grains so that they can grow that was experienced in 1992. There is need to into strong economic crops for the country. There strengthen governance structures around borehole is need to introduce varieties that are not affected maintenance to remove over reliance on external by birds, other than Marcia - white sorghum. support to rehabilitate boreholes in future. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 35

* Group feed lots can be introduced so that once Conclusion farmers are familiar with this system it can be used as a coping strategy in times of drought to Droughts and unreliable rainfall are already having maintain the breeding herd of cattle. a major negative impact, resulting in low crop yields, food insecurity and increased poverty. Current use * There is need to promote commercial production of irrigation for enhancing agricultural production is of goats and indigenous poultry as these are the absent, although the potential for irrigation is large best for coping with drought. Cattle in times of and could transform the livelihoods of households drought need adequate feeding or else they die or living in dry regions. New seeds and appropriate they will not reproduce. The promotion should be technology would help to promote the production of targeted at the poor and moderate households who small grains. are most vulnerable in times of drought. Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 36 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Chapter Conclusion and Recommendations for a Climate Resilient Buhera 6

Analysis of past, current and future climate trends maintenance and repairs, creating a viable and clearly indicate that Buhera, especially the southern sustainable solution. wards in Agro-ecological Region V, will continue to The low and erratic rainfall makes rainfed agriculture experience unreliable rainfall and an increase of unreliable except for drought resistant crops such as extreme climate events, in particular droughts. In millet, rapoko and sorghum. order to counter the adverse effects of droughts and unreliable rainfall distribution, there is need for The driving force of land degradation in the target the densification of weather observation networks wards was identified as the recurrent droughts to be coupled with forecasts that are tailor-made to that force people to adopt regressive coping deliver reliable weather forecasting services to the strategies, such as increasing area under cropland communities in Buhera. and increasing reliance on forest products, which leads to lead to unsustainable use and harvest. The precarious rainfall situation makes water a key Some livelihood strategies have an adverse element. The chemical quality of drinking water is not impact on the environment and natural resources. a major issue in the target wards as the concentration The unsustainable coping strategies trigger of nitrates, salinity and pH are within the WHO positive feedback that drive the landscape into guidelines. However, high turbidity and high salinity cyclic feedback loops of degradation. Therefore, in some a water sources was a cause of concern, external intervention is necessary to help the local and would require further investigations on health communities not only to scale up but to adopt impacts. sustainable coping strategies to climate change. A priority area identified in the water assessment In light of large scale land degradation, low soil was microbial contamination of water. Evidence of fertility and reliance on rainfed agriculture in an contamination was found in water sampled from increasing hazardous climate, agriculture may not unprotected shallow wells, deep wells and boreholes, be practical and the most viable livelihood option. in addition to surface water samples. This problem There is need to diversity into non-farm livelihood needs to be addressed through raising awareness activities, in particular sustainable use of natural on pathways of contamination and treating the water products such as honey and indigenous fruits. before it is consumed by people. Four remote communities were identified as having serious problems of access to potable water (Figure Proposed interventions for building 9). These are priority areas for investment in resilience to climate change in boreholes. Buhera A major finding of this rapid assessment was that there were no functioning irrigation schemes in the Buhera rural households identified priority areas for three target wards. Farmers in semi-arid regions investments to address water scarcity, and enhance that rely on irrigation tend to be more food secure crop and livestock production, based on their and resilient to climate change than ones that experience during droughts and rainfall variability. rely on rainfed agriculture (Jackson et al., 2001). Therefore, irrigation development must be one Priorities for increased water of the most important investments that can make communities in Buhera resilient to the negative access impacts of climate change. Investments in irrigation * Construction of new water sources such as must involve technically sound irrigation schemes, dams, weirs and drilling boreholes robust management systems and continuous * Rehabilitation of the existing water sources, Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 37

such as rehabilitation of old boreholes, pipes by introducing Boer bucks and Tuli bulls and casings that need replacement. respectively. The introduction of bulls requires * Capacity building in management of water feasibility assessment and potential impacts resources and irrigation schemes. that might arise from such introductions. * Capacity building in management of * Have organised markets for goats and poultry catchment areas for the whole community. run on a commercial basis. * Increase dip tanks and feed lots for livestock. Priorities to enhance crop production Priorities for diversifying livelihoods * Opening up of new areas for irrigation and gardens. * Value addition of wild resources such as fruits and honey. * Rehabilitation of the Bonde irrigation scheme * Strengthening business skills to enhance an in a holistic manner, which incorporate the entrepreneurial approach to natural product issue of pumps, conservation works and enterprises. governance of the irrigation system to improve * Create markets for natural products. its sustainability. Participants pointed out the danger of over reliance * Market linkages for produce from the irrigation on donor support for food aid, for the aged, schemes. disabled and children as a coping mechanism. They * Experiment with and adopt high value crops recommended training for transformation that can that can be grown to ensure cost recovery. capacitate communities to solve their problems with minimal external support. * Improved technology for processing small grains and promote their consumption in both urban and rural areas.

Livestock production

Priorities to enhance livestock production are: * Improving the breeds of goats and cattle Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, 38 with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Moyo, M., (1994). Environmental responses to References ecosystem degradation in the Save River catchment of Zimbabwe: Unpublished major paper for Masters Anderson, I.P., Brinn, P.J., Moyo, M. And Nyamwanza, in Environmental Studies, York University, Canada. B. (1993). Physical Resource Inventory of the Communal Lands of Zimbabwe – An Overview. Vincent, V. and Thomas, R.G. (1961). An Natural Resources Institute Bulletin 60. Chatham, Agricultural Survey of Southern Rhodesia, Part One UK: Natural Resources Institute. –Agro-ecological Survey. The Government Printers, Salisbury. Chambers, R., and Conway, G. R. (1992). Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts Walker, B., S. Carpenter, J. Anderies, N. Abel, G. for the 21st Century, Institute of Development Cumming, M. Janssen, L. Lebel, J. Norberg, G. D. Studies Discussion Papers, 296. Cambridge. Peterson, and R. Pritchard (2002). Resilience man- agement in social-ecological systems: a working hy- Conboy, M. J. and M. J. Goss. (2000). Natural protec- pothesis for a participatory approach. Conservation tion of groundwater against bacteria of fecal origin. Ecology 6. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 43:1-24 ZIMSTAT (2013). 2012 Population Census Results. FAO (2011). Land Degradation Assessment Final Report. ZIMSTAT, Harare. in Drylands (LADA) Project Findings and Recommendations. Global Environment Facility, United National Environment Programme, and FAO, ZIMVAC (2014). Rural Livelihoods Assessment Rome. 2014 Report. ZIMVAC, Food and Nutrition Council, Harare. Government of Zimbabwe (2013). Second Round Crop and Livestock Assessment Report, 7 June 2013. Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development, Harare.

Government of Zimbabwe (2015). Zimbabwe National Climate Change Response Strategy. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Management, Harare.

Jackson, R. B., S. R. Carpenter, C. N. Dahm, D. M. McKnight, R. J. Naiman, S. L. Postel, and S. W. Run- ning (2001). Water in a changing world. Ecological Applications 11:1027-1045. Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 39 Livestock Population in targeted WARDs. Source: LPD, 2015. 5Mt oo298438235229 7430 0 68297 4688 206 0 3104 1794 2296 592 283 348 834 239 Romo Muti 25 5Mt.Mt.5715 5 3 6 308233 23 3831 802 3370 669 438 657 1059 547 Mats. Muti. 25 5Mt.Na.461 Nha.. Muti. 25 8Mt.Dn 3 9 8 341 389 893 335 Dune Muti. 28 8Br.Ca. 6970 56 Chap.. Bir.. 28 0Br. av 57731366627 1036 2077 666 336 331 707 35 Masvo Bir... 30 0Br.Nech.. Bir.. 30 Key Ward

Bir. Birchenough hcDpakblscw efr calves heifers cows bulls Diptank ahmc Chap. Chapanduka

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Nech. Nechishanyi 17 Romo. Romorehoto 910 9 6 3 6 2777823 797 1277 366 235 266 393 0 2 0 73763145 726 2703 502 327 506 410 8 765 181 415 oxen 3610 040 4004 1903 2366 3213 046 73709 57 67 2044 1734 2382 cattle tt he otpgdne olr dog poultry donkey pig goat sheep 2012 16 05 4302 53 60 13 125 2 56253 4556 221 195 324 97 2741 33 5007 4462 311 316 176 161

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District

Oxfam Zimbabwe Block 9 Norfolk Road Arundel Office Park Mount Pleasant Box 4590 Harare, Zimbabwe Tel: +263 4 2918473 facebook/oxfaminzim twitter/oxfaminzim www.oxfaminzimbabwe.org ScalingScaling UpUp AdaptationAdaptation inin Zimbabwe,Zimbabwe, withwith aa FocusFocus onon RuralRural LivelihoodsLivelihoods ProjectProject