Life: the Science of Biology

Lecture Notebook to accompany

Sinauer Associates, Inc. MacMillan

Copyright © 2014 Sinauer Associates, Inc. Cover photograph © Alex Mustard/naturepl.com. This document may not be modified or distributed (either electronically or on paper) without the permission of the publisher, with the following exception: Individual users may enter their own notes into this document and may print it for their own personal use. Ecology and the 0054 Distribution of Life

Toward the poles, the sun’s rays are absorbed because they North must travel a longer distance Pole through the atmosphere. (90°N)

Direction of Earth’s rotation

At and near the equator, sunlight strikes Earth at a steep angle, delivering more Equator (0°) heat and light per unit of area.

South Pole (90°S) Toward the poles, the sun’s rays strike Earth at an oblique angle and are spread over a larger area, so that their energy is diffused.

54.1 Solar Energy Input Varies with Latitude (Page 1123)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54 01 Date 07-13-12

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Equinox September 22

Earth’s orbit

When the Southern When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun, it is toward the sun, it is summer there and summer there and winter in the Northern winter in the Southern Hemisphere. Hemisphere. 23.5°

Solstice North Pole December 21 Solstice June 21

Equinox March 20 54.2 Seasonal Change Is the Result of the Tilt of Earth’s Axis (Page 1123)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.02 Date 07-13-12

90° Dry

(A) (B) 60° Wet Descending air Rising air

1 In the tropics, warm, moist air rises, expands and 30°N Dry 30° cools, drops its moisture, and flows poleward.

Sunlight 0° Wet 0°

30°S Dry 30°

Wet 2 The now cool, dry air warms and 60° retains its moisture as it descends. It reaches Earth’s surface at about Dry 30°N and 30°S. 90° 54.3 Air Circulation in Earth’s Atmosphere (Page 1124)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.03 Date 07-13-12

Atmospheric circulation (see Figure 54.3) 90°

Easterlies 60°

Westerlies 30°

NE Trade Winds Direction 0° of Earth’s rotation SE Trade Winds

30°

Westerlies

60° Easterlies

90°

54.4 Prevailing Winds (Page 1125)

LIFE The90° Science of Biology 9E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio The trade winds 1 North Figure 54.03 Date 07-13-09 push water toward Atlantic the equator… Drift 60° 2 …where it moves westward until it Labrador reaches a continent… Current

N. Pacific Drift Gulf 30° Kuroshio Stream Current

0° Latitude

30° Benguela Current

West Wind Drift 60° West Wind Drift The Equatorial …then moves north or south 4 3 Countercurrent along the coast, forming great arises between the circular currents called gyres. hemispheric gyres. 90° 54.5 Oceanic Circulation (Page 1125)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.05 Date 07-13-12 Chapter 54 | Ecology and the Distribution of Life 6

Rana sylvatica

54.6 An Evolutionary Adaptation to Climate (Page 1126)

Life10e_54.06 SInauer Associates 04.04.12

30ºN

Equator

30ºS

Tropical rainforest Chaparral Temperate deciduous forest Tropical deciduous forest Cold desert Boreal forest Thorn forest High mountains (boreal forest and tundra) Arctic tundra Tropical savanna Temperate grassland Hot desert Temperate evergreen forest Polar ice cap

54.7 Global Distribution of the Major Terrestrial Biomes (Page 1127)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.07 Date 07-13-12

2 On the windward side of the mountain, air rises and cools, releasing moisture in the form of rain or snow and leading to lush vegetation.

1 Prevailing winds pick up moisture 3 On the leeward side of the over water bodies. mountain, air descends, warms, and picks up moisture, which results in little rain and arid conditions.

54.8 Rain Shadow (Page 1127)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.08 Date 07-13-12

TUNDRA

Arctic tundra is Equator found at high latitudes. Alpine tundra is found at high elevations.

Alpine tundra: Giant groundsel (Dendrosenecio keniensis) on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Temperature 20°C is a °C “comfortable” Upernavik, Greenland 73°N 68°F. 20 15 Summer is cool and short. 10 Winter is 0°C is the very cold 5 freezing point and long. of water 0 (=32°F). –5 –10 –15 Range 28°C Arctic tundra: Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in Denali National Park, Alaska –20 –25 Jan Jul Dec

Community composition Precipitation cm Dominant plants 5 Annual total: 23 cm Perennial herbs and small shrubs 0 Species richness Jan Jul Dec Plants: Low; higher in tropical alpine 5 cm equals Animals: Low; many birds migrate in for just over 2 summer; a few species of insects inches. abundant in summer The feathery feet and white plumage of the Soil biota willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) are Few species adaptations to the snows of the Arctic tundra in Manitoba.

(Page 1128)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.Biome 1 Date 07-13-12

BOREAL and TEMPERATE EVERGREEN FOREST

Equator Temperate evergreen forests are found along the coasts.

Southern beech (Nothofagus) in the temperate evergreen forest of Fiordland National Park, New Zealand

Bull moose (Alces alces) in boreal forest, Alberta, Canada Temperature Summer is mild °C Winter is and humid. 15 very cold 10 and dry. Community composition 5 0 Dominant plants –5 Trees, shrubs, and perennial herbs –10 Range 41°C Species richness –15 Plants: Low in trees, higher in understory –20 Ft. Vermillion, Alberta 58°N Animals: Low, but with summer peaks in –25 migratory birds –30 Jan Jul Dec Soil biota The boreal owl (Aegolius funereus) feeds on Very rich in deep litter layer Precipitation insects and small birds and mammals of the Annual total: 31 cm cm coniferous evergreen forests of Europe and 5 North America. The owl lives in the forests 0 year-round, dispersing occasionally when Jan Jul Dec food becomes extremely scarce.

(Page 1129)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.Biome 2 Date 07-13-12

TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST

Equator

Fallen oak leaves on the winter forest floor, New York State

Temperature Summer is warm °C and moist. 25 Winter is 20 cold and Black bears (Ursus americanus) are common 15 snowy. in North American deciduous forests. 10 Range 31°C 5 Community composition 0 Madison, Wisconsin 43°N Dominant plants –5 Trees and shrubs –10 Jan Jul Dec Species richness Plants: Many tree species in southeastern U.S. and eastern Asia, rich shrub layer Precipitation cm Annual total: 81 cm Animals: Rich; many migrant birds, Mourning cloak butterflies (Nymphalis antiopa) richest amphibian communities on Earth, 10 overwinter as adults, settled in crevices and rich summer insect fauna 5 under tree bark in the deciduous forests of Soil biota eastern North America. Their early appearance 0 Rich Jan Jul Dec is a harbinger of spring.

(Page 1130)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.Biome 3 Date 07-13-12

TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS

Equator

Przewalski’s horse in Khustain Nuruu National Park, Mongolia

Temperature °C Summer is warm 30 and wetter. 25 Winter is 20 cold and dry. 15 10 Range 24°C 5 American bison herd grazing shortgrass 0 Pueblo, Colorado 38°N prairie, North Dakota –5 Jan Jul Dec

Community composition Precipitation cm Dominant plants Annual total: 31 cm Perennial grasses and forbs 10 5 Species richness 0 Plants: Fairly high Jan Jul Dec Animals: Relatively few birds because of simple structure; mammals fairly rich Soil biota Rich The flightless Darwin’s rhea (Rhea pennata) grazes the grasslands of Patagonia.

(Page 1131)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.Biome 4 Date 07-13-12

HOT DESERT

Hot deserts are found at about 30° north and Equator south of the equator.

Succulents such as agave, candelabra, and cardon characterize the deserts of the North American Southwest.

Temperature °C Gemsbok (Oryx gazella) on the dunes, Range 9.5°C Khartoum, Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia 40 Sudan 15.5°N 30 Community composition 20 Winter is very warm Summer is very Dominant plants 10 and dry. warm and less dry. Many different growth forms (but few or no trees) 0 Species richness Jan Jul Dec Plants: Moderately rich; many annuals Precipitation Animals: Very rich in rodents; richest bee cm communities on Earth; very rich in reptiles Annual total: 15 cm and butterflies 5 Soil biota The fog-basking beetle (Onymacris unguicularis) retrieves the water it needs to survive from the Few species 0 morning fogs of Africa’s Namib Desert. Jan Jul Dec

(Page 1132)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.Biome 5 Date 07-13-12

COLD DESERT

Equator

Vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) family herd in Andean desert, Lauca National Park, Chile

Temperature Summer is °C Winter is cold and much warmer, 30 very dry. but still dry. 25 20 15 10 A cold desert in northern New Mexico, at about 2,000 meters in elevation, is 5 Range 23°C dominated by juniper shrubs (Juniperus sp.). 0 –5 Cheyenne, Wyoming 41°N –10 Jan Jul Dec Community composition Precipitation Dominant plants cm Annual total: 38 cm Low-growing shrubs and herbaceous 5 plants Species richness 0 Jan Jul Dec Plants: Few species Animals: Rich in seed-eating birds, ants, and rodents; low in all other taxa Living in a cold desert presents special Soil biota challenges to a poikilotherm. This collared lizard (Crotaphytus sp.) in Bluff, Utah, is Poor in species warming itself by basking on a rock.

(Page 1133)

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LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.Biome 6 Date 07-13-12

CHAPARRAL

Equator

Chaparral is found in the Mediterranean region and on the western coasts of continents.

A Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) among maquis, a chaparral vegetation found in Spain and Corsica.

Temperature

°C Winter is Summer is 25 mild and mild and 20 humid. very dry. Maritime chaparral on Montara Mountain in California’s 15 San Mateo County. The light green shrubs in the 10 foreground are Arctostaphylos montaraensis, a Range 7°C 5 species that is endemic to this mountain. Monterey, California 36°N 0 Jan Jul Dec Community composition Precipitation Dominant plants cm Low-growing shrubs and herbaceous 10 Annual total: 42 cm plants 5 Species richness 0 Plants: Extremely high in South Africa Jan Jul Dec and Australia Animals: Rich in rodents and reptiles; very rich in insects, especially bees Two fynbos species, the Cape sugarbird Soil biota (Promerops cafer) and its nectar source, the pincushion protea (Leucospermum cordifolium) Moderately rich in Helderberg Nature Reserve, South Africa.

(Page 1134)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.Biome 7 Date 07-13-12

THORN FOREST and TROPICAL SAVANNA

Equator

Family groups of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Kenya’s Ol Malo Wildlife Sanctuary converge into a large herd for migration. Summer is very Temperature wet, but not much °C Winter is mild and very dry. warmer than winter. 35 30 25 Kayes, Mali 14°N 20 Range 10.7 °C Madagascar ocotillo (Alluadia procera) Jan Jul Dec dominate this thorn forest. Precipitation cm Annual total: 74 cm Community composition 20 Dominant plants 15 Shrubs and small trees; grasses 10 Species richness Plants: Moderate in thorn forest; low in 5 savanna 0 Animals: Rich mammal faunas; moder- Jan Jul Dec ately rich in birds, reptiles, and insects Soil biota Termite colonies build huge mounds on the African savanna, providing a food source for mammals such Rich as this baboon (Papio sp.).

(Page 1135)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.Biome 8 Date 07-13-12

TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FOREST

Equator

A forest canopy of pijio trees (Cavanillesia platanifolia) during the dry season in Cerro Blanco on the Ecuadoran coast

Temperature Winter is very Summer is hot hot and dry. and wet. °C 30 Range 5.4°C Timbo, 25 Guinea 10°N 20 Jan Jul Dec Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in the Precipitation forests of Bandhavgarh, India. cm 35 Annual total: 163 cm 30 25 Community composition 20 15 Dominant plants 10 Deciduous trees 5 Species richness 0 Plants: Moderately rich in tree species Jan Jul Dec Animals: Rich mammal, bird, reptile, and amphibian communities; rich in insects Soil biota Hummingbirds such as Amazilia tzacatl are major pollinators in this biome. Rich, but poorly known

(Page 1136)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.Biome 9 Date 07-13-12

TROPICAL RAINFOREST

Equator

Tropical rainforests are located at low latitudes.

The canopy of an Ecuadoran tropical rainforest, seen from above

Temperature A golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus °C The weather is warm rosalia) near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 25 and rainy all year. 20 15 Range 2.2°C Iquitos, Peru 3°S 10 Community composition Jan Jul Dec Dominant plants Precipitation Trees and vines cm 30 Annual total: 262 cm Species richness 25 Plants: Extremely high Animals: Extremely high in 20 mammals, birds, amphibians, and 15 arthropods 10 Soil biota The three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus) is almost 5 Very rich but poorly known totally arboreal, spending its life in the rainforest 0 canopies of Central and South America. Jan Jul Dec

(Page 1137)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.Biome 10 Date 07-13-12

High Low The coastal zone extends from the shore- tide tide line to the edge of the continental shelf.

The intertidal zone is affected Pelagic zone by wave action (open ocean) Continental shelf and exposure to air. Photic zone (~200 m)

Benthic Aphotic zone zone Forests of giant kelp (Macrocystis sp.) dominate (seafloor) many coastal communities.

Abyssal Hydrothermal zone vent (deepest Water temperature ocean) decreases and pressure increases with depth.

A large sailfish (Istiophorus albicans) feeds on sardines (Sardinella aurita) in pelagic waters of the Gulf of Mexico.

Heat and minerals from hydrothermal vents nourish unique deep-ocean communities.

54.9 Life Zones of the Marine Biome (Page 1139)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava PHOTO TO COME Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.09 Date 07-13-12

A school of bleak (Alburnus scoranza) among giant reeds along a lakeshore in Macedonia.

The nearshore area supports rooted aquatic plants and diverse animal life.

Littoral Photosynthetic organisms zone are limited to the photic zone.

Photic zone Benthic zone (substrate) Aphotic zone An osprey (Pandion haliaetus) snatches a large fish from the open waters of a Canadian lake.

54.10 Life Zones in a Freshwater Lake (Page 1140)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava PHOTO TO COME Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.10 Date 07-13-12

Current land surface Continental shelf exposed (during the Pleistocene) Deep water (≥ 200 m below current sea level)

Philippines Thailand

Wallace’s line separates two distinct modern terrestrial faunas.

Sumatra Sunda Shelf Borneo

New Guinea

Java Arafura Basin The species living on Bali are similar to those in Thailand and the islands to the west. The species living on Lombok are similar to those in Australia Australia and New Guinea.

54.11 Wallace’s Line (Page 1142)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.11 Date 07-13-12

The Sahara and Arabian Deserts separate the Palearctic and Ethiopian regions.

70 49 PALEARCTIC

The Himalaya mountain range 180 separates the Oriental NEARCTIC 180 and Palearctic regions. 17 45 ORIENTAL

The Mexican Plateau ETHIOPIAN 6 100 separates the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. NEO- 100 Wallace’s line separates TROPICAL the Oriental and Australasian regions. AUSTRALASIAN 80 ANTARCTIC 100–110 ANTARCTIC 45

49 ANTARCTIC

54.12 Earth’s Biogeographic Regions (Page 1142)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.12 Date 07-13-12

(A) (B)

Present

New Guinea

South America New Caledonia Australia

Tasmania New Zealand

Laurasia

Distribution of Nothofagus

Gondwana

Cretaceous

The southmost land mass in Gondwana separated from South America and drifted across the South Pole, to become Antarctica, Australia, and the South Pacific land masses.

54.13 Nothofagus Has a Gondwanan Distribution (Page 1143)

(A) (B) Area phylogeny

Central Asia Siberian peninsula Origin in North Middle East and North America Central Asia America North Africa

Horses speciated as they moved from Asia to Africa. South West Africa

Speciation of zebras East Africa Onager has taken place (E. hemonius) entirely in Africa. Eastern and Southern Africa

This lineage leads to the Phylogenetic tree modern horse (E. caballus).

African ass (E. africanus) Przewalski’s horse

Przewalski’sPrzewalski’s horse Ancestral (E.horse przewalskii) horse Onager

African ass

Mountain zebra

Grévy’s zebra Grévy’s zebra (E. grevyi) Plains zebra

3.9 3 2 1 0 Million years ago

Mountain zebra (E. zebra) Plains zebra (E. quagga)

54.14 Phylogenetic Tree to Area Phylogeny (Page 1144)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava I used various references to draw in the land bridge. Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Time (Mya) Not sure how much of this land bridge to show going east. I faded it out (?) Figure 54.14 Date 07-13-12 © 2014 Sinauer Associates, Inc. Chapter 54 | Ecology and the Distribution of Life 25

L. huttoni North Island

Modern geography Cook Pliocene Strait geography

South Island

Future NEW ZEALAND location of Cook Strait

54.15 A Vicariant Distribution (Page 1145)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 54.15 Date 07-13-12