Reconstructing World Heritage Sites in Conflict Zones, A Case Study of Palmyra.
Dissertation By: Jasmit Singh Bour Supervisor: Dr Tania Sharmin Institution: The Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University Course: MArch 2 – AR5002 Dissertation, 2020/2021 A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of MArch, 2020
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Abstract
List of Figures
Abbreviations
Chapter 1 // Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………….1 - 8
1.1 // Aim……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1 1.2 // Objective…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….1 1.3 // Background and Research Context…………………………………………………………………………2 - 4 1.4 // Methodologies and Limitations………………………………………………………………………………4 - 5 1.5// Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………………………………6 - 8
Chapter 2 // Modern Institutes and Provided Protection……………………………………………9 - 10
2.1 // The role of Educational and Scientific Institutes in Cultural Heritage…………………….9 - 10
Chapter 3 // A Case Study of Palmyra, Syria…………………………………………………………….11 - 15
3.1 // Background of Palmyra and its Former Glory……………………………………………………..11 - 13 3.2 // The Fall of Palmyra, the rise of ISIS…………………………………………………………………….14 - 15
Chapter 4 // The Rise of Digital Preservation and Reconstruction…………………………….16 - 19
4.1 // Preservation Techniques…………………………………………………………………………………….16 - 19
Chapter 5 // The Institute for Digital Archaeology - Authenticity and Ethical Issues….20 - 32
5.1 // The Million Image Database Project…………………………………………………………………..20 - 21 5.2 // The Arch of Triumph Replica……………………………………………………………………………….22 - 24 5.3 // The Factum Foundation Analysis on the Replica…………………………………………………25 - 32
Chapter 6 // Political Challenges………………………………………………………………………………33 - 35
6.1 // The Syrian and Russian Government – Russia’s Military Involvement………………..33 - 35
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….36 - 37
Critical Reflection…………………………………………………………………………………………………………36 - 37
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….38 - 43
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Tania Sharmin for her guidance and her encouragement throughout this process.
I would also like to thank my family and friends for supporting me through this challenging time, considering the current situation we are all facing throughout the world.
Word Count: 10,411 (this will exclude the following: abstract, footnotes, bibliography, table of contents, photograph captions, abbreviations page, acknowledgement pages)
Abstract
World Heritage Sites inscribed by UNESCO have a significant role within society, culture and identity. Heritage sites illustrate how humans have socially adapted and how culture has influenced architectural styles. It is common for World Heritage Sites to become the victim of natural disasters and intentional destruction from terrorist organisations using them to fuel their propaganda.
Described as a Pearl of the Desert, Palmyra in Syria has become recognised as an iconic Cultural Heritage site. Predominately connecting the East to the West, Palmyra is located on an ancient silk trade route used by the Romans under their occupation during the first century. This site has a vast amount of significance within Cultural Property and has been inscribed as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in the early 1980s. During the occupation of ISIS in 2015, the structures in Palmyra had been subject to irreversible damage with most of the site being reduced to rubble. There has been an increasing interest from governing officials and research institutions in rebuilding Palmyra with the adoption of digital preservation and automated reconstruction methods.
This research will examine and critique the proposed digital preservation and automated reconstruction techniques of Palmyra. The use of digital preservation and reconstruction methodologies are important. A critical development by scientific, educational institutions and advisory bodies, is critical before fulfilling a physical reconstruction project using digital fabrication techniques. Exploratory analysis should be undertaken and developed to achieve a physical reconstruction with the use of digital methodologies. The critical development should highlight the distress caused by the Syrian civil war addressing the authenticity, ethical and political challenges that will arise during a post-war reconstruction of Ancient Palmyra. This will understand how we, as a society, can preserve, and or reconstruct our past, to the present, to continue its future for many more generations.
List of Figures
Figure 1 - Arch of Triumph in Palmyra, (2015), Nick Brundle Photography, Source: official website of Lonely Planet.
Figure 2 - The Great Colonnade, Palmyra Prior to Destruction, (2006), Photography by Jane Mountain, Source: official website of Inhabitat.
Figure 3 - The Arch of Triumph of Septimius Severus, Palmyra, (2005), Source: official website of Ancient Origins.
Figure 4 - The Temple of Baalshamin in Palmyra, Smoke rising due to detonation, (2015), Source: official website of The Times of Israel.
Figure 5 - Two Ancient Marble Syrian Busts Prior to Preservation, (2016), Photograph by Sylvia Poggioli/NPR, Source: official website of National Public Radio.
Figure 6 - 3D Scan of Prosthetic of the Male Syrian Bust, (2017), Photograph by Chris Warde-Jones/The Telegraph, Source: official website of 3D Print.
Figure 7 - Ancient Syrian Male Bust with Magnets, (2017), Photograph by AP Photo/Domenico Stinellis/PhysOrg, Source: official website of Archaeology Newsroom.
Figure 8 - Ancient Syrian Bust with Prosthetic Attached, (2017), Photography by AP Photo/Domenico Stinellis/PhysOrg, Source: official website of Archaeology Newsroom.
Figure 9 - The Arch of Triumph Unveiled in Trafalgar Square in London, (2016), Photograph by Stefan Wermuth/Reuters, Source: official website of RT News.
Figure 10 - The Arch of Triumph in Palmyra, Syria before destruction, Source: official website of BBC News.
Figure 11 - The IDA Using A CNC Router to Etch Detail on the Replica, Source: official website of The Institute for Digital Archaeology.
Figure 12 - The Arch of Triumph Replica in London, view from the back, (2016), Source: photograph and editing from the official website of The Factum Foundation.
Figure 13 - The Arch of Triumph Original in Palmyra, view from the back, Source: photograph and editing from the official website of The Factum Foundation.
Figure 14 - The Arch of Triumph Replica in London, Column Detail, (2016), Source: photograph and editing from the official website of The Factum Foundation.
Figure 15 - The Arch of Triumph Replica in London, Column and Architrave Detail, (2016), Source: photograph and editing from the official website of The Factum Foundation.
Figure 16 - The Arch of Triumph Original in Palmyra, Capital, Column and Architrave Detail, (2006) Original Photography by Daniel Demeter, (2016), Source: photograph and editing from the official website of The Factum Foundation.
Figure 17 - The Arch of Triumph Replica showcased in Geneva, (2016), Photograph by Pierre-Michel Virot, Source: official website of The Institute for Digital Archaeology.
Figure 18 - The Arch of Triumph Replica showcased in Bern, Switzerland, (2016), Photograph by Gabriel Design, Source: official website of The Institute for Digital Archaeology.
Figure 19 - The Arch of Triumph Replica showcased in New York, (2016), Photograph by Claire Voon, Source: official website of The Institute for Digital Archaeology.
Figure 20 – Images from the augmented reality application, (2016), Photograph by Claire Voon, Source: the official website of Hyperallergic News.
Abbreviations
2D: Two Dimensional.
3D: Three Dimensional.
AI: Artificial Intelligence.
CNC: Computer Numerical Control.
ICCROM: The International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property.
ICOMOS: The International Council on Monuments and Sites.
ICR: Institute for Conservation and Restoration.
IDA: The Institute for Digital Archaeology.
ISIS: Islamic State of Iraq and Syria.
ISIL: Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.
SOHR: The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.
TFF: The Factum Foundation for Digital Technology in Conservation.
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
UNHCR: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
WHC: World Heritage Committee.
WHS: World Heritage Site.
Acknowledgement of the module 19/20-AR4402 Research Preparation.
The Introduction and Literature within this dissertation paper is based and very near to what has been submitted by the author on the 5th of May 2020 for the module 19/20-AR4402 Research Preparation at the following institution: The Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University. It has evolved since then, however may be in close resemblance to what had been previously submitted in the aforementioned module.
Introduction
Aim:
This dissertation will understand the impact that World Heritage Sites have whilst reviewing their importance and influence in cultural areas. This will widen the scope of how preservation and post-war reconstruction methods have been introduced and executed. The reconstruction methods will be addressing the political, ethical and authenticity challenges that arise. This form of analysis will be explored on a theoretical basis.
The research will address three research questions: firstly, what is the correct action to pursue when preserving and reconstructing cultural heritage? Secondly, how will the authentical and ethical challenges be addressed with a post-war reconstruction of Palmyra? Furthermore, how will this help understand the main political and international influences in Syria that challenge a post-war reconstruction?
The aim is to understand the importance of post-war reconstruction of a World Heritage Site (WHS), how it can be successfully achieved and outlining the challenges that will affect a reconstruction. The Operational Guidelines for Implementation of the World Heritage Convention is a set of guidelines issued by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) which clarify how a site is selected and inscribed with a WHS status. For a WHS site to achieve its status and obtain an Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) which is the term used to describe a cultural and natural place of exceptional significance, that has importance for future generations that must be preserved and have permanent provided protection.1 It must meet one out of ten criteria listed under the operational guidelines to achieve an OUV from UNESCO. This is important, especially with a post-war reconstruction project. Post-war reconstruction projects can be controversial regarding how they can address authenticity, identity, character, and politics. This is where I will look upon literature that surrounds these challenges and how they should be addressed.
Objective:
This research paper will investigate and determine the importance of a WHS and how they can be reconstructed after the damage has been inflicted from armed conflict. Tangible cultural heritage correlates to the identity of a place, and its significance to that particular region. Without WHS, vast areas of the globe partially lose their identity, their history and in some cases, their economic value. I will be analysing these factors through secondary qualitative data. I will investigate the chosen route for preservation methods and post-war reconstruction methods and draw upon a reconstruction phase's political and authentical challenges.2
1 ‘World Heritage’.
1 Background and Research Context
WHS are significant in expressing our history and are important in understanding how we have developed. A WHS is a destination in different parts of the world, where these are to achieve and OUV. UNESCO inscribes natural heritage sites where natural formations provide a habitat for local plants and wildlife and cultural heritage landmarks representing a unique architectural construction and emphasising cultural identity. Throughout the past couple of millenniums, a range of different constructions has taken place to symbolise the identity of a particular region and to show our human evolution. WHS have been subjected to destruction by natural disasters, intentional destruction by civil wars and the act of looting. According to UNESCO, the World Heritage Committee (WHC) has included 53 heritage properties which are considered to be in danger.3
In the Middle East, Syria has become invaded by the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), where they occupied large parts of the cities and used them as strongholds for their rebel forces. Palmyra, which is located in Syria, has become the forefront of vandalism and destruction wherein 2015 it had been occupied by the terrorist group, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Palmyra is a historic landmark and has a significant Roman background that dates back to the Neolithic period and was a well-preserved Greaco Roman ruin. Palmyra has a blend of Greek, Roman and Islamic cultures and the significance it once had deteriorated throughout the years before it had been rediscovered in the 17th century. UNESCO has listed Palmyra as an endangered world heritage site due to the Syrian civil war, where the occupation of ISIL saw an absurd amount of destruction. Palmyra is a large heritage site with various structures scattered across the vast desert landscape.
Although Palmyra is 1 of 53 listed as an endangered heritage site, it has become apparent that Palmyra may be subject to being neglected, potentially forgotten and to never rise again with the ongoing conflict. Author Jean Baudrillard describes how if we forget a heavy act like genocide, this directly correlates to how it could be considered as an act of genocide itself, considering we are forgetting history and how memory and history are both intertwined.4 In Syria, this has become evident how ISIS has culturally annihilated the Syrian heritage and that the cultural property destruction should not be forgotten, even when undertaking a reconstruction project. Professor Emma Cunliffe has stated that there are ethical issues that surrounding a reconstruction, especially in a place that could be considered to have been subject to cultural genocide.5 Restoring Palmyra to its pre-war state could be considered as whitewashing history, Cunliffe (2016) elaborates on how discussion from international organisations will need to consider the reconstruction of Palmyra carefully.6
3 UNESCO Centre. UNESCO World Heritage Centre – ‘List of World Heritage in Danger’, Whc.unesco.org
2 The verdict to restore Palmyra to its pre-conflict state should be the final decision by the Syrian people. Cunliffe (2016) argues that the people who protected Palmyra over the various generations should be the sole decision-makers in a post-war reconstruction.7 Evidently, it is their opinion that ultimately matters the most. People who died protecting Palmyra should not be forgotten; a notable figure is archaeologist Khaled Al-Asaad who was the head of antiques who devoted more than 40 years of his life to unravelling Palmyra’s precious past and transcribing it for current generations, be that archaeologists or the general public so they too would learn from this rich historical city,8 as described by Director-General of UNESCO Irina Bokova. Writers Kareem Shaheen and Ian Black wrote how Khaled had been captured by ISIL in 2015 and had been forced to part with information regarding the safekeeping of the rest of Palmyra’s valuable artefacts.9 Assad later had been executed by ISIL militants.
Palmyra was due to receive financial support in aid of the reconstruction phase with UNESCO's backing and the funding provided by the Russian government; however; these plans were overthrown by a petition from the Avaaz organisation who sought to stop the reconstruction process. Avaaz is a non-profit organisation that promotes global activism, ranging from issues with human rights, animal rights, corruption, poverty and climate change. This organisation is one of the largest online-based activist groups to exist. The online petition emphasises the concerns of having the fate of Syrian heritage in the hands of Russian President Vladimir Putin, expressing that he has had a large influence in the ongoing conflict and is an aggressor towards human rights,10 where UNESCO are potentially willing to work alongside the Russian Government. This may go against what UNESCO stand for. Understandably, UNESCO should only focus on other aspects of the civil war outcome, protecting what remains by providing crisis tactics and detailed investigations into the destruction of both Palmyra and the Syrian heritage sites.
In the National Museum of Damascus archaeologist Muntajab Youssef and his eleven specially trained archaeologists, they are currently in the process of restoring the Syrian artefacts. These are not full-scale attempts at restoring Palmyra at present. However, some institutions are adopting the use of technology to either aid the preservation or rebuild with the use of 3D printing. Only the intricate artefacts that had been safely smuggled out of Syria to its destination in Damascus are being restored.
Regarding efforts to restore Palmyra to its former glory, The Institute for Digital Archaeology (IDA) is a research organisation who observes and recreates their research findings through the use of digital archaeology. The IDA utilises digital techniques which range from 3D printing, digital imaging to cataloguing the conservation techniques and the reconstruction
7 Emma Cunliffe, ‘Should we 3D print a new Palmyra?’, The Conversation, 31 March 2016 8 Irina Bokova, ‘Deplores the loss of two leading scholars of Syrian antiquity’. UNESCO. (2016),
3 of heritage sites and their genetic materials.11 The IDA work in conjunction with UNESCO and The International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) to help with preservation and reconstruction methods for WHS. The IDA has undertaken the reconstruction of the Arch of Triumph which was destroyed by ISIL during the 2015 bombings. The reconstruction itself is not a full-scale model, roughly only one-third of the original Monumental Arch of Triumph’s actual size. The unveiling of the Arch of Triumph took place in 2016 in Trafalgar Square, London where Roger Michel who is the Executive Director of the IDA mentioned ‘if you destroy something we can rebuild it again’,12 this, in turn, will no doubt have complications due to lack of symbolic and cultural value.
There are controversial discussions on the topic regarding the correct way of undergoing a reconstruction phase, where the IDA has come under scrutiny for their unveiling of the replica with the use of automated machinery, using inaccurate photogrammetry and crowdsourcing information. The reconstruction of a WHS can be interpreted as inaccurate and have consequences of misleading the public if not primarily warned,13 as perceived by Nicholas Stanley-Price the Director-General of ICCROM.
Undoubtedly it is important to preserve cultural heritage, and clearly, with the reconstruction of a monument, it is a viable option. However, it is important to address the key issues which should address the identity of a place, the authentication and ethical procedures through the reconstruction of a heritage landmark which once stood as an ‘Oasis in the Syrian Desert’14 as depicted by UNESCO.
Methodologies and Limitations
This research has been conducted with a case study methodology, focusing on secondary qualitative data. The case study will focus on the tangible aspect of a WHS, which includes the challenges surrounding a reconstruction. Before the present-day pandemic, fieldwork in Syria had been considered. Primary data onsite through photographic documentation, interviews, observations and focus groups has now become restricted. The continuation of armed conflict in the area and COVID 19, has affected travel arrangements to the middle east. After careful consideration through observations and literature analysis, it had become apparent that secondary qualitative data would be a better means for this method of research.
It is important when sourcing secondary qualitative information to remain unbiased in the selection process. This will allow discussions from authors on why a particular WHS can or cannot be reconstructed, which should outline the opinions and thoughts and formulate a particular set of arguments to proceed with the research understanding. From the research
11 ‘Home - The Institute for Digital Archaeology’, The Institute for Digital Archaeology
4 analysis, bias can be introduced using my own interpretation on a particular set of research data. Qualitative research aims to help develop concepts, to gain a strong understanding of individuals perceptions and to study the human and cultural interaction,15 depicted by author Steven J. Agius. Understanding this will help researchers capture how opinions and attitudes have developed in a particular way whilst revealing descriptively on what is being conducted.
Within the literature review, this will become tailored to understanding the philosophies in post-war reconstruction methods, which will focus on how initial data is gathered, discussed and then utilised to aid reconstruction methods of a WHS, with further elaboration on preserving authentic, tangible cultural identity. The secondary analysis within the literature review will be information gathered from online articles and research journals, focusing on how preservation methods are utilised and the challenges that arise during post-war reconstruction. The introduction to the topic will provide a formal foundation for the research to become developed.
The dissertation’s body will look further at secondary qualitative data, where information will be provided, analysed and where critical reflection will develop. The literature will be analysed from published books and analytical study from educational and scientific institutes, and further arguments from research journals. This will provide the research paper with an abundance amount of documentation from various sources and publications. Media coverage and articles from heritage organisations surrounding the middle east will be of greater value. This presents up to date knowledge on the efforts to reconstruct Syria and re-establish cultural identity.
15 Steven J. Agius. ‘Qualitative Research: its value and applicability’, The Psychiatrist, Vol 37, (2013), pp. 204- 206, (p. 204).
5 Literature Review
The importance of preserving natural and cultural heritage are ways in order to understand the linage of human beings, from Neolithic rock art located in Tadrat Acacus, Africa to humanmade structures found at the site of Chichen-Itza in Mexico. These through time and human understanding depict the evolutionary phase of the planet and how we have socially developed in certain countries,16 perceived by Xinyuan Wang and others.
Author Andreas Georgopoulos provides an overview of the technology used to fabricate digitally a destroyed landmark and how contemporary technology can contribute to reconstructing cultural heritage, namely the Plaka Bridge in Greece as his chosen case study. Georgopoulos emphasises the main curators of monument maintenance, being scientists from the archaeology and architecture field.17
As technology and public interest has developed, there has been a cohesion between different fields of interest to contribute their field of study in the direct safekeeping of heritage sites. Georgopoulos (2018) explains that with protection law on heritage monuments not stretching farther than national borders, cultural internationalism had led to the creation of the League of Nations post World War I.18 With international interest in the preservation of heritage sites, UNESCO alongside the Council of Europe has formed divisions, each which specialise in different forms of authority. The roles of these organisations vary from one another, and some look upon conservation processes, aid to develop a series of strategies in a preservation phase and identify different characteristics regarding a heritage site.
Georgopoulos examines through his research the way Digitalisation of Cultural Heritage can have advantageous outcomes. Firstly, the procedure in acquiring, storing and managing data for researchers and engineers has vastly changed as this now has been formed in a digital outcome. Georgopoulos (2018) highlights the topic with how technology can appeal to new audiences where cultural heritage and digital technology can manifest together, with the work of traditional archaeologists19 can become transformed in how we interact with heritage artefacts through the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) within research facilities and museums.
The initial phasing of gathering data for digitalisation formulates from public intervention. Georgopoulos (2018) insists on how the initial documentation of a cultural heritage landmark starts with photos, where the initial primary source will be utilising images from different viewpoints that become catalogued into a virtual reconstruction20 to enable a digital reconstruction to become generated into virtual space.
16 Xinyuan Wang and others, ‘Digital Heritage’, in Manual of Digital Earth, 1st ed edited by Huadong Guo and others (Springer, Singapore, 2020), pp. 565-591, (p. 565). 17 Andreas Georgopoulos, ‘Contemporary Digital Technologies at the Service of Cultural Heritage’, in Heritage Preservation: A Computational Approach, 1st ed edited by Bhabatosh Chanda and others (Springer, 2018) pp. 1-20, (p. 19). 18 Georgopoulos, pp. 1-20, (p. 2). 19 Georgopoulos, pp. 1-20, (p. 11). 20 Georgopoulos, pp. 1-20, (p. 11).
6 Over significant time, Palmyra had started to deteriorate naturally but was accelerated due to civil conflict in the country by ISIL a terrorist organization. In 2015 during the occupation by ISIL, an article by Qantara have stated how ISIL has started a ‘campaign of destruction against what they see as the idolatrous structures’.21 The destruction caused had levelled large parts of the structures on the site to rubble.
Author Roshni Khunti’s research has argued that automated reconstruction of the Arch of Triumph in Palmyra will inevitably create ethical issues and will become a complicated situation.22 This directly relates to the utilization of digital technology to preserve a cultural heritage site. In the discussion by Khunti (2016), he expresses further where the IDA has reconstructed the Arch of Triumph with the use of 3D printing; however, the IDA has failed to address the ethical issues which correlate to the authenticity of the monument.23
Author Dirk H.R. Spennemann and Kristy Graham capture key arguments on the approach to a recovery phase for disaster managers, before and after a natural disaster has occurred. The research highlights how pre and post-disaster situations are handled regarding cultural heritage sites, and that providing protection to vulnerable heritage sites needs to be of a higher ranking tier.24 Spennemann and Graham (2007) approach the topic of preservation with an understanding that cultural heritage sites ought to be in the first stage category when a disaster occurs. The recognition of heritage and the correlation to life should be distinctly identified.25 Disaster managers and heritage managers have deemed cultural property as less significance when an imminent danger is about to occur, as most heritage sites are uninhabited, they pose less importance than an individual’s life,26 therefore will not be on their priority list. Although it is agreed that cultural property should be on a higher rank tier when a looming disaster does strike, human life has more significance and value than a tangible structure.
The act of rebuilding post-war or events from a natural occurrence provides the community with familiar surroundings and shows their strength in overcoming a catastrophic event. In most cases, it is difficult for disaster managers to justify why the preparation to preserve a heritage site should be one of the first things that need to be considered before a disaster. Human life should take precedent, and as an example, it will be more important to evacuate a city which is in the process of a civil war. It should also be considered which heritage sites pose a greater risk of being destroyed, with minimal effort. Over time heritage structures have deteriorated through natural events, where a small portion are at a higher risk of being non-existent.
21 ‘A brief history of Palmyra, the ancient pearl of Syria's desert’. Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World. (2015)
7 Maamoun Abdulkarim, former Head of the Directorate-General for Antiquities and Museums of Syria, indicates his concern for reconstruction projects in Syria. There is a lack of scientific support from UNESCO and ICOMOS, which enables private investors along with developers to have more control over what they want in the city of Aleppo. Abdulkarim (2016) discusses how although Aleppo may not be an archaeology city, archaeologists along with the help of the community they would like to revive the city back to its pre-war state, this is mainly to restore the faith in people and to rediscover the identity of Aleppo.27 This alludes to keeping the identity and culture of a place, which Khunti (2016) has raised in his discussion. Incorporating a reconstruction phase poses political issues, and the strategy of reconstruction may take longer than expected. It is clear that the role of UNESCO, ICCROM and ICOMOS along with other relatable advisory bodies, should provide support, be that financial or expertise in a reconstruction project.
The former assistant to the General Director of ICCROM Jukka Jokilehto describes what it means to reconstruct a damaged heritage landmark. Reconstructing an object in its entirety means to construct it as entirely new, where the notion is to recreate something in its former glory. The reconstruction will also refer to the regeneration of the social-economic situation after a place has become deserted for a long duration.28 The debate that Jokilehto wishes to convey expresses the same concern that Khunti has surrounding international debate and heritage sites’ authenticity. Jokilehto (2015) highlights that the Venice Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites have a particular set of guidelines, which oppose a reconstruction of a monument and are highly favourable towards a conservation and restoration schematic of heritage sites.29
Author Roha Khalaf shares the same perspective that Jokilehto raises. Primarily Khalaf raises concerns regarding authenticity, integrity and heritage and how heritage organisations downplay these during a reconstruction. Khalaf looks upon the true meaning of reconstruction, arguing for the case where reconstruction itself fits in a category system. This is emphasised by introducing three specific conditions which qualify in an entirely new categorical system, which has become specifically adapted for reconstruction.30
27 Maamoun Abdulkarim, ‘Challenges Facing Cultural Institutions in Times of Conflict: Syrian Cultural Heritage’, in Post-Trauma Reconstruction, edited by Prof. Loughlin Kealy and others (ICOMOS, 2016), pp. 9-10, (p. 9). 28 Jukka Jokilehto, ‘Reconstruction in the World Heritage Context’, in Conservation – Reconstruction: Small Historic Centres Conservation in the Midst of Change, Rodica Crisan and others (Hasselt: European Association for Architectural Education, 2015), pp. 513-524, (p.513).
8
Modern Institutes and Provided Protection
The role of Educational and Scientific Institutes in Cultural Heritage
Preserving historical landmarks has become significant importance throughout the decades. The importance here is that historical monuments and buildings should be preserved for future decades. Still, it is understanding and determining the methods that should be explored and implemented for the preservation phase. Restoring landmarks which have become subject to natural disasters, looting or intentional destruction should be preserved either digitally or physically.
UNESCO are at the forefront of preserving cultural and natural heritage. Charter of the Preservation of the Digital Heritage published by UNESCO, details the importance of preserving the heritage and its significance. UNESCO describe how digital heritage consists of ‘unique resources of human knowledge and expression; it embraces cultural, educational, scientific and administrative resources’.31 As of present UNESCO has listed 1121 properties which are considered as heritage sites throughout the world. The World Heritage Convention, which is the modern term, has been adopted by UNESCO to promote cooperation with other nations to legally conserve cultural heritage.32
With decades of war in conflict areas, high profiled heritage sites have become of interest to UNESCO to protect and to preserve them. During the outbreak of war, once a site has become declared as a heritage site, it has been granted protection from the Geneva Convention which protects heritage sites during a state and nationwide war,33 defined by author Amanda DiSilvestro. Post Second World War the devastation caused by the conflict saw the destruction of heritage and cultural property.
The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict had been in effect since 1954. The sole purpose was to protect heritage and culturally significant sites after the catastrophe caused during World War II. An important notable example is in Poland. During 1944 in Warsaw, under Hitler’s rule, his party had occupied Poland, which later had been pushed out by Polish troops uprising against the Nazi soldiers.34 Warsaw’s Old Town has important significance, although there were no protection laws against heritage sites during the time, Warsaw’s Old Town had received more than 85% damage to the city.
31 UNESCO. Unesdoc.unesco.org. (2009),
9 With the polish troops pushing Hitler’s regime further out of Warsaw, the Nazi’s devised a plan to reduce Warsaw to nothing but rubble.35 Although Warsaw’s Old Town had been reconstructed, it is considered to be rather remarkable with a homogeneous reconstruction, which has corresponded to a vast amount of historical and political importance,36 stated in a discussion by Christina Cameron and Rossler Mechtild. In 1980, Warsaw had been inscribed and was considered a WHS by UNESCO.
The Venice Charter is a set of guidelines which had been introduced in 1964 by conservation professionals. Information is provided with an international framework for the conservation and restoration for historic buildings. In the section for restoration, there are articles which state what is acceptable for restoring cultural heritage sites. Article 10 under restoration, illustrates that if the traditional methods become ineffective, the stabilization of heritage sites and monuments can be accomplished with the utilisation of new proven conservation techniques. This will also cover the adaption to building methods.37 From the description provided, modern tools and techniques can be used to achieve the same quality and outcome that is desired. There should be an understanding of when this can be applied, presumably before reconstructing a heritage site extensive analysis is carried out before any work, to see whether formwork and craftsmanship can be considered before progressing to the use of modern digital technology.
The International Charter for The Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) founded in 1965, following the 1964 Venice International Charter is an advisory body which establishes the importance of identification, conservation and preservation of cultural WHS. The extent that ICOMOS function is that they are one of three advisory bodies to the World Heritage Committee. Ancient cultural heritage has been valued as a significant historical moment, which embraces its local region’s cultural landscape. ICOMOS are aware that people are becoming ‘more conscious of the unity of human values and regard monuments as a common heritage’,38 which does define the cultural origins of the place that you reside and establishes the identity and the characteristics of the region.
35 Architecture Lab, ‘How postwar Warsaw was rebuilt using 18th century paintings’, Architecture Lab, 22 April 2016 36 Christina Cameron and Rossler Mechtild, ‘Many Voices, One Vision’, (London: Routledge, 2016) pp. 41-42 37 Piero Gazzola and others, ‘International Charter for The Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites’ (The Venice Charter 1964). Icomos.org
10
A Case Study of Palmyra, Syria
Background of Palmyra and its Former Glory
Ancient author Pliny the Elder has described Palmyra as a ‘city famous for the beauty of its site, the riches of its soil, and the delicious quality and abundance of its water’.39 Pliny acknowledges how Palmyra, although it is sat in a vast expanse of the Syrian desert with fine grains of sand, is also boarded by open green fields, with a substantial amount of soil ready for crops to be planted and harvested.40
Palmyra, originally known as Tadmor, is perceived as an Ancient City. Palmyra is found in the vast expanse of the Syrian desert, which had formally been constructed with the wealth under the Romans’ rule. Palmyra is situated on an ancient crossroad which had been used for a number of civilizations by traders, where the local architecture has influences from Persian and Graeco-Roman techniques,41 as depicted by UNESCO. During the early life of Palmyra, it had been under the rule of different empires before becoming under the Roman Empire’s ruling.
With Roman control between the 1st and 2nd century, the city grew and prospered from the trade links that connected the east to the west. The Romans took advantage of this trade route where author Richard Stoneman conveys the idea that although Palmyra traded in rich commodities such as spices and other aromatic products, the primary income for the Romans had been from the trade of silk.42 Silk had not been a common item and was not local to Syria, and only could be obtained from the far east. With the influx of wealth within the city, the roman empire started to expand Palmyra by enabling construction to occur, notably the Great Colonnade (see fig. 2) where you can visibly see the influence of Roman Architecture. The Arch of Triumph is one of the iconic faces for Palmyra (see fig. 3), which was constructed during the 3rd century under the reign of Roman emperor Septimius Severus. Stoneman (1992) further elaborates on how it has become evident that under the roman empire’s rule, the Romans began to extort traders and merchants by introducing a substantial amount of tax up to an astonishing 50% on goods.43
39 Pliny the Elder, ‘The Natural History, book v.an account of countries, nations, seas, towns, havens, mountains, rivers, distances, and peoples who now exist or formerly existed., chap. 21—syria upon the euphrates’. Perseus.tufts.edu, 5.21,
11
Figure 2 – The Great Colonnade, Palmyra Prior to Destruction, (2006), Photography by Jane Mountain, Source: Inhabitat.
Figure 3 – The Arch of Triumph of Septimius Severus, Palmyra, (2005), Source: official website of Ancient Origins.
Author Diederik Burgersdijk refers to how the economic rise in Palmyra may have been influenced in the decline in Petra, although Petra is along the spice route the city still has connections to India and the Arabic continent.44 Petra’s decline may have contributed on how Palmyra is a centralised region with easier access routes and acting as a thoroughfare, where Burgersdijk (2019) states the idea Palmyra is a better-established trading route from the Mediterranean Sea and the silk route which directly gains access to the centre of the
44 Diederik Burgersdijk, ‘Palmyra on the Silk Road: Terrestrial and Maritime Trading Routes from China to the Mediterranean’, in Proceedings of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society Edited by J.P Stronk and M.D. de Weerd (2019), pp. 246-254, (p. 251).
12 Roman empire.45 Over the caravan oasis, Palmyra took several centuries to be built by the Romans, where the Temple of Bel was amongst the first to be constructed. It is not clear whether the Temple of Bel had been built for a particular human inhabitant that reigned over Palmyra. However, Author Paul Veyne and Teresa L. Fagan largely assume that the temple itself had not been constructed as a typical shrine, whereas temples in ancient Greece and Rome are perceived to be.46 The Temple of Bel seemingly had been dedicated to Bel, a God of the Ancient Mesopotamian religion, with the initial construction phase starting in 32AD. According to Dr Jeffrey A. Becker, the gradual construction of the Temple of Bel was not completed until the second century, where architectural features were attached to the temple from its initial inscription date to the final completion date.47
For several hundreds of years, Palmyra sat vastly empty and became a forgotten place. It was not until 1691 where a group of British merchants travelled to Palmyra from Aleppo, where it had been rediscovered. Architect and historian Gregorio Astengo declares that British traders had been travelling through Syria for almost six days to reach the site at Palmyra, where the discovery of Palmyra itself had been first publicly documented.48 Although this was considered a successful archaeological documentation of Palmyra, a first attempt to reach the site in 1678 had been made.
With Palmyra’s extensive history, it was only until the 1980s that UNESCO declared Palmyra as a WHS, where it had achieved an OUV and met three out of ten criteria enlisted by UNESCO. Although the downfall of Palmyra and the rule of many empires, we can conclude that Palmyra had been a successful settlement providing richness in the fertile soil, the close proximity to a natural water source, its profit from importing goods from the far east and being situated on a silk trading route. The richness has been reflected in the architecture and the local culture, which is evident in the surrounding buildings and context.
45 Burgersdijk, pp. 246-254, (p. 251). 46 Paul Veyne and Teresa L. Fagan. ‘Palmyra: An Irreplaceable Treasure’, University of Chicago Press; Illustrated edition, (2017) p.8 47 Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker. ‘Temple of Bel, Palmyra (article) | Palmyra | Khan Academy’. Khan Academy, (2014),
13 The Fall of Palmyra, The Rise of ISIS
The middle east has been affected by ongoing armed conflict for several years, with the rise of terrorist organisations in the middle east known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) or the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), have posed a serious threat to Syria, particularly Palmyra and Aleppo. During a destructive 2015 campaign, ISIL swept and occupied large areas of Syria, wreaking havoc and causing destruction to WHS. It has been shown in propaganda videos that the destruction was intentionally caused by the use of sledgehammers, mechanical tools and lastly explosives (see fig. 4). Throughout 2015 with the occupation of ISIL in Palmyra, Temple of Bel, Temple of Baalshamin, Temple of Al-lat and amongst the rest were destroyed all within weeks and months of one another. UNESCO and the United Nations closely observed the destruction that had been taking place, using satellite imagery.
Figure 4 – The Temple of Baalshamin in Palmyra, Smoke rising due to detonation, (2015), Source: official website of The Times of Israel.
Professor Maamoun Abdulkarim had worked as the Director-General of Antiques and museums in Syria during the rise of ISIS between 2012 to 2017. During the strain from armed conflict in 2012, he intentionally would close all museums in Syria and safeguard the artefacts by placing them in an untraceable place. As 2014 approached, Abdulkarim decided that the artefacts in the closed museums would benefit from being transported out of Syria and located in Damascus. With his quick thinking, Maamoun and his team of experts managed to safeguard over 300,000 cultural objects49 before ISIS could destroy these priceless possessions.
There has been scepticism surrounding the atrocious acts to why ISIS had carried out their destruction, one is due to political iconoclasm where ISIS refuse to acknowledge the culture of what Palmyra once was, and they believe that Muslims of the middle east should not embrace the cultural heritage and identity of the former Assyrians. Institutions, in particular UNESCO, promote the understanding of the shared cultural heritage of former civilizations, have now become powerless against ISIS. Their justification for destruction has been well
49 Maamoun Abdulkarim, Susan Dirgham, ‘On Saving Syria’s Antiquities’, Beloved Syria, 5 November 2019
14 thought out, displaying how violence on cultural heritage has evolved from historical oppression, political and religious encouragement. However, their justification for the destruction of the WHS should not be underpinned by their religious and political motivation.
Author Robert Bevan has a keen interest in how architecture is advantageous in an international and regional war. Bevan (2016) has argued that intentionally inflicting damage on architectural buildings and cultural sites, it is used to symbolise a product of war by architecturally cleansing a region during armed conflict.50 Understandably, the cultural property will be used as leverage during a war as this has culture and history attached to a physical object, where enemy forces will use this to provoke a reaction and fuel the fire.
UNESCO Director-General Irina Bokova spoke about the destruction of Nimrud, Iraq, in 2015, where the intentional destruction by ISIS should be solely based on their propaganda and hatred on cultural heritage sites.51 This has been acknowledged as a war crime, and the terrorist organisations affiliated in these acts need to be held accountable for their actions.
UNESCO launched accessible information from their database of National Cultural Heritage Laws with provided financial backing from the US Department of State, which governs legal protection policies for their stakeholders. These policies relate to immovable, tangible cultural property, natural heritage and artefacts of cultural property that can be illegally trafficked. In a press release document by the United Nations, it has been mentioned that trafficking of cultural artefacts is considered an illegal action; therefore, these actions which are carried through from terrorist organisations is considered as a war crime.52
50 Robert Bevan, ‘The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War’, (London: Reaktion Books, 2016), p. 210 51 Irina Bokova, UNESCO. ‘Director-General condemns destruction at Nimrud’. UNESCO. (2015),
15
The Rise of Digital Preservation and Reconstruction
Preservation Techniques
Due to the current conflict in high profiled areas, heritage monuments become subject to destruction and are undoubtedly removed from history. The use of digital techniques is highlighted as a key advantage in how heritage landmarks can be digitally preserved. It is understood that a varying scope of digital tools is used in the preservation phase of a heritage landmark. The processes range from an abundance of media initially from utilising 2D imagery to 3D digital models. Methods used to obtain such information comes from an onsite investigation using point cloud data produced from 3D scanning alongside LiDAR technology.
The development of new sophisticated technological parameters has created more scope to conservation and preservation and how cultural heritage can be ultimately documented. Author Ferri Hassani evokes the idea that using a single method of digital preservation technique, cannot truly display the amount of accuracy as there will be limitations in this process as each method introduced has its own attributes.53 Therefore, using a combinational approach with 3D scanning, thermal infrared camera technology, photogrammetry and LiDAR will collectively provide a consistent outcome with this amalgamation.
The expansion of technology has become greater with advanced and sophisticated software. Technology provides a foundation of how we, as individuals can interact with space, cultural artefacts through the use of AI. Museums have adopted an approach to using AI at the user’s fingertips, and this causes user interaction and behavioural monitoring. Digitalisation techniques to catalogue artefacts have a vital impact on how they are used by research institutions and the general public in attendance at a museum. Dr Rachel Heuberger a cultural historian and authors Laura E. Leone and Renate Evers, have a standpoint on virtual reconstruction and digital preservation techniques and how these support scientific and educational institutions to fully grasp the historical significance, alongside the context of a cultural heritage artefact.54 This will provide a workflow and a digital framework for international partnership.
With the destruction of Palmyra and the Syrian museums, it became a priority to restore and digitally preserve the remaining artefacts that became subject to the ISIS propaganda. At present, multiple institutions are using 3D computer software, with the experimental use of 3D printing to retain what had been inflicted with irreversible damage. A documentation cultural institution named #NewPalmyra is led by founder Bassel Khartabil, aiming to provide 3D preservation techniques in preserving parts of Syria. Their institution is in the early stages of recreating the damaged heritage sites of Palmyra digitally, with partial
53 Ferri Hassani, ‘Documentation of cultural heritage; techniques, potentials, and constraints’, ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XL-5/W7: (2015), pp. 207-214 (p. 207)
16 projects completed. Their main purpose is to provide Syrian archaeologists with a plethora of information for a reconstruction project.
Capturing the data of historic landmarks and representing them digitally is a crucial way of working. The 3D platform provides a precise digital model for investigation in undertaking a reconstruction project of Palmyra, which can benefit future generations. The benefits outweigh the disadvantages of digital cultural heritage. Author Ashwani Kumar Aggarwal explains how using 3D modelling software to create a heritage site, enables an archaeologist to study the characteristics remotely.55 Undoubtedly using digital software to collect data from heritage sites will assist archaeologists in their research to discover new information surrounding the site. The preservation phase does not exclude the potential to use the data gathered to construct 3D models, which later can be used to help critique and restore heavily damaged parts of a building,56 as mentioned by Aggarwal (2016). This inevitably can be achieved with the advanced technological capabilities that we have today.
On a smaller scale project, two artefacts that had been in Palmyra’s museum where archaeologist Khaled Al-Asaad devoted most of his life to are currently being restored with the use of 3D printing technology. The two busts that had been found amongst the rubble (see fig. 5) have now been safely taken to Beirut, and then moved to Rome to the Institute for Conservation and Restoration (ICR) where a team of technicians have been working to reconstruct their missing features. The two busts are of a man and woman depicted to be from the second century, presumably they may have held either a high-ranking position or may have been from a wealthy family.
Figure 5 – Two Ancient Marble Syrian Busts Prior to Preservation, (2016), Photograph by Sylvia Poggioli/NPR, Source: official website of National Public Radio.
55 Ashwani Kumar Aggarwal, ‘Digital Preservation of Cultural Heritage for Future Generations’, in Interdisciplinary Digital Preservation Tools and Technologies, edited by Tariq Ashraf and Naresh Kumar (Information Science Reference, 2016), pp. 242-255 (p. 242). 56 Aggarwal, pp. 242-255, (p. 242).
17 The bust depicting the male merchant has been severely damaged, with half of the busts face missing. With the remaining portion of the bust, parts of it had been glued back together to provide a 3D scan of the head. The bust had been divided and with the use of mathematical operations in the 3D software, one segment of the head had been mirrored accurately from the existing to the missing portion. Once the 3D reconstruction had been made (see fig. 6) the 3D printing process could commence.
The prosthetic that had been provided is primarily made from plastic with an outer coating of dust which closely resembles the original stone. The prosthetic is attached to the bust with magnets, a technique not used before in a restoration (see fig. 7 and fig. 8). Once the original piece has been found, the technicians will be able to reconstruct the bust with original material.
Figure 6 – 3D Scan of Prosthetic of the Male Syrian Bust, (2017), Photograph by Chris Warde-Jones/The Telegraph, Source: official website of 3D Print.
Figure 7 – Ancient Syrian Male Bust with Magnets, (2017), Photograph by AP Photo/Domenico Stinellis/PhysOrg, Source: official website of Archaeology Newsroom.
18
Figure 8 – Ancient Syrian Bust with Prosthetic Attached, (2017), Photography by AP Photo/Domenico Stinellis/PhysOrg, Source: official website of Archaeology Newsroom.
The team of experts at ICR plan on returning the busts to the Museum in Damascus where they will be on display to commemorate the late archaeologist Khaled Al-Asaad who has been described as a brave man. Gisella Capponi, the Director of ICR, stated how it had been of a privilege for the technologists at the ICR, to be able to work with the artefacts from Syria and restoring them somewhat to their previous state. These precious artefacts which had been the subject of ISIS propaganda are now in safekeeping.57 Understandably it is important in a restoration project to show what the capabilities are of 3D printing, however, using material that has no relationship to the original object causes a divide in what is truly perceived as being authentic.
57 Gisella Capponi, Clare Scott, ‘3D Technologies Restore Damaged Syrian Artifacts, Honor a Fallen Hero’ - 3DPrint.com | The Voice of 3D Printing / Additive Manufacturing. 3DPrint.com | The Voice of 3D Printing / Additive Manufacturing, (2017),
19
The Institute for Digital Archaeology – Authenticity and Ethical Issues
The Million Image Database Project
The Institute for Digital Archaeology based in Oxford, United Kingdom are the first to have used automated Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machinery to reconstruct a monument from a WHS. The Arch of Triumph was used as a case study for the IDA, where they had used crowdsourcing as a tool to gather photographic evidence of the site in Palmyra.
The utilisation of crowdsourcing information is beneficial for particular institutions; this is evident from a stakeholder viewpoint and how professionals and amateurs can successfully collaborate. It is clear that crowdsourcing is a starting point to gather primary data, to provide scientific institutions with this form of research which will assist in the initial steps to a preservation and reconstruction phase. Using this method provides a platform for co- creation between both parties and provides an example of how the public can engage with a reconstruction project. The skillset needed to participate in this activity is rather low; therefore, it attracts a wider audience from the community as the skills required are rather less specific,58 as explained by Authors Johan Oomen and Lora Aroyo.
Although public intervention will benefit the host, a thoroughly thought out plan of action from the host should be carefully considered. This will need to consider how you address safety for the public, whom are travelling to dangerous countries to provide site analysis with the use of digital tools. The IDA uses a collective method called the million image database, and this has essentially been used to reconstruct the CNC replica of the Arch of Triumph. The million image database is a collaborative platform that essentially compiles photographic imagery, that focuses on recording and mapping endangered heritage sites. Although the million image database is a platform provided by the IDA, its predominant focus is to be a community-led project. Khunti (2016) provides an insight into how the IDA use the public and provide volunteers with 3D cameras and instruct them to capture endangered heritage sites, these therefore later become used for digital and physical reconstruction projects.59
An example of an efficient approach to documenting a site is to use 3D scanning. This method is highly used in the field of archaeology as the information received is much more accurate, rather than having to rely on the use of photogrammetry. Professor Dieter Fritsch Director of the Institute for Photogrammetry and Michael Klein, a professional in computer graphic applications and author, have both utilised the use of point cloud data and laser scanning which is paired with photogrammetry to produce an accurate 3D generated model. Fritsch and Klein emphasise the use of collecting initial site data with the use of laser scanning and point cloud data systems, which is then generated into a 3D virtual model and
58 Johan Oomen and Lora Aroyo, ‘Crowdsourcing in the Cultural Heritage Domain’, in Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Communities and Technologies (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2011), pp. 138-149 (p. 140),
20 then rendered with photogrammetry.60 This methodical process has little room for error as you are not relying solely on 3D cameras and photogrammetry.
In an article, archaeologist Kay Kohlmeyer is extremely critical in response to the IDA and their use of photogrammetry. Kohlmeyer (2016) has acknowledged that by using inexperienced individuals to document a historical site with the use of photogrammetry, you are relying on people who are inexperienced in the field of archaeology. The pictures captured may not be suitable to reproduce a digital reconstruction as this may have inaccurate information.61 This stipulates whether the utilisation of this methodology will be worth it for a flawed result. The viewpoint does not subside there; the IDA clearly do not have ethical procedures when Kohlmeyer (2016) argues that sending inexperienced members of the public to places that are deemed hazardous, which are occupied by terrorist groups is inevitably dangerous and that the individuals are more than likely to be harmed.62 It is important to be aware of the correct procedures, to take prior to carrying out any documentation analysis that will have a public intervention.
60 Dieter Fritsch and Michael Klein, ‘3D preservation of buildings – Reconstructing the past’, Multimedia Tools and Applications, Vol 77, (2017), pp. 9153-9170 (p. 9167),
21 The Arch of Triumph Replica
Figure 9 – The Arch of Triumph Unveiled in Trafalgar Square in London, (2016), Photograph by Stefan Wermuth/Reuters, Source: official website of RT News.
Figure 10 – The Arch of Triumph in Palmyra, Syria before destruction, Source: official website of BBC News.
In 2016 the IDA had unveiled their reconstruction of the Arch of Triumph in Trafalgar Square, London (see fig. 9) which in comparison is just one of the three arches to the original Arch of Triumph at Palmyra. (see fig. 10). During the unveiling, London Prime Minister Boris Johnson insisted on how the replica is a feat of ‘technology and determination’.63 Arguably the reconstruction does look remarkable and truly illustrates the capabilities of modern automation, with the use of photogrammetry. The replica may not be as true as the original structure, where The Factum Foundation for Digital Technology in Conservation has challenged the IDA’s abilities. This is evident with the material that has been used on the replica which has been quarried in Egypt, therefore giving a structure that distinctive yellow colour, the arch stands approximately six metres tall and the formwork to the structure is of poor quality. Archaeologist Michal Gawlikowski challenges the IDA and their use in not using original material for the reconstruction, and he stipulates that
63 Boris Johnson, Lauren Turner, ‘Palmyra's Arch of Triumph recreated in London’, BBC News, 19 April 2016
22 historical accuracy urges the use of only original material should be considered to restore a destroyed monument.64
The use of automation has become a revolutionary tool for the IDA, where The Executive Director to the IDA Roger Michel believes that there are no limitations. The IDA have overemphasized their abilities, where Michel (2016) has mentioned that the printers used are not limited to just reproducing the textured surface, but can also reproduce its entire physical embodiment.65 Michel (2016) also mentions that this does not limit the possibility of using the exact materials the ancient builders used for the structures at Palmyra.66 Michel’s statement clearly contradicts the IDA’s version of the Arch of Triumph.
The concept of digital technology in the heritage and conservation sector has been expanding within the last two decades. Despite 3D printing and automation reconstruction being a revolutionary concept, UNESCO and ICOMOS have not yet drafted a code of conduct relating to the ethics of reconstruction from the use of digital fabrication,67 as argued by Khunti (2016).
The Factum Foundation for Digital Technology in Conservation (TFF) is a digital technology organisation in the heritage and conservation sector, which have the capabilities to 3D scan historical artefacts, documents them and are able to produce replicas from them. TFF has heavily criticised the IDA on their use of photogrammetry and the fact that the replica produced by the IDA does not compare to the original Arch of Triumph, in regard to the intricate detail, their precise colour and the decorative capital68 as mentioned by TFF. Using photos to analyse the replica reconstruction against the original arch at Palmyra, TFF (2016) has illustrated how the low-quality use of photogrammetry has caused features on the reconstruction to look inaccurate, which had been etched using the CNC router (see fig. 11). TFF has, therefore rejected the claim by Michel (2016) stating how the replica is perceived as being accurately reminiscent of the original monument.69
64 Michal Gawlikowski, Umberto Bacchi, ‘Palmyra Arch in London: 'Unethical' reconstruction of 'Disneyland' archaeology criticised’. International Business Times UK, 20 April 2016 65 Roger Michel, Simon Jenkins, ‘After Palmyra, the message to Isis: what you destroy, we will rebuild’, The Guardian, 29 March 2016 66 Roger Michel, Simon Jenkins, ‘After Palmyra, the message to Isis: what you destroy, we will rebuild’, The Guardian, 29 March 2016 67 Khunti, II, pp. 1-12, (p. 2). 68 Factum Foundation. Factum Foundation: IDA Palmyra Arch copy, Factumfoundation.org, (2016),
23
Figure 11 – The IDA Using A CNC Router to Etch Detail on the Replica, Source: official website of The Institute for Digital Archaeology.
24 The Factum Foundation Analysis on the Replica
Analysing the Arch of Triumph replica produced by the IDA, it has been clearly demonstrated that rather than carving from singular blocks of stone like the original arch and placing them together, the IDA has chosen a different approach. Using imagery that has been edited by TFF, they have made references and argued that particular details on the replica produced by the IDA do not correspond to accuracy and precision. TFF (2016) has described the replica to have a variation in the stone texture, the smoothness of blocks do not represent ancient stonework, the vibrant colour and the irregular shaped blocks are not consistent to the original monument.70 It is noticeable that during the reconstruction, the CNC machine has etched out the detail of the blocks from a singular block of marble (see fig. 12 and 13).
TFF (2016) has described that the use of digital skills paired with craft relating to stonemasons is a great opportunity to detail an object accurately.71 However, TFF (2016) has stated that choosing this route can become costly, it is rather laborious, and you rely on the expertise by others.72 Although in some respect this is correct, it is far more important to accurately represent a monument that has much history and faced political challenges attached to it than to create something without rigorously investigating first. Michel (2016) envisions on loaning two CNC and or 3D printing machines to Syrian archaeologists, which can provide immense precision that Palmyra will be rebuilt within six months.73 From the conflicting differences between the original and the replica, TFF has drawn further investigation to the inaccuracies on the capitals of the replicated arch.
The capital on the replica arch in the red box, which has been highlighted by TFF illustrates how none of the details corresponds with the original, and this is also noticeable in the blue boxes. TFF (2016) has taken notice of this and argues that the capital on the replica is reminiscent of fish scales and do not represent the language of roman architecture.74 In the red and blue boxes again highlighted by TFF (2016), the Corinthian decoration (see fig. 14 and 16) appear to be missing, and the projection on the architrave is inaccurate (see fig. 15 and 16). The IDA has invested heavily in resources where the machinery, materials and construction of this replica, has been valued at £2.5m, and experts have voiced their concerns, regarding that the financial backing for this project would have been practical to aid other restoration projects in Syria,75 according to Edwin Heathcote in the Financial Times.
70 Factum Foundation. ‘Factum Foundation: IDA Palmyra Arch copy’, Factumfoundation.org, (2016),
25
Figure 12 – The Arch of Triumph Replica in London, view from the back, (2016), Source: photograph and editing from the official website of The Factum Foundation.
Figure 13 – The Arch of Triumph Original in Palmyra, view from the back, Source: photograph and editing from the official website of The Factum Foundation.
Figure 14 – The Arch of Triumph Replica in London, Column Detail, (2016), Source: photograph and editing from the official website of The Factum Foundation.
26
Figure 15 – The Arch of Triumph Replica in London, Column and Architrave Detail, (2016), Source: photograph and editing from the official website of The Factum Foundation.
Figure 16 – The Arch of Triumph Original in Palmyra, Capital, Column and Architrave Detail, (2006) Original Photography by Daniel Demeter, (2016), Source: photograph and editing from the official website of The Factum Foundation.
27 According to the Oxford Dictionary, the term authenticity is described as ‘the quality of being true or what somebody claims it is’.76 An authentic artefact that has been reconstructed would use traditional materials, traditional construction techniques and be of close resemblance to the real artefact. The Arch of Triumph reconstruction has shown an enormous amount of erroneous information that has been highlighted by TFF.
In order to carry out a reconstruction project, cost and time will need to be taken into consideration. Cunliffe (2016) argues that if a reconstruction can be achieved on a faster timeframe with digital fabrication and the price is kept to a minimum; this can show how digital technology can be used to publicise a particular country and how they embrace their own society.77 The issue with photogrammetry and the paired use of 3D printing is that it fails to capture the uniqueness of an original artefact. Imprecise imagery in the case that the IDA have used, fragments a replicated artefact and visually stands out as being unauthentic. Khunti (2016) links his argument to how advisory bodies like ICOMOS, make their point clear on the conservation of a monument, that authenticity is viewed as an essential concept in reconstruction.78 Whilst many institutions follow protocol such as TFF; the IDA has not demonstrated and considered the outcome for their project.
The IDA has heavily publicised their Arch of Triumph replica, where it has been showcased in many cities worldwide (see fig. 17 and 18). Understandably this was primarily unveiled to show how cultural heritage can influence the use of modern technology; however, the unconscious message the IDA has inadvertently conveyed can be perceived to be negative. The replica appears to be more of a trophy, than an actual piece of cultural importance that has bridged the gap between digital technology and cultural history.
Figure 17 – The Arch of Triumph Replica showcased in Geneva, (2016), Photograph by Pierre-Michel Virot, Source: official website of The Institute for Digital Archaeology.
76 ‘Authenticity’ noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com
28
Figure 18 - The Arch of Triumph Replica showcased in Bern, Switzerland, (2016), Photograph by Gabriel Design, Source: official website of The Institute for Digital Archaeology.
The replica’s unveiling in New York inside City Hall Park (see fig. 19) had been reserved for invitation-only guests where many high-ranking government bodies were in attendance. During the replica’s unveiling in New York, many people outside the barricades were rushing to take photos with the replica. People were confused as to why the replica of an ancient monument had any form of affiliations with the United States,79 as described by writer Claire Voon.
Whilst attendees were on-site during the unveiling in New York, an organisation called The Arc/k Project, which has the ability to digitally catalogue important cultural heritage sites, offered a sensory visualisation through the use of augmented reality. The public is able to employ this technology through the use of their own mobile phones (see fig. 20). Voon (2016) describes how this displays a live model that has been supplemented into the real world with the adoption of 3D rendering technology which outputs the Arch of Triumph in Palmyra.80
79 Claire Voon, Slick Replica of Palmyra's Triumphal Arch Arrives in New York, Prompting Questions [UPDATED], Hyperallergic News, (2016),
29
Figure 19 – The Arch of Triumph Replica showcased in New York, (2016), Photograph by Claire Voon, Source: official website of The Institute for Digital Archaeology.
Figure 20 – Images from the augmented reality application, (2016), Photograph by Claire Voon, Source: the official website of Hyperallergic News.
30 Understandably using this form of technology would provide the user with not only a sensory platform but also with factual information about Syria. However, Voon (2016) insists when she had questioned the developer whether there would be academic resources which relate to screening the augmented reality, the developer emphasised how the user can simply find the historical importance of Syria using online resources themselves.81 Perhaps a contextual understanding may have provided support in the background of the sole purpose for this unveiling, rather than introducing this platform and not providing a chronological order of past historical events. Khunti (2016) highlights how creating the arch then placing it within a different contextual background mitigates the image of the arch being perceived as an authentic monument.82
During the unveiling of the replica in Trafalgar Square in 2016 by Boris Johnson, this event’s media coverage had become widespread. Author Robert Bevan commented on how reconstruction in Syria, given the history may still be early to determine whether it is an acceptable solution.83 The use of unauthentic material that has been quarried from Egypt does not illustrate the barbarity that has occurred, the use of original material and the careful precision has a greater chance to highlight such tragedy,84 as portrayed by Bevan (2016).
Professor Christoph Doppelhofer argues the case for rebuilding Syria with new technology. He highlights in his discussion that restoring an old damaged building with the use of new material against the old will not deplete the original material used.85 The argument here is that there is no distinguishable difference between piecemealing a building back together or to construct a new one entirely the concept here is still relatively the same. Doppelhofer (2016) further reinstates that using the media to your advantage can be successful; this will support financial backing for the reconstruction of Syria.86 Understandably this can also reflect on how cultural heritage is a primary advocate in stabilising the local economy.
After the conflict of World War II, Warsaw began to rebuild their heavily damaged city, primarily similar to what is trying to be achieved in Syria. Author Nour A. Munawar stated the idea that the act of physical reconstruction is perceived to be linked with political statements and the balance of the economy.87 After World War II, Warsaw began to rebuild at an alarming reconstruction rate, where author Robert Harbison insists that the
81 Claire Voon, ‘Slick Replica of Palmyra's Triumphal Arch Arrives in New York, Prompting Questions [UPDATED]’, Hyperallergic News, (2016),
31 reconstruction constitutes to a Disney orientated theme.88 This lends the term to a reconstruction being misinterpreted as to rebuild has the same value and authentic characteristics as the genuine artefact.
Disneyfication refers to a heritage site or monument being displayed as an amusement attraction. This corresponds to how the IDA has created the Arch of Triumph replica, where it has been publicised, glorified by the IDA and the general public is using the replica as a photoshoot. The Arch of Triumph replica is perceived to be a Disneyfication of cultural property,89 as described by Cunliffe (2016). Cunliffe (2016) clarifies that using 3D printing as a primary methodology to reconstruct, fails to imitate the original design, details and features of a monument; therefore, the replica is considered to be no more than a Disneyfication of cultural heritage and that the true authenticity is not captured.90
88 Robert Harbison, ‘Ruins and Fragments: Tales of Loss and Rediscovery’, (Reaktion Books Ltd, 2015), p. 208 89 Emma Cunliffe, ‘Should we 3D print a new Palmyra?’, The Conversation, 31 March 2016 90 Emma Cunliffe, ‘Should we 3D print a new Palmyra?’, The Conversation, 31 March 2016
32
Political Challenges
The Syrian and Russian Government – Russia’s Military Involvement
The Russian military presence in Syria has become apparent four years after the outbreak of the Syrian civil war in 2011. It is understood that the intervention is part of political achievement, that the Russian’s are covering more ground and are being deployed in more areas than the United States troops.
President Vladimir Putin’s Russian involvement had been initiated in order to back Syrian President Bashar al-Assad’s government, which sought to destroy ISIS militants and other associated rebel factions who opposed the Syrian Government. The initial takeover had been towards the West portion of Syria, near the Mediterranean Sea. This consequently provides an assortment of advantages, and the Russian government is perceived as a powerhouse.
Anna Borshchevskaya is a senior member of The Washington Institute, which are an institutional organisation that is primarily concentrating on foreign policy in the middle east. Borshchevskaya (2018) has described Putin’s involvement in Syria as Russia being the primary advocate in keeping Assad as the current President and to gain a lucrative financial incline in providing the Syrian government with military weaponry.91 The Russian involvement has been somewhat anticipated when the Syrian government requested the aid of Russian intervention in late 2015, with full reinforcement of troops to the region in 2017. Professor Robert Hamilton addresses the issues executed by the United States, where he argues Russia had insisted on whether the United States had followed correct procedures in order to carry out their intervention tactics on Syrian soil and whether this had been consulted by the Syrian government.92 It appears to be that the Russian and The United States government want full control over this intervention which is to advocate their success over one another.
A political institute called Chatham House situated in London is an independent political advocate to world events and global solutions. Michael Williams, a former United Nations Special Coordinator, had written an article in the Chatham House regarding the advantage Putin has on Assad. Williams has stated that the Russian involvement in Syria provided Assad’s government with a substantial amount of military defence mechanisms, in support of fighting rebel organisations towards the North West of Syria.93 Having deployed military resistance on the ground and in the air in Syria, Williams (2015) then raises the bombardment that Putin had inflicted, stating aircraft bombers were used to target the ISIS strongholds, however by doing so this inflicted damage on organisations who are allies with
91 Anna Borshchevskaya, ‘Russia's Deepening Military Involvement in Syria’. Washingtoninstitute.org, (2018),
33 the United States government.94 The lack of either regional, satellite or communication intelligence highlights the barbarity by the Russian government.
During the occupation of the Russian military in Syria, there have been reports of airstrikes causing an extensive amount of damage to cultural heritage sites in Palmyra, along with Assad’s government inflicting destruction prior to the Russian involvement. Archaeologist Annie Sartre-Fauriat describes that Assad’s military had occupied Palmyra Castle, which is currently a WHS and dealt a rampage of destruction during their occupation.95 There appears to be no common ground or acknowledgement for their actions caused.
The inflicted damage did not subside here, Fauriat (2016) further states how Assad’s government later had stolen priceless artefacts and archives which later had been sold through the black market.96 The barbarity displayed by Assad’s troops is further exemplified by the President of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Hermann Parzinger. Parzinger (2016) states the argument that soldiers who were not on duty at the time performed illegal grave excavations and pelted rockets at WHS columns in Palmyra, even when they were successfully pushing out the rebels.97 The actions of Assad’s troops appear to go against what they are fighting for and truly illustrates their lack of accountability.
In the Ancient City of Aleppo, Syria, there had been a great amount of destruction during the occupation of ISIS. In general, Syria has been used as a large playing field during the Syrian civil war, where historical monuments are in the direct path of destruction. Abdulkarim (2016) emphasises how WHS are being used as battlegrounds during the war and advises allied factions to show consideration.98
The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) is a non-profit human rights organisation, that document and monitor the human rights abuse in Syria. Since the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, SOHR has estimated that the number of fatalities has exceeded 500,000 of the Syrian population in early 2018.99 The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has expressed that many Syrian individuals have now become displaced, with an estimation of 6.6 million Syrian natives have fled Syria and are seeking asylum in other surrounding countries.100
94 Michael Williams, ‘Putin’s Gamble in Syria’. Chatham House – International Affairs Think Tank, (2015),
34 Prior to the decline in tourism during the occupation of ISIS in Syria, the country saw an estimated 1.3 million foreign visitors. A reported 150,000 people had visited Palmyra each year, where this improved the country’s global image and saw economic stability. In 2016 The Syrian Government had come under scrutiny for using a promotional campaign to publicise the tourism in Syria when the country had been in the midst of the Syrian civil war,101 as described by Prashant S. Rao in The New York Times.
In Palmyra, many of the residents have fled; however, Assad’s government have encouraged residents of Palmyra to return to their homes. This is potentially to showcase the presence of Assad’s government tactics,102 as portrayed by Dr Haian Dukhan, an associate of the Centre for Syrian Studies. Dukhan (2019) has mentioned that Assad’s government would like to restore the WHS at Palmyra and to establish the site again as a tourist attraction.103 If the Syrian government are fixated on bringing back wealth into the economy from the archaeological site at Palmyra, this should not overlook the fact that many residents of Palmyra cannot return to their homes due to safety concerns. Dukhan (2019) emphasises that the Syrian government should implement a strategy to return the residents to their homes in a conflict-free environment, in tandem with rebuilding the WHS of Palmyra.104 The reconstruction of the WHS should not take precedent over human life.
101 Prashant S. Rao, ‘Syria Promotes Tourism, Despite Devastation of Civil War’, The New York Times, 20 Jan 2018 102 Haian Dukhan, ‘Pro-regime Militias and ISIS Militants Stand Against the Return of Palmyra’s People’. Syria From Within | Chatham House, (2019),
35
Conclusion
Critical Reflection
This research aimed to understand the critical response regarding reconstructing Palmyra, following the destruction from the Syrian civil war. From the research findings looking upon how UNESCO and relative advisory bodies address a potential reconstruction, there is evidence that a more thorough investigation will need to be considered. UNESCO has provided protection and is adamant a post-war reconstruction of Palmyra can be implemented, but other issues potentially stand in the way from Syrian President Bashar al- Assad and his government.
The IDA has clearly demonstrated the influence that digital fabrication methods can achieve regarding post-war reconstruction. However, they have failed to address the most important characteristics regarding a reconstruction critically. These are notably from the use of incorrect equipment prior to digitally preserving a heritage site, using the public to capture images of Palmyra and not considering the ethical procedures, not using authentic material for the full-scale replica, the use of low-resolution imagery for most of the intricate details and not addressing the impact a reconstruction will have on the Syrian people.
Reconstruction of heritage sites is a sensitive subject for most countries that are currently engaged in combat. It is important for advisory bodies, research institutions and governments to discuss in the legitimacy of rebuilding a heritage site in a conflict zone. This will need to address the value of heritage sites against human life, and some may consider the financial aid and the resources that have been provided to rebuild Palmyra would be best suited for rebuilding people’s homes and livelihoods that have been in the crossfire during the occupation of rebel factions in the region.
I have provided critical arguments and reflections from advisory body professionals, archaeologists alongside authors with my own opinions on how a haste reconstruction project in the archaeological city of Palmyra may not be the correct course of action. The rapid decision to rebuild Palmyra may inadvertently be perceived as whitewashing history, covering up an act of intentional destruction and disregarding it ever happened can be misleading information. Nevertheless, rebuilding from something destroyed shows courage and the community’s strength, which unites them together.
Syria is in a difficult situation especially regarding the politics of Bashar al-Assad’s regime, his decision to not be affiliated within international conferences held by other countries and The Russian government providing constant support in pushing rebel factions out, highlights his intention to stay in power and to have close relations with Russia. Heritage sites in Palmyra have faced constant airstrikes by the Russian government, inflicted damage from ground artillery and the intentional looting by Assad’s government has indicated Assad’s stance on its value of archaeology sites.
36 To conclude, a reconstruction project of Palmyra should not be undertaken. The use of digital preservation technology can be used in museums in Syria as this will archive and catalogue the rich history of Palmyra and be viewed as educational. Furthermore, research and scientific institutions should undertake further iterative investigations of how digital fabrication can be used to reconstruct heritage sites so we can preserve our past and reconstruct our future.
37
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