Chapter 10 Management, Processing, and Detoxification

Coordinating Author: N.O. Adedipe Lead Authors: M.K.C. Sridhar, Joe Baker Contributing Author: Madhu Verma Review Editors: Naser Faruqui, Angela Wagener

Main Messages ...... 315

10.1 Introduction ...... 315 10.1.1 Waste Typology and the Main Issues 10.1.2 in Relation to Ecosystems and Human Well-being 10.1.3 Key Drivers of Change in Ecosystems and Services

10.2 Background and Selection of Responses ...... 319 10.2.1 Legal Responses 10.2.2 Technological Responses 10.2.3 Financial and Economic Responses 10.2.4 Institutional Responses 10.2.5 Sociocultural Responses 10.2.6 The Need for Integrated and Sustainable

10.3 Some Aspects of Responses to Waste ...... 322 10.3.1 Historical Considerations 10.3.2 Political Interest in the Responses 10.3.3 Evidence of Positive Impacts of Responses 10.3.4 Evidence of Damaging Impacts of Responses 10.3.5 Integrated Design of Responses 10.3.6 Cutting-edge Innovations

10.4 Assessment of Selected Responses ...... 325 10.4.1 Urban and Terrestrial Ecosystems 10.4.2 Agricultural Ecosystems 10.4.3 , , and Soil Remediation 10.4.4 Protecting Remote Ecosystems (Island, Mountain, and Polar) 10.4.5 Freshwater Ecosystems 10.4.6 Wetlands 10.4.7 Marine and Coastal Ecosystems

10.5 Toward Improving Waste Management for Overall Biodiversity and Human Well-being ...... 331 10.5.1 Biodiversity Conservation 10.5.2 Poverty Reduction Strategies 10.5.3 Education and Enlightenment 10.5.4 Implications

10.6 Conclusions ...... 331

REFERENCES ...... 331

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BOXES FIGURES 10.1. Australian Strategy for Zero Solid Waste Management 10.1 Wastes in Relation to Ecosystems and Human Well-being 10.2. Nigerian Waste-to-Wealth Scheme of Waste Conversion to 10.2. Waste-to-Wealth Activity and Processing Profiles in Organo-mineral Fertilizer Developing Countries 10.3. European Union Limits Organic Waste in Landfills TABLES 10.4. Agriculture-related Health Problems 10.1. Waste Typology, Sources, and Policy Responses 10.5. Examples of Waste Use in Agriculture 10.2. Milestones of Waste Management Responses 10.3. Impacts of Wastes on Urban Ecosystem Goods and Services 10.4. Waste Management Responses and Health Risks

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Main Messages changes in, such laws and regulations. Communities have shown willing- ness to comply with laws and regulations if there is clear understanding of the Human and ecosystem health can be adversely affected by all forms of benefits of such measures, particularly if all stakeholders are involved in the waste, from its generation to its disposal. Over the years, wastes and waste formulation of such laws. Waste cannot always be confined within one locality management responses such as policies, legal, financial, and institutional in- or area of jurisdiction. Some forms of waste (particularly those associated with struments; cradle-to-cradle or cradle-to-grave technological options; and socio- , greenhouse gases, and air quality in general) are transmitted in the cultural practices have impacted on ecosystem health and human well-being. atmosphere, which respects no political, terrestrial, or aquatic boundaries. Examples are evident in all countries. The rapid advances in technologies, including biotechnology, provide International participation and leadership in waste management and new opportunities for improvement in waste management. The adoption processing is essential. Waste is so diverse in its origin and forms and so of some of these technologies may require revision of existing laws and regula- pervasive in its impacts, through terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric ecosys- tions. tems, that it has the potential to adversely affect both the inhabited and unin- habited parts of the world. These parts necessarily include the wide range of The dumping of waste in remote places such as deserts and oceans, and wetlands relevant to the Ramsar Convention; the species and their land and across national boundaries, is not acceptable. Moves to have the practice ocean habitats included in the Convention on Biological Diversity; sites impor- forbidden by international conventions should be supported by enforce- tant to migratory species; and grasslands, forests, and wetlands that must able national legislation. Remote-location dumping of wastes is a classic be protected to minimize the potential for further desertification. Without the example of the historic ‘‘out of sight, out of mind’’ mentality, now rejected involvement and commitment of the leaders of countries and industries, a by all internationally responsible organizations and industries. However, the global approach to waste management will not be achieved. challenge of safe disposal of waste often requires interim storage while new technologies are developed. Remote areas, deserts, and oceans should not Waste management and processing involve one or more of the following be seen as convenient locations for such ‘‘interim’’ storage. Such international processes: reduction, , recovery, or disposal of waste, with practices arrangements as the on the Control of Transboundary Move- and technologies differing according to different economic and social circum- ment of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, the on the Pro- stances. The desired long-term objective of human responses should be tection of the Layer, and the London Convention on the Prevention of ‘‘Avoidance of Waste.’’ The sale of products from waste, whether by simple Marine by Dumping of Wastes, have yielded some positive results in reuse, and recovery, or by more complex technological processing, creating awareness among communities and adoption of alternate technolo- has helped to create jobs appropriate to the socioeconomic conditions of the gies and compliance by industries. locality or country. The essential role of water in life processes should be valued. Wastewa- Environmental awareness and educational programs have been success- ter is a resource in many countries and the practice of safe reuse of ful in allowing consumers and resource users to make informed choices water should be encouraged. Water, whether freshwater or marine, is both for minimizing waste in their purchasing decisions. Employers have intro- essential to life processes and a carrier and transporter of soluble and insolu- duced programs to encourage and recognize initiatives by the community to ble waste, solid, liquid, and gaseous. reduce waste. In Japan and other industrial countries, ‘‘industry clusters’’ have been planned, where the waste of one industry is the resource of another—an The challenges to removing the different types of waste from waters are example of copying nature, or bio-mimicry. diverse. Modern technologies such as , membrane filters, trick- ling filters, activated sludge process, vascular aquatic vegetation, and anaero- The combined impact of these practices has been to enhance ecosystem bic digestion can now be used to remove all contaminants from polluted services, improve aesthetic conditions, restore habitats for human use waters. Special care should be taken in the use of different types of ‘‘gray’’ and for biodiversity, increase public health and well-being, create jobs, water and effluents for human needs, to be supported with appropriate commu- and reduce poverty. Processes for human societies to avoid waste in all its nity education programs. forms are not available. 10.1 Introduction Industries and governments should select indicators and standardize methods to monitor the sources, types and amounts of all wastes pro- Each individual living species and each type of process or opera- duced. The full costs of each type of waste produced from any proposed tion will have by-products in its activities, processes, or opera- new product or process should also be assessed. Leaders of industry and tions. In nature, diverse ecosystems (notably rainforests and coral government know that they must have precise details of waste generation, reefs) have achieved sustainability by the coexistence of a wide range of different species, whereby the waste of one species has composition and characteristics, and reuse or disposal practices to manage become the resource of another, and there is an apparent balance waste, locally or internationally. Currently, the practice of transparent, participa- in the system. If for any reason one species becomes dominant, tory, and accountable decision-making for ecosystem sustainability and human the sustainability of the system is challenged, and ‘‘nature’’ re- well-being is lacking in many countries. Although there are gaps in the struc- sponds to that imbalance. ture of waste accounting, the countries involved in State of the Environment At the global scale, humans have become dominant in the reporting, such as Canada, The Netherlands, New Zealand, and Australia, are ecosystem, both by their numbers and by their ability to modify moving to internal standardization. The next step is to develop international systems and to extract and transform natural materials, and fabri- standards of waste accounting to allow objective comparison of waste manage- cate, use, and the new materials. However, humans have ment. been slower to respond than nature can, and only in recent dec- ades they have acknowledged the need to copy the examples of All industries, all communities, and all countries must ensure compliance nature (bio-mimicry) to avoid accumulation of waste and address with waste management laws and regulations, and acceptance of, or the challenge of waste management holistically.

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Waste and waste management are significant components of • oils and oily wastes on land and water (Burger and Peakall many chapters in the Ecosystem Assessment, and spe- 1995; Chokor 1996; Colwell et al. 1978; Hay et al. 1996); cific aspects of waste generation and/or management are found • exhaust gases from combustion engines, which have changed in relevant chapters in this and other MA volumes. The general air quality and contributed to the enhanced greenhouse effect principles of the Responses in this chapter relate to all waste but (UNEP 2002); are more specifically related to MA Current State and Trends, • mixed streams of N and P wastes that transform from solid to Chapter 15. However, because urban and rural wastes are issues liquid and to gas, and end up in freshwater and marine ecosys- that affect everyone, there is a further concentration of specific tems and the atmosphere (Howarth et al. 1999, 2000); and examples dealing with responses to urban and rural waste. • residual materials arising from daily living, tourism, recreation, Continuously increasing quality of life and high rates of re- and communal activities (UNEP 2002). source consumption have had an unintended and negative impact All living species generate waste. Table 10.1 summarizes the on the urban environment—by way of the generation of wastes diverse sources of waste and wide range of impact and effect. far beyond the handling and treatment capacities of urban govern- The focus of this assessment, however, is predominantly on wastes ments and agencies. Cities are now facing serious problems of generated by human activities, particularly the ubiquitous urban high volumes of waste, characterized by inadequate disposal tech- and rural wastes, which have been described as ‘‘a ’’ (Onibo- nologies/methodologies, rising costs of management, and the ad- kun and Kumuyi 1999) and ‘‘a nightmare’’ (Asomani-Boateng 2002). verse impact of wastes on the environment. These problems, Although wastes produce goods and services that affect a wide however, also have provided opportunities for cities to find solu- variety of ecosystems (atmospheric, aquatic, and terrestrial), and tions that involve the community and the private sector, including in the process, confer a negative impact on human well-being, innovative technologies, disposal methods, behavior changes, and awareness raising. Rural areas and rural communities have been affected in many ways, including the unexpected consequences of Table 10.1. Waste Typology, Sources, and Policy Responses excess use of N and P fertilizers, and , soil contaminants, and soil salinization. Chapter 9 examined the selec- Waste Type Sources Policy Responses tion of responses for management of excess nutrients, mainly those from fertilizers based on N and P. Urban solid wastes, human activities reduce, reuse, recy- The generation of wastes and their management have at- putrescible and non- cle, dispose tracted significant attention by local, national, sub-regional, re- putrescible solids, semi- gional, and international communities. Waste has significant solids and liquids (residen- impact on ecosystems, and poses threats to human health and tial, commercial, institu- well-being. Waste also threatens the integrity of habitats that are tional) essential to biological diversity. Inorganic nutrient runoffs fertilizers reduce, recycle The challenge is to develop responses to waste issues that can , quarry construction sites, reuse, recycle, dis- be applied in both developing and industrial countries and that rejects quarries pose will improve the quality of human life and of the biodiversity of our lands, our seas, and our skies. Oils and oily wastes industries, reduce, recycle Hazardous (including clini- industries, healthcare reduce, dispose 10.1.1 Waste Typology and the Main Issues cal) expired drugs, by- facilities, household products of metabolism, hazardous wastes, The MA volume Current State and Trends lists the major categories chemical , fecal pel- waste disposal facilities of wastes and contaminants by source and the processes involved lets in benthos, contami- in waste processing and detoxification (see MA Current State and nated sludge, Trends, Tables 15.1 and 15.2). ash, , ignitable, Wastes exhibit multiple impacts depending on the ecosystems, corrosive, reactive, or toxic ranging from small- to medium-, and ultimately long-term scales. Responses developed must acknowledge those categories and spent fuel from reac- reduce, reuse, dis- processes and be able to deal with: tors, from the pose • nutrient runoff from excess fertilizers, which constitute sig- mining/refining of ura- nificant pollution of terrestrial (Olson 1987) and aquatic eco- nium, medical/ systems (Howarth et al. 1999; Ikem et al. 2002; Melillo et al. academic 2003); E-waste cell phones, computers, reduce, recycle • chemicals and their residues from agro-allied industries, which etc. remain persistent in soils, sediments, water, and the atmo- Ammonia and its oxidative industries, fertilizers reduce, recycle sphere after their planned use (Howarth et al. 2000); products • chemical toxins and their metabolic products, and their im- pact on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Anderson 1994; Mixed wastes (containing livestock recycle Chandler et al. 1996; WRI 1992); N and P) from livestock • nitrogen and its oxides, which contribute to acid rain (Vi- Synthetic chemical wastes pesticides, biocides, reduce, dispose tousek and Hooper 1993); fuel additives, cosmet- • a vast array of synthetic chemicals—widely used since the ics, etc. 1950s for diverse functions such as the control of pest animals Waste products from com- vehicle engines, sea reduce, alternate and plants, fuel additives, personal hygiene, etc.—many of bustion (greenhouse craft, energy production fuel use which remained persistent in the environment (Adesiyan gases) 1992);

...... 11430$ CH10 10-21-05 14:11:45 PS PAGE 316 Waste Management, Processing, and Detoxification 317 their appropriate management enhances the benefits that people scapes. There is a strong relationship between the health of the obtain from ecosystems—improving the provisioning services ecosystem and the health of the human system. Waste generation such as food and fiber production; improving the ; is moderated by drivers that can be manipulated through a wide protecting biodiversity; improving human well-being, and im- variety of responses by policy actors and decision-makers to ensure proving aesthetics for the promotion of recreation and tourism. the mitigation of negative impacts of wastes and the adoption/ The main long-term issues in waste management relate to adaptation measures. The type, peculiarity, description, and char- how humanity deals with the two extremes: ‘‘no waste’’ in, and acterization of wastes generated, and the goods and services pro- the ‘‘waste-induced pollution’’ of, the environment. This is par- vided, are detailed in the next section. ticularly so since waste is an inevitable product of nature (organis- The response policies address the specific aspects of planning mal existence). The ‘‘no waste’’ end (best-case scenario) of the and implementation of chosen alternative strategies (Jacobs and spectrum is, of course, a daunting challenge to achieve, while the Sadler 1990; Soesilo and Wilson 1995), both as they relate to ‘‘pollution’’ end (worst-case scenario) is, equally, overwhelming actual management practices and in such ways and manners that in proffering solutions to the problems it poses. The practical are environment-friendly, cost-effective, and socially acceptable. challenge relates to minimizing the adverse impacts of waste and, Prominent among these are waste reduction at source (minimiza- if possible, transforming waste into a useful product or process. tion) (Baker 1999); waste recycling (Sridhar et al. 1992; Odeyemi Ideally, one would characterize all the components of waste and and Onibokun 1997); ecological impact attenuation by conver- assess the threat they pose, singly and in combination with other sion practices, for example, wastewater treatment and composting waste components, to humans and to the ecosystem. (Asomani-Boateng 2002; Dreschel et al. 2002; Dushenkov et al. Realistically, we should identify policy response options, seek- 1995; Guterstam et al. 1998; Jana 1998; Rotimi 1995; Robinson ing a socially acceptable, economically viable, and environmen- et al. 1995; Sridhar and Arinola 1991; Sridhar and Adeoye 2003); tally sustainable strategy of reducing the predominantly negative waste stream linkages (synergies and antagonisms) (Mitsch et al. impact both on human well-being (including the factors of pov- 2001; Peterson et al. 2001); transportation and related technolo- erty reduction, quality of life, sound health, cordial social interac- gies (Adedipe and Onibokun 1997; Onibokun et al. 2000); and tions, security of people and property, and personal liberty within the establishment of institutional partnerships (ISWA 2002) in- the limits imposed by democratic practices and societal values) volving the public sector, the private sector, and the community and on biological diversity (biodiversity) and its habitat. through governance and social property rights linkages (Adedipe The practical response to the challenges presented by different 2002; Nsirimovu 1995). types of waste may differ on the basis of socioeconomic and cul- Other management considerations include legal mechanisms, tural priorities of different countries. The successful high-technology financial instruments, and economic incentives (Burges et al. solutions are, currently, generally confined to the richest of the 1988; Chambers 2003; Costanza and Principe 1995; Reyer et al. industrial countries. Knowledge should be shared to increase the 1990; Miranda and Aldy 1996; Onibokun et al. 2000; Panayotou capabilities and commitment of various developing and devel- 1990). oped countries. The best solution to the problem would be to avoid waste in 10.1.3 Key Drivers of Change in Ecosystems and the first place, but we currently lack the knowledge, the whole- Services of-society commitment, or the technologies for that. The next The major drivers of change in ecosystems services are biophysi- objective is to reduce the waste and its adverse impact as far as cal, demographic, economic, sociopolitical, technological, social, is practicable. Methods for this reduction will vary according to cultural, and religious. The drivers vary by levels of socioeco- whether the waste is solid, liquid, or gas, biodegradable/non- nomic development. Those for developing countries include: biodegradable, hazardous or non-hazardous. • demographic change: high population size exacerbated by high Solid-waste management has traditionally been viewed as a growth rate of up to 3.5% coupled with rapid , as technical (engineering) problem requiring a technical solution by in some West African (Onibokun and Kumuyi 1999), Latin the civil engineering community (Goddard 1995). But now there American (Onibokun 1999), and Southeast Asian (Zurbrugg is a clear need to move away from waste disposal toward waste 2002) countries; processing and waste recycling (aiming for eventual waste reduction). • globalization (adverse effect as raw material producers with Some of the defining criteria for future waste minimization and minimal value-added) leading to complex and disadvantaged waste avoidance programs will include increased community par- trade relations with industrial countries; ticipation, improved understanding the economic benefits/recovery • frequent changes in government, resulting in lack of continuity of waste, focus on life-cycles rather than end-of-pipe solutions, in commitment to waste management and to environmental decentralized administration of waste, emphasis on minimizing pollution policy, laws, and guidelines; adverse environmental impacts, and alignment of investment costs • lack of focus on the concept of ‘‘resource recognition,’’ that is, and long-term goals. treating waste as an unused resource; • following a ‘‘hard’’ rather than a ‘‘soft’’ approach, that is, consider- 10.1.2 Wastes in Relation to Ecosystems and ing waste management as a responsibility of municipal bodies Human Well-being than helping community-based initiatives and informal mech- anisms attain recognition; The essential aspects of the generation and management of wastes • lack of funds and staff to handle the ever-increasing problem of are depicted in Figure 10.1, which illustrates that the goal is solid waste; human well-being, which is achievable through the production of • ineffective management policies and instruments; multiple services (such as food, fiber, water, energy) in the ‘‘niche’’ • poor technology for the collection, transfer, disposal, and proc- provided by specific ecosystems. These ecosystems include terres- essing of wastes; trial (that is, cultivated/agricultural land, natural and introduced • mass illiteracy, occasioning indifference to the environment by forests), aquatic (for example, freshwater and marine/coastal wa- not adequately linking waste with deprived human well- ters), and specialized (such as mountain, polar, and island) land- being;

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W

Figure 10.1. Wastes in Relation to Ecosystems and Human Well-being

• failure to recognize, support, and integrate informal waste recyclers • waste reduction, which recognizes the costs and benefits of into systems in African cities; reducing waste; • continued use of old technologies that continue to generate pollut- • the optimal balance between landfill, incineration, and recycl- ants; and ing. In developing countries, this choice will tend to be one • pervasive poverty and mismanagement of public funds. of balancing recycling (including composting) and landfill in The drivers in industrial countries include the following: such a manner that recycling efforts do not use up more re- • emphasis on wealth creation and high consumption based on tech- sources than they save; nology, industrialization, and self-created favorable interna- • management of uncollected waste, an issue of some impor- tional trade balance; tance in developing countries but not of major significance in • a ‘‘use and throw away’’ society that puts little emphasis on con- industrial countries; and cepts of ‘‘reducing’’ or ‘‘reusing’’; • the choice of regulatory measures to secure waste reduction • regarding waste management as an ‘‘engineering problem’’; and and optimal disposal. • stable political governance characterized by transparency and ac- Around the world, developing and industrial countries have countability. responded to the various drivers of change in ecosystems and ser- In both developing and industrial countries, national waste vices with a range of coping strategies, policies, and practices. management policy should involve the following stages: These take the form of legal provisioning, improving technolo-

...... 11430$ CH10 10-21-05 14:11:49 PS PAGE 318 Waste Management, Processing, and Detoxification 319 gies, fiscal and financial instruments, and institutionalizing waste technologies transferred to developing countries without expert management. ‘‘’’ seems to be a difficult but not impos- technical and maintenance support result in failure. Examples in- sible task. If various options for waste management can be inte- clude packaged wastewater treatment facilities for municipalities grated and applied over long periods, waste minimization can be and industries, heavy-duty waste transportation equipment, and addressed effectively and sustainably. large-scale composting plants. For the developing countries, short-term and medium-term solutions lie in the use of relevant and appropriate technologies 10.2 Background and Selection of Responses such as biogas plants, constructed wetlands, waste stabilization This section looks at five categories of responses: legal, technolog- ponds, appropriate solid-waste cartage and disposal machinery ical, economic, institutional, and sociocultural. In the selection of (Adedipe 2002 Onibokun et al. 2000), and relevant composting responses, six criteria were used: historical dominance and con- schemes (Zurbrugg 2004). Governments are often tempted to temporary relevance, political interest, evidence of positive im- choose inappropriate technologies due to social pressures. One pact, evidence of damaging impact, integrated design, and option is for developing countries to mass-produce small-scale cutting-edge innovations. equipment that is amenable to community access. With improve- ment in access over time resulting from enhanced road networks, 10.2.1 Legal Responses medium and large scales of equipment characteristic of the devel- For the developed world, although there are copious laws dating oped economies would be justifiable. India and China are evolv- back more than a century, there is no uniform effective enforce- ing ecological engineering for solid waste, sludge, and ment (Garbutt 1995; Lieberman 1994); in the developing coun- wastewater. For the developed world, the issue of energy savings tries, the major problem is also that of enforcing compliance and operational cost-effectiveness are the response options for (Ajomo 1992; Adewale 1996; Onibokun et al. 2000). long-term solutions. These response options demand appropriate The various stakeholders and actors should be involved in de- policy reforms toward ecosystem sustainability promotion for, and signing regulations and guidelines. This is because participation by, decision-makers. Whatever options are considered must rec- ensures and promotes understanding and acceptance, which helps ognize the scale and location of operations as well as the distance compliance. More cooperation at the national and the interna- between the site operations and the end-users. tional levels is also desirable to ensure that international agree- In situ operations are often economic and thus widely adopted ments are honored. They are frequently not so honored, (Sridhar and Adeoye 2003); see Boxes 10.1 and 10.2 for indus- principally for political national interests, including the national trial-country and developing-country examples. economy, as has been the experience with the Basel Convention Certain technological or management innovations have and the Kyoto Protocol. proved beneficial in mitigating the damage to the environment. A recent study of four West African countries (Gambia, Wastewater management, with percolating filters/trickling filters, Ghana, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone) identified conflicts in constitu- and the activated-sludge method of treatment, improved the en- tional provisions in relation to human resource requirements and vironment many times over since 1914 (Edgar et al. 1998; Krog- financial resource allocations, compounded by the weak revenue man et al. 2001). The advances were more pronounced during base of local (municipal) governments, as a major stumbling block World Wars I and II, and continued during the subsequent indus- to effective waste management and pollution abatement (Onibo- trial development of various European countries, the United kun et al. 2000). The response option for developing countries States, Australia, and others. The cleaning up of the Thames and lies in continuing public sector responsibility, as in the Latin Rhine rivers and various lakes in the Nordic countries is a re- American countries, or a change to privatization, particularly in markable example of innovative governmental commitment. mid/high-income neighborhoods. However, in low-income/ Relatively cheap technology innovations using oxidation high-density residential neighborhoods where ponds/waste stabilization ponds, floating vascular aquatic vegeta- and disposal is problematic, waste management has been a failure. tion, including gray water reuse and duckweed ponds, reed-bed Whatever overall policy framework is adopted, and laws are en- or root-zone technology, and constructed wetlands have consid- acted, there must, in all cases, be continual processes of legal re- erably helped the poorer developing countries (Aluko et al. 2003; forms to provide the underpinning for institutional and Jana 1998; Urban Agriculture Magazine 2002). Such waste treat- governance structures. This is to be buttressed with linkages that ment systems can actually have a measurable impact on poverty. would promote transparent, participatory, and accountable envi- The duckweed ponds in Mirzapur, Bangladesh, or the gray water ronment-friendly decision-making for ecosystem sustainability. systems in Jordan, for example, reduced poverty by 10% in the homes with such systems (Faruqui and Al-Jayyousi 2002). 10.2.2 Technological Responses Development of synthetic polymers, used to make A variety of technological responses have been developed, some such as polyethylene, polypropylenes, polyesters, and polyamides local and some specific to particular types of waste. In industrial (including nylon), has revolutionized the types of containers for countries, waste collection services often depend on prior house- products, the types of material for packaging, and the materials hold or workplace sorting of domestic waste into organic mate- used for carry-bags. However, most of these polymers are not rial, paper and cardboard, metal containers, recyclable plastics, and biodegradable and, once used and discarded, become major waste glass containers, placed in separate collection bins, to facilitate re- management challenges. In cities like Cairo, Manila, Kolkata, processing and recycling, subsequent to commercial collection. Mumbai, Hong Kong, Beijing, Accra, Lagos, and others, the The technologies extend to the design of special collection vehi- management of waste has become a nightmare for city au- cles for these bins. thorities. In other cities, such as in Australia, non-biodegradable Whereas the concept of waste management requires a global plastic carry-bags are being phased out in retail stores by 2008. approach, many specific waste management technologies are fi- The introduction of biodegradable plastics is a welcome environ- nancially and operationally costly and thus not affordable for ment-friendly development. (See Box 10.3 for steps being taken many developing countries. Additionally, most industrial-country in the European Union.)

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BOX 10.1 BOX 10.2 Australian Strategy for Zero Solid Waste Management Nigerian Waste-to-Wealth Scheme of Waste Conversion to (www.nowaste.act.gov.au) Organo-mineral Fertilizer (Sridhar and Adeoye 2003) In December 1996, the government of the Australian Capital Territory Nigeria (population 120 million) is a federation of 36 states and the (ACT) initiated the No Waste By 2010—Waste Management Strategy Federal Capital Territory of Abuja. Ibadan, the capital of Oyo State, is for Canberra for the nation’s capital, with a population of 320,000. The the largest city in West Africa and the third largest in Africa; it has a objective is to achieve, by 2010, a society where no waste is sent to population of 2.5 million. Under its Environmental Planning and Man- landfill. agement Program initiated in 1994, various stakeholders (federal, The strategy was developed after an extensive community consulta- state, and local governments; the private sector; and communities) tion process and reflects the views and expectations expressed by the evolved a model initiative for waste management for Ibadan. community. It aims to build on the community’s willingness to avoid A major traditional market, Bodija, was selected for the collection of purchases with excessive packaging, recycle materials, and improve organic wastes. Traders in the market, local and state government environmental outcomes by treating all materials as potential re- representatives, professionals from the city’s tertiary institutions (The sources. It is being implemented in phases. The first step involved University of Ibadan, The Polytechnic, Ibadan), and community leaders developing an inventory of wastes, establishing recovery infrastructure, were constituted into the Waste Management Working Group that and introducing appropriate charges to provide monetary incentives. mapped out a strategy and action plans, all aimed at converting waste The second step was to identify current series activities. Further pro- to fertilizer, creating a decent environment, promoting good health, pro- grams are being developed for implementation between 2003 and ducing goods and services, generating employment, and thereby re- 2010. ducing poverty. ACT No Waste, a business unit in the Department of Urban Ser- By July 1998, an organized system of waste collection and a 25- vices, provides a number of services to the community and supports ton per day capacity organo-mineral fertilizer facility were established. businesses with reuse initiatives, notably: The state government provided funds, while other stakeholders contrib- uted essential inputs. The indigenous technology was simple, employ- • curbside recycling collection, ing 25 persons. The program stimulated the traders positively toward • free drop-off services for green wastes, segregation of waste to feed the fertilizer plant, achieving a 90% en- • regional drop-off centers for recyclable materials, hancement within a year of commencement. The plant produced • concrete, masonry, and steel processing facilities, 10,000 kilogram and steady revenue of $20,000 per month. • reprocessing of old paint to an as-new product, The value of the project having been demonstrated, the Oyo state • community recycling of unwanted household items through ‘‘Sec- government has decided to increase the number of plants to ten, to ond-hand Sunday,’’ serve a number of agricultural communities. The second one has been • metal and oil recovery facilities at the two landfills, commissioned at the community level. Five other states (Akwa-Ibom, • landfill salvage operations at the landfills, where reusable goods Kaduna, Kano, Lagos, and Ondo) have also shown interest in adopting are sold to the public, and the project for their capital cities. Cow dung, hitherto a nuisance, has • a Estate, which provides sites for inventive become marketable, with a high level of patronage by small-scale peri- business ideas for recycling and resource recovery. urban farmers, who value its good soil properties, consequently reduc- ing the demand for chemical fertilizers in these communities. Education has been found to be a critical factor in achieving the strat- egy goals, given the free flow of information in the community participa- tion process. In the first six years, significant progress was made in increasing resource recovery, which rose from 22% in 1993/94 to 64% BOX 10.3 in 2001/02. The strategy has sparked worldwide interest, with more European Union Limits Organic Waste in Landfills areas and more governments setting similar goals. (Heermann 2003) All waste sent to landfill must be treated, unless it is inert or treatment does not reduce the quantity of the waste or hazards to human health Composting has long been viewed as environmentally bene- or the environment. ficial, particularly in tropical developing countries. Proper facility design and operation can mitigate or overcome adverse environ- The Directive sets the following targets for reducing the biodegrad- mental impacts arising from ammonia, nitrate, phosphorus, heavy able municipal waste added to landfills, compared to that produced in metals, and pathogen components, simultaneously reducing dis- 1995: charge of nutrient chemicals into the environment. However, in the industrialized countries is becoming unpopular be- • by 2006, reduce to 75% cause of the toxic chemicals in the waste streams (Zurbrugg et al. • by 2009, reduce to 50% 2004). • by 2016, reduce to 35%. 10.2.3 Financial and Economic Responses To be effective, a waste management system requires a sustainable Africa and Asia) or at the unit levels of municipal (local) waste revenue base to cover the capital (site, equipment, and facilities), management (prevalent in industrial countries and some South maintenance, and personnel costs. The major problem in this re- American nations, notably Bolivia, Colombia, Guatemala, and gard involves cost-sharing among the interacting agencies either Haiti). The issues include the specific roles of private-sector dom- at the national and state levels (as in most developing countries of inance (in the North) and public-sector prevalence (in the South)

...... 11430$ CH10 10-21-05 14:11:50 PS PAGE 320 Waste Management, Processing, and Detoxification 321 and the extent to which cost recovery (user, disposal, and refund- ondary recycled materials); and user charges (for example, house- deposit charges) can improve waste management. hold waste charges, to discourage the throwaway ethic and For developing countries in particular, waste management encourage reuse/recycling). may contribute to societal well-being through poverty reduction Financing charges (user charges) have been used to facilitate using waste-to-wealth activities (which produce goods and ser- the collection, processing, and storage of waste, or the restoration vices), but what are the social costs in terms of health hazards? of old hazardous waste sites. Incentives charges (for example, Another important issue is the need for full-cost accounting. product charges) on the other hand can, among other things, be Where the cost estimates cover only waste management service used to stimulate increased reuse/recycling. costs and not the social and environmental costs, the selected Economic instruments also have other properties, including a waste management services might be harmful to the environment revenue-raising capacity. This feature will be of particular impor- and human well-being in the long term. For example, in India, tance in developing countries that lack basic facil- Nigeria, and Thailand, the open dumpsites, which produce goods ities and infrastructure. Revenue raised via waste-user charge and services through material recovery and recycling, make the (based on collection and/or disposal costs), for example, could be waste-pickers vulnerable to physical injury, communicable dis- ‘‘recycled’’ into new or improved waste collection treatment and eases, poisoning, and zoonotic infections (Adedipe 2002). The recycling facilities in the local area. A balance will need to be specific economic instruments used, particularly in developing struck in terms of the level of the charge that could be levied, so countries, must also recognize the level of poverty in relation to that a meaningful amount of finance is raised, without at the same national income and distribution and political sensitivity, by way time stimulating extensive ‘‘illegal’’ dumping or corrupt practices. of infusing humanistic responses, as Panayotou (1990) has high- Other economic instruments that appear to offer some advan- lighted. As far as is practicable, the burden and cost of pollution tages in the developing-country context are recycling credits, tax must be borne by the polluter (NRC 2000). concessions, and deposit refunds. The first two instruments could The financial and economic responses would be more effec- involve fairly modest sums of finance but still increase recycling tive if we could answer the question ‘‘what is the economic activities. nature of solid waste?’’ Solid wastes are consumption and produc- tion residuals. Production and consumption are driven primarily 10.2.4 Institutional Responses by economic variables, particularly price and incomes, although population size and concentration are also important factors Institutional responses in their generic context embrace a set of (Reyer et al. 1990). If a problem is economic, it means specifically rules that are based on the social values of the people, approved that it is characterized by scarcity and governed by choice. It fol- by the people through wide-ranging mechanisms, and allowed to lows then that solid-waste management is an important economic operate freely in the society. This simple definition buttresses the problem. Importantly, in our economic system, achievement of a concept of global governance as the sum of the many ways indi- cost-effective balance will require careful use of the market and viduals and institutions (public and private) manage issues (Com- price system to achieve waste management objectives. These ob- mission on Global Governance 1995). In its application to waste jectives can be attained cost-effectively only by instituting rules management, it is the process by which there is a defined structure that allow maximum flexibility (substitution possibilities, to the for administering effective waste management. This demands the economist) in consumption and production decisions, subject to participation of all stakeholders concerned and creates a mecha- the constraint that all of the costs are paid. nism for transparency, accountability, and public pressure-driven The entire production and consumption cycle involves solid- commitment of government to effective and sustainable waste waste generation and management (Goddard 1995). Govern- management operations and practices. ments in both developed and developing countries for the most In industrial countries, the assumption is that there is an exist- part have relied on regulatory instruments in their efforts to miti- ing private sector to which certain public-sector functions may be gate the problems of solid-waste generation, collection, and dis- transferred. But in developing countries, a viable private sector posal. But there is growing interest in some countries in the does not exist or exists in an embryonic (formative) stage. Propo- application of economic instruments in order to improve the ef- nents of privatization argue that it improves the efficiency and ficiency of the waste management process. effectiveness of services previously delivered by the public sector. In industrial countries, and some developing countries (for ex- However, there is evidence that more often than not new inequi- ample, Nigeria) (FRN 1991), the following economic instru- ties and ineffectiveness arise from privatization. There are there- ments have at one time or another been under consideration, or fore complexities in the transformation from public to private have been implemented as part of a waste management strategy: sector. In waste management, a shared responsibility through ambient standards; effluent standards; emission standards; per- public-private sector partnership seems to be the answer, with the formance standards; product standards; process standards; land use public sector providing capital equipment, promulgating laws, regulations; shoreline exclusion or restrictions; local ordinances; and conducting research, and the private sector taking responsi- permits; protected area designations; pollution tax; product bility for management operations, including health risk reduction charge; administrative charge; tax incentives; subsidies; enforce- and the promotion of overall human well-being (Sappington and ment incentives; noncompliance fee; property rights; environ- Stiglitz 1987). Community-based organizations should be in- mental assessment; need-based environmental communication volved in this process as stakeholders, in accord with the proposal and public participation programs; recycling credit (to stimulate of Nsirimovu (1995) that human rights and participatory gover- increased recycling activity); landfill disposal levy (to reduce the nance should be focused on the individual as the prime subject of amount of waste put in landfills); product charge (for example, all developments, including urban waste management. packaging tax, to discourage overpackaging); tax concessions (to Stakeholder participation can be encouraged by including stimulate reuse/recycling or other activities); deposit refund sys- waste prevention and resource recovery explicitly, by encourag- tems (to increase the recycling of selected items such as batteries, ing the analysis of interactions with other urban systems, and by or encourage returnable container systems); levy/tax on virgin promoting an integration of different habitat scales like city, raw materials (to influence the relative prices of primary and sec- neighborhood, and household (Klundert 2000).

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Some of the institutional linkages that would be needed to Although sociocultural response options are theoretically sufficiently manage waste do not exist or are confused in develop- sound, their practical application has not been as rewarding as ing countries. The local (municipal) governments, which are con- globally expected; in developing countries, they have yet to be stitutionally charged with the responsibility, invariably lack the adopted as part of socioeconomic policy response regimes (Cho- equipment base and skilled human resources. The policy response kor 1996). that has to be considered is the establishment of viable units of municipal governance for routine operations, while the state/ 10.2.6 The Need for Integrated and Sustainable provincial governments should be responsible for major cost- Waste Management intensive facilities such as sanitary landfills, incinerators, and Responses when applied individually have been able to handle wastewater treatment plants. Consequently, state governments the issue of waste management only partially. Thus it becomes should work out partnerships with the national governments. imperative to integrate efforts in a planned manner. Integrated Where there is need, regional/global collaboration should be en- waste management implies that decisions on waste handling couraged. For the industrial countries, more stringent governance should take into account economic (including technical in rela- reforms are the response option. For example, in the United tion to its costs), environmental, social, and institutional dimen- States, the Toxic Release Inventory has led to dramatic decreases in sions. Economic aspects may include the costs and benefits of corporate emissions. Among developing countries, Nigeria’s re- implementation, the available municipal budgets for waste man- cent Inventory of Hazardous Wastes has been a tremendous response agement, and spin-off effects for other sectors in the economy in option, contributing to waste and ecosystem management (Osi- terms of investments. The environmental dimension may consist banjo 2002). of local problems (increased risk of epidemics and At the global level, the protocols, conventions, and treaties pollution), regional problems (resource depletion and acid rain), need to be implemented with strict adherence to agreed commit- and global problems (global warming and ). Social ments and prescribed sanctions, including diplomatic interven- aspects include employment effects for both the formal and the tions. For a start, the local (municipal) and state (provisional, informal sectors, impact on human health, and ethical issues such district, prefecture, as the case may be) governance structures as the use of child labor. Finally, the institutional dimension of should be reviewed for better compliance inculcation. integrated waste management aims at developing a system that 10.2.5 Sociocultural Responses effectively involves the main stakeholders. ‘‘Integrated’’ refers to the integration of: Waste management problems are closely associated with society, • different aspects of sustainability (technical, environmental/ its beliefs, and its attitudes. The flow of waste from the place of public health, financial, etc.); origin to the site of disposal has human dimensions besides the • different collection and treatment options at different habitat application of technology, given the concept of a city or region scales, that is, household, neighborhood, and city level (opera- functioning as an anthroposphere. Effective resource management tional interaction); must be prescribed to closely fit particular societal norms and val- • different stakeholders, including governmental or nongovern- ues, since governance is in constant flux and operates in an ‘‘estab- mental, formal or informal, profit- or nonprofit-oriented lished milieu’’ even in epistemic societies, with the ultimate aim (cooperation, linkages, alliances, economic and social interac- of exercising power in the management of a country’s economic tion); and and social resources for development. Human rights and individ- • the waste management system and other urban systems (such ual liberty, within the limits imposed by democratic principles, as drainage, energy, urban agriculture, etc.). must also be respected (Nsirimovu 1995). Knowledge and attitudes govern the practices. There is need 10.3 Some Aspects of Responses to Waste to motivate change toward more environmentally sound attitudes at various levels, for example, home, school, and workplace. Edu- As identified in MA Current State and Trends (Chapter 15), the cation plays a key role. When developing educational programs sources of waste and contaminants, and their impacts, are numer- to motivate changes in behavior, it is important for their success to ous and continue to grow. Society must be alert to address the include stakeholder input and to understand in-depth behavioral challenges that new wastes present. Not every human response aspects (Okpala 1996). Obviously, the methodology options will has been successful, and there are lessons to be learned from the differ with sociocultural value content of each community and past. This section considers some examples of past activities and nation. Generally, but particularly in developing countries, there highlights the need for holistic approaches to satisfactory responses are two sets of options for educating about waste clearance: formal to waste. and informal, these being the incorporation of waste management into the curriculum on environment and sustainable development 10.3.1 Historical Considerations (for the formal) and the establishment of environment and conser- The history of waste and waste management, in general, is intri- vation clubs (for the informal) (Okpala 1996). cately bound with the history of solid waste, given its ubiquitous There is need for a shift from a single-purpose focus on eco- nature and visibility. It is also inevitably tied to civilization. For logical aspects to a more multifaceted approach that routinely most of the last two million years humans generated little ‘‘gar- considers social and risk analysis, implications, and management. bage’’; what was produced was easily disposed of through biodeg- The ultimate aim entails analyzing aggregate environmental deg- radation, which was a simple ecosystem service. The rate of radation costs, establishing systems of national resource account- accumulation in the ancient city of Troy was calculated ing that reflect environmental damages and losses, correcting to be 1.4 million tons per century (Rathje 1990). market prices to reflect full costs (and benefits), and offering in- Sanitary sewers were found in the ruins of the prehistoric centives such as rebates for industries adopting anti-pollution cities of Crete and the ancient Assyrian cities. Storm-water sewers measures as well as disincentives such as taxes (Panayoutu 1990, built by the Romans are still in service today. Although the pri- Reyer et al. 1990). mary function of these was drainage, the Roman practice of

...... 11430$ CH10 10-21-05 14:11:53 PS PAGE 322 Waste Management, Processing, and Detoxification 323 dumping refuse in the streets caused significant quantities of or- system functions are threatened by chemical pollution (Mitsch ganic matter to be carried along with the rainwater runoff. and Gosselink 1986). These developments were further strength- Toward the end of the Middle Ages, below-ground privy vaults ened through comprehensive and standardized analytical tech- and, later, cesspools were developed. When these containers be- niques during the 1970s (USEPA 1979), with applications to came full, sanitation workers removed the deposit at the owner’s different ecosystems, notably freshwater, wetlands, forests, arid expense and the deposits were used as fertilizer at nearby farms or and semiarid lands, and soils (Linthurst et al. 1995). were dumped into watercourses or onto vacant land. A few cen- turies later, there was renewed construction of storm sewers, 10.3.2 Political Interest in the Responses mostly in the form of open channels or street gutters. At first, Since 1972, there has been reasonably sustained political interest disposing of any waste in these sewers was forbidden, but by the at the national, and particularly global level, of concerns arising nineteenth century it was recognized that community health from the reported striking effects of DDT on wildlife (Carson could be improved by discharging into the storm 1962) and occurrence of residues in various foods, in- sewers for rapid removal. By 1910, there were about 25,000 miles cluding mothers’ milk (UNEP 2002). With such global sensitiza- (40,225 kilometers) of sewer lines in the United States which tion, but arising from continuing degradation of the environment have increased manifold today. U.S. marine waters are estimated through a multitude of agents and causes, prominently including to receive over 45 million metric tons of wastes per year (UNEP wastes, there was a decisive turning point with the Stockholm 2002). Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, which led to Accumulation of waste prompted New York City to intro- the establishment of UNEP. Despite the intensive coordinating duce incineration as a response (Breen 1990). Following this activities of UNEP, the pollution of the environment did not seeming success, as many as 700 cities adopted the use of incinera- abate from source, nor was it effectively controlled by the pollut- tion, further popularizing incineration as a viable societal ing economic activities of nations. Given the sad state of the con- response. Given that incineration response also created air pollu- tinually deteriorating environment, the UN enunciated Agenda tion, a second phase of response necessitated the use of sanitary 21 in 1989, which led to the UN Conference on Environment landfill. and Development (UNCED); the first Earth Summit, in Rio de While incineration was a nightmare in the early part of the Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. For the first time, the world took the last century, more advanced technologies using high temperatures bold step to map out strategies for the integration of environment have yielded wider acceptance by people and policy-makers, as concerns with all development issues aimed at improving human modern incinerators produce less emissions and most of the toxic well-being (Adedipe 1992). Ten years later, the whole issue was substances are further oxidized. This has become a very handy revisited at the World Summit on Sustainable Development tool for managing industrial and infectious hazardous wastes (WSSD) in Johannesburg in 2002, given that the expected goals (Tchobanoglous et al. 1993). In some cases, incineration is still of Agenda 21 were yet to be substantially achieved. The WSSD not the method of choice and it has been replaced with irradiation came up with the Millennium Goals, which are in the continuing techniques. But the latter are not affordable in the developing thrust for human well-being. (Table 10.2 summarizes the mile- countries. stones in the modern history of waste management.) Legal response in the United States was later provided by the enactment of the U.S. Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 and the 10.3.3 Evidence of Positive Impacts of Responses Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976. This Act also established what later became the ‘‘cradle-to-grave’’ system of Waste management practices and policies over the last three dec- hazardous waste management (Soesilo and Wilson 1995). In de- ades have resulted in positive responses in terms of improvement veloping countries, however, from the 1930s to date, their own of ecosystems. Some positive impacts of the responses identified response to the need to manage wastes has been by the use of (Hu et al. 1998; Jana 1998; Pillai et al. 1946, 1947; Smit 1996; ‘‘open dump sites,’’ as in Africa (Onibokun et al. 1995), Asia Sommers and Smit 1996; Sridhar et al. 2002) are: (Hoornweg 1999; Zurbrugg 2002), and elsewhere (Lardinois and • Waste recycling activities have been found to result in im- van de Klundert 1995; Klundert 2000). The point must be made, proved resource conservation and reduced energy consump- however, that the effectiveness of open dumping differs from tion as well as reduction of heavy metal contamination of country to country. Garbage mountains point up an important water sources. truth: ‘‘Efficient disposal is not always completely compatible • In the Baltic Sea, the levels of fish caught were re- with other desirable social ends—due process, human dignity, and duced by 60% due to stringent pollution control measures. economic modernization’’ (Rathje 1990, pp. 32–39). • Major rivers such as the Thames have supported biodiversity, In terms of liquid wastes, perhaps the first alarm on unsanitary as is evident from the reappearance of salmon after rigorous conditions and their relation to health and disease is credited to pollution control measures. The ten-year ‘‘clean river’’ pro- Sir Edwin Chadwick of Britain, who in 1842 wrote the classic gram initiated by the Singapore government in 1977 at a cost report on ‘‘Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of of US $200 million has brought life back to the Singapore Great Britain.’’ The cholera epidemics of 1849 and 1853 created River and the Kallang Basin, with increased dissolved oxygen the need for a response when society demanded the ‘‘removal of levels ranging from 2 to 4 mg per liter (UNEP 1997). dirt.’’ John Simon in 1848 developed the famous British Public • Phasing out of lead from gasoline has reduced lead emissions Health System, which was accepted by the United States and from vehicular sources. some parts of Europe (Dubos et al. 1980), and later by other • Wetlands have been widely reported to absorb significant countries as well. amounts of anthropogenic . The history of other forms of wastes is not as richly detailed • Ferti-irrigation practices have significantly improved the eco- as that of liquid and solid wastes. Only recently have scientific nomic base of low- income communities in urban areas. studies conclusively shown that wetlands contribute substantially In the tropical countries in particular, controlled and judicious to comprehensive human health and welfare (Hemond and Be- use of aquatic weeds such as water hyacinth (water hyacinth treat- noit 1988; Queen and Stanley 1995) and that such positive eco- ment plant for wastewater) and blue green algae (waste stabiliza-

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capacity to dispose of them in an environmentally sound manner. Table 10.2. Milestones of Waste Management Responses The Convention notwithstanding, such transboundary move- Year Response ment keeps recurring, to the detriment of human and biodiversity well-being. 1972 • United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm Another instance of well-documented negative impact is the • UNEP established practice of irrigation with wastewater. In Pakistan, for example, • UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World over-applied wastewater with insufficient drainage resulted in Cultural and Natural Heritage degradation of soil structure, visible soil salinity, and the delayed emergence of wheat and sorghum due to excessive nutrients from 1980 • International Water Supply and Sanitation Decade begins the ferti-irrigation practice. Further, farmers using raw wastewater 1982 • United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea for irrigation are five times more likely to be infected by hook- worm than those using canal water (Scott et al. 2004). Also, irri- 1989 • Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of gation with industrial wastewater has been associated with a 36% Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal increase in enlarged livers and 100% increase in both cancer inci- 1990 • Eco-efficiency established as a goal for industry dence and congenital malformations in China compared to areas 1992 • United Nations Conference on Environment and Development where such practices were not adopted (Yuan 1993). Another (Earth Summit), Rio de Janeiro example is in Japan, where chronic poisoning from • Convention on Biological Diversity wastewater use caused the Itai-Itai disease, a bone and kidney disorder (Osibanjo 2002; WHO 1992). 1996 • United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II), Istanbul 10.3.5 Integrated Design of Responses • ISO 14000 created for environmental management systems in industry Integrated responses—which consider the interactions and inter- dependencies among the regulatory, economic, technological, 1997 • Kyoto Protocol adopted and institutional elements—are the beginning of a holistic ap- • Rio5 Summit reviews implementation of Agenda 21 proach to waste management and processing. 2000 • Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety adopted In a comprehensive mode of integration in the Middle East, gray water treatment and reuse in home gardens is one means of • 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants dealing with overflowing cesspits that would otherwise contami- 2002 • World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg nate ‘‘wadis’’ and the shallow groundwater table. This response 2003 • World Water Forum, Kyoto, Japan conserves fresh water by recycling it and, perhaps most impor- tantly, helps to reduce poverty by offsetting food purchases by the poor. To be sustainable, this response must be integrated: in terms tion ponds) for treating small wastewater flows helped in of regulations, gray water use must be made legal—it is often improving environmental sanitation and the by-products pro- illegal in both developed and developing countries—and housing vided protein and mineral needs of livestock. bylaws and standards must be changed to separate black and gray water pipes to facilitate gray water use. Second, a major appeal of 10.3.4 Evidence of Damaging Impacts of Responses the policy is economic—the poor are willing to install the gray water systems at their own cost because they know that their Most of the established waste management practices such as land- neighbors with installed systems are generating income as a result. fills, incineration plants, and wastewater treatment plants have Technological aspects of the policy that must be addressed are: been shown to have negative impacts. Hazardous wastes are a building the capacity of universities and research institutions to particular case in point (Lieberman 1994; Soesilo and Wilson teach, train, and do research to improve gray water reuse technol- 1995). The types and quantities vary significantly from place to ogy, and building a cadre of plumbers who know how to install, place and affect human health and well-being in terms of in- maintain, and repair the systems. Finally, institutions such as de- creased numbers of new cancers, abortions, mutagenic and terato- partments of agriculture need to be reformed so that they support genic effects on the newborn, and increased morbidity and both traditional rural agriculture as well as peri-urban agriculture. mortality (Adesiyan 1992). In addition, departments of water, environment, and agriculture Some waste management facilities have become difficult to must develop integrated and consistent policies that facilitate gray maintain due to local policies and regulations, and some countries water reuse (Faruqui and Al-Jayyousi 2002). resorted to transboundary movement. In Nigeria, for example, Ecohouses may be good models where all the wastes gener- hazardous waste from Italy was dumped in Koko (a small coastal ated are integrated into the community for farming, livestock de- town in southwestern Nigeria), generating a diplomatic furor be- velopment and human well-being. The Australian Capital tween Italy (transporter) and Nigeria (recipient). The hazardous Territory’s ‘’’zero waste to landfills by 2010’’ strategy is another waste dumped eventually led to some deaths. Using the polluter- practical experiment; through a range of recycling and reuse ini- pays principle, the exporter of the waste was compelled to return tiatives its goal is to have very little disposable waste by 2010 it to Italy and to carry out remediation activities. Following the (Baker 1999). unfortunate incident, Nigeria created the Federal Environmental Protection Agency in 1989; since then, several decrees and regu- 10.3.6 Cutting-edge Innovations lations have been enunciated to improve the environment (Aina and Adedipe 1991). Certain technological or management innovations have proved The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary beneficial in mitigating the damaging effects of waste on the envi- Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal aims to mini- ronment, and in recent years, business firms and organizations mize the creation of such wastes, reduce their transboundary have been established specifically to develop ‘‘smart ways’’ to deal movement, and prohibit their shipment to countries lacking the with waste. They can include biotechnology, and may well result

...... 11430$ CH10 10-21-05 14:11:54 PS PAGE 324 Waste Management, Processing, and Detoxification 325 from smart observations of how nature itself deals with or re- ties, and their byproducts, the goods and services that are affected, moves waste. Bioremediation of coastal and industrial waters, and the nature of impacts are shown in Table 10.3. where occurs, can be affected using naturally oc- curring microorganisms or macroorganisms to remove the waste, 10.4.1.2 Impacts on Human Health and Well-being and also to generate valuable and salable products. , mercury, cadmium, tributyl tin, and lead emanating Halogenated organic compounds (such as DDT, PCB, and the from the waste pose serious health risks. Human activities and halogenated dioxins) can be degraded by a combination of bacte- responses such as mining, smelting, waste dumping (including rial, chemical, and irradiation techniques. Whereas the carbon- tires, used oils, electrical and electronic equipment and parts, and halogen bonds of halogenated hydrocarbons are not common in batteries), rubbish burning, and the addition of lead to gasoline natural products from the land, they are very common natural have greatly increased the amounts of heavy metals circulating in products from the sea, and marine microbes are able to degrade the environment. many of the persistent synthetic halogenated organic substances. Mosquitoes such as Culex quinquefasciatus, Aedes aegypti, and There is much we can learn from the sea. others can breed in the wastewater retained in blocked drainage Not all innovations demand high-technology input. For ex- channels and may transmit filariasis and viral infections such as ample, the marking of plastic containers to indicate if they can be dengue and yellow fever (Cairncross and Feachem 1993). Emis- recycled or not is a simple but essential communication idea. Also, sions from waste burning and decomposing organic wastes may suggestions on possible uses for containers when the original pur- lead to gaseous emissions, thus leading to the change of pose is complete can stimulate the development of new imple- status from one form to another. (See Table 10.4.) ments, ornaments, or even works of art. Innovations are simply ‘‘putting good ideas to work’’ and may 10.4.1.3 Enabling Conditions be seen in the home, at work, or in commercial ventures. Innova- tions are more likely to be seen in societies that are challenged 10.4.1.3.1 Waste reduction and recycling to think of better ways to overcome problems. They are often With the growing unemployment, hunger, and poverty particu- stimulated by government legislation, and can be implemented at larly in urban centers of developing countries (UNDP 2000; FAO every stage of the process from design and development to recycl- 2003), waste may provide a short- to medium-term trade-off ing and reuse. The European Union gave directions for change through reuse and recycling activities. Social conflicts in waste and different nations responded in different ways. Finland in 1998 management are not uncommon at local, regional, and country set a target of 70% recovery of waste by 2005, with the result, level. To solve these problems, there is a need for economic in- there has been a large increase in recycling nation wide. The Aus- struments such as user charges and tax incentives for innovative tralian Capital Territory and New Zealand targets of ‘‘zero waste practices (Heermann 2003), as discussed above. Such instruments to landfill’’ have seen the development of new industries and new as may be used must recognize aesthetic standards, cultural heri- uses for what was previously waste. tage, and social values. Sonar has been used to ‘‘remotely’’ determine the waste den- Waste minimization is apparently the best response option for sity and layering in used tanks, and remote sensing is also being urban rejuvenation coupled with reuse and recycling of a major investigated to detect dumping of waste in remote locations. portion of the waste. Rising living standards and increased mass Spectrometric fingerprinting of wastes can lead to the specific production have reduced markets for many used materials and identification of the source of a particular discarded waste stream. goods in affluent countries. In most developing countries, tradi- In the United States, the Federal Energy Technology Center tional labor-intensive practices of repair, reuse, waste trading, and performs, procures, and partners in research, development, and recycling have endured. Thus there is a large potential for waste demonstration to advance technology for man- reduction in developing countries; by contrast, the greatest po- agement innovations. Other countries have similar organizations tential for waste reduction currently rests with diverting biode- to encourage lateral thinking and application in every aspect of gradable, non-biodegradable, and construction wastes. Most waste minimization. countries in Western Europe and North America, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and Korea have adopted municipally sponsored source separation and collection systems. Other strategies are 10.4 Assessment of Selected Responses choice of packaging materials, packaging reduction goals in a given period of time, and mandatory separation of post-consumer 10.4.1 Urban and Terrestrial Ecosystems materials by waste generators. • Sensible recycling programs balance social, environmental, and commercial benefits. Paper recycling not only saves trees, 10.4.1.1 Impacts on Ecosystems and their Services it also reduces energy costs by 35 to 50% and decreases water Urbanization is expanding more rapidly than any country’s econ- consumption and pollution. Recycling aluminum cans brings omy. The problem with urban waste is not only the quantity energy savings of up to 95% and produces 95% less green- but also the change from dense and more organic to bulky and house gas emissions than when raw materials are used. increasingly non-biodegradable. Increasing amounts of plastic, • Recycling also creates jobs. A ‘‘solid waste turnover sector aluminum, paper, and cardboard are being discarded by house- analysis’’ carried out in 1994 put the British market value of holds and industries (Cielap 2003), but many of these materials solid waste at $3 billion (Jones 1995). In Britain, the recycling have been recycled in the informal sector to produce creative industry, already worth over $20 billion a year, employs marketable household and novelty articles. Whereas dumpsites are 140,000 people. Getting the United Kingdom to recycle 35% typical of the developing countries, sanitary landfills and incinera- of its household waste by 2010, a target under consideration tors are the order in the developed world. For the developing by the government, will generate another 50,000 skilled and countries, however, adoption of appropriate materials may be a unskilled positions (Ribbans 2003). long-term strategy using consensus-derived legal instruments. • The motivating forces for waste recovery and recycling in the The primary wastes from industrial, urban, and near-urban activi- developing countries are scarcity or high cost of virgin materi-

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Table 10.3. Impacts of Wastes on Urban Ecosystem Goods and Services

Primary Wastes/Waste Urban Ecosystem Peculiarities Byproducts Generated Goods and Services Affected Impacts

Urban built environment with a high mostly human and technology- food, biochemicals, genetic population pressures Peri-urban human density (with human based wastes; demolition, resources, climate regulation, rural–urban migration settlements of 5,000 or more) organic and inorganic, solid, water regulation, recreation and Peripheral liquid, gaseous, vehicular tourism, aesthetic, cultural overuse of land emissions, industrial wastes heritage, spiritual and religious environmental degradation disease burden poverty inadequate infrastructure

10.4.1.3.2 Urban agriculture Table 10.4. Waste Management Responses and Health Risks Urban agriculture, which was little known in the 1970s, is be- Waste Management Response Health Risk coming more common (Rodrigues and Lopez-Real 1999). The number of urban farmers producing for the market is expected to Collection, transportation, and injuries and chronic diseases due to double from about 200 million in the early 1990s to 400 million disposal activities sharps, contaminants, collapse of waste by 2005 (Smit 1996). Globally, more than 800 million urban piles, cuts, infective wounds, burns, dwellers are involved in this economic activity (Smit 1996; Som- trauma, cancers, chronic respiratory mers and Smit 1996; Kaspersma 2002; Redwood 2004). Many infections successful urban agriculture schemes are reported around the Mixed wastes—due to infected bacterial, viral, and parasitic—tetanus, globe—from Dar es Salaam to Singapore, from Vancouver to sharp waste, exposure to in- staphylococcus, streptococcus, hepatitis Curitiba. Singapore is in the forefront in the development of fected dust, breeding of vectors B, AIDS, blood infections urban aquaponics. Other examples: • In Brazil (Sao˜ Paulo), urban agriculture is a planned land use in waste-generated ponds, con- eye-related (trachoma, conjunctivitis) taminated soil, rodents and other activity. • animals feed on waste, acciden- skin (mycosis, anthrax), Most households in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands sub- tal ingestion of waste/ contami- regions practice urban agriculture. respiratory infections (bacterial and • nated food, contaminated viral) About 30% of the Russian Federation’s food is produced on drinking water, foods grown on 3% of the land in suburban ‘‘dachas.’’ In Moscow, the propor- vector-borne (dengue, yellow fever) leachates and other waste tion of families engaged in agriculture grew from 20% of the streams parasitic (malaria, filariasis, schistosomi- city’s population in 1970 to 65% in 1990. asis) • In Harare, when sanctions on urban agriculture were lifted temporarily in 1992, within two years the area cultivated dou- worm infestations (hookworm, ascaria- bled and the number of farmers more than doubled. Munici- sis, trichuriasis) pal costs for landscape maintenance and waste management bacterial (cholera, diarrhea, typhoid) were down, food prices were down, and hundreds of jobs viral (dysentery) were created. • Urban agriculture has an important significance to global sus- parasitic (helminthiasis, amoebiasis, tainability in that the production of food close to the consum- giardiasis) ing market reduces the need for transportation, thus reducing Toxic chemicals, leachates, and respiratory tract infections, cancers, nui- the consumption of fossil fuels and the associated emissions of gaseous emissions from waste sance, particulate-induced disease con- CO2. There is also a reduction in packaging, refrigeration, and handling or treatment ditions the use of preserving additives (Rees 1997). • School gardens are becoming popular and are effective learn- Urban wastes in specific (solid malaria transmitted through Anopheles ing tools to students of all ages. wastes and their leachates, sew- breeding, dengue and yellow fever • Effective wastewater use for urban agriculture cannot be im- age, and sullage/greywater) through Aedes mosquitoes, filariasis plemented without creating enhanced awareness by formal through breeding of Culex mosquitoes. and informal education, information, and awareness through a policy response (Okpala 1996; Buechler et al. 2002). In many als, import restrictions, poverty, the availability of workers for developing countries urban agriculture is contributing to reuse lower wages, and the large markets for used goods and prod- of organic matter through the recycling activities. In many ucts made from recycled materials (IETC 1996). places, solid wastes converted to compost, and gray water em- • To solve the problems of poverty, waste recycling activities anating from open drains, are used to fertilize soils (Pillai et al. use policy and economic responses, particularly in developing 1947; Sridhar et al. 1992; Sridhar 1995; Sridhar et al. 2002; countries where there is chronic unemployment. Such waste- Urban Agriculture Magazine 2002). to-wealth activities (Figure 10.2), including harnessing of ni- 10.4.2 Agricultural Ecosystems trogen and energy from waste, need to be formalized as policy responses. However, such policies should also include presort- Certain agricultural products and practices are implicated in ing to protect the health of the recycling worker. human health problems, including animal antibiotics, nitrates in

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Figure 10.2. Waste-to-Wealth Activity and Processing Profiles in Developing Countries (Adedipe 2001) groundwater, pesticide exposure in an occupational setting, pesti- In Brazil, nitrogen-fixing are being used successfully cide residues and food additives in foods, and certain food proc- to remediate nitrogen-deficient agricultural ecosystems; Doebe- essing techniques. (See Box 10.4.) There is some evidence to reiner (1997) reported that Brazil has become the world leader in suggest that conventional soil management practices are contrib- replacing N fertilizers by biological nitrogen fixation with large uting to declining nutritional value in foods (MacRae 1990). positive impacts on the production of food and biofuel crops. See Global Assessment of Soil Degradation estimated that about Chapter 9 for a more detailed assessment of response options rela- 13% or 850 million hectares of the land in the Asia and Pacific tive to the use of nitrogen- and phosphorus-based fertilizers in region is degraded (Olderman 1994). Improper ferti-irrigation agriculture. using wastewater and poor drainage practices results in salinization and degradation of soils. Policy and technological responses 10.4.3 Hazardous Waste, Biosolids, and Soil should be able to offset these. Virtually every part of the globe has Remediation these problems (Pillai et al. 1946; MOAFFA 1999). through waste discharges, particularly hazard- The ecosystem-positive responses to waste management lie in ous wastes, is a worldwide phenomenon. Compost is also known increased production of food and fiber, soil conservation, and/or to remedy the contaminated soils, particularly from heavy metals remediation. The negative responses include soil degradation, soil and organic pollutants. Working with oil-contaminated soils, re- erosion, weed growth, eutrophication, , searchers showed that a combination of NPK fertilizer and straw loss of biodiversity, and the greenhouse effects. They also include mulch promoted natural revegetation through the restoration of the use of agrochemicals for pest control. To this extent, as an soil properties, while either of them when applied singly was less example, the use of persistent organic pesticides is being discour- effective (Odu 1972). aged by gradual substitution of biological pest control (Adesiyan In industrial nations, many municipalities face the problem of 1992). disposing of increasing volumes of wastewater economically and

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BOX 10.4 Agriculture-related Health Problems • Crops irrigated with polluted water or fertilized with inadequately pro- nut husk, rubber tires, broken bottles, water storage jars, buckets, and duced compost or animal manure may be infected with bacteria (shi- water butts. gella, typhoid, cholera), worms (e.g., tape- and hookworms), protozoa, • Closeness of animals and humans may lead to the occurrence of zoo- enteric viruses or helminths (ascaris, trichuris); schistosomiasis is prev- notic diseases like bovine tuberculosis (cattle) and tapeworms, espe- alent in some regions due to irrigated agriculture. cially when animals are scavenging waste tips. Drinking water may • Crops may take up heavy metals and other hazardous chemicals from get contaminated with pathogens by application of animal waste (e.g., soils, irrigation water, or sewage sludge polluted by industry. Crops slurries) to land. Animal products can become contaminated with patho- grown close to main roads or industry, and food purchased from street gens due to contamination of animal feed with infected feces (salmo- vendors, may be contaminated by airborne lead and cadmium. Resi- nella, campylobacter). dues of agrochemicals may contaminate crops or drinking water (pesti- • Tanneries may discharge hazardous chemicals in their wastes (tannum, cides, nitrates). If waste materials are not separated at source, compost , aluminum). may contain heavy metals, which can be taken up by crops. Despite a • If fish (especially shellfish) are reared on wastewater and/or human and 64% drop in annual global atmospheric emissions of lead since 1983, animal excreta, there is risk of passive transfer of pathogens (hepatitis several million adults and children suffer the adverse health effects of A) and transmission of trematodes where trematodes are endemic and , including impaired mental and physical development. In fish is consumed raw. Contamination of fish with human or animal fecal the United States alone, childhood lead poisoning is estimated to cost bacteria may occur during post-harvest operations (for example, salmo- some $43 billion per year. nella). Poorly managed fishponds may become a breeding ground for • Mosquitoes that are the vector for filariasis breed in standing water anopheles mosquitoes. Use of antibiotics in fish feed may lead to devel- heavily polluted with organic materials. Mosquitoes that transmit dengue opment of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the food chain. Fish products breed in water containers that include much solid waste, like coco- may be contaminated with heavy metals and agrochemicals. in an environmentally sound manner without involving risk to ent-rich soil conditioner; and liquor, which can be used as liquid human health. It is estimated that the total quantity of U.S. do- fertilizer (AGRIFOR 2004). A well-designed and cost-effective mestic wastewater, for example, could supply around 1.5 million waste management system, based on resource recovery and re- tons of nitrogen alone, or about 15% of the amount currently cycling technologies as well as reuse of wastewater for irrigation marketed as inorganic fertilizers. But the heavy metals—zinc, or aquaculture, can produce substantial social and economic ben- lead, cadmium, and selenium—could be toxic, which is a trade- efits that are gaining the attention of decision-makers. When total off between economic gains and health hazards (Olson 1987). costs are considered—health, pollution, landfill, and incinerator— Biosolids (treated residuals from wastewater treatment) are prov- these options begin to make sense (World Bank 1997). Some re- ing useful to replace wastewater residuals (formerly sewage ported successes are shown in Box 10.5. sludge). Because of the proven fertilizer value of sewage sludge, land application of this waste material is becoming a popular and 10.4.4 Protecting Remote Ecosystems (Island, more feasible method than other alternatives (for example, incin- Mountain, and Polar) eration, landfill, ocean dumping, pyrolysis). However, sludge has the disadvantage of building up mercury levels in the soils, mak- There is increasing use of mountains as dumping ground for , ing it more available for plant uptake and entry into the human hazardous and semi-hazardous wastes, and incineration ash food chain (Cappon 1984). (UNEP 2002). A study reported from Cairo (UNCSD 1999) indicated that The Arctic landmass is approximately 14 million square kilo- farmers are ready to pay for the biosolids as they are convinced of meters, of which the Russian Federation and Canada account for the benefits. The Greater Cairo Wastewater Project produces 80%. The decrease in area of glaciers in both the Arctic and the about 0.4 million tons of sludge or biosolids from its wastewater Antarctic is probably due to and lower albedo of treatment plant and has a ready market for growing wheat, ber- the ‘‘dusted’’ glaciers’ surfaces. Habitat loss, terrain modification, seem clover, forage maize, and grapevines. This has reduced pres- disturbance to wildlife, and introduction of exotic species and dis- sure for manures, which are scarce and more expensive to buy. ease are the response impacts. There are legislative and regulatory bodies to control degradation, but implementation has been hin- India, China, and some other Asian, African and South American dered by financial constraints, particularly in the Russian Federa- countries have been following this practice, though on a small tion (UNEP 2002). scale. materials are often used in fertilizers as a 10.4.5 Freshwater Ecosystems source of zinc and other micronutrients. Current information in- dicates that only a relatively small percentage of fertilizers is man- Freshwater ecosystems are aquatic systems that contain drinkable ufactured in United States using industrial or hazardous wastes as water or water of almost no salt content. Freshwater resources ingredients (National Agriculture Compliance Assistance Center include lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, reservoirs, wetlands, 2004). The U.K. Department for Environment, Food, and Rural and groundwater. They provide drinking-water resources and Affairs (DEFRA—formerly MAFF) has developed a code of prac- water resources for agriculture, industry, sanitation, and food, in- tice for minimizing plant health risks through residue manage- cluding fish and shellfish. They also provide recreational opportu- ment. of agricultural residues proved sound nities and a means of transportation. Freshwater ecosystems are as it produces three usable products—biogas, which can be used home to numerous organisms, for example, fish, amphibians, to generate heat/electricity; fiber, which can be used as a nutri- aquatic plants, and invertebrates. It has been estimated that 40% of

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BOX 10.5 Examples of Waste Use in Agriculture (World Bank 1997) Recycling Waste handling has focused on landfills and incinerators, while inor- • Well-known examples include use of city waste in peanut-growing sys- ganic fertilizer and fresh water are the primary inputs used to meet the tems on the Kano plains of Nigeria, use of nightsoil in China, and needs for soil nutrients and irrigation water. ‘‘sewage farms’’ around European cities during the nineteenth century; city waste improved soils in the Netherlands. Technology • Urban wastewater is used in many parts of the United States, Israel, • The current use of waste in agriculture has been mostly beneficial, but and Jordan. there are some potential detrimental effects, usually closely related to • Abattoir waste is used to produce methane and compost in Senegal. either the quality of the raw material, its processing, or both. The level • The Kolkata sewage fisheries system is the largest single wastewater and type of treatment varies, as does cost. Composting technologies system involving aquaculture, with 4,600 hectares of sewage-fed fish- have improved greatly in recent years and provide better quality com- ponds employing 4,000 families post with increased acceptability. • In California, growers add compost to build up soil organic matter— high-quality compost is widely used in horticulture, seedling production, Public Health Concerns and general agriculture, while lower-quality material is used in city parks • While disposal of municipal waste by land application is generally suc- and to stabilize land. Sludge and compost add nutrients and organic cessful, there is evidence that irrigation with untreated municipal and matter to the soil, improve water retention and transmission, and im- industrial waste can harm crops as well as humans, either those living prove soil structure. in the area or those who consume the products. These risks can be • Widespread adoption of recycling technologies has been hindered by resolved by preventing pollutants from accumulating in the soil, taking undeveloped markets, transportation costs, health and cultural issues, advantage of the soil’s capacity to assimilate and detoxify pollutants, and inadequate regulations. and determining optimal levels of safe application. Specific attention • The primary barrier is that the potential benefits are not adequately needs to be given to the risks associated with transfer of human patho- taken into account by urban planners, sanitary engineers, and farmers. gens. all known fish species on earth come from freshwater ecosystems trophication are not minor and localized, but have large-scale di- (USEPA 2002). mensions and are spreading rapidly (Nixon 1995). (See also Eutrophication to aquatic weed growths, prominent Chapter 9 on this issue.) among them being water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), Salvinia Aquaculture, which has become a global economic venture, molesta and Typha sp. Aquatic weed growths also lead to new habi- is also known to contribute to eutrophication. In China, polycul- tat development, particularly snails carrying schistosomiasis and ture of scallops, sea cucumbers, and kelp reduces eutrophication mosquitoes carrying various diseases. Many tropical countries are and the use of toxic antifouling compounds. Nutrients from scal- now trying to utilize these aquatic weeds for income generation, lop excreta are used by kelp, which used to require the addition employment, and resource utilization for energy and compost. of tons of fertilizers. Antifouling compounds and herbicides can Floating vascular aquatic weeds such as water hyacinth is a good be reduced because sea cucumbers feed on organisms which foul system to treat sewage and other wastewater containing low or- fishing nets and other structures. For shrimp and catfish culture, ganic content. The technology is cheap and the byproducts are deeper ponds can be constructed to reduce weed growth to easily recycled. This is a typical example of how the problem of further limit use. This technique is a synergism and en- one ecosystem can be harnessed for the benefit of other ecosys- vironment-friendly (Emerson 1999). Integration of such technol- tems. However, in open, uncontrolled, large bodies of water, this approach is still not practicable, given the experiences of Lake ogies into ecosystem restoration will bring in economic benefits. Victoria in eastern Africa, many areas of Brazil, Australia, and elsewhere. 10.4.6 Wetlands Anthropogenic N additions to temperate ecosystems have Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems, covering been shown to affect a wide range of ecosystem properties and about 6% of Earth’s land surface. They are characterized by processes, especially when the inputs are large and continuous. marshlands, swamps, and bogs and play a vital cleansing role for Phosphorus is the critical limiting nutrient and the one of concern for eutrophication of freshwater systems, but evidence points to the pollutants by acting as ‘‘sinks,’’ regulating floods and provid- combinations of phosphorus and nitrogen. A eutrophic lake is ing habitat for numerous species of plants and animals. Wetlands characterized by a shift toward the dominance of phytoplankton help in water purification. Particulate matter such as suspended by cyanobacteria, including noxious forms, most of which pro- soil particles and associated adsorbed nutrients and pollutants set- duce toxins (Anderson 1994; Chandler 1996; World Resources tles out. Dissolved nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen can Institute 1992). become adsorbed onto the particles and taken up by living organ- Increased inputs of nitrogen also manifest in relatively in- isms, or nitrogen is lost to the atmosphere. Other contaminants creased productivity but loss of biodiversity. Freshwater systems such as heavy metals can also be adsorbed onto sediment or or- that are poorly buffered are acidified by increased deposition of ganic particles. Exposure to light and atmospheric gases can break nitrate and ammonia. The continuing acidification of Europe, down organic pesticides or kill disease-producing organisms. The northeastern North America, and parts of Asia is now leading to salinity of water within wetlands often increases as water levels nitro-pollution rather than a sulfur pollution problem (Rabalais drop, and the pollutants may become concentrated. If a lot of 2002). It is becoming increasingly apparent that the effects of eu- contaminants are flushed from the wetland by floods, they can

...... 11430$ CH10 10-21-05 14:12:00 PS PAGE 329 330 Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Policy Responses foul the water downstream. A wetland is not a final sink for most of exotic species have also caused significant damage and pose a pollutants but it may retain them for a period of days, months, or serious threat to marine and coastal biodiversity. The connection years (Australian EPA 2002). to land-based pollution sources can be observed visually by 58 Many wetlands have been degraded or destroyed by human known ‘‘dead zones’’—areas where ocean life is absent, all located activities since European settlement, through filling, draining, along coastlines (J & D Informatics 2001; Field et al. 2002). In the flooding, and clearing, and by pollution. The Ramsar Conven- Gulf of Mexico, a 7,000 square mile area from the mouth of the tion with 43 member signatories, signed in 1971, has protected Mississippi to the Texas border becomes so oxygen-deficient each some 200,000 square kilometers of wetlands. summer that nothing can survive, creating a massive dead zone. Efforts toward integrated coastal zone management in Africa 10.4.7 Marine and Coastal Ecosystems have not made any meaningful impact, despite serious social and Marine ecosystems cover over 70% of Earth’s surface. The habi- economic problems (Adedipe 1992, 1996; World Bank 1996). In tats range from the more productive near-shore regions to the Nigeria, the ecosystem response has been characterized by bio- deep ocean floor, which was once thought to be uniformly bar- diversity loss and food insecurity due to overexploration and ren. More recent studies and more extensive investigations by re- overexploitation, particularly in the Niger Delta area. A specific motely controlled unmanned submarine vessels have revealed policy response has been a multinational project, spearheaded by such features as deep-sea vents, which support significant marine UNIDO, IUCN, and UNESCO, involving six countries in the communities. At this stage, those remote areas appear to be buf- West Africa sub-region (Cote´ d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Ni- fered from the adverse impacts of human activities, but we know geria, and Cameroon) in the restoration of the Guinea Current that ‘‘dilution is not the solution’’ in any waste clean-up measures, Large (UNIDO 2002). The concern is driven and even remote and deep areas of the oceans may in time be by population growth, urbanization, industrialization, and tour- adversely affected from some types of waste. Deep-sea dumping ism. In 1994, an estimated 37% of the global population lived of waste must be banned completely. Important marine ecosys- within 60 kilometers of the coast. That percentage has risen in tems include: oceans, sea mounts, rocky sub-tidal (kelp beds and the last decade. Fish farming in seas (for example, large salmon seagrass beds), intertidal (rocky, sandy, and muddy shores), tropi- farms along Norwegian and Scottish coasts) is also a source of cal communities (mangrove forests, coral reefs, and atolls), estuar- waste. ies and salt marshes, and lagoons. Marine ecosystems are home to Globally, sewage has been the largest source of contamination a host of different species ranging from tiny planktonic organisms because of the volume and the nature of organic matter it carries. that comprise the base of the marine food web (that is, phyto- Public health problems of the 1970s have been well documented plankton and zooplankton) to large marine mammals like the (GESAMP 2001). Modern technologies can be used to remove whales, manatees, dugong, and seals. In addition, many fish spe- all solid material, nutrients, and microorganisms from sewage. In cies reside in marine ecosystems including flounder, scup, sea bass, industrial countries, therefore, there is no reason why untreated monkfish, squid, mackerel, butterfish, and spiny dogfish. sewage should be discharged to the sea. Ways should be found to Areas such as mangroves, reefs, and seagrass beds also provide have these technologies made available for sustainable implemen- protection to coastlines by reducing wave action, and helping to tation in developing countries as well. prevent erosion, while areas such as salt marshes, coastal lagoons, Coastal marine ecosystems are experiencing high rates of habi- and estuaries have acted as sediment sinks, filtering runoff from tat loss and degradation. Shoreline stabilization, the development the land (USEPA 2002). of large ports, and the existence of densely populated coastal Mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs have all been shown cities—all contributed to this loss. In these zones, high human to be sensitive to different types of waste, whether they are nutri- population levels coupled with increased road and pipeline densi- ents from the land or discharges of waste or oil from ships. The ties have increased pollution as well as sedimentation and erosion Australian government to the threat posed by human activities on rates (USEPA 2002). its bio-diverse mangroves, sea-grass beds, and coral reefs and is- Ironically, one reported dead zone between Denmark and lands of the Great Barrier Reef Region was to nominate the Great Sweden actually increased catches temporarily, which is a positive Barrier Reef Region for inscription on the World Heritage List. impact (J & D Informatics 2001). Record catches of Norway lob- Such listing, achieved in 1981, requires the implementation of ster were being recorded when oxygen levels were very low. The management plans to protect these natural areas and the life they support (Baker, personal communication). lobsters normally burrow into the sea floor, but with the low Marine and coastal degradation is caused by increasing pres- oxygen levels, they swam up higher to locate oxygen, and made sure on both terrestrial and marine natural resources, and the use themselves susceptible to trawling. Thus the deteriorated condi- of the oceans for waste deposition. Some 20 billion tons of wastes, tions made the lobster more susceptible to the catch method. The treated or untreated, end up in the sea every year through land, yield was unsustainable. runoff, and other means. The total quantity of oil spilled by tank- The phenomenon of red tides appears to be becoming more ers between 1979 and 2000 is 5,322,000 tons (Encarta Encyclope- frequent. Populations of marine dinoflagellates occasionally be- dia 2003). Most tanker spills result from operations such as come so large that the dying organisms color the water and are loading, discharging, and bunkering. However, the largest spills referred to as tides. Such tides may lead to the poisoning of both occur as a result of collisions and grounding. About 90% of these fish and humans. Red tides occur off the western coast of Florida wastes stay in coastal waters where, particularly in coastal lagoons and in the coastal waters of New England, southern California, or marshes, they interfere with bird and marine life, mangroves, Texas, Peru, eastern Australia, Chile, Hong Kong, and Japan. In sea-grass beds and coral reefs, as well as with fisheries, tourism, 1946, such a tide killed fish, turtles, oysters, and other marine and recreation. organisms in the Gulf of Mexico near Fort Myers, Florida. The Seventy-five percent of the pollutants in the ocean are esti- blue-green alga Trichodesmus sometimes, in dying off, imparts a mated to be from the land. Increased human activities such as reddish color to water; the Red Sea derived its name from this overfishing, coastal development, pollution, and the introduction phenomenon.

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10.5 Toward Improving Waste Management for tion starting with kindergarten to elementary schools (primary in- stitutions), high schools (secondary institutions), and colleges Overall Biodiversity and Human Well-being (tertiary institutions), as well as informal and vocational training. Extension services, NGOs, the Internet, and distant learning pro- 10.5.1 Biodiversity Conservation grams contribute immensely. Also, vocational training response A diversity of species is generally important to the natural func- should be used as a tool for capacity building of the waste genera- tioning of ecosystems, and a balanced and ‘‘stable’’ biodiversity tors and managers. Along these lines, various professionals, partic- is therefore considered an indication of the good health of an ularly in the creative arts, should be involved in programs to environment. Biodiversity is also valued for aesthetic enjoyment inculcate ‘‘greener behavior’’ in communities. In addition, there and for natural products such as foods and drugs. Global biodiver- is a need for a waste management information databank. sity on the earth is well known for larger organisms such as mam- mals (over 4,000 species). However, total biodiversity can only be 10.5.4 Public Health Implications estimated, because most species of insects, deep-sea invertebrates, In tropical African countries, the results of improperly managed and microorganisms have yet to be described. Estimates of total solid waste are evident in public health-related disease incidence terrestrial biodiversity range from 10 million to 100 million spe- causing ill health, sometimes leading to serious morbidity and cies, most of which are insects. Natural ecological systems gener- mortality (Adedipe 2002; Onibokun et al. 2000). Poorly managed ally support higher biodiversity than agricultural or urban waste dumpsites, untreated sludge, and wastewater are sources of landscapes, particularly in the tropics, where natural biodiversity proliferation of rodents, which transmit typhoid fever, rabies, and is greatest. The issue of conservation of biodiversity is discussed other infectious diseases. They also lead to prolific breeding of in detail in Chapter 5. flies, cockroaches, and mosquitoes, which transmit diarrhea, gas- The increasing human population threatens biodiversity troenteritis, malaria, yellow fever, dengue, mosquito-borne en- (Mooney et al. 1996). Some ecologists believe that more than cephalitis, filariasis and helminthiasis. Smoke emissions from 50% of existing species will be lost in the next hundred years, burning of solid wastes are known to cause upper respiratory tract many before they have been identified. Laws have been designed infections. In some cases, the accumulated and untreated waste to protect threatened and endangered species, but legal and bio- penetrates the soil to contaminate groundwater or, through sur- logical difficulties in defining species or other groups used for face runoff, to contaminate surface water, with severe conse- measuring biodiversity make such laws controversial. Moreover, quences for human health, for which eco-health is emerging as a experience has shown that species’ survival depends on the preser- viable and sustainable integrated response option involving water vation of their habitat. Increased nitrogen in soil and water can supply, sanitation, and waste management. A strategic policy re- lead to loss of species composition of plant communities. Disap- sponse is needed, consisting of massive public health campaigns pearance of salmon (an indicator fish) along with other species using all possible information, education, and communication from River Thames in Britain in the early part of the last century materials. is a typical example of biodiversity loss, which was restored after the introduction of stringent regulations on wastewater treatment. The international conventions such as the Basel Convention on 10.6 Conclusions transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal, This assessment covers the general challenge of waste manage- the London Convention on dumping of wastes at sea, and the ment but concentrates on human waste and urban and rural waste. establishment of toxic waste registry have considerably reduced It attempts to avoid overlap with other chapters and summarizes the threats on biodiversity. Recent data on the nature of flora at the major issues in waste management in the context of the MA. waste dumpsites revealed plant species loss (Sridhar 2004 unpub- It identifies the key drivers of ecosystem services and the responses lished data). thereto for protecting the environment and thereby improving human well-being. 10.5.2 Poverty Reduction Strategies The assessment shows that there are significant differences in As indicated earlier, poverty is ‘‘on the rampage’’ in developing the drivers and responses between developing and industrial countries. While industrial nations continue with carefree and countries and also within developing countries. This observation high-consumption patterns, the developing nations are stifled by needs to be considered in any follow-up action on the MA. low incomes, due to massive underemployment and unemploy- The assessment views the issues of waste material reuse and ment. Waste recycling offers ample opportunities for poverty alle- recycling as a positive impact of waste management. Also, the viation and job creation (for example, waste-to-wealth schemes). careful and controlled use of wetlands in the management of sew- Such opportunities already exist in Nigeria and proved particu- age sludge and wastewater is a positive impact. larly successful in Rio de Janeiro, where the municipality facili- The assessment draws attention to the importance of effective tated cooperatives of aluminum can collectors. Other examples governance structures, integrated responses such as harmonized include reusing newspapers, polyethylene terphthalate (PET) bot- institutional arrangements, relevant cost-effective civil society tles, and other potential wastes produced with the guidance of involvement, recognition of individual human rights, the special artisans, architects, and artists. Education for adaptation should needs of epistemic communities and social values, private sector also be considered as a viable strategy for waste reduction and participation, education and public enlightenment. It stresses the reuse. In addition to such income-generating activities and ven- overall goal of suitably modified consumption scales and patterns tures, other approaches include promotion of cleaner environ- in the developed world and poverty reduction in the developing ment and the reduction of negative health impact for overall nations through recycling and resource recovery schemes that would reduce unemployment, in line with the millennium goal human well-being. of reducing poverty by 50% in the year 2015. 10.5.3 Education and Enlightenment References Education and communication are essential elements of waste Adedipe, N.O., 1992: Summary. In: Environmental Consciousness for Nigerian Na- management, particularly waste reduction, through formal educa- tional Development, E.O.A Aina and N.O. Adedipe (eds.), FEPA monograph

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