Historical and Pre-Historical Tsunamis in the Mediterranean and Its Connected Seas: Geological Signatures, Generation Mechanisms and Coastal Impacts

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Historic and pre-historic tsunamis in the Mediterranean and its connected seas: a review on documentation, geological signatures, generation mechanisms and coastal impacts

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Review article Historical and pre-historical tsunamis in the Mediterranean and its connected seas: Geological signatures, generation mechanisms and coastal impacts

Gerassimos A. Papadopoulos a,EulàliaGràciab, Roger Urgeles b, Valenti Sallares b, Paolo Marco De Martini c, Daniela Pantosti c, Mauricio González d, Ahmet C. Yalciner e,JeanMasclef, Dimitris Sakellariou g, Amos Salamon h, Stefano Tinti i, Vassilis Karastathis a, Anna Fokaefs a, Angelo Camerlenghi j, Tatyana Novikova a, Antonia Papageorgiou a a Institute of Geodynamics, National Observatory of Athens, 11810 Athens, Greece b Institut de Ciències del Mar — CSIC, Pg. Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, 08003 Barcelona, Spain c Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy d Environmental Hydraulics Institute, IH Cantabria, Universidad de Cantabria, C/Isabel Torres n15. Parque, Científico y Tecnológico de Cantabria, 39011 Santander, Spain e Department of Civil Engineering, Ocean Engineering Research Center, Middle East Technical University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey f Obsérvatoire Océanologique de Villefranche, Villefranche, France g Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 19013 Anavyssos, Greece h Geological Survey, 30 Malkhe Israel St., Jerusalem 95501, Israel i Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Bologna, Viale Berti, Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy j OGS - Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale, Borgo Grotta Gigante 42/C, 34010 Sgonico, Italy article info abstract

Article history: The origin of tsunamis in the Mediterranean region and its connected seas, including the Marmara Sea, the Black Received 18 January 2013 Sea and the SW Iberian Margin in the NE Atlantic Ocean, is reviewed within the geological and seismotectonic Received in revised form 24 March 2014 settings of the region. A variety of historical documentary sources combined with evidence from onshore and off- Accepted 25 April 2014 shore geological signatures, geomorphological imprints, observations from selected coastal archeological sites, as Available online 5 May 2014 well as instrumental records, eyewitnesses accounts and pictorial material, clearly indicate that tsunami sources both seismic and non-seismic (e.g. volcanism, landslides) can be found in all the seas of the region with a variable Keywords: Mediterranean region tsunamigenic potential. Local, regional and basin-wide tsunamis have been documented. An improved map of 22 historical tsunamis main tsunamigenic zones and their relative potential for tsunami generation is presented. From west to east, the geological signatures most important tsunamigenic zones are situated offshore SW Iberia, in the North Algerian margin, in the tsunami mechanisms Tyrrhenian Calabria and Messina Straits, in the western and eastern segments of the Hellenic Arc, in the Corinth tsunami impact Gulf of Central Greece, in the Levantine Sea offshore the Dead Sea Transform Fault and in the eastern side of the Marmara Sea. Important historical examples, including destructive tsunamis associated with large earthquakes, are presented. The mean recurrence of strong tsunamis in the several basins varies greatly but the highest event frequency (1/96 years) is observed in the east Mediterranean basin. For most of the historical events it is still un- clear which was the causative seismic source and if the tsunami was caused by co-seismic slip, by earthquake- triggered submarine landslides or by a combination of both mechanisms. In pre-historical times, submarine volcanic eruptions (i.e. caldera collapse, massive pyroclastic ﬂows, volcanogenic landslides) and large submarine landslides caused important tsunamis although little is known about their source mechanisms. We conclude that further investigation of the tsunami generation mechanisms is of primary importance in the Mediterranean region. Inputs from tsunami numerical modeling as well as from empirical discrimination criteria for characterizing tsunami sources have been proved particularly effective for recent, well-documented, aseismic landslide tsunamis (e.g., 1963 Corinth Gulf, 1979 Côte d'Azur, 1999 Izmit Bay, 2002 Stromboli volcano). Since the tsunami generation mechanisms are controlled by a variety of factors, and given that the knowledge of past tsunami activity is the cornerstone for undertaking tsunami risk mitigation action, future interdisciplinary research efforts on past tsunamis are needed. © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction identification of paleotsunamis by means of onshore and offshore geological methods, e.g. sedimentary records, is of particular value to ex- A tsunami is a series of sea waves with long-period and long wave- tend the historical data bases and tsunami time series. length generated by an abrupt deformation of the seafloor or by other In this review paper we focus into the geological, archeological, his- sudden disturbance of the water. The energy of vertical movement of torical and instrumental records of tsunamis and their impact on coastal such a disturbance is transferred to the water mass and causes a sea communities of the Mediterranean region. The tsunami record is level change at the source region. Underwater and/or coastal earth- interpreted in the frame of the complex geological and seismotectonic quakes, volcanic eruptions, as well as landslide processes are sources setting. We determine also the main tsunamigenic zones and their rela- that can generate a tsunami. Large meteorites that may impact the tive potential for tsunami generation, examine empirical criteria but ocean should not be ruled out as possible agents of tsunami generation. also inputs from numerical modeling to discriminate between seismic Tsunami waves propagate outwards from the generating area in all di- and aseismic sources as well as between different types of generation rections, the main direction of energy propagation being controlled by mechanisms, identify significant gaps in our current knowledge, discuss the dimensions and orientation of the causative source. During its prop- consequences for the tsunami hazard assessment, and conclude with agation in deep water the tsunami proceeds as a series of ordinary grav- some important lines for future tsunami research in the region. ity waves with a speed depending on the water depth. In the near-shore domain, a large amount of energy is carried by both amplified water 2. Geological and geodynamic setting of the Mediterranean region level and strong currents. Hence, tsunamis cause scouring, erosion, deposition, slope failures as well as damage or even destruction in coastal The Mediterranean region is characterized by successive, connected communities, marine structures and other facilities, cultivated land and Neogene fold- and thrust belts and associated foreland and backarc ba- natural environment. sins (Fig. 1). Over this area, Tethys oceanic lithosphere domains, origi- Due to active geodynamic processes the seismicity in the Mediterra- nally present between Eurasia and African–Arabian plates, have been nean region is high. The tsunami activity although being not so frequent progressively subducted (e.g. Cavazza et al., 2004). The systems are typ- threatens seriously the communities along the coastal zones of the ically characterized by arcuate, narrow compressional zones and ex- Mediterranean basin (e.g. CIESM, 2011). Active tectonics of the Mediter- tended basins with a distribution of relief and morphologies that ranean and adjacent areas are predominantly driven by the present-day roughly resemble each other across the Mediterranean (Fig. 1a). convergence between the African and Eurasian plates (e.g. Argus et al., 1989; DeMets et al., 2010). Subduction of oceanic crust and/or collision 2.1. Geodynamics and seismotectonics takes place along active orogenic belts, namely from west to east, the Gibraltar Arc, the Calabrian Arc, the Hellenic Arc and the Cyprus Arc. On- 2.1.1. Western Mediterranean and adjacent SW Iberian Margin going motion along transform boundaries of adjacent plates, such as the Crustal deformation in the Western Mediterranean is mainly driven Arabian plate and smaller crustal blocks, like the Anatolian “micro- by the NW–SE convergence (4–5 mm/yr) between the African and Eur- plate”, add more complexity to the active Mediterranean geodynamics asian plates (e.g. Argus et al., 1989; DeMets et al., 2010). Convergence is and the resulting geological processes (sea also in Mascle and Mascle, accommodated over a wide deformation zone along the plate boundary 2012)(Fig. 1). and distributed among a number of active tectonic structures character- Tsunami generation is dependent on several factors, including ized by low to moderate seismicity (Fig. 1b) (e.g. Buforn et al., 1995, seismogenic faulting, volcanic activity, landslide processes and offshore 2004; Stich et al., 2005, 2010), although large magnitude (Mw N 6.0) sedimentation. Therefore, these elements are extensively reviewed for historical and instrumental earthquakes have also occurred (e.g. AD the Mediterranean area and connected seas with the aim to provide 1522 Almeria, 1755 Lisbon, 1858 Torrevieja, 1969 Horseshoe, 1980 El the geological and geodynamic framework within which the tsunami Asnam and 2003 Boumerdès). The Western Mediterranean Sea consists generation takes place (Figs.1,2). of extensional basins (30 Ma old or younger) and areas of compressional In the Mediterranean region and connected seas, i.e., the Marmara deformation of Mesozoic basins, from west to east: the SW Iberian Basin Sea, Black Sea and SW Iberian Margin in the NE Atlantic Ocean, tsunami at westernmost part of the Gibratar Arc, the Alboran Sea, the Valencia sources threaten all coastal zones. In fact, historical documentary Trough, the Algero–Balearic Basin, the Tyrrhenian Basin, the Sicily sources together with geological evidence, e.g. paleotsunami sediment Channel Basin, the Northern and Western sectors of the Ionian deposits and geomorphological features, archeological findings, as Basin, and the Adriatic Basin (e.g. Biju-Duval and Montadert, 1976; well as instrumental data and recent observations have provided a Rosenbaum et al., 2002; Cavazza et al., 2004; Faccenna et al., 2004; long record of tsunami events produced by submarine or coastal earth- Spakman and Wortel, 2004; Ben-Avraham et al., 2006; Vergés and quakes, volcanic eruptions and landslides. A few of those events were Fernàndez, 2012). basin-wide, others, however, were either regional or only local tsu- The present-day structure of the SW Iberian basin results from the namis. In this paper we do not examine the so-called meteotsunamis complex geodynamic history undergone by the region since the open- (e.g. Monserrat et al., 2006), that are tsunami-like sea waves attributed ing of the Western Tethyan, Central- and North-Atlantic oceans during to atmospheric changes rather than to seismic and other geodynamic the Upper Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous (e.g. Tucholke et al., 2007; processes. Schettino and Turco, 2009; Martínez-García et al., 2013), combined One of the cornerstones for building up an effective strategy aiming with the changes in location and kinematics of the Eurasian–African at the tsunami risk mitigation in the Mediterranean region is the knowl- plate boundary (e.g. Srivastava et al., 1990). Recent surface ruptures edge of the past tsunami activity, the potential tsunami sources and have been recognized and correspond to a) active NE–SW trending generation mechanisms in the frame of the complex geodynamic set- thrusts cutting through the Plio-Quaternary units (e.g. Terrinha et al., ting of the region. However, for many historical events, including recent 2003; Gràcia et al., 2003a,b; Zitellini et al., 2004; Martínez-García ones, the causative sources and generation mechanisms still remain un- et al., 2013) and b) large WNW–ESE trending dextral strike-slip faults, identified. This calls for the need to better determine these sources, to which comprise a set of faults (e.g. Rosas et al., 2009; Terrinha et al., improve our capabilities to discriminate between seismic and aseismic 2009; Zitellini et al., 2009; Bartolome et al., 2012; Rosas et al., 2012) mechanisms, and to characterize tsunami sources. The relatively low (Fig. 3). The area is characterized by seismicity of moderate magnitude number of tsunamis that are known so far creates serious difficulties mainly situated between the Gorringe and Guadalquivir banks, and in developing standard and low-uncertainty statistical and probabilistic north of these lineaments. However, this region is also the source of approaches for the tsunami hazard estimation in the way it is applied in large historical and instrumental earthquakes, such as the AD 1755 the probabilistic seismic hazard assessment. Therefore, the ongoing Lisbon earthquake and tsunami (Mw ≥ 8.5), the 1969 Horseshoe G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 83

Fig. 1. (a) Regional topographic and bathymetric map of the Mediterranean Domain with major, simpliﬁed geological structures onshore and offshore (modiﬁed from Cavazza et al., 2004; Billi et al., 2011). (b) Regional map of the Mediterranean Domain with instrumental seismicity from the USGS-NEIC catalogue: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/neic/. Circles are pro- portional to earthquake magnitude and darker colors represent deeper earthquakes.

earthquake (Mw 8.0) or, more recently, the 2007 Horseshoe Fault earth- The Betic and Rif Cordilleras linked by the Gibraltar Arc constitute the quake (Mw 6.0) (e.g. Fukao, 1973; Buforn et al., 2004; Stich et al., 2007) westernmost end of the Mediterranean Alpine ranges. The Gibraltar arc is (Fig. 3). Different source candidates have been proposed for the great an arched orogenic belt formed during the Miocene oblique collision be- Lisbon earthquake (e.g. Gutscher et al., 2002; Baptista et al., 2003; tween the Alboran domain and the Iberian and Maghrebian passive mar- Terrinha et al., 2003; Gràcia et al., 2003a; Zitellini et al., 2004; Stich gins during westward roll-back or delamination of the Tethyan slab in a et al., 2007; Zitellini et al., 2009), although none of these models satis- general context of NW–SE Africa–Eurasia convergence (e.g. Lonergan factorily accounts for the estimated magnitude of the earthquake and and White, 1997; Faccenna et al., 2004; Platt et al., 2006; Booth-Rea the tsunami arrival times onshore. In addition, off-fault paleoseismic et al., 2007)(Fig. 1). This convergence produced the tectonic inversion studies on the basis of widespread synchronous turbidite deposits in of the structures of the Alboran basin with the development of the SW Iberian Margin (Garcia-Orellana et al., 2006)andcorrelated strike-slip and reverse faults since the late Miocene and active until with tsunami deposits onland (Lario et al., 2010) yield a regional recur- the Plio-Quaternary or present (e.g. Mauffret et al., 1992; Morel rence interval of large magnitude earthquakes (Mw N 8) of about and Meghraoui, 1996; Comas et al., 1999; Gràcia et al., 2006; 1800–2000 years (Gràcia et al., 2010). Martínez-García et al., 2010; Gràcia et al., 2012; Martínez-García 84 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109

Fig. 2. Display of submarine landslides mapped in the Mediterranean Sea basins, compiled from multiple sources (modiﬁed from Urgeles and Camerlenghi, 2013). et al., 2013)(Fig. 1). Some of these faults are capable to generate up to roll-back of the westward directed Apennines–Maghrebide subduction

Mw 7.4 earthquakes (e.g. Gràcia et al., 2006). front (e.g. Doglioni et al., 1997; Booth-Rea et al., 2007), while rifting oc- The oceanic Algero–Balearic back-arc basin was opened during the curred as early as in early Oligocene. To its north, the Valencia Trough is Burdigalian (Vially and Trémolières, 1996) as a result of the eastward ﬂoored by the stretched continental crust between the northeastern

Fig. 3. Color shaded relief map of the southwest Iberian Margin based on SRTM-3 for land topography and SWIM bathymetric compilation for bathymetry (Zitellini et al., 2009). Red stars illustrate epicenters of historical and instrumental strong (Mw ≥ 6.0) earthquakes which occurred in the SW Iberian Margin, and the white/dark balls represent the fault plane solutions of

Mw ≥ 6.0 instrumental earthquakes (e.g. Fukao, 1973; Buforn et al., 1995, 2004; Solares and Arroyo, 2004; Stich et al., 2005, 2007; Baptista and Miranda, 2009). Black lines show active faults (modiﬁed from Gràcia et al., 2003a,b; Zitellini et al., 2004; Terrinha et al., 2009; Zitellini et al., 2009; Gràcia et al., 2010; Bartolome et al., 2012; Martinez-Loriente et al., 2013). G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 85 margin of the Iberian Plate and the Balearic promontory, the northeast- gravitational collapse behind the SW-ward migrating Hellenic Arc and ern extension of the Betic thrust–belt (e.g. Roca et al., 1999). the superimposed deformation induced by the westward movement The Tyrrhenian Sea resulted from Miocene rifting, back-arc exten- of the Anatolian block. Crustal-scale extension in this region, which sion and crustal thinning of the Alpine–Apennine orogenic belt above started at least in the early Miocene and continues at present in areas the westward subducting Ionian lithosphere below the Calabrian Arc. such as the Corinth–Patras rift, Central Greece, has been accommodated Eastward migration of the latter led to the initiation of spreading and by shallow dipping detachment faults (Fig. 1). The shallow, interplate formation of the Vavilov and Marsili oceanic basins successively and intermediate-depth seismicity along the Hellenic Arc is extremely (Kastens et al., 1988; Kastens and Mascle, 1990; Sartori, 1990; Jolivet, high. Very large, tsunamigenic, likely interplate historical earthquakes

1991). Subduction-related volcanism migrated from west to southeast, ruptured the western and eastern segments of the arc on AD 365 (Mw namely from Sardinia to the presently active Aeolian Island Arc (Serri, ~8.3) and AD 1303 (Mw ~8.0), respectively. In the South Aegean Sea, 1997)(Fig. 1). the large (Mw 7.5) tsunamigenic earthquake of 9 July 1956, associated Active rifting and volcanism occur in the continental crust of the with normal faulting, was the largest crustal earthquake in Greece in Straits of Sicily (e.g. Ben-Avraham et al., 2006), while the Adriatic about the last century (Fig. 4). Basin is the remnant of a Mesozoic basin on which are superimposed North-eastwards directed subduction is continuing on the northern several Neogene to Present foredeep basins of the Apennines and the side of the Levantine Sea beneath Cyprus, but the rate of convergence Dinarides/Albanides fold and thrust belts (e.g. Bertotti et al., 2001). between the downgoing transitional oceanic–continental Levantine The Calabrian Arc is a predominant structure characterized by three lithosphere and the Cyprus margin is as low as about 1 cm/yr. The main tectonic processes: frontal compression and fore-arc extension involvement of the continental block of the Eratosthenes seamount since late Miocene (Sartori, 2003) and rapid uplift of on-shore and into the subduction zone and its incipient collision with the Cyprean shelf areas since mid-Pleistocene (Westaway, 1993)(Fig. 1). These pro- margin may have also played a role in the deformation of the Cyprus cesses have led to the development of a narrow shelf and a morpholog- Arc (e.g., Robertson, 1998; Schattner, 2010). The seismicity along the ically variable slope that reflects the underlying geology and extends at Cyprus Arc does not exceed 7.5 in magnitude while in frequency is depths up to 2000 m. In the Tyrrhenian Calabria large earthquakes, such clearly much lower than that in the Hellenic Arc (Fig. 5). Parallel to as those of AD 1693, 1783 and 1908 caused very powerful, lethal tsu- and close to the N–S trending Levantine coast, the Dead Sea Transform namis which are examined in later sections. Of interest is the tsunami Fault (DSTF) crosses the Middle East from south to north and accommo- generation which has been reported to occur from volcanic processes dates the relative sinistral movement between the Sinai subplate at the in the Aeolian Arc (e.g. Tinti and Maramai, 1996). northeastern tip of the African plate and the Arabian continental block The relatively shallow Adriatic Sea situated between Italy and the which moves northwards as a result of the opening of the Red Sea. Balkan Peninsula is floored by 30–35 km thick continental crust. The Such a large seismogenic system, situated onshore but close to the Mesozoic Adriatic domain is considered as a continental promontory coastal zone, is capable of generating strong ground motions (Fig. 5). of the African plate, also known as Adria (e.g. Channell et al., 1979; Muttoni et al., 2001) which has been locked by the Apennines and 2.1.3. Marmara Sea and Black Sea Dinarides–Albanides to the west and east, respectively. A seismic source The basins in the Marmara Sea, up to about 1200 m deep, are the of tsunamis was activated in 1627 in the Gargano promontory of Apulia, products of a superimposed evolutionary history controlled by two Italian coast of Adriatic Sea, where local tectonics are rather complex different in age fault systems: the early Miocene–early Pliocene and thought unfavorable to tsunami generation since strike-slip faults Thrace–Eskişehir Fault Zone and its branches, and the late Pliocene– are the predominant feature north and south of the promontory (Fig. 1). Recent, dextral strike-slip North Anatolian Fault (NAF) and its branches (Yaltirak, 2002). According to Rangin et al. (2004), presently the 2.1.2. Eastern Mediterranean basin Marmara Sea is the site of pure dextral strike-slip faulting that connects The Eastern Mediterranean, namely the Ionian, Libyan and Levantine the Izmit Fault in the east to the Ganos Fault in the west along a strike- Seas, is floored by remnants of the Mesozoic Tethys Ocean which is slip fault that is part of the northwestern branch of the Northern Anato- currently being subducted beneath the Calabrian Arc in the Western lian Fault (NAF) (Fig. 1). Rangin et al. (2004) supported that most of the Ionian Sea, the Hellenic Arc in the Eastern Ionian, Libyan and Western N120°E trending normal faults are now inactive as they are sealed by an Levantine Seas, and the Cyprean Arc in the East Levantine Sea (Fig. 1). average thickness of 300 m of sediments. GPS velocity vector interpreta- From extensive research carried out by a long number of scientists tions reveal that there is no net opening across the Marmara Sea per- (e.g. McKenzie, 1970, 1978; Dewey and Sengoer, 1979; Le Pichon and pendicular to the overall trend of the boundary and thus deformation Angelier, 1979; Le Pichon et al., 1982; Meulenkamp et al., 1988; in the Marmara region results only from the pull-apart NAF geometry Mascle and Martin, 1990; Meijer and Wortel, 1997; Jolivet, 2001; (Flerit et al., 2003). The Black Sea, exceeding 2000 m deep, is partly Armijo et al., 2004; Kreemer and Chamot-Rooke, 2004) it results that floored by oceanic crust and probably represents the remnant of a com- the Hellenic Arc and Trench system as well as its back-arc region of plex Cretaceous–Eocene back-arc basin which developed on the upper the Aegean Sea, are seismically the most active region in the Mediterra- plate of a north-dipping subduction zone (Fig. 1). Since at least Miocene nean. The westward extrusion of the Anatolia continental block along times there has been an independent and presently active subduction the dextral strike-slip North Anatolian Fault boundary, the NNE-ward along the northern margin of the Black Sea, generating the Caucasus. subduction of the Eastern Mediterranean lithosphere beneath the The western portion of the Black Sea opened in Cretaceous–Paleocene Hellenic Arc at a rate of 3–4 cm/yr, the subsequent SSW–NNE extension time whereas the East Black Sea basin has a Paleocene–Eocene age of the Aegean back-arc region, the collision of northwestern Greece (see Robinson, 1997 and references therein). with the Apulian block in the northern Ionian Sea, particularly to the north of the Cephalonia Fault, and the incipient collision with the 2.2. Volcanic activity Libyan promontory south of Crete (Fig. 1), are the main, ongoing processes which dominate the geodynamic evolution of the Aegean and Active volcanism in the Mediterranean Sea occurs in the Tyrrhenian East Ionian Seas. Building up of stresses along the boundaries and in and the South Aegean Seas, and is almost exclusively related to subduc- the interior of the involved crustal blocks leads to brittle and possibly tion processes along the Calabrian Arc and the Hellenic Arc, respectively ductile deformation in the upper crust, expressed by seismicity of highly (Fig. 1). At least four areas can be considered active in the Tyrrhenian complex seismotectonics of both dip-slip, normal and reverse, and Sea and South Italy which are of interest as regards tsunami occurrence: strike-slip kinematics. The Aegean Sea is a complex set of confined (i) the Campanian Plain and its offshore area, hosting the Campi Flegrei, tectonic–neotectonic basins resulting from the extension and Ischia and Vesuvio where the last eruption occurred in 1944; (ii) the 86 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109

Fig. 4. Source areas of the largest tsunamigenic earthquakes historically known in Greece, Turkey and the surrounding regions. For calculation explanations see text and Table 1. Key for geography: AS = Aegean Sea, BS = Black Sea, BU = Bulgaria, CR = Crete, CS = Cretan Sea, IS = Ionian Sea, MS = Marmara Sea. Symbol key: Figure near source area = year of earthquake occurrence (see Table 1), — means BC date, Mw =earthquakemoment-magnitude(slightlymodiﬁed from Papadopoulos and Papageorgiou, 2014).

Aeolian archipelago and its extension into the Tyrrhenian Abyssal Plain, have shown that the Minoan eruption was very likely the largest one active at Stromboli and with historical eruptions occurring at Vulcano worldwide, being comparable in size only with the Tambora 1815 erup- and Lipari; (iii) the Mount Etna which is active in Eastern Sicily; and tion in Indonesia, and much greater than the 1883 eruption of Krakatau (iv) the Straits of Sicily, where sporadic submarine eruptions of small (Sigurdsson et al., 2006; McCoy, 2009). Outside of the Thera caldera, the size occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries (Santacroce et al., 2003). 20 small, submarine volcanic cones that form the submarine Columbo The South Aegean volcanic arc has developed as a result of the active ediﬁce (Sigurdsson et al., 2006; Sakellariou et al., 2012; Nomikou subduction of the African lithosphere beneath the back-arc area of the et al., 2012) may be younger than the main Columbo ediﬁce that activat- Aegean Sea. The volcanic arc is parallel to and at distance of about ed in AD 1650 and may thus constitute potential centers of future sub- 150 km north of the Hellenic Trench (Ninkovich and Hays, 1972; marine eruptions (Nomikou et al., 2012). Dewey et al., 1973; Le Pichon and Angelier, 1979). The volcanism is initiated in the late Eocene in the North Aegean region and has migrated 2.3. Landslide processes and offshore sedimentation southward by approximately 400 km within 40 Ma to the present-day active South Aegean volcanic arc (Bellon et al., 1979; Papadopoulos, Tsunamis were historically reported to have been also generated in 1982; Fytikas et al., 1984; Papadopoulos, 1989; Papanikolaou et al., association to aseismic processes usually with the involvement of coast- 1993; Royden and Papanikolaou, 2011). al and/or submarine landslides (Fig. 2). In fact, the continental margins Volcanic activity in the South Aegean dates back at least to the Pleis- in the Mediterranean Sea favor such processes since they are steep, nar- tocene and has continued during the Holocene (Ktenas, 1935; Fytikas row, usually fed by small mountain-supplied rivers and as a rule con- et al., 1976, 1984; Pe-Piper and Piper, 2002). The Santorini–Columbo trolled by tectonic activity. A long number of scars and mass-failure volcanic complex is the most active in the South Aegean. The largest deposits have been reported to occur in both tectonically active and eruption in Santorini (Thera) volcano in the Holocene was the Minoan quiet areas and at sea depths ranging from very shallow up to 2 km or Late Bronze Age (LBA) caldera forming eruption of Plinian type, (e.g. Camerlenghi et al., 2010; Urgeles and Camerlenghi, 2013). The vol- which very likely occurred in the late 17th century BC. Recent studies umes of continental-slope deposits remobilized range from less than G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 87

Fig. 5. Historical tsunamis in the Levantine Sea (after Salamon et al., 2009). Note the location of the earthquakes onland and the affected coasts from the resulting tsunamis. These tsunamis very likely were triggered by seismogenic submarine landslides along the Levantine continental slopes. Key for faults: BT — Beirut (Mount Lebanon) thrust, CF — Carmel fault, MF — Missyaf fault, P — Palmerides, RF — Roum fault, RsF — Rashaiya fault, SF — Serghaya fault, YF — Yammaouneh fault. Key for localities: A — Acre (Akko, Ptolemais), AB — Amik Basin (Amik Gulu), Ad — Ashdod (Holotz Ashod?), AI — Arwad Islands (near Tartus), Ak — Ashkelon, An — Antioch (Antakya), Ap — Allepo, Aq — Aqaba, AY — Atlit-Yam, B — Beirut, Ba — Baalbek, C — Caesarea, El — Elat (Eilat), Fa — Famagusta, G — Gaza, Hi — Haifa, Hm — Hama, Ho — Homs, J — Jaffa, JG — Jordan Gorge, Je — Jericho, Kt — Kition, La — Laodicea (Latakia), Li — Limasol, Me — Mersin, Pa — Paphos, Pl — Pellusium, S — Sidon (Saida), Sa — Salamis, SG — Sea of Galilee, Ti — Tiberias, Tr — Tripoli, Ty — Tyre, U — Ugarit, Y — Yavne.

0.001 km3 to more than 1000 km3 while their ages fall in the time inter- et al., 2012). Seismicity is a major control in the distribution, magnitude val from the last 100,000 years to very recent times. Mass failure pro- and typology of submarine landslides (Camerlenghi et al., 2010; Urgeles cesses are of particular importance as regards their potential for the and Camerlenghi, 2013), but other factors, mainly fluvial sediment initiation of tsunamis. input and margin progradation (Field and Gardner, 1990; Lastras Submarine landslides are ubiquitous on the Mediterranean margins et al., 2007), come to play an important role too. of the Western Mediterranean and the adjacent SW Iberian Margin In the easternmost Mediterranean basin the main source of recent (Fig. 2). Available marine geophysical data evidence complex slope fail- sedimentation is the Nile river. Most of Nile's load was deposited in its ure systems, although understanding the distribution of known subma- delta and a significant portion was conveyed further NW-wards, off- rine landslides is not straightforward because of incomplete coverage shore along the Levant continental margins (Stanley, 1989). Such and lack of uniform studies in all areas (Camerlenghi et al., 2010; young, soft and unconsolidated materials are vulnerable to voluminous Urgeles and Camerlenghi, 2013). Nevertheless, during the last two de- gravitational collapses (e.g. Frey-Martinez et al., 2005; Folkman and cades, improvements in swath mapping and geophysical techniques Mart, 2008; Garziglia et al., 2008). According to Rosen (2011), landslides allowed to identify hundreds of submarine landslides. In the Western may also occur due to scouring of the lower part of the eastern flank of Mediterranean, most failures have limited volume, short runout and the Nile delta unconsolidated sediments (Fig. 2). Further to the east, in originate in relatively deep water. Therefore, only the largest albeit in- the Levantine Sea, there is substantial evidence for submarine slump frequent events are likely to trigger large tsunamis. The so-called complexes off the coast of Israel and Lebanon (e.g. Frey-Martinez BIG'95, with a volume of 26 km3 and 110 km runout (Lastras et al., et al., 2005; Salamon et al., 2009)(Fig. 2). In Central Greece, the predom- 2002; Urgeles et al., 2007), is one of such events in the Western Medi- inant structure is the rift of Corinth Gulf (e.g. Armijo et al., 1996; Moretti terranean basin (Løvholt et al., 2009; Tinti et al., 2009a,b; Iglesias et al., 2003) which is also characterized by high seismicity and is typical 88 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 for local tsunamis triggered by both earthquakes and coastal/submarine Table 1 landslides (e.g. Papadopoulos, 2003; Lykousis et al., 2008). Strong tsunamis historically known in the Mediterranean and connected seas. Tsunami events are included only if they have assigned intensity K ≥ 6 in the 12-grade scale of Papadopoulos and Imamura (2001) and are of reliability of at least 3 in a 4-grade scale (for explanation about the reliability scale, see Tinti and Maramai (1996) and 3. Historical and pre-historical records of tsunamis Papadopoulos (2003)). For data sources and literature see text. Symbol key: K = tsunami intensity, h = runup height, ML = Murty-Loomis (1980) tsunami magnitude. This table A widely spread perception among the general public is that tsu- is an update of the one published by Papadopoulos (2009). Three new events were added: no. 6 and no. 18 in Black Sea and no. 25 in SW Iberia. The tsunami events of AD namis are lacking in the Mediterranean Sea. This could be interpreted 552, Maliac Bay, Central Greece, and 1612, Crete, were excluded since after new historio- by the relatively low frequency of strong tsunami occurrence which graphic research it was found that they do not meet the criteria of reliability and of mini- disfavor maintenance of memory. However, examination of the mum intensity followed to organize the present table. instrumental, historical, archeological and geological records of tsu- No Year Month Day Region Area/KhML namis has shown that all basins of the Mediterranean and its connected (cm) seas have experienced such waves in the past (e.g. see review in 1 –426 Summer Maliac Bay 8 Papadopoulos, 2009 and references therein). This has mainly been doc- 2 −373 Winter W. Corinth Gulf Helike 9 umented in a long number of historical sources which provided the 3 148 Rhodes Isl. Rhodes 7 basis for the publication of a variety of tsunami data compilations such 4 365 07 21 Crete Isl. Alexandria 10 as descriptive and/or parametric catalogues, books and reports. In the 5 447 01 26 Marmara Sea 8 – fi 6 544 Bulgarian Black Sea 8 9 next publications one may nd detailed tsunami cataloguing as well 7 551 07 09 Lebanon 8 as older references: Galanopoulos (1960), Ambraseys (1962, 2009), 8 556 Cos Isl. Cos 8 Antonopoulos (1980), Papadopoulos and Chalkis (1984), Papazachos 9 749 01 18 Levantine coast 7 et al. (1985), Tinti et al. (1999a, 2004), Soloviev (1990), Guidoboni 10 1169 02 04 Messina Straits 8 et al. (1994), Tinti and Maramai (1996), Altinok and Ersoy (2000), 11 1202 05 20 Syrian cost & Cyprus 7 12 1303 08 08 Crete Isl. Heraklion 10 Soloviev et al. (2000), Yalciner et al. (2002), Papadopoulos (2003, 13 1343 10 18 Marmara Sea 8 200 2009, 2011), Guidoboni and Comastri (2005), Papadopoulos and 14 1365 01 02 Algiers 8 Fokaefs (2005), Fokaefs and Papadopoulos (2007), Salamon et al. 15 1389 03 20 Chios Isl. 6 (2007, 2011), Papadopoulos et al. (2007a, 2010), Baptista and Miranda 16 1402 06 Corinth Gulf 8 17 1481 05 03 Rhodes Isl. Rhodes 7 (2009),andAltinok et al. (2011). 18 1598 05 Turkish Black Sea 8–9 The historical tsunami record in the Mediterranean region goes back 19 1609 04 Rhodes Isl. Rhodes 8 to the Greek antiquity. Based on the historian Democles (4th century 20 1627 07 30 Gargano 6 −1.4 BC), tsunami catalogues included a sea wave that attacked the coastal 21 1650 10 11 Thera Isl. Patmos 10 2000 +3.0 zone of Troy, modern NW Turkey, in about 1300 BC (e.g. Papadopoulos, 22 1693 01 11 Eastern Sicily 7 +2.3 23 1741 01 31 Rhodes Isl. Rhodes 8 – – 2005). From a relevant passage in Homer's Iliad (M18 19, M26 33) it 24 1748 05 25 W. Corinth Gulf Aeghion 9 1000 becomes clear that a strong sea wave destroyed the wall that the Greeks 25 1755 11 01 SW Iberia Lisbon 10 1500 +3.8 constructed in the Aegean Sea coast to protect their fleet from the attacks 26 1759 11 25 Levantine Sea Akko 8 of Troyans, while trees and wall materials were drifted away by the 27 1766 05 22 Marmara Sea 7 28 1773 05 06 Tangiers 7 900 water; the ground was leveled by the strong wave; the coastal zone 29 1783 02 06 Calabria 9 900 −1.8 was covered by a sandy mantle while the sea caused the flow of rivers 30 1817 08 23 W. Corinth Gulf Aeghion 9 500 to invert. Although a conclusive interpretation about the nature of the 31 1823 03 05 North Sicily 8 strong sea disturbance seems unlike, effects similar to those caused by 32 1856 11 13 Chios Isl. 8 the Homeric sea wave are well recognized today in the effects of modern 33 1866 01 02 Albania 7 34 1866 02 02 Kythira Isl. Avlemonas 6 800 tsunamis. Therefore, a paleotsunami survey in the coast of Troy is of great 35 1866 03 06 Albania 7 geoscientific and archeological interest. 36 1867 09 09 SE Peloponnese Gythion 7 Onshore and offshore geological observations, and in some instances 37 1908 12 28 Messina Straits 10 1300 −0.4 archeological evidence, have also provided valuable information re- 38 1944 08 20 Stromboli Isl. 7 39 1948 02 09 Karpathos Isl. 7 garding Mediterranean tsunamis. The number of events listed in Medi- 40 1956 07 09 Cyclades Astypalaea 9 1500 +3.0 terranean tsunami catalogues exceeds 300, although several of them are 41 1963 02 07 W. Corinth Gulf 7 500 −11.0 of low reliability. Detailed information can be found in the data base 42 1979 04 15 Montenegro 8 produced by the cooperative research effort of many scientists working 43 1999 08 17 Marmara Sea 6 250 together in the EC-supported FP6 pan-European tsunami research pro- 44 2002 12 30 Stromboli Isl. Ficogrande 7 900 ject TRANSFER (http://www.transferproject.eu/). In this section the past tsunami history of the Mediterranean region is reviewed but we do not provide detailed descriptions given that it was done elsewhere (see references at the beginning of this section). 3.1. SW Iberian Margin and Western Mediterranean Instead, here we highlight only some key events by providing a brief review which is needed to follow next sections. Table 1 contains a list 3.1.1. SW Iberian Margin of the most important tsunamis historically reported. Globally, no Offshore SW Iberia, particularly in the external part of the Gulf of standard method for measuring tsunami magnitude was established Cadiz, there is a highly seismogenic zone producing very strong tsu- so far, although a few relevant scales were proposed. Magnitudes namis (e.g. Baptista and Miranda, 2009). The most famous was the were assigned only to very few tsunami events in the Mediterranean disastrous AD 1755 earthquake-tsunami event, which affected all coun- region. Therefore, tsunami intensity was systematically used as a tries around the Gulf of Cadiz as well as a large part of the Atlantic Ocean proxy to the tsunami size (Table 1) and was assigned according to the coasts (see reviews in Fonseca, 2005; Oliveira, 2008)(Fig. 3). Wave new 12-point tsunami intensity scale introduced by Papadopoulos and heights up to 15 m were described in Cape St. Vincent and along the Imamura (2001). Event dates are given in New Style (N.S., Gregorian Gulf of Cadiz. In Lisbon the number of casualties, due exclusively to calendar) unless it is specified that they are in Old Style (O.S., Julian cal- the tsunami, is estimated close to 900 and the run-in in Lisbon down- endar). To avoid confusion regarding some commonly used tsunami town is estimated at ~250 m (Baptista et al., 1998). However, the loca- terms, an explanatory schematic diagram is included in Fig. 6. tion and type of source are still debated (see Section 2.1), while G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 89

Fig. 6. Schematic explanation of some commonly used tsunami terms (modiﬁed from IOC, 1998). The term “run-in” may be used instead of inundation. The term “tsunami amplitude” is in use by some authors to describe either tsunami height at sea shore or wave amplitude in the open sea. suggestions for an overestimationofbothearthquakeandtsunami 13 m and 11.7 m along the Calabrian coast at Pellaro and on the Sicilian were published (Blanc, 2009). The Horseshoe earthquake (Mw 7.9) coast at S. Alessio, respectively (Tinti and Maramai, 1996), where tsuna- of 28 February 1969 produced only a small tsunami recorded in sev- mi intensity of degree 10 was assigned (Papadopoulos, 2009). A tsuna- eral tide-gauges with maximum amplitude of 0.6 m in Casablanca mi likely similar to that of 1908 was reported to hit Messina in AD 1169. (Baptista et al., 1992). In the north side of the Adriatic Sea small-to-moderate tsunamis were historically reported (Maramai et al., 2007; Paulatto et al., 2007; 3.1.2. Western Mediterranean basin Pasarić et al., 2012). In the Italian coast, a tsunami source is controlled In the Western Mediterranean basin, the North Algeria earthquakes by the seismicity of the Gargano promontory (Tinti et al., 1995). The de- of AD 2 January 1365, 6 May 1773, 21–22 August 1856, 9 September structive earthquake of AD 30 July 1627, which may have been associat- 1954 and 10 October 1980 caused tsunamis with intensities up to 4. ed with the Apricena normal fault on land (Patacca and Scandone, Soloviev et al. (2000) suggested that the location of most of these earth- 2004), caused a powerful tsunami (Tinti and Guidoboni, 1988)with quakes on land in North Algeria triggered submarine slumping that gen- assigned intensity 6 (Papadopoulos, 2009). On the eastern side of the erated powerful turbidity currents. However, the 21 May 2003 small-to- Adriatic Sea moderate-to-strong tsunamis were reported in Albania in moderate tsunami produced by a Mw 6.8 earthquake in the continental AD 1866 with assigned intensity 7 (Soloviev et al., 2000; Papadopoulos, margin of Algeria was attributed to a thrust coseismic faulting (e.g. Yiga, 2009, and references therein). 2003; Meghraoui et al., 2004; Wang and Liu, 2005; Alasset et al., 2006). In the Ligurian Sea and the Côte d'Azur, on 16 October 1979 an 3.2. Eastern Mediterranean basin aseismic, submarine slope failure that occurred during the construction of the new Nice airport produced a destructive tsunami wave of 3 m in 3.2.1. Hellenic Arc height that was observed near Antibes. The AD 20 July 1564 and AD 23 The Hellenic Arc is a major geotectonic structure dominating the February 1887 earthquakes (Eva and Rabinovich, 1997; Larroque et al., east Mediterranean basin and producing large earthquakes and tsu- 2012) triggered tsunamis inundating the coast from Nice to Antibes namis. Geological and archeological evidence collected in the Hellenis- and from Genoa to Cannes, respectively. tic/Roman harbor of Phalasarna, NW Crete (e.g. Pirazzoli et al., 1992; Dominey-Howes et al., 1998), as well as several documentary sources 3.1.3. Tyrrhenian Sea, Calabrian arc and Adriatic Sea (e.g. Ambraseys, 2009) imply that around AD 66 a tsunami ﬂooded The Tyrrhenian Sea has also been the source of some past tsunamis. the western-southwestern part of Crete after a strong earthquake (see In Tuscany, a tsunami assigning intensity 4 was reported on AD 5 March extensive critical review in Papadopoulos, 2011 and references therein). 1823. In Stromboli, Aeolian Islands, tsunamis assigning intensity 3 or 4 The large tsunamigenic earthquake of AD 21 July 365 that very likely produced by volcanic landslides were documented on AD 3 July 1916, ruptured the western segment of the Hellenic subduction zone (Fig. 4) 22 May 1919, 11 September 1930, 20 August 1944 and 30 December on a NE-dipping fault within the overriding plate (Shaw et al., 2008), 2002 (e.g. Maramai et al., 2005a). is one of the most contentious and debated natural events in the Medi- Another tsunamigenic zone is that of eastern Sicily and Messina terranean Sea history. However, the accounts of Marcellinus, Athanasius Straits. An extreme event occurred in Tyrrhenian Calabria on AD 6 and Jerome, which are the closest in time to the event, leave no doubt February 1783 (Tinti and Guidoboni, 1988) since a huge earthquake- that a large area was affected since the tsunami propagated to the induced rockfall (Bozzano et al., 2011) triggered an intensity 6 tsunami. northwest, west and south of the Hellenic trench and reached as far as Inundation heights of 6–9 m were observed and more than 1500 lives Methoni in SW Peloponnese, east Sicily, Alexandria and Dalmatia (see re- were lost. In NE Sicily the AD 11 January 1693 earthquake, that claimed views in Jacques and Bousquet, 1984; Evagelatou-Notara, 1987/1988; about 70,000 victims, caused an intensity 7 tsunami. Guidoboni et al., 1994; Shaw et al., 2008; Papadopoulos, 2011). The AD

TheAD28December1908earthquake(Mw 7.1) is one of the most 365 tsunami is one of the most important key events in the Mediterra- lethal ever reported in Italy. Major towns in southern Italy, including nean region. Notable tsunamis caused by strong earthquakes in the Messina and Reggio Calabria, were completely destroyed with a death western Hellenic Arc were also observed on AD 9 March 1630, AD 6 toll of ~60,000 while a violent tsunami hit the Messina Straits (see re- February 1866 and AD 20 September 1867 (see review and references view and references in Tinti and Maramai, 1996). At least three large in Papadopoulos, 2011). waves were observed causing many deaths and severe damage to In the eastern segment of the Hellenic Arc, several Byzantine, Venetian ships, buildings and property. Tsunami wave heights observed were and Arabic documentary sources indicate that the AD 8 August 1303 90 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 tsunamigenic earthquake, which very likely ruptured the arc between (Fig. S1a, b), cultivated land and property, while four people were Crete and Rhodes (Fig. 4), was one of the largest historically reported drowned. Marine-deposited sediments were described in Astypalaea in the Mediterranean (see reviews in Guidoboni and Comastri, 1997; (Dominey-Howes, 1996; Dominey-Howes et al., 2000). The tsunami Papadopoulos, 2011). Similarly, the AD 1303 large tsunami also propa- was recorded by near-field tide-gauges in Laki, Leros Isl. and in Souda, gated in an extensive part of the eastern Mediterranean basin. The most Crete (Galanopoulos, 1957) and as far as Yafo, Israel (Goldsmith and serious destruction was reported from northeastern Crete where the Gilboa, 1985) with wave amplitude of ~4 m, 1.5 m and 28 cm, large tsunami struck the capital city of Heraklion. The sea swept violent- respectively. ly into the city with such force that it destroyed buildings and killed in- In the east Aegean Sea, a distinct tsunami-prone area is associated habitants. In Acre, Israel, people were swept away and drowned by the with earthquakes occurring near Chios Island, where local tsunamis of huge wave. In Alexandria the wave destroyed port facilities. Both AD intensity 3 or 4 were observed on AD 20 March 1389, 12 May 1852, 8 365 and AD 1303 tsunami key events are further discussed in the next September 1852, 13 November 1856, 2 February 1866, 3 April 1881 sections. and 23 July 1949. In the north Aegean Sea, according to the Greek histo- In the easternmost Hellenic Arc strong tsunamigenic earthquakes oc- rian Herodotus (484–426 BC), a destructive sea wave reportedly struck curred in AD 142 or 144, 3 May 1481, April 1609 and 31 January 1741 in Potidaea, Chalkidiki Peninsula, in April AD 479 BC. The description may Rhodes and in AD 556 in Cos. A local but still damaging tsunami was imply tsunami action but no earthquake was reported. Reicherter et al. caused in Karpathos on AD 9 February 1948 (Papadopoulos et al., (2010) described possible tsunami sediment deposits in Thermaikos 2007a; Ebeling et al., 2012). As discussed later, trenches in late Holocene Gulf that could be attributed to that historical event. Remarkable local sediments at Dalaman, SW Turkey, revealed three tsunami sand layers at- tsunamis of intensity 3 were observed after strong earthquakes in tributed to the AD 1303, AD 1481 and AD 1741 tsunamis (Papadopoulos Samothraki Isl. on AD 9 February 1893 and in Ierissos, Chalkidiki penin- et al., 2005b, 2012a), which makes the Dalaman test-site one of the key sula, on AD 26 September 1932. In AD 544 an earthquake-induced de- cases to test correlations between onshore tsunami sediment deposition structive inundation hit the coast of Thrace facing the north Aegean and historical record of tsunamigenic earthquakes. Sea. However, its origin remains questionable since strangely enough it was reported that inundated also the Bulgarian coast of Black Sea 3.2.2. Aegean Sea (Papadopoulos et al., 2011 and references therein) (Figs. 4 and S2). In the island complex of Cyclades, South Aegean Sea, the LBA or Minoan eruption of Thera (Santorini), which according to the latest ra- 3.2.3. Tectonic rifts of Corinth and Evoikos Gulfs, Central Greece diocarbon dating occurred in 1613 ± 13 BC (Friedrich et al., 2006), was The rift of Corinth Gulf, Central Greece, is highly prone to tsunamis. one of the most significant ever seen by humankind because of its very Regardless the tsunami size, this rift structure is characterized by the large size (VEI = 7+), its possible impact on LBA east Mediterranean highest rate of tsunami production in the European–Mediterranean re- civilizations, and for distributing huge amounts of tephra, thus creating gion. This is explainable by the concurrence of several favoring factors an important marker horizon. The eruption history may have included such as high seismicity, susceptibility to coastal/submarine landsliding four main phases (Heiken and McCoy, 1984) and concluded with the and steep bathymetry (Papadopoulos, 2003). The tsunami rate is higher formation of the largest part of the caldera dominating the landscape in the west side of the Gulf which is consistent with that the seismicity of modern Santorini. The most intensive eruption phase lasted for rate is also higher than on the east side. However, the Corinth Gulf tsu- about 3 to 4 days (Sigurdsson et al., 1990). The eruption of Thera is be- namis are not the largest in the Mediterranean region and are not able lieved to have triggered a tsunami similar in magnitude or larger than to propagate outside the gulf. A long number of documentary sources the tsunami which was generated by the AD 1883 Krakatau eruption (Guidoboni et al., 1994) support that in 373 BC the coastal town of and rolled against the shores of Java and Sumatra with heights up to Helike, located about 7 km east of modern Aeghion, SW Corinth Gulf, 35 m killing more than 36,400 people (e.g. Kawamata et al., 1993; was destroyed by a strong earthquake and its associated local tsunami. Choi et al., 2003). A variety of geological and archeological field observa- Ten Spartan ships which were at anchor were destroyed by the wave. tions as well as results of numerical simulations are discussed in the Papadopoulos (1998) suggested a scenario comprising three sequential next section in an effort to examine the generation mechanism of the geological events: (1) strong earthquake, (2) extensive coastal liquefac- so-called Minoan tsunami. tion, and (3) tsunami inundation. That author estimated earthquake Another large tsunami was generated during the eruption of magnitude of at least 6.6 which is about equal to that assigned to a Columbo, a submarine volcanic edifice lying 7.3 km offshore to the quite similar event that happened in the same area on AD 26 December northeast of Thera. During a pause of the volcanic activity on AD 29 1861 (Schmidt, 1879). September 1650 (O.S.), a sea swell encircled the whole of Thera Island Strong, lethal earthquakes occurring on AD 25 May 1748 and AD 23 and the tsunami inundated the eastern coast and swept away churches, August 1817 generated local but still powerful tsunamis causing human enclosures, boats, trees and cultivated land. On the east and west coast losses and extensive damage in the coastal zone of Aeghion, west of Patmos Island and on Ios Island, maximum tsunami runup of 30 m, 50 Corinth Gulf (Papadopoulos, 2003 and references therein). The AD m and 16 m, respectively, was reported. Ships and fishing boats moored June 1402 tsunami was very powerful and followed a large, possibly at Heraklion, Crete, were violently swept offshore, while vessels were near-shore large earthquake having its source close to the town of crushed when the wave overtopped the ~4 m high city walls. The gen- Xylokastro (Fig. 4)(Evagelatou-Notara, 1986; Papadopoulos, 2003). eration mechanism of that tsunami is still puzzling (Dominey-Howes Seismically-triggered landslides caused local tsunamis along the et al., 2000; Nomikou et al., 2012) and, therefore, it is discussed further north coast of Corinth Gulf on AD 11 June 1794, 6 July 1965, 11 February in a next section. 1984 and 15 June 1995. An aseismic, damaging tsunami generated by a The most recent large Mediterranean tsunami occurred in Cyclades sediment slump at a river mouth hit both coasts of western Corinth Gulf on AD 9 July 1956 after a Mw 7.5 crustal earthquake (Fig. 4) and killed two people on AD 7 February 1963 (Galanopoulos et al., (Galanopoulos, 1957; Ambraseys, 1960; Papazachos et al., 1985) and 1964). This tsunami is further examined later given that it is one of was associated with normal faulting (Papadopoulos and Pavlides, the key events for understanding tsunami generation from aseismic 1992; Perissoratis and Papadopoulos, 1999; Okal et al., 2009 and refer- earth slumps. A similar wave but of less intensity was observed near ences therein). The tsunamigenic source, trending NE–SW, was up to Aeghion on AD 1 January 1996 (Papadopoulos, 2003). 100 km in length (Papadopoulos and Pavlides, 1992). Initial estimates About 90 km to the northeast from Corinth Gulf, the NW–SE of the near-source wave height varied between 15 m and 30 m in trending tectonic rift of Evoikos Gulf, including its northwestern termi- Amorgos and Astypalaea (Galanopoulos, 1957; Ambraseys, 1960). Ex- nation called Maliakos Bay, is remarkably active from the seismicity tensive destruction was noted in port facilities, small and large vessels point of view. A few tsunamis were historically reported there. The G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 91 historian Thucydides (460–403? BC) described a strong earthquake difficult to find, if at all. It means that potential tsunamigenic sources, occurring in 426 BC. Later on, geographer Strabo (64 BC–19 AD) the repeat time of which is longer than ~5 ka, should also be considered reported an associated tsunami inundating violently coastal localities for hazard evaluation, even if there is no historical evidence for their ac- of Maliakos Bay (Antonopoulos, 1992). Sediment layers of likely tivity. The Nile Cone is such an example (Maldonado and Stanley, 1976; tsunamigenic origin were described by Gaki-Papanastassiou et al. Salamon, 2011). The only evidence of a tsunami that might have been (2001). However, Papaioannou et al. (2004) evaluated additional his- originated from there is the 20 BC orphan tsunami between Alexandria torical and archeological reports and suggested that the 426 BC seismic and Pellusium, Egypt (see Salamon et al., 2009, and reference therein). event was rather moderate arguing that the large tsunami from that pe- However, the tsunami record in the eastern Mediterranean motivated riod may have occurred during the 3rd century BC, and that previous re- the performance of tsunami hazard studies in geographical spots of par- searchers amalgamated the two events into the earlier one at 426 BC. ticular economic interest (e.g. Finkl et al., 2012). The Byzantine historian Procopius reported on earthquakes that struck Corinth Gulf settlements in AD 552 (Ambraseys, 2009, and refer- 3.3. Marmara Sea and Black Sea ences therein). Procopius described also a strong tsunami in the Maliakos Bay which, however, looks like the one of 426 BC as described In Marmara Sea, the most tsunami-prone side is the east one due to by classic authors. Therefore, one may suggest that very likely Procopius higher seismicity with respect to the west side. Intensity 3 or 4 tsunamis did not describe a tsunami caused by the AD 552 earthquake but just were caused by earthquakes on AD 26 January 447, 26 October 740, 2 reproduced classical sources regarding the 426 BC tsunami. September 1754 and 19 April 1878 in the Izmit Bay, on AD 25 Septem- ber 478, 10 August 1265, 18 October 1343, 25 May 1419, 10 September 3.2.4. Cyprean Arc and Levantine Sea 1509 and 10 July 1894 in Constantinople (Istanbul), on AD 22 May 1766 The area of Cyprus and Levantine Sea is of relatively low tsunami in Bosporus Straits, and on AD 9 August 1912 in Terkirdağ (e.g. Altinok frequency (Fokaefs and Papadopoulos, 2007). Archeological excavations et al., 2011). The large M 7.4 Izmit earthquake of AD 17 August 1999, in Kourion, SW Cyprus, elevated at about 100 m above the sea level, w caused by right-lateral strike-slip faulting with significant normal com- revealed a destruction horizon initially attributed to the AD 21 July ponent, generated damaging waves up to 2.5 m high in Değirmendere, 365 earthquake and tsunami (Soren, 1988). However, although the south coast, and elsewhere in the Izmit Bay (Altinok et al., 1999; archeological findings revealed an impressive seismic destruction Yalciner et al., 2002; Tinti et al., 2006a,b) with intensity up to 4 layer containing human and animal skeletons, the association of the (Papadopoulos, 2001). earthquake with a tsunami is only speculative since no tsunami evi- Data on the Black Sea tsunamis were published by several authors dence was presented at all. In fact, it would be hardly explainable if a (e.g. Pelinovsky, 1999; Altinok and Ersoy, 2000; Yalciner et al., 2004). tsunami had reached at that high elevation. Besides, as earlier analyzed An updated data compilation and critical evaluation of tsunamis occur- at all evidence the large AD 365 earthquake ruptured the western Hel- ring in the Black Sea and the Azov Sea from the antiquity up to the lenic Arc. Consequently, an earthquake source there may not account present have indicated that the tsunami hazard is very low but still for destruction caused as far as SW Cyprus at an epicentral distance of not negligible (see Papadopoulos et al., 2011, and references therein). about 900 km. From historiographic analysis and coin dating it comes Most of tsunamigenic seismic sources are concentrated in three main out that very likely Kourion was hit by a local earthquake occurring zones, that are (i) around the peninsula of Crimea and (ii) off-shore without tsunami around AD 370 (Guidoboni et al., 1994; Ambraseys, Bulgarian coast and (iii) in the eastern side of Black Sea. 2009). In southeastern Cyprus a damaging tsunami of intensity 7 From Byzantine historical sources it comes out that a strong sea (Fokaefs and Papadopoulos, 2007) was reported in association to the wave, very likely a tsunami, that hit coastal settlements of Bulgaria, very large (M = 7.6, Guidoboni and Comastri, 2005) earthquake of AD was caused by a very strong earthquake occurring on AD 544 or 545 off- 22 May 1202 which ruptured the DSFT (Salamon et al., 2009). The tsu- shore modern Varna. Ranguelov et al. (2008a) presented field evidence nami was also reported from the Syrian coast. Submarine landslide pos- from an archeological site in Balchik, situated ~20 km north of Varna. sibly triggered by a possibly inland earthquake might be the tsunami Namely, the Cybele Temple was affected by fire and roof collapse, very generating mechanism. On AD 11 May 1222 and on AD 10 September possibly due to that earthquake. The floor was flooded by sea water 1953 two strong earthquakes occurring in SW Cyprus caused also which left behind a layer of sand and shells. The Temple is of the Helle- local tsunamis assigning intensity of 5 and 3, respectively (Fokaefs and nistic period and located about 180 m inland from the present shoreline Papadopoulos, 2007). (Fig. S2). In the left-lateral strike-slip Levantine rift, tsunami-generating According to Ranguelov et al. (2008b), an aseismic tsunami-like sea earthquakes have been identified from documentary sources (see re- disturbance was observed on AD 7 May 2007 on the Bulgarian Black Sea views in Amiran et al., 1994; Guidoboni et al., 1994; Darawcheh et al., coastal segment of about 150 km in length and centering near Balchik. 2000; Elias et al., 2007; Salamon et al., 2007; Ambraseys, 2009). On The chief period of the oscillations was 4–8 min while slight damage AD 9 July 551 the sea retreated for a mile and many ships were was caused. Although the hypothesis of tsunami generation from sub- destroyed along the coasts of Phoenicia, modern Lebanon, particularly marine landslides should not be ruled out, Vilibić et al. (2010) analyzed in the cities of Beirut and Tripoli, as well as in Syria and Palestine. the tsunami features and atmospheric conditions and concluded in After an earthquake on AD 18 January 746 or 749, which affected favor of a meteotsunami, the first of such kind reported in the Black Sea. Palestine, Jordan and Syria, the waves “rose up to the sky” and destroyed cities and villages. This is one of the historical events which certainly deserve further examination for better understanding the tsunami 4. Geological signature of tsunamis source. Tsunamis were reported after the strong earthquakes on AD 5 December 1033, that shook the region around the Jordan Valley, on As in all natural events, especially if rare, a careful observation and AD 29 May 1068, an event possibly centering at the south of the Levantine analysis of past occurrences are the basis for understanding them and rift, and on AD 14 January 1546 near the Dead Sea (Ambraseys, 2009). The for developing models and scenarios to forecast future occurrences. His- two millennia of historic time frame are much shorter than the repeat torical tsunami records are known to be a powerful tool for this scope, time of large earthquakes in many of the tectonic structures as well as but in recent times it was more and more proven that geological records of sedimentary slumps upload in the region of Levantine Sea. Given the of past tsunamis are also a precious source of information to integrate limited time span of historical documentation and the stabilization of and extend back in time historical records. Geological data can provide the sea in its present level only a few thousands of years ago, the evidence information on extent of inundation inland and along the coast, runup of tsunamis that have occurred before that time is hard to trace and size and age of the event, all useful information for evaluating the 92 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 tsunami size, the related source location and type as well as the occur- inland, ranging from fine-medium sand to boulders and megaclasts. rence frequency. This material is eroded from both seafloor and shore by the waves ap- The basic principle for the geological identification and dating of past proaching and flooding the coastal zone. Consequently, tsunami de- tsunamis stays on the observation that tsunami waves mobilize and deposits in continental areas are sediments at least partially of marine liver a large amount of sediments both inland and off-shore. Thus, the origin, deposited on by a high-energy process. recognition of tsunami related deposits can be directly translated into Coastal lakes, lagoons and almost flat fluvial plains, characterized by the geological record of a tsunami. Dating of these deposits through low-energy environment, favor the investigation of tsunami deposits. common Quaternary geochronological techniques, such as AMS radio- The direct effects of coastal tsunami inundations, such as beach erosion, carbon, OSL, short-lived radionuclides, tephrochronology, paleomagne- destruction of sand barriers and/or formation of landward washover tism, and archeological dating, yields to the tsunami dating. In this fans, hummocky topography and large scars, is usually reflected in geo- section we summarize the main achievements as regards the geological morphological features (e.g. Goff et al., 2009; Paris et al., 2009). and geomorphological recognition of tsunamis of the past, that is of paleotsunamis. Coastal sites with tsunami evidence from geological, geomorphological and archeological field observations discussed in 4.1.1. Criteria for identification and characterization of onshore tsunami this paper are illustrated in Figs.7,8and9. signatures

4.1. Onshore signature 4.1.1.1. Medium-ﬁne grained deposits. Studies on modern- and paleotsunami deposits suggest that, in general terms, their average grain Recent studies on the onshore geological signatures of the Indian size decreases landward and upward, depending on the nature Ocean 2004 and Japan 2011 megatsunami events (e.g. Paris et al., of the available near- and onshore sediments (e.g. Goff et al., 2012) 2010; Goto et al., 2011), conﬁrmed that, during inundation of coastal as well as on the hydrodynamic conditions during transport and areas, tsunamis are capable to transport a large amount of sediments sedimentation.

Fig. 7. Types of onshore ﬁeld evidence for the occurrence of past tsunamis in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Figures in parentheses indicate the number of tsunami sediment layers found. G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 93

Fig. 8. Types of onshore ﬁeld evidence for the occurrence of past tsunamis in the West Mediterranean region (see text for references). Figures in parentheses indicate the number of tsunami sediment layers found.

Similarly, tsunami deposit thickness varies depending on the energy found in Cape Punta, SE Peloponnese (Scheffers et al., 2008). A wood of waves and type of deposits involved as well as on the local topogra- fragment found at the base of tsunami deposits was dated to phy. In general, tsunami deposits thickness does not exceed a few tens ~250 cal. AD which may be signature of the AD 365 large tsunami. of cm (Morton et al., 2007). Usually, tsunami deposits do not display From sedimentological analyses combined with geomorphological peculiar sedimentary structures apart from rare laminae, the number and archeological findings in the Ambrakian Gulf, in Akarnania as well of layers is limited to a few and the basal contact is abrupt (Fig. 9). Bio- as in the Lake Voulkaria, all in coastal zones of Ionian Sea, NW Greece, logical indicators of the marine origin of a specific layer may include Vött et al. (2007, 2008, 2009, 2011) supported that were able to identify diatoms (Nichol et al., 2007), ostracods (Ruiz et al., 2010) and foraminif- several sediment layers attributed to a series of pre-historical and his- era (Mamo et al., 2009)althoughno“characteristic” species are associ- torical tsunami events (Fig. 7). However, the geological record is not ated to tsunami deposits. supported by historical tsunami documentation, with the possible ex- ception of the AD 365 event. Other important cases regard sediments 4.1.1.2. The stratigraphic record. In the Mediterranean region of particular deposited by the LBA Thera tsunami in SW Turkey and north Crete value are studies aiming to verify geological evidence by archeological (Minoura et al., 2000), in Thera (McCoy and Heiken, 2000), and again findings and/or historical tsunami documentation and integrate them in north Crete (McCoy and Papadopoulos, 2001; Bruins et al., 2008) into a unified picture of the paleotsunami history. For example, the ex- (Fig. S2a). Papadopoulos et al. (2005b, 2012a) discovered a series of cavated Hellenistic/Roman harbor of Phalasarna, NW Crete, is an impor- three sea sand layers in Dalaman, SW Turkey, which were correlated tant example. Pirazzoli et al. (1992) were able to identify two layers of with three historically documented tsunamis occurring in Rhodes in “coarser material with blocks” in two out of three trenches and AD 1303, AD 1481 and AD 1741 (Fig. 10). In two test-sites of Corinth interpreted that both represent sediment layers deposited by the AD Gulf, Kontopoulos and Avramidis (2003) and Kortekaas et al. (2003, 66 and AD 365 tsunamis. On the other hand, Dominey-Howes et al. 2011) described several layers of sediment deposits which were attrib- (1998) supported that the foraminiferal assemblage indicates tsunami uted to pre-historical and historical tsunamis including the AD 1402 and deposition around AD 66, but that there is no bio- or lithostratigraphic AD 1817 ones. evidence to infer sedimentary deposition associated with the AD 365 In Saros Gulf, NE Aegean Sea, dune sand containing abundant pum- tsunami. They found it hardly explainable why the stratigraphy at ice drifted inland was interpreted as the result of tsunami action Phalasarna records no evidence of such a large displacement. One viable ( Erginal et al., 2009), which, however, is not strongly convincing. OSL explanation for the relatively limited effects of the AD 365 tsunami in dating showed that the event occurred at least 670 years ago. Therefore, the sediment stratigraphy of Phalasarna is that the site was already Erginal et al. (2009) tentatively correlated the hypothetical tsunami uplifted by 6.6 m, only a few minutes before the wave arrived with a strong earthquake which occurred in the southeastern Aegean (Pirazzoli et al., 1992). In a vibrocore tsunamigenic sand layers were Sea around AD 1672. The occurrence of such an earthquake event, 94 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109

to identify tsunamis as the most likely process of emplacement, namely the AD 1693 local one, and the distant events of AD 365 in Crete and of LBA in Thera. Shallow drilling in the lagoon of the Cabo de Gata area provided sedimentary evidence for a paleotsunami along that part of the Spanish Mediterranean coast (Reicherter and Becker-Heidmann, 2009)(Fig. 8). The main evidence is that coarse-grained intervals form fining-up and thinning-up sequences that are interpreted as tsunamites. Radiodating indicated that these layers can be ascribed to deposition during the AD 1522 Almería lethal earthquake (M N 6.5). In SW Iberia area, high energy, extreme events were identified from sedimentary, paleontological and geomorphological records on estuar- ies, marshes, beach-barriers (spit-bars), and some coastal lowlands (see Lario et al., 2010, and reference therein). Most of the events were interpreted as tsunamigenic in origin. Lario et al. (2011) summarized the results regarding turbidite deposits found offshore SW Iberia. By comparing datasets from both onshore and offshore records, and taking into account some historical and archeological evidence, those authors concluded that at least five tsunami events generated by strong earthquakes affected the area during the last 7000 years or so before the most recent AD 1755 Lisbon event (Fig. 8). Then, Lario et al. (2011) estimated that in SW Iberia extreme wave events have a periodicity of 1200 to 1500 years, although not all were tsunamigenic. The good correlation between the ages of tsunami deposits and widespread deep-sea turbidites strongly suggests a seismogenic origin for the large tsunami events of the SW Iberian Margin (Gràcia et al., 2010). In relation to the large tsunami of AD 1755 generated in the Atlantic Ocean offshore Portugal, tsunami sediment deposits found in Boca do Rio (Algarve) were described as consisting of laterally continuous sand layers, chaotic pebble horizons, large amounts of Fig. 9. Paleotsunami deposits found in Augusta Bay, eastern Sicily, Italy (photo: P.M. De gravel-sized shell debris and distinctive assemblages of marine micro- Martini). (a) Sandy tsunami deposit collected at about 400 m from the present coastline fossils (e.g. Dawson et al., 1995; Hindson et al., 1996). at a depth of ~1.5 m. It is clearly coarser than above and below indicating high-energy origin. It is also massive and structureless and presents sharp, possibly erosional basal 4.1.1.3. Boulders and megaclasts. At the other edge of the grain size spec- contact and peculiar marine shell detritus. (b) Bioclastic tsunami deposit found at about 500 m from the present coastline at a depth of ~2.1 m. It is clearly coarser than above trum for tsunami deposits there are boulders and megaclasts. Historical- and below (high-energy origin) and presents sharp lower contact, abnormal concentra- ly, boulder transportation onshore Santorini Isl. due to tsunami action tion of shell fragments and entire gastropods arranged in an unusual chaotic pattern. was reported in documents describing the AD 29 September 1650 (O.S.) Columbo eruption. The study of recent events proved, in fact, however, is of low reliability (Papadopoulos et al., 2007a). Besides, it is that detachment of large boulders from the near shore and their trans- unlike that an earthquake occurring in SE Aegean produced a tsunami port and deposition further inland can occur due to tsunami inunda- that propagated well-enough all the way of the complex island physiog- tions (Bourgeois and MacInnes, 2010; Paris et al., 2010 and references raphy of the Aegean Sea and arrived to cause impact in the NE Aegean. therein). The chronological control of the time of emplacement of boul- This doubtful case certainly needs further examination. ders and megaclasts is based on dating of marine biogenic encrustations A very likely tsunamigenic sediment layer, possibly dated to the 11th collected directly from the boulder; this provides the time of the detach- century AD, was discovered in fluvio-alluvial sequences on the northern ment/emersion, and not necessarily of its emplacement in the present coast of the Marmara Sea (Minoura et al., 2005). The layer consists of position (see Barbano et al., 2010, and references therein for southern unsorted silty coarse sand including terrestrial molluscs and charcoal Italy examples). fragments. The AMS radiocarbon ages of the shells were estimated at Large accumulations of boulders weighing up to 80 tons at an eleva- around 400 BC, AD 300, AD 400 and AD 1000. Minoura et al. (2005) pro- tion from 1.8 m to 5 m a.s.l. along the southeastern coast of the Apulian posed that a landslide-associated tsunami occurred in the Marmara Sea region, Ionian coast of Italy, were interpreted by Mastronuzzi and Sanso in the middle of 11th century AD and invaded the fluvial plains. A sedi- (2000, 2004) and Mastronuzzi et al. (2006, 2007) as related to tsunami ment deposit consisting of sea sand found in an archeological section waves. By using morphological indicators, radiocarbon dating and situated at distance of ~90 m inland and at elevation of ~4 m a.s.l. in archeological estimates the above authors were able to propose the 5 Kamari, east coast of Santorini, was interpreted as a geological record December 1456 and 2 February 1743 earthquakes in Apulia as the of the strong tsunami that was caused by the AD 1650 submarine erup- ones responsible for the generation of two large tsunamis. Similar ob- tion of Columbo (Papadopoulos, 2009) and was historically document- servations were presented from southern France (Vella et al., 2011). ed to hit violently the eastern coastal zone of the island (Dominey- Sedimentological and geomorphological evidence, credibly of Howes et al., 2000 and references therein). tsunami origin, was documented by field observations performed by Along the coast of eastern Sicily, Italy, through a multi-theme ap- Scheffers and Scheffers (2007). They observed that in Phalasarna and proach including detailed geomorphologic and geologic surveys, satel- Balos Bay, west Crete, boulders weighing up to 50 tons at 5 m a.s.l. lite images and aerial-photos interpretation, coring campaigns and were interpreted that moved from the foreshore inland by tsunami laboratory analyses, De Martini et al. (2010) found evidence for a record waves dated around AD 365 or later. The minimum wave runup has of 6 to 7 marine inundations which occurred during the past 4 ka. Pecu- been estimated equal to 6 m, making the prospect of such immense liar grain-size characteristics and foraminiferal assemblages of the stud- movement moderate to high. More impressively, in Balos dislocated ied layers, their distance from the shoreline, their ages and frequency boulders of 67 tons and 75 tons at 15–25 m a.s.l. indicated a high prob- with respect to historical catalogues and previous studies, were used ability of tsunami runup of more than 25 m but further verification is G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 95

Fig. 10. Stratigraphic section of the paleotsunami trenching in Dalaman, SW Turkey (after Papadopoulos et al., 2012a): general view (a) and detailed view (b). Three sediment layers of sea sand were attributed to the 1303, 1481 and 1741 historically documented tsunamis (see text). Sand dykes directed upwards from layer I to layer II are attributed to liquefaction of sand layer I due to the large 1481 earthquake that caused the tsunami layer II.

needed there. In the coastal zone of Southern Peloponnese, Scheffers Enigmatic boulder clusters on the southern coast of Lesvos Isl., NE et al. (2008) observed many boulders containing attached marine or- Aegean Sea, were observed by Vacchi et al. (2012) who suggested that ganisms, dated by AMS 14C around 1300 cal. AD, which prove that these clusters possibly were the result of tsunami action. However, they were transported from the foreshore environment against gravity those authors were unable to infer the origin of boulders that is tsunami by extreme wave events, probably by the large tsunami of AD 1303 pro- vs. storm waves, on the basis of hydrodynamic simulations. On the other duced in the eastern segment of the Hellenic Arc. hand, the suggestion that either the seismic, local tsunami of AD 1949 in 96 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 the nearby Chios Isl. or the large tsunami of AD 1956 in Cyclades, south sediments reworked, transported and deposited offshore by the outflow Aegean Sea, were responsible for the boulder accumulation is still weak was probably larger than the volume deposited inland during the 2004 given that both tsunamis were of very low height in southern Lesvos if Indian Ocean tsunami (Paris et al., 2010). These recent findings show not reached at all there. that offshore there is a higher potential for recording “anomalous” In northern Lebanon, evidence of megablocks left by extreme waves events, i.e. tsunamis but also earthquake-triggered mass transport de- around Tripolis and Byblos was presented by Morhange et al. (2006). posits, with respect to the coastal environments that experience inter- The older event was dated at 3639–3489 cal. yr BP that is in mid- mittent and variable deposition/erosion as well as important human Holocene. Other events were dated in historical times at 1436–1511, disturbance (Gràcia et al., 2010; Smedile et al., 2011). 1528–1673 and 1690–1950 cal. AD. None of the periods of major uplift of coastal areas coincide with the megablock dates, suggesting that the 4.2.1. Criteria for identification and characterization of offshore tsunami tsunami waves derived from outer tsunamigenic areas (Morhange signatures et al., 2006). Such tsunamis, however, were produced by large earth- Applying a multidisciplinary approach consisting mainly in grain quakes offshore Rhodes, eastern Hellenic Arc, in AD 1481, AD 1609 size analysis, micropaleontology and archeology, Goodman-Tchernov and AD 1741. The correlation between historical documentation and et al. (2009) studied four sediment cores located in the upper shelf onshore geological signatures in SW Turkey was documented by (b20 m depth), offshore Caesarea, Israel. Upper shelf tsunami deposits Papadopoulos et al. (2005b, 2012a). Since the dates of these document- are very rare in the international literature mainly because of the diffi- ed tsunamis coincide with the megablock dates in Lebanon, it would be culty in differentiating tsunamigenic layers from storm deposits in the of particular interest to examine through numerical simulation experi- nearshore. Nevertheless, those authors proposed a detailed particle- ments whether tsunami features may account for the hydrodynamic size distribution analyses to differentiate and characterize tsunami de- forces required to move ashore the megablocks in the particular coastal posits from storm sediments. 14C and OSL dating combined with spots. In relation to this, it is noteworthy that geomorphic evidence archeological estimates on pottery fragments allowed to tentatively as- along coastal sections of south Cyprus and 14C dating results indicated sociate three well-dated horizons showing tsunamigenic indicators possible tsunami activity occurring between AD 1530 and AD 1821 with historical events occurred in Byzantine (≈1.5 ka BP) and Roman but no historical correlation was found so far (Whelan and Kelletat, (≈2.0 ka BP) times, as well as in the time interval of the giant LBA San- 2002; Noller et al., 2005). The AD 1609 and AD 1741 strong tsunamis torini eruption. Yet, since this area is frequently prone to severe sea in the eastern Hellenic Arc might provide an explanation. storms that may affect the seafloor at similar depth, the actual origin Geomorphic features, including large boulders and boulder ridges, of these indicators is still equivocal. abrasion of soil and vegetation still visible in the Cabo da Roca–Cascais Smedile et al. (2011) worked on a 6.7 m long, fine sediment core area, west of Lisbon (Scheffers and Kelletat, 2005), and boulder deposits sampled 2.3 km offshore the Augusta Harbor, east Sicily, at a water at Cabo de Trafalgar, southern Spanish Atlantic coast (Whelan and depth of 72 m. A multivariate analysis on benthic foraminiferal assem- Kelletat, 2005), were interpreted as possible relics of the large tsunami blage showed the presence of 12 anomalous layers, marked by a high of AD 1755. concentration of displaced epiphytic foraminifera. These layers are also characterized by subtle grain size changes and peculiar bimodal 4.1.1.4. Geomorphological imprints. Geomorphological changes due to particle-size distribution. Smedile et al. (2011) suggested that these tsunami action may include beach erosion, disruption of sand barriers layers could be related to high-energy exceptional events able to dis- and dune systems, and also erosional escarpments and large scars that perse an extra amount of infralittoral epiphytic species toward deeper were noticed and studied for some recent events (Paris et al., 2009 areas, with tsunami back-wash as the best candidate. One further ele- and references therein). In order to detect and interpret a tsunami geo- ment that supports the tsunami mechanism is the coincidence between morphology, we should take into account the potential interplay be- five events ages and historical tsunamis, both local and basin-wide that tween sand availability, embayment type, nature of the coast, hit the area. Namely the local tsunamis of AD 1908, AD 1693, AD 1169 accumulation space and landward environmental conditions (Goff and the basin-wide ones of AD 365 Crete and the LBA of Santorini et al., 2009). In the Mediterranean region, the creation of washover were proposed. Polonia et al. (2013), based on geophysical surveys fans, landward oriented within lagoons or coastal lakes (Fig. 11), has and sediment cores from the Ionian Sea showed that the 20–25 m been interpreted as due to the action of tsunamis (e.g. Gianfreda et al., thick megaturbidite known in the literature as Homogenite/Augias 2001; Luque et al., 2002). Geomorphic evidence of tsunami action in was triggered not by the Santorini caldera collapse but by the 365 AD Cyprus for the time interval from AD 1530 to AD 1821 was assumed Cretan earthquake/tsunami. (Whelan and Kelletat, 2002; Noller et al., 2005). Although, this has not Finally, abyssal plain turbidite deposits were also found to be an im- been verified historically, as noted earlier strong tsunamis generated portant key element to investigate tsunamigenic Holocene events of in the easternmost Hellenic Arc may provide an explanation. great size, such as the LBA Thera eruption and the AD 1755 Lisbon Strong soil erosion because of tsunami inundation was also reported earthquake. On the one side, near-bottom 4-kHz seismic-reflection sur- in relation to the AD 1650 Columbo tsunami. In fact, documentary veys showed a distinct, acoustically transparent, flat-lying layer of sources reported that in Perissa, east coast of Thera, previously un- megaturbidites up to 30 m thick and nicknamed “homogenites”, occu- known Byzantine graves dated in the 7th–8th century AD, situated at el- pying the uppermost part of the sediment column in topographic lows evation of about 3 to 4 m a.s.l. and at distance of ~150 m from the of the Southern Ionian and Calabrian Ridges (Kastens and Cita, 1981). present shoreline, were exposed following the erosion of surface sedi- This stratigraphic unit is characterized by an upward thinning sequence ments (Fig. S3a, b). implying deposition in a single event controlled by gravitational set- tling. Kastens and Cita (1981) calculated that the emplacement oc- 4.2. Offshore signatures curred between about 4400 and 3100 years BP, and concluded that the homogenite was deposited from sediment transport induced by Only recently, thanks to the huge amount of data collected after the the Minoan tsunami of Thera. The thick structureless homogeneous 2004 Indian Ocean and 2011 Japan tsunamis, the international commu- mud was later recognized in more than 50 gravity cores independently nity started to investigate the offshore more closely searching for tsuna- from their setting and local characteristics (e.g. Cita et al., 1984; Hieke, mi signatures. In particular, Paris et al. (2010) noted that both inflow 1984; Cita et al., 1996; Cita and Aloisi, 2000). (landward) and outflow (seaward) caused intense erosion, sediment In addition, Kastens and Cita (1981) calculated that the near-bottom transport and deposition, ranging in size from fine sand to boulder, up oscillating currents were above the erosion velocity of clay-sized parti- to 5 km inland and 2.5 km off-shore. Moreover, the amount of cles, and that the pressure pulse induced by the tsunami wave was of G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 97

Fig. 11. Evidence of on-shore tsunami deposits. Satellite image (a) shows the Lesina Lake, Gargano area, Italy, satellite image A. Gianfreda et al. (2001) interpreted the three washover fans marked by white arrows as the result of three different tsunami inundations, with the 1627 local event being the most recent. Satellite image and geological map (b) illustrate the Valdelagrana site, Cadiz, Spain, where the deposits from 1755 and previous ones have been detected and sampled (Luque et al., 2002; Lario et al., 2011).

sufficient magnitude to cause liquefaction of the sediment draping the may have been triggered when massive pyroclastic flows entered in slope. Recent numerical simulation of the LBA Thera tsunami indicated the ocean. In that case the generated tsunami(s) spread towards all di- wave amplitude in the source of 40 m or more (Novikova et al., 2011). rections around the volcano. Sediment deposits of the LBA Thera tsuna- However, homogenites were not found in the Levantine Basin to the mi found by Minoura et al. (2000) in Didim and Fethiye, SW Turkey, east of longitude 26° E. Kastens and Cita (1981) supported that most gave no doubt that the wave propagated towards the eastern and south- of the tsunami energy was directed towards the southwestern quad- eastern directions. In addition, a 40 cm-thick sedimentary deposit on rants, which contradicts their assumption that the tsunami height in the continental shelf off Caesarea Maritima, Israel, identified in four the source could be calculated by inverting the elevation at which pum- cores from 10 to 20 m water depths, was dated, and assigned to tsunami ice was deposited by the Minoan tsunami in Jaffa, Israel; meaning in es- waves produced during the LBA eruption of Thera (Goodman-Tchernov sence that they adopted efficient tsunami propagation towards the et al., 2009). Dates for the tsunami homogenites bracket both so-called southeast as well. Sakellariou et al. (2012) suggested that a large tsuna- “high” and “low” chronology for the Santorini eruption. It is noteworthy mi was initiated by the Thera caldera collapse and spread towards SW, that the impact area of the large AD 365 tsunami in the western seg- thus explaining the occurrence of homogenites. Further tsunami(s) ment of the Hellenic Arc is nearly identical with the spatial field of the 98 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 homogenite horizon. This event certainly does not fit the homogenite 5.2. Tsunami sources and generation mechanisms from a time frame stance. However, the possibility that an earlier “365-type” tsunami event, acting as a triggering agent for the Tsunami generation mechanisms in the Mediterranean Sea can be homogenite horizon, could not be ruled out (Papadopoulos, 2011). classified as seismic (or tectonic) and aseismic or non-seismic. A seismic On the other side, the “turbidite paleoseismology” concept has been mechanism implies that the tsunami is generated by the co-seismic applied, for example in the SW Iberian Margin (Gràcia et al., 2010)and fault dislocation. Otherwise the mechanism is aseismic and may include in the Calabrian Arc (Polonia et al., 2012). Sediment cores collected in gravitational landslides, that is coastal and/or submarine landslides or the Tagus Abyssal Plain, Infante Don Henrique Basin, Horseshoe, and lateral collapses as well as processes related to volcanic activity includ- Seine Abyssal Plains (Fig. 3) revealed that deep-sea basins preserve a re- ing submarine landslides, pyroclastic flows and cone collapse. Land- cord of episodic deposition of turbidites. In the SW Iberian Margin, ex- slides could be also triggered by ground shaking due to earthquakes cluding specific climatic events, earthquakes and tsunamis are the but this is only a pseudoseismic mechanism. A combined mechanism in- most likely triggering mechanism for synchronous, widely spaced dis- volving seismic and aseismic components should not be ruled out. Our tributed turbidites during the Holocene. Age correlation together with knowledge about the specific type of mechanisms that have generated textural, physical properties and geochemical signature of turbidite de- tsunami events in the Mediterranean is quite limited. posits reveals a total of 7 Holocene widespread turbidite events. Precise dating of the most recent turbidite event based on 210Pb and 137Cs geo- 5.2.1. Seismic tsunamis chronology provides an age of AD 1971 ± 3 (Garcia-Orellana et al., In the Hellenic Arc, a characteristic case of subduction-related seis-

2006). This age corresponds to the high-magnitude (Mw ~8.0) AD mic tsunami was the one of AD 365 in the west Hellenic Arc. Coastal tec- 1969 Horseshoe tsunamigenic earthquake. Calibrated 14C ages of subse- tonic elevations up to 9 m in western Crete and 3 m in Antikythira Isl. quent widespread turbidite events correlate with the AD 1755 earth- (Thommeret et al., 1981; Pirazzoli et al., 1992)were14C dated and cal- quake and paleotsunami deposits in the Gulf of Cadiz dated around ibrated to calendar ages of AD 341–439 and AD 265–491, respectively. 218 BC. Taking into account older synchronous events, occurring from Therefore, the AD 365 event possibly corresponds to the tremendous 4960 to 5510 years BP and from 8715 to 9015 years BP, a recurrence in- uplift which raised the Hellenistic/Roman harbor of Phalasarna in NW terval of about 1800 years is obtained for large magnitude earthquakes/ Crete by ~6.6 m. In Phalasarna, tsunami deposits attributed to the AD tsunamis during the Holocene period (Gràcia et al., 2010). 365 wave were described by Pirazzoli et al. (1992). However, as men- In the western part of the Marmara Sea, a record of turbidites was tioned earlier the sedimentary record contradicts the tectonic interpre- obtained in five cores, and was correlated to strong earthquake shaking, tation (Dominey-Howes et al., 1998). On the other hand, Shaw et al. in particular with the large (Mw 7.4) Ganos earthquake of AD 9 August (2008) argued that the AD 365 earthquake was originated not on the 1912 which indeed triggered a local tsunami (Altinok et al., 2003). subduction interface beneath Crete, but on a splay fault with a dip of c. 30° within the overriding plate. Similar co-seismic tectonic displacement, however, was not docu- 5. Tsunamigenic sources and generation mechanisms mented so far in relation to the AD 1303 very large event which ruptured the eastern segment of the Hellenic Arc between Crete and 5.1. Tsunami zonation Rhodes. The investigation of such a tectonic signature either onshore or offshore constitutes an important challenge. In the easternmost In the Mediterranean region a variety of tsunamigenic sources has side of the Hellenic Arc, historical seismic tsunamis were reported to been recognized which can be classified according to geographic distri- have been generated in Dodecanese islands and in SW Turkey, possibly bution, tsunamigenic potential and generation mechanisms. In an earli- in the Rhodes Abyssal Plain (see Papadopoulos et al., 2007a, 2012a and er effort to determine the geography of historical tsunamis in Greece references therein). However, the tsunami generation mechanisms still and surrounding regions, Papadopoulos and Chalkis (1984) were able remain unidentified. to determine 10 coastal areas which are the most prone to experience By contrast, in highly seismogenic areas that are dominated by tsunamis in the Aegean Sea, the Ionian Sea, the Marmara Sea and off- strike-slip faulting, such as the Cephalonia–Lefkada fault system in the shore Albania. Later on, maps of tsunamigenic zones covering the entire Ionian Sea and the North Aegean Sea trough, the tsunami activity is sig- Mediterranean and its connected seas were published (Papadopoulos nificantly low (Papadopoulos, 2009). In the Marmara Sea the predomi- and Fokaefs, 2005; Papadopoulos, 2009). Each one of these zones was nant tsunami generation mechanism is the earthquake activity and classified in a relative scale of potential for tsunami generation based associated landslides (Yalciner et al., 2002). The M7.9 earthquake of on the event size, expressed in terms of intensity, and the frequency AD 26 December 1939, which ruptured a long segment of the North An- of the historical tsunami events. atolian Fault at distance of ~100 km inland from the Black Sea, produced Here we have extended this approach by including three a tsunami observed in coastal localities offshore north Turkey. The wave tsunamigenic zones in the Black Sea as well as one zone in the Atlantic was recorded by Soviet tide-gauges in the eastern Black Sea. A solution Ocean offshore SW Iberia (Fig. 12). One may observe that due to the regarding the generation mechanism is the one which involves high frequency of tsunami generation in the tectonic rift of Corinth coseismic landsliding at the continental slope of the Black Sea between Gulf (Papadopoulos, 2003) that area occupies the top of the scale with Sinop and Batumi, north Turkey (Papadopoulos et al., 2011). very high tsunami potential. However, as already noted, tsunami On the basis of geological evidence, geophysical data and tsunami waves which are produced within Corinth Gulf are not the largest in modeling, different geodynamic models and mechanisms have been the Mediterranean Sea, they are only local and incapable to propagate proposed as the source of the AD 1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami outside the gulf. On the contrary, the largest tsunamis reported histori- (e.g. Gutscher et al., 2002; Baptista et al., 2003; Terrinha et al., 2003; cally were attributed to very large earthquakes associated with the Hel- Gràcia et al., 2003a,b; Zitellini et al., 2004; Thiebot and Gutscher, lenic Arc, such as those of AD 365 and AD 1303, which ruptured the 2006; Stich et al., 2007; Terrinha et al., 2009; Zitellini et al., 2009). How- western and eastern segments of the arc, respectively. Therefore, ever, none of these models satisfactorily accounts for the estimated these segments are characterized by high tsunami potential. High po- magnitude of the earthquake and tsunami arrival times at the different tential was also assigned in the Atlantic zone where the large tsunami localities onshore (e.g. Gràcia et al., 2010). Other relevant structures are of AD 1755 as well as paleotsunamis geologically documented were the long WNW–ESE strike-slip faults known as the SWIM lineations that generated offshore SW Iberia. Several zones of intermediate and low extend hundreds of km from the Horseshoe Abyssal Plain to the inner tsunami generation potential are distributed in other areas of the Med- part of the Gulf of Cádiz (e.g. Terrinha et al., 2009; Zitellini et al., 2009; iterranean and its connected seas. Bartolome et al., 2012; Martínez-García et al., 2013)(Fig. 3). These G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 99

Fig. 12. Tsunamigenic zones defined from documentary sources and their relative tsunami potential classification: WMS = Western Mediterranean Sea, GC = Gulf of Cádiz, AB = Alboran Basin, EMS = Eastern Mediterranean Sea, AS = Aegean Sea, ADS = Adriatic Sea, MS = Marmara Sea, BS = Black Sea. Zonation key: 1 = East Alboran Sea/North Algerian Margin Sea, 2 = Liguria and Côte d'Azur, 3 = Tuscany, 4 = Aeolian islands, 5 = Tyrrhenian/Calabria, 6 = Eastern Sicily and Messina Straits, 7 = Gargano, 8 = East Adriatic Sea, 9 = West Hellenic Arc, 10 = East Hellenic Arc, 11 = Cyclades, 12 = Corinth Gulf, 13 = Maliakos Bay, 14 = East Aegean Sea, 15 = North Aegean Sea, 16 = Marmara Sea, 17 = Cyprus, 18 = Levantine Sea, 19 = Bulgaria, 20 = Crimea, 21 = East Black Sea, 22 = SW Iberia. structures correspond to large strike-slip faults, with small vertical com- sea-storms reported in history to affect the Levantine coast were told ponent, so they are probably not the best candidate tsunamigenic to have been associated with earthquakes — now recognized to be structures. onland. This unexpected association attracted much interest for how inland earthquakes are capable of triggering a tsunami (see Salamon et al., 5.2.2. Landslide tsunamis 2007 and references therein). The missing link was suggested to be sub- Landslide tsunamis are produced either by the action of gravity in marine landslides, for numerous typical landslide scars appear along the sediments of reduced shear strength (e.g. due to high pore pressure) Levantine continental slopes. The case of AD 1 May 1202 is an excellent without any external triggering force or by geodynamic processes example: There “Gigantic waves rose up in the sea between Cyprus and such as strong earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The geographic dis- the coast of Syria…” (summarized by Guidoboni and Comastri, 2005). tribution of landslide tsunami sources historically documented in the Damage reports (Ambraseys and Melville, 1988) and paleoseismic stud- Mediterranean region is illustrated in Fig. 13. Typical cases of tsunamis ies have shown important seismic rupture along the faults of the produced by non-earthquake related landslides were the ones of AD Yammouneh (Daëron et al., 2005; Nemer et al., 2008) and of the 1963 in western Corinth Gulf and of AD 1979 in Nice, Côte d'Azur. Jordan Gorge (Marco et al., 1997; Ellenblum et al., 1998; Marco et al., Both waves caused victims and significant destruction in near-source 2005) belonging to the system of Dead Sea Transform Fault (DSTF). coastal zones since this type of tsunamis takes large amplitude in the Evidence for massive debris avalanches from Mt. Etna which entered very near-field. A variety of analytical models are available for the gen- the Ionian Sea in early Holocene (Pareschi et al., 2006a) was interpreted eration of tsunamis by submarine landslides (e.g. Pelinovsky, 2003). Nu- from numerical simulations to be responsible for (i) the generation of a merical modeling results of the AD 1963 key tsunami event are large tsunami impacting all of the eastern Mediterranean, (ii) the for- examined later. In western Corinth Gulf, extensive submergence of a mation of deposits of homogenites in the Ionian Sea (Pareschi et al., coastal strip, caused by the M ~6.6 earthquake of AD 26 December 2006b ) and (iii) the destruction from the tsunami of the Neolithic vil- 1861, was very likely the mechanism that generated the tsunami ob- lage Atlit-Yam in the Israeli coast (Pareschi et al., 2007, 2008). Although served after that earthquake (see Papadopoulos, 2003, and references no criticism appeared as regards the tsunami generation per se, Galili therein). et al. (2008) showed that the tsunami destruction in Atlit-Yam finds In the Ligurian Sea, on AD 16 October 1979 an aseismic slope failure no support in the archeological, anthropological, faunal, botanical or event occurred at the very narrow and steep continental slope off-shore sedimentary record in the site, which instead was abandoned due to Nice, involving a portion of the Var River delta and runaway fill of the post-glacial rise of the sea level. Nice airport extension under construction at the time (Gennesseaux One of the very well documented cases of landslide-induced tsunamis et al., 1980; Dan et al., 2007). The near-field wave heights were again during volcanic activity is the case of Stromboli on AD 30 December 2002. successfully simulated (Assier-Rzadkiewicz et al., 2000). However, the Eyewitness accounts (Tinti et al., 2005a,b) and impact observations per- theoretical results were not in complete agreement with far-field obser- formed during post-event field surveys (Tinti et al., 2006a) agree with vations. This is explainable by the rapid amplitude attenuation due to the results of numerical simulations (Maramai et al., 2005b; Tinti strong wave dispersion, a common feature of landslide-generated tsu- et al., 2006b) that two landslides occurring with a time difference of namis (Papadopoulos and Kortekaas, 2003). about 7 min caused two corresponding damaging tsunamis which In the Levantine Sea including the area of Cyprus, that is from Egypt took maximum wave height of about 9–10 m and caused extensive in- in the south to SE Turkey in the north, 24 tsunamis were reported dur- door and outdoor destruction in coastal villages of Stromboli (Fig. S4a, ing the last 3.5 millennia with the majority of them occurring in the last b). A multibeam bathymetry down to 1000 m of depth collected just 2 millennia (Fokaefs and Papadopoulos, 2007; Salamon et al., 2007, 10 months before the event and repeated after it showed how 2009). About two thirds of them were local in stretch, but a third was preexisting features interacted with the slide event in controlling the basin-wide. However, the generation of locally strong tsunamis by instability (F. Chiocci et al., 2008; F.L. Chiocci et al., 2008). Seismic sig- earthquakes occurring onland along the strike-slip Levantine rift re- nals from broadband and short-period seismic stations showed that mains unexplained. Interestingly, most of the abnormal tsunamis and the landslides involved both submarine and subaerial northwest flank 100 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109

Fig. 13. Geographic distribution of landslide tsunami sources historically documented in the Mediterranean region (after Papadopoulos et al., 2007b; see in that paper for detailed maps of Corinth Gulf and the Tyrrhenian Sea). Figures indicate years of occurrence. Key for geography: EMS = East Mediterranean, WMS = West Mediterranean, MS = Marmara Sea, BS = Black Sea, AS = Aegean Sea, GC = Gulf of Corinth, TS = Tyrrhenian Sea. Symbol key: solid circle = earthquake landslide, solid triangle = volcanic landslide, asterisk = gravitative landslide. A detailed submarine landslide mapping in the West Mediterranean basin can be found in Fig. 3. of the volcano with the process starting from the submarine section (La 5.3. Source discrimination Rocca et al., 2004). A good historical example of a tsunami triggered by co-seismic land- Characterization of a tsunami source includes the type of the source, slide was the one of AD 6 February 1783 in Calabria, south Italy. Such a the source mechanism responsible for tsunami generation, and the di- tsunami generation mechanism was initially concluded from the infor- mensions, geometry and kinematics of the source. The first relevant mation contained in documentary sources (e.g. Graziani et al., 2006) issue is the discrimination of the tsunami sources, which as discussed and later was verified by subaerial and submarine geological surveys earlier, is not an easy task. Whether the tsunami is of tectonic, landslide (Bozzano et al., 2011). Well-known historical examples in the Western or volcanic origin, there is an enormous difference especially in the ex- Mediterranean were the submarine landslides triggered in the margin pected effects of the event but also on its repeatability. Moreover, for of North Algeria by the large earthquakes of AD 1954 and 1980 (El most of the historical tsunamis in the Mediterranean area, the definition Robrini et al., 1985; Soloviev et al., 2000). of the actual source is still a matter of debate (e.g., AD 1693 and 1908 in A multidisciplinary marine geological and geophysical dataset ac- Sicily, AD 1650 and 1956 in South Aegean). quired during the last years offshore the Iberian Peninsula in the frame of several research projects revealed a number of slope failures in the South and East Iberian margins which may represent a tsunami 5.3.1. Field and instrumental observations hazard for the coasts of Portugal, Spain and North Africa (e.g. Baraza The analysis of historical or geological data describing the size, ex- et al., 1990; Rothwell et al., 1998; Lastras et al., 2002; Terrinha et al., tent and location of inundations produced by tsunamis of the past can 2003; Gràcia et al., 2003a,b; Lastras et al., 2004; Droz et al., 2006; be effective to help solving this problem. For example, from the study Gràcia et al., 2006; Vizcaino et al., 2006; Dan et al., 2007; Lastras et al., of a set of well documented landslide tsunamis observed around the 2007; Urgeles et al., 2007; Camerlenghi et al., 2009; Zitellini et al., globe, including the AD 1963 Corinth Gulf and AD 1979 Nice ones, it 2009; Cattaneo et al., 2010; Dan et al., 2007; Gràcia et al., 2010; was found that slump volume seems to control both maximum wave Terrinha et al., 2010). For example, the newly discovered North height and maximum length of affected coastline (Papadopoulos and Gorringe Avalanche (NGA) is a large (~80 km3 and 35 km runout), Kortekaas, 2003). A rapid, quasi-exponential attenuation of wave deep water (2900 m to 5100 m depth) mass failure situated at the heights with distance from the source was observed due to strong northern flank of Gorringe Bank in the southwest Iberian Margin. wave dispersion. Near-field tsunami simulations showed that a mass failure similar to An approach introduced by Okal and Synolakis (2004) is based on the NGA could generate tsunami wave of more than 15 m high that the observation that the distribution of high runups and the extent of would hit the south Portuguese coasts in ~30 min from its generation, the inundated coast are very different in the case of the occurrence of thus implying that deepwater landslides require more attention as po- a localized landslide, a gigantic collapse, or a displacement of the sea/ tential tsunami sources in SW Europe (Lo Iacono et al., 2012). ocean bottom. Such criteria were already tested, e.g. in Sicily tsunamis of AD 1693, AD 1783 and AD 1908 but some contradictory results were obtained. Gerardi et al. (2008) concluded that the AD 1693 and 5.2.3. Volcanic tsunamis AD 1908 tsunamis were caused by seismic dislocation sources while Volcanic eruptions are much less frequent as compared to the fre- the AD 1783 one was due to earthquake-triggered submarine landslide. quency of earthquake occurrence in the Mediterranean Sea. Although By contrast, Billi et al. (2010) found that the three tsunami events were only a few tsunamis were attributed to volcanic activity, at least three produced by submarine landslides. The scenario can be even more com- cases are of particular value. Two of the largest tsunamis known in the plex considering that seafloor displacement and gravitational failure Mediterranean Sea were generated by strong eruptions taking place in can be concurrent. the Thera volcanic complex: the LBA Thera tsunami and the AD 1650 A typical historical case of strong earthquake-generated tsunami Columbo tsunami. Local but strong tsunamis were repeatedly reported whose causative fault remains unidentified is the one of AD 1627 in to have been caused by landsliding during eruptive activity of Stromboli, the Gargano promontory in Apulia, Italian coast of Adriatic Sea. The the last one occurring on AD 30 December 2002. local tectonics is rather complex and thought unfavorable to tsunami G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 101 generation since strike-slip faults are the predominant feature north Table 2 and south of the promontory. The most relevant one is the Mattinata Slowness factor, θ, calculated for the Messina 1908 and Amorgos 1956 tsunamigenic earthquakes by following the method of Newman and Okal (1998).Forreasonsof fault, striking east–west south of Gargano, that is still active as shown comparison θ was inserted as it was calculated by those authors for some selected fi by a number of sound evidence, such as eld morphology, InSAR and tsunamigenic earthquakes, including the classic “tsunami earthquake” of Nicaragua.

GPS data, pointed out also by recent studies (see Fracassi et al., 2012, Key: Mw = moment magnitude, M0 =seismicmoment. and references therein) and that has an offshore active continuation in Earthquake Mw Seismic moment Slowness factor the Gondola fault zone. The AD 1627 tsunami was quite large according (1027 dyn-cm) to reliable though scarce historical sources (see Tinti et al., 2004), but − fi Nicaragua 1992 7.66 3.40 6.51 the causative fault is still far from being identi ed, due to the absence Java 1994 7.87 5.30 −5.76 of significant dip-slip faults in the area (Tinti et al., 1995; Tinti and Peru 1996 7.18 2.20 −6.22 Piatanesi, 1996). Flores Sea 1992 8.07 5.10 −4.58 Of particular importance is the challenge to investigate further the PNG 1998 6.80 0.37 −5.50 Messina 1908 7.10 0.56 −5.39 generation mechanism of more recent tsunamis which still remains Amorgos 1956 7.50 3.90 −4.68 questionable. Characteristic examples are the tsunamis of AD 1908 in Messina Straits and of AD 1956 in Amorgos, South Aegean. For both events the collected seismological, tectonic, geodetic and tide-gauge this aim a set of characteristic tsunami cases were selected for examina- data as well as results from numerical tsunami simulations proved in- tion: a) seismic: 28 December 1908, Messina Straits; 9 July 1956, South sufficient so far to distinguish between seismic, landslide or combined Aegean; and 21 May 2003, Algeria; b) volcanic: LBA tsunami in Thera; source mechanisms. Reviewed seismological, geological and geodetic and c) landslide: 7 February 1963, west Corinth Gulf; and 30 December data (Valensise and Pantosti, 1992) and tectonic stress inversion (Neri 2002, Stromboli. et al., 2004) indicated that the Mw 7.1 earthquake of 1908 was associated with normal faulting. However, the seismogenic fault has not yet been 5.4.1. Messina Straits, 1908 identified conclusively and this has hindered attempts to develop simu- Extensive numerical simulation studies have been performed with lation models of this major tsunami. An analogous case was the large tsu- the aim to understand the 1908 Messina tsunami source. However, no nami triggered in the South Aegean after the Amorgos Mw 7.5 earthquake conclusive results were obtained so far. For example, using two alterna- of 9 July 1956 that very likely was associated with normal faulting in the tive tectonic source models, Piatanesi et al. (1999) found large discrep- submarine trough shaped by the islands of Amorgos, Santorini (Thera), ancies between the computed maximum water elevations and the Anafi and Astypalaea (Galanopoulos, 1957; Ambraseys, 1960; observed maximum runups. An improvement in this fit was obtained Papadopoulos and Pavlides, 1992; Perissoratis and Papadopoulos, by allowing a heterogeneous slip distribution on the fault plane (Tinti 1999; Okal et al., 2009). Both tectonic origin and landslide origin of et al., 1999b), though the resulting tsunami was still too weak to explain the tsunami have been proposed on the basis of seismological and ma- the observations. Tinti et al. (2001) performed further hydrodynamical rine geophysics of the area and tested through numerical simulations. studies and concluded that the most likely causative faults are located in the Scordia–Lentini graben that intercepts the coastline. Recent hypoth- 5.3.2. Slowness factor of the seismic slip eses invoking submarine landslides opened a debate that is still ongoing A seismological criterion for source discrimination is the “slowness” with no conclusive widely accepted interpretation (Piatanesi et al., factor, θ, characterizing the seismic slip in the earthquake causative fault 1999; Billi et al., 2008; Gerardi et al., 2008; Argnani et al., 2009; Favalli (Newman and Okal, 1998; Ebeling and Okal, 2012): et al., 2009; Billi et al., 2010). θ ¼ E : ð Þ 5.4.2. Amorgos, 1956 log10 1 M0 From two near-field tide-gauge records, Galanopoulos (1957) and Ambraseys (1960) suggested that the tsunami was likely produced by This factor is determined by the energy, E, radiated by an earthquake co-seismic submarine landslides. A marine geophysical survey showed over the low-frequency seismic moment, M0. We have tested this ap- NE–SW trending normal faulting in the banks of the Amorgos basin, sea- proach with fault parameters taken from Capuano et al. (1988), Pino floor sediment instability and a geologically very recent slump occupy- et al. (2000) and Amoruso et al. (2002) for the Messina Strait case: ing the eastern side of the basin, with an area of 144 km2 and volume of length = 43 km, width = 20 km, slip = 1.5 m; from Papadopoulos 3.6 × 106 m3 (Perissoratis and Papadopoulos, 1999). The proximity of and Pavlides (1992) and Okal et al. (2009) for the case of Amorgos: the landslide area to the earthquake epicenter implies seismic ground length = 75 km, width = 30 km, slip = 2 m. Seismic magnitudes and accelerations much higher than the minimum ones required to trigger moments are listed in Table 2. The slowness factor obtained is −5.39 landslide. Bell et al. (2012) estimated volume of 4.4 × 109 m3.Theland- and −4.68 for the 1908 and 1956 earthquakes, respectively. This result slide episode may have occurred in association with the AD 1956 earth- implies that both earthquakes do not exhibit the exceptionally slow quake (Perissoratis and Papadopoulos, 1999)orwithanearlierbut source behavior (θ = −6.0) expected for “tsunami earthquakes” in post-Minoan strong earthquake or volcanic eruption (Bell et al., 2012) the terminology introduced by Kanamori (1972) to characterize the bearing potential for tsunami generation. Numerical simulations based 1992 Nicaragua earthquake source and other earthquakes whose tsu- on the tectonic model showed a discrepancy by a factor of 3 to 10 namis were disproportionately large with respect to their seismic mo- between the nearly 30 m maximum heights initially reported and ment (Table 2). the simulated ones ranging between 3 and 10 m at the source region (e.g. Yalciner et al., 1993; Okal et al., 2009). Field observations and inter- 5.4. Characterization of tsunami sources from numerical modeling inputs views with eyewitnesses (Dominey-Howes, 1996; Papadopoulos et al., 2005a) showed that in Astypalaea Isl. the wave height may not have Numerical simulation of tsunamis is a powerful tool in the effort to exceeded about 15 m. Therefore, part of the discrepancy could be ex- characterize the source and to discriminate seismic vs. aseismic sources. plained by an overestimation of the initially reported wave heights. However, the results depend on many assumptions concerning the pa- However, a significant discrepancy remains unexplained. Consequently, rameters of the seismic source and the rupture process. From a method- an adequate reproduction of the near-field wave amplitudes requires ological point of view it is quite useful to understand possibilities and not only co-seismic seafloor fault displacement but also an additional difficulties with the examination of some modern tsunami sources for tsunamigenic component such as co-seismic, massive submarine sedi- which a minimum set of relevant observational data are available. To ment slumping. Okal et al. (2009) tested also a series of landslides, but 102 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 again underestimated wave heights were obtained. Beisel et al. (2009) simulated a landslide tsunami too. The spectra of the resulted mareogram obtained in the proximity to the far-field Yafo tide-gauge station in Israel contained harmonics with frequencies very close to those measured, thus favoring the landslide hypothesis. However, in the near-field domain this model reproduced well-enough only wave heights of less than 5 m. On the other hand, the simulation of a tsunami of tectonic nature resulted in amplitudes close to that recorded in Yafo, that is of about 28 cm at maximum, but did not contain significant spec- tral energy components with periods of ~15 min which appear in the tide-gauge record. The introduction of heterogeneity in the seismic rupture process may affect substantially the tsunami runup (Geist and Dmowska, 1999). Therefore, for the Amorgos AD 1956 tsunami, Papadopoulos et al. (2012b) examined the case of heterogeneous seismic slip on the fault by keeping the total seismic moment constant and considering two main subfaults. In the earthquake generation area they also introduced a depth-dependent shear modulus function following Bilek and Fig. 14. Paleotsunami trenching at distance of about 60 m from the sea shore near Didim, Lay (1999). Preliminary results from numerical simulation showed SW Turkey, revealed sediment deposit attributed to the LBA Thera tsunami (Minoura et al., 2000). In this part of the section, the dark tsunami deposit is layered at a depth of about that accounting for the rupture complexity does not drastically change 25 cm from the ground surface and is overtopped by volcanic tephra (white layer) of the near-field tsunami amplitudes. To explore further the landslide as the LBA eruption (photo: G.A. Papadopoulos). a triggering agent of the Amorgos tsunami, Papadopoulos et al. (2012b) simulated the tsunami by considering the real submarine landslide identified by Perissoratis and Papadopoulos (1999) as well as four southern side of the volcanic cone facing the north coast of Crete. Max- scenarios for landslides generated in the source area due to strong earth imum tsunami wave heights calculated from numerical simulations shaking. The tsunami produced by the real landslide underestimates the based on the first hypothesis are of the order or may exceed 20 m, for wave amplitudes observed while its polarity does not fitthewavepolar- example in the north coast of Crete, which is consistent with the ity observed. On the contrary, at least one of the landslide scenarios pro- archeological evidence and the tsunami sediment deposits found duced a tsunami, which fits the observations. However, the landslide (Minoura et al., 2000; Bruins et al., 2008; De Martini et al., 2010)al- scenario underestimated drastically the wave amplitude obtained in though smaller wave heights were also calculated (M. Pareschi et al., the tide-gauge of Yafo that is in the far-field domain, which was well 2006). The pyroclastic flow hypothesis was examined by Novikova reproduced by the tectonic source model instead (Papadopoulos et al., et al. (2011) and their numerical simulation results are similar to 2012b). those obtained for the caldera collapse mechanism as for the maximum Results regarding both AD 1908 Messina Straits and AD 1956 wave heights obtained. Amorgos tsunamis disfavor any conclusive remark about the source However, none of the two hypothetical mechanisms are absolutely mechanism which clearly indicates the complexity of the source and realistic. In fact, the caldera collapse certainly may produce a large tsu- the need for further research. A critical next step would be considering nami but it is hardly understood how the wave propagated to several the superposition of two waves produced by a combined source azimuths outside the caldera given that only one or two at maximum consisting from a co-seismic displacement coupled with a landslide. small gates to the open sea were existing in the north and the southwest sides of the caldera. The numerical simulations performed so far do not 5.4.3. Boumerdes–Zemmouri, 2003 take into account this important physiographic feature, considering On May 21, 2003, the Boumerdes–Zemmouri (Algeria) earthquake only a simple, open geometry for the tsunami source. On the other generated a small-to-moderate tsunami recorded at several locations hand, Novikova et al. (2011) showed that very strong energy directivity around the coast of Balearic Islands, Spain. Studies by Yiga (2003) and is expected from the pyroclastic flow hypothesis. This result leaves un- Meghraoui et al. (2004) indicated that non-uniform slip occurred in explainable how tsunami sediments were deposited in coastal sites sit- the seismic fault and that the earthquake magnitude was larger than uated at large distances and at very different azimuths with respect to the Mw 6.8 assigned by the Harvard CMT solution. Wang and Liu the suggested direction of pyroclastic flow penetration into the sea (2005) developed a series of numerical simulations for the tsunami gen- water. eration and propagation based on different suggested fault plane solutions. Numerical results for tsunami wave heights were compared 5.4.5. Corinth Rift, 1963 with the available tide-gauge measurements around Balearic Islands. The slump of underconsolidated deltaic deposits which occurred in Huge discrepancies were obtained between numerical results and the the south coast of the western Corinth Gulf on AD 7 February 1963 is measurements and, therefore, an optimized model was developed a characteristic example of purely aseismic landslide producing local which indicated that a larger moment magnitude (Mw 7.2) is necessary but still powerful, damaging tsunami with a maximum wave height to generate the tsunami wave heights observed at localities such as up to about 6 m. A post-event field survey provided a good data set re- Eivissa (Ibiza) and Sant Antoni. However, the modeling performed by garding the observed impact of the tsunami in both coasts of the gulf as Alasset et al. (2006) concluded with that the best fit between synthetic well as precise estimates of the area, volume and other physical param- and real data is obtained for a thrust rupture of Mw 6.9 comparable with eters of the failed mass (Galanopoulos et al., 1964). Numerical simula- the earthquake fault inferred from seismotectonic studies and located tions of the tsunami considering either a rigid-body model for the within 15 km offshore. landslide (Koutitas and Papadopoulos, 1998) or a layered sediment structure set in motion by an initial external dynamic action 5.4.4. Thera, LBA (Papadopoulos et al., 2007c) reproduced well-enough the observed The LBA tsunami caused by the giant eruption of Santorini volcano, runup data in the field. However, the second approach permits to de- today documented by abundant geological signatures (e.g. Fig. 14), scribe in detail the formation of several wave groups and particular tsu- was hypothetically caused either by a circular caldera collapse or by nami characteristics that are strongly dependent on the landslide massive pyroclastic flow entering the sea water mainly from the model. G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 103

5.4.6. Stromboli, 2002 Mediterranean region and its connected seas, although the potential An excellent example of landslide tsunami reproduced by numerical for tsunami generation varies from one tsunamigenic zone to the other. simulations is the case of Stromboli, AD 30 December 2002. In fact, re- Further investigation of past tsunami events may provide insights sults of numerical modeling fit the observed phenomena (Maramai not only to better understand the tsunamigenic processes but also to en- et al., 2005b) and the experimental data (La Rocca et al., 2004; Tinti large the existing databases, extend the historical tsunami time series et al., 2006b) very well thanks to that the source process, the two se- and reduce uncertainties in tsunami hazard assessment. However, his- quential landslides, is very well constrained. torical documentation need better control of information reliability The cases of 1963 in Corinth Gulf and of 2002 in Stromboli leave no and interpretation with regard to tsunami dating, impact and correla- doubt that the good knowledge of the tsunami causative landslide tion with earthquakes. source mechanism is of substantial importance for the effective repro- A major issue is that the generation mechanisms of tsunamis in the duction of the tsunami by applying numerical simulation techniques. Mediterranean region are still poorly understood mainly because of lim- On the other hand, the fact that the source complexity is not well under- ited knowledge on the source parameters of seismic and aseismic stood does not lead numerical modeling to conclusive results with re- sources. The majority of documented tsunamis were produced by seis- gard to the seismic tsunamis of 1908 in Messina Straits, of 1956 in mic activity. However, only in very few cases there is evidence that South Aegean, and of 2003 in Algeria. Such difficulties have important the tsunami was produced by co-seismic fault displacement, e.g. the consequences in organizing methodological strategies for the tsunami big AD 365 tsunami in the western Hellenic Arc. In most cases the alter- hazard assessment and even further for the estimation of expected tsu- native that strong ground motion caused coastal and/or submarine nami impacts. An example from the Western Mediterranean basin is ex- landslide processes which finally generated the tsunami still remains amined in the supplement section along with some discussion on the open. The lack or presence of important landslides capable for producing consequences for tsunami hazard assessment. a tsunami is independent information bringing to the a priori exclusion or consideration of that specific mechanism of tsunami generation. The inte- gration of the potential source knowledge to the historical and geological 6. Summary and some implications data on the effects can certainly provide stronger results and validation of models and scenarios. The non-uniqueness that characterizes the dis- In the last century or so, strong tsunamis and their causative process- crimination of the tsunami sources for past events highlights the strong es were documented in the Mediterranean Sea and its connected seas need for additional marine surveys and geological data collection. from tide-gauge and other instrumental records, eyewitness accounts For most of the historical events the location, size and focal mecha- and pictorial material. The investigation of tsunamis in the historical nism of the causative earthquake remain unknown. The sensitivity of and pre-historical periods is supported by a variety of documentary tsunami hydrodynamic features on the earthquake source parameters sources, onshore and offshore geological signatures including geomor- has been demonstrated (Panza et al., 2000; Lorito et al., 2007; Paulatto phological imprints, and in some instances by field observations in se- et al., 2007; Yolsal and Taymaz, 2010). Consequently, better constraints lected coastal archeological sites. Some of the Mediterranean region of tsunami source parameters and mechanisms are of crucial impor- tsunamis were basin-wide, destructive events of large size produced ei- tance to develop tsunami scenarios for hazard assessment and early ther from earthquakes or from volcanic processes or even by aseismic warning purposes. In this regard, tsunami numerical modeling, com- landslides. bined with field observations, bathymetric and marine geophysical One common feature that tsunami sources in the Mediterranean Sea data of the source area, may provide important insights. Successful re- share is that they are situated in the near-field domain, that is the travel sults were obtained particularly for modern tsunamis caused by times of first tsunami wave arrivals do not exceed half an hour or so. aseismic coastal and/or submarine landslides, for which very good ob- This feature is extremely critical from the point of view of tsunami risk servational data sets exists. mitigation, which is a lesson learned from several near-field, cata- Since tsunami generation, propagation and inundation are controlled strophic tsunamis that occurred in the Pacific and Indian Oceans in the by a variety of factors, inputs from numerical simulations also fail very last 10 years or so (i.e. Sumatra 2004, Chile 2010 and Tohoku–Japan often in reproducing historically observed tsunamis because of lack of 2011). A global statistics has shown that 84% of the fatalities occurred adequate event documentation and/or poor knowledge of source param- within the first hour of tsunami propagation, and only 12% in the second eters. Often the characterization of the tsunami source remains question- (Gusiakov, 2009). This was corroborated by the large tsunamis of Chile able even in relatively recent events, which are documented by a variety 2010 and Tohoku–Japan 2011. of observational data. Improvement of the numerical modeling perfor- Based on the past tsunami record we were able to present a new map mance should be supported not only by the development of more ad- of 22 tsunamigenic zones and their relative potential for tsunami gener- vanced simulation codes and techniques but also by high-resolution ation (Fig. 12). From west to east, the most important tsunamigenic bathymetric data, particularly for the details of the continental shelf and zones are situated offshore SW Iberia, in the Algerian margin, in the seamounts, by accurate Digital Elevation Models of coastal topography Tyrrhenian Calabria and Messina Straits, in the western and eastern seg- and by better understanding of the source parameters. Furthermore, ments of the Hellenic Arc, that is from Crete to Peloponnese and from Dawson et al. (2004) argued that given sufficient information on past tsu- Crete to Rhodes, respectively, in the tectonic rift of Corinth Gulf, Central nami activity for a particular coastal area, the numerical calculation of ag- Greece, offshore the Dead Sea Transform Fault in the Levantine Sea, and gregate coastal flood risk (including tsunami) for a coastal area is very in the eastern side of the Marmara Sea. difficult to estimate since one needs also to take into account the risk of From the 5th century BC up to the present 44 tsunamis with a tsunami and a storm surge taking place simultaneously during a high assigned intensity 6 or larger in the 12-grade tsunami intensity scale tide. However, high tide in the examined Mediterranean region is very of Papadopoulos and Imamura (2001) are reliably documented low with the possible exceptions of SW Iberia and north Adriatic Sea. (Table 1). This record could be translated to mean tsunami recurrence Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx. but such a statistics is perhaps underestimated due to data incomplete- doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2014.04.014. ness in the historical period. Most of the events, that is 27 out of 44, occurred in the east Mediterranean basin, which turns mean tsunami Acknowledgments recurrence of 93 years. Respective rates in the Western Mediterranean basin, the SW Iberian Margin, the Marmara Sea and the Black Sea are The National Observatory of Athens, the University of Bologna, the 227, 2500, 500 and 1250 years. Therefore, today there is no doubt that Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), the Hellenic Cen- the tsunami risk is considerable for coastal zones of the entire ter for Marine Research, the Middle East Technical University as well as 104 G.A. Papadopoulos et al. / Marine Geology 354 (2014) 81–109 the Universidad de Cantabria acknowledge co-funding from the EU-FP6 Baptista, M.A., Miranda, M., 2009. Revision of the Portuguese catalog of tsunamis. Natural – – Hazards and Earth System Sciences 9, 25 42. TRANSFER research project, 2006 2009, contract n. 037058. The Baptista, M.A., Miranda, M., Victor, L.M., 1992. Maximum entropy analysis of Portuguese National Observatory of Athens, the University of Bologna and the tsunami data, the tsunamis of 28.02.1969 and 26.05.1975. Science of Tsunami Haz- Universidad de Cantabria are co-funded by the DG ECHO of EU, project ards 10, 9–20. – Baptista, M.A., et al., 1998. The 1755 Lisbon Tsunami; evaluation of the tsunami parame- NEARTOWARN, 2012 2013, contract n. 230301/2011/614039/SUB/A5. ters. Journal of Geodynamics 25 (2), 143–157. Barcelona-CSI acknowledges that this work has been carried out within Baptista, M.A., et al., 2003. New study of the 1755 earthquake source based on multichan- Grups de Recerca de la Generalitat de Catalunya B-CSI (2009 SGR 146) nel seismic survey data and tsunami modeling. Natural Hazards and Earth System – and the support of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation Sciences 3, 333 340. Baraza, J., et al., 1990. Geotechnical characteristics and slope stability on the Ebro margin, (MICINN) through National Projects EVENT (CGL2006-12861-C02-02), Western Mediterranean. Marine Geology 95, 379–393. MEDOC (CTM2007-66179-C02-02/MAR), POSEIDON (CTM2010-21569), Barbano, M.S., Pirrotta, C., Gerardi, F., 2010. Large boulders along the south-eastern Ionian – SHAKE (CGL2011-30005-C02-02), and HADES (CTM2011-30400-C02- coast of Sicily: storm or tsunami deposits? Marine Geology 275, 140 154. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2010.05.005. 01 and CTM2011-30400-C02-02), Complementary Action NEAREST- Bartolome, R., Gràcia, E., Stich, D., Martinez-Loriente, S., Klaeschen, D., Mancilla, F.L., Lo SEIS (CGL2006-27098-E/BTE), the EU Programme “Global Change and Iacono, C., Dañobeitia, J.J., Zitellini, N., 2012. Evidence for active strike-slip faulting Ecosystems” contract n. 037110 (NEAREST), ESF TopoEurope TOPOMED along the Eurasia–Africa convergence zone: implications for seismic hazard in the – Τ SW Iberian margin. Geology 40, 495 498. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G33107.1. project (CGL2008-03474-E/BTE) and the IGCP-585. he Istituto Nazionale Beisel, S., Chubarov, L., Didenkulova, I., Kit, E., Levin, A., Pelinovsky, E., Shokin, Y., di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV) acknowledges the Italian Depart- Sladkevich, M., 2009. 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