MEV-025 CLIMATE CHANGEAND SOCIETY Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies
Block 4 SOCIETAL RESPONSES TO ANTHROPOGENIC CLIMATE CHANGE UNIT 12 State Response to Climate Change 5 UNIT 13 Response of Subnational Government 19 UNIT 14 Responses of Global South 35 UNIT 15 Sustainable Development Goals 49 PROGRAMME DESIGN AND EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. Himanshu Pathak, Dr. B. Rupini, Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Director, ICAR–National Rice Environmental Studies, Environmental Studies, Research Institute, School of Interdisciplinary and School of Interdisciplinary and Cuttack, Odisha. Trans-disciplinary Studies, Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi. Prof. Pawan Kumar Joshi, IGNOU, New Delhi. School of Environmental Sciences, Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapur, Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan, Jawaharlal Nehru University, School of Interdisciplinary and Environmental Studies, New Delhi. Trans-disciplinary Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and IGNOU, New Delhi. Prof. S.K. Yadav, Trans-disciplinary Studies, School of Agriculture, Dr. Shubhangi Vaidya, IGNOU, New Delhi. IGNOU, New Delhi. School of Interdisciplinary and Dr. Deeksha Dave, Trans-disciplinary Studies, Prof. Jaswant Sokhi, Environmental Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi. School of Sciences, IGNOU, School of Interdisciplinary and New Delhi. Dr. Shachi Shah, Trans-disciplinary Studies, Environmental Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi. Prof. Basanti Pradhan, School of Interdisciplinary and Staff Training and Research Institute Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman, Trans-disciplinary Studies, of Distance Education, School of Interdisciplinary and IGNOU, New Delhi. IGNOU, NewDelhi Trans-disciplinary Studies, Dr. Sadananda Sahoo, IGNOU, New Delhi. Dr. M. Prashanth, School of Interdisciplinary and School of Sciences, Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi. IGNOU, New Delhi. PROGRAMME COORDINATOR Dr.V. Venkat Ramanan, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi. BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM
Course Contributors Content Editors
Dr. Daisy Sharma (Unit 12), Dr. Ragini Kumari (Unit 14), Dr. V.Venkat Ramanan, ssistant Professor, ARD, IGNOU. Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Department of Public Administration, Trans-disciplinary Studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. Dr. Shachi Shah (Unit 15), IGNOU, New Delhi. Environmental Studies, Dr. Anitha R (Unit 13), School of Interdisciplinary and Dr. Shachi Shah, Former Faculty, Trans-disciplinary Studies, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth IGNOU, New Delhi. Trans-disciplinary Studies, Development, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. IGNOU, New Delhi.
COURSE COORDINATOR FORMAT EDITORS
Dr. V.Venkat Ramanan, Dr. V.Venkat Ramanan, Environmental Studies, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi. Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi. PRINT PRODUCTION Mr. Y. N. Sharma Mr. Sudhir Asst. Registrar (P), IGNOU, New Delhi Section Officer (P) IGNOU, New Delhi
September, 2019 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019 ISBN: 978-93-89499-61-2 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Copyright holder. Further information on the IGNOU courses may be obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in Printed and published on behalf of IGNOU, New Delhi by Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi. Laser Typeset by Rajshree Computers, V-166A, Bhagwati Vihar, (Near Sec. 2, Dwarka), New Delhi Printed at:
2 BLOCK 4 SOCIETAL RESPONSES TO ANTHROPOGENIC CLIMATE CHANGE
Due to human-nature interaction, the environmental issues emerged as an important element of the geo-political agenda. Experts anticipate that climate change could cause risks to social and natural systems, which may create stress for the vulnerable and the marginalised. In line with such environment perspectives, the role of subnational governments as agents of change has grown substantially in recent years. The agenda for development is vivid and co-operation to bring sustainable development has been crossed from policy formulation to the development phase. It is clear that climate change threatens decades of development progress and jeopardizes inclusive and sustainable growth. The SDGs framework provides the best path for addressing this climate emergency in ways that help everyone, in particular women, children, youth, older persons, persons with disabilities and those living in small island developing states. This block consists of four units. Unit 12 “State Response to Climate Change” provide you with an overview of India’s position on climate change; the national action plan on climate change; and the steps taken by India to tackle the climate change. Unit 13 “Response of Subnational Government” discusses the role of subnational government in combating climate change, and analyses various empirical evidences pertaining to subnational climate agenda. Unit 14 “Responses of Global South” deals with the “North”-”South” Politics in climate change negotiations; and the Strategies of “Global South” against climate change. Unit 15 “Sustainable Development Goals” discusses the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. The unit further explains the SDG 13 which demands for “urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts”; and provides you with an overview on India’s progress and preparedness for achieving SDG 13. OBJECTIVES After studying this block, you should be able to:
Explain India’s position on climate change, and the National Action Plan on Climate Change;
Explain the role of subnational government in combating climate change;
Analyse various empirical evidences pertaining to subnational climate agenda;
Explain the “North”-”South” Politics in climate change negotiations;
Discuss the Strategies of “Global South” against climate change;
Explain the genesis of sustainable development and sustainable development goals;
Discuss the 2030 Agenda for sustainable Development and Sustainable Development Goals; and
Recognise SDG 13- take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. We hope that after studying this block, you will acquire an understanding of the societal responses to anthropogenic climate change Wishing you success in this endeavour! 4 State Response to Climate UNIT 12 STATE RESPONSE TO Change CLIMATE CHANGE Structure 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Objectives 12.3 India’s Need for Urgent Response 12.4 India’s Response to Climate Change 12.5 Response at International Level 12.6 Response at National Level 12.6.1 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) 12.6.1.1 National Solar Mission 12.6.1.2 National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency 12.6.1.3 National Mission on Sustainable Habitat 12.6.1.4 National Water Mission 12.6.1.5 National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem 12.6.1.6 National Mission for a Green India 12.6.1.7 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture 12.6.1.8 National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change 12.6.2 Low Carbon Growth 12.6.2.1 Energy Reforms 12.6.2.2 Transport 12.6.2.3 Agriculture and Forests 12.6.2.4 Oil and Gas 12.6.2.5 Disaster Management 12.7 Other Adaptation Measures 12.7.1 National Action Programme to Combat Desertification 12.7.2 Watershed Development Programme 12.7.3 Command Area Development Programme 12.7.4 Crop Diversification 12.7.5 NICRA 12.8 Let Us Sum Up 12.9 Keywords 12.10 Suggested Further Reading/References 12.11 Answers to Check Your Progress 12.1 INTRODUCTION
Contemporary climate change is a global menace. It is basically an environmental problem which mainly takes place due to greenhouse gases (GHGs) like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, etc. Greenhouse gases concentration are increasing in atmospheric environment due to fossil fuel use, land use change and agricultural activities. The increasing greenhouse gases have led to global warming and climate change. As a result, we have witnessed high average 5 Societal Responses to temperature, erratic patterns of rain, uncertainty and increased frequency of Anthropogenic Climate natural events like droughts, floods, hot winds, cyclones, etc. This sudden change Change in climate can have severe impact on development and economy. Due to its over-reach and depth of effects, climate change has become a global governance issue. Various efforts have been done at the International level to tackle this menace. United Nations Framework for Climate Change Convention (UNFCCC), International Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) are the examples of the same. India being a victim of the side effects of climate change and being one of the rising powers of the world cannot go without taking notice of this grave issue. One of the largest democracy of the world and house to the 1/3 population of the world’s population, India has taken a balanced yet proactive role at International and National front. On International front, India has always showed concern for the development rights of the developing countries and stressed on common but differentiated responsibilities whereas at National level, it has enacted various environment-friendly legislations, launched various programs to adopt eco-friendly techniques or to mitigate the effects of climate change. In this unit, we will study the role of Indian government in dealing with the problem of climate change. 12.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain India’s position on climate change;
explain the National Action Plan on Climate Change; and
describe the steps taken by India to tackle the climate change. 12.3 INDIA’S NEED FOR URGENT RESPONSE
Given India’s present economic, social and geographical diversity, India is more vulnerable to the severe impacts of climate change. The Global Climate Risk Index 2019 released at Katowice summit placed India at 14th most vulnerable nation in the world. Indian government is worried about climate change because of its impact on rainfall, agriculture, coastal life, health, disaster management, economy and eventually all sectors of life. Indian economy is largely based on monsoon. Over the past few years, there is a deficit in the monsoon and uneven distribution of rainfall in some parts of the country like in Rajasthan we have experienced extreme rainfall causing floods. Same way, Western disturbances have caused devastating floods in Uttarakhand in June 2013. India has a vast coastline of 7516 km. Due to climate change, it is expected to have a rise of 25- 40cm by 2050. Climate change and rising sea levels has created serious challenges for coastal life. Coastal erosions, increasing wave height have led to the danger of submerging islands, and has forced migration of coastal people. According to Global Climate Risk Index, India suffered an economic loss of about USD 13.8 billion in the year. Climate change can create water resource problems in arid and semi-arid areas. Further, rising sea levels and associated sea water intrusion would affect the freshwater resources. It can affect drinking water supply and hydroelectric power generation also. Climate change, rising temperature will affect India’s deltas and mangroves 6 with flooding, erosion and salt intrusions, hence endangering the biodiversity of the region. Climate change will also have negative impact on Himalayan glaciers State Response to Climate Change and supply of water in various Northern Rivers. It is noted that snow in Himalayas is receding. It will badly affect the Brahmaputra and Ganges river system. A major report released earlier this year found rising temperatures will melt at least a third of the region’s glaciers by 2100, even if average global temperature rises are limited to 1.5oC. Climate change can enhance the vulnerability of coastal areas which are already prone to various natural disasters like floods, cyclones, land erosion, etc. India is also vulnerable to increases in vector-borne diseases, such as malaria and dengue, which could both see increases due to climate change. Check Your Progress 1 Note: 1) Use the space given below for your answers. 2) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit. 1. Why climate change has become a governance issue? ...... 2. Why India is concerned about climate change? ...... 12.4 INDIA’S RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
In India, concern for environment is already deep-rooted in culture. During ancient times, natural forces like our Sun, fire, and water were equated with deities and worshipped. Kings used to take care of Mother Nature and Earth. In Modern India when we got independence, the State’s role in environment was fully taken care of as enshrined in article 48A, 51A(g). From time to time, Indian government has framed various legislations which aimed at securing a healthy and pollution free environment. As a follow- up to the United Nation Conference on Human Environment held at Stockholm in 1972, India enacted environment-friendly acts like Water Act, Forest Act and Forest Conservation Act. As a response to Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984, India passed historic Environment Protection Act 1988. All these Acts play a proactive role in the protection, conservation and promotion of environment. As far as biggest environment menace-climate change is concerned, Indian government is playing a proactive and dynamic role at International and domestic level. At International level, India is a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and Indian government actively participates in all the international conferences and advocates for common but differentiated responsibility whether it is Kyoto Protocol, Copenhagen or Paris Summit. At present, there is no separate statue on climate change. Indian government’s role and actions are based on UNFCCC’s common but differentiated responsibilities. Indian government is handling climate change issue at two levels viz. mitigation of climate 7 Societal Responses to change, and adaptation to climate change. Various acts and legislations enacted Anthropogenic Climate in this regard include but not limited to Energy Conservation Act 2001 which Change promotes efficient use of energy; and National Tariff Policy 2006 which mandates compulsory purchase of certain percentage of renewable energy. Another important effort is National Action Plan on Climate Change. 12.5 RESPONSE AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL
India has become a key player that is actively shaping the International policy for climate change. India represents the voice of poor countries who can’t risk their social economic growth for the climate change. Starting from World Earth Summit in 1992 that led to the setup of UNFCCC up to 2019, India has always argued that developed countries should take responsibility for climate change given their historic emissions. India has always demanded that per capita emissions should be the key factor to allocate responsibilities for climate change. It was due to India’s efforts along with other developed countries that common but differentiated responsibilities were acknowledged in UNFCCC. India is equally concerned about the gravity of climate change that is why it has always demanded that developing countries especially like the leading one should also take voluntary commitment but only on the receipt of finance and technology transfers from industrial Nations. It was India’s continuous efforts that resulted in Kyoto Protocol of 1997 which required Annexure 1 countries (developed countries) of UNFCCC to commit themselves to certain legally binding targets whereas developing countries were kept free from such commitments. In this way, India largely played a role of protector which ensured development and poverty eradication rights of developing countries while pushing developed countries for strong action on climate change. With India’s rise and economic power, India was placed in the block of emerging economies in place of developing countries. This enhanced India’s role in climate change negotiations. As part of BASIC i.e. China, India, Brazil and South Africa, India started independent negotiations apart from UNFCCC like G 8 + 5 Dialogue on Climate and Energy in 2008 and US led Major Economic Forum on Energy and Climate in 2009. At COP 13 in Bali in 2007, India argued that emerging economies should take voluntary commitment as part of their capabilities to mitigate the climate change. India pledged voluntarily (though non-binding) to reduce emission intensity by 20-25% of the 2005 level by 2020. Further, the announcement of National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and NationallyAppropriate Mitigation Action Strategies, demonstrate the resolute stand of India against climate change. It also committed that its per capita emissions will never exceed per capita emissions of developed countries. From COP 15 Summit at Copenhagen in 2009, India started to take larger role and responsibility for climate change. From all these events we can understand that India wants a meaningful agreement on climate change. Another important role that India plays at International level is through its Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). As per this mechanism, developed countries help sustainable development efforts in developing countries. For their efforts, they get matching certified emissions reduction certificates. It helps them meet their emissions reduction targets. CDM greatly helps developing countries to enhance their sustainable development hence help in the larger cause of climate 8 change adaptation. India is a potential player of global CDM. It has established National CDM Authority in 2003 in Ministry of Environment and Forests. India State Response to Climate Change has 134 sanctioned Clean Development Mechanism projects and earned 170 million INR worth of Certified Emission reductions till 2017. Check Your Progress 2 Note: 1) Use the space given below for your answers. 2) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit. 1. Discuss India’s position on climate change at International level...... 2. What is CDM? ...... 12.6 RESPONSE AT NATIONAL LEVEL 12.6.1 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) Along with a proactive role at International level, Indian government is making so many efforts at National level also. Environment sensitivity is shown in various laws passed by government post 1970s. But their main focus was energy or biodiversity conservation. Direct action on climate change was taken in the form of National Action Plan on Climate Change which was launched in 2008 specifically to deal with climate change. It is an umbrella mission which includes eight National Missions which deal with solar energy, energy efficiency, sustainable agriculture and habitats, water and forestry, the Himalayan ecosystem and research. 12.6.1.1 National Solar Mission Greenhouse gases are one of the main causes behind the global warming and climate change. To curtail GHGs emissions, the National Action Plan on Climate Change aims to encourage use of renewable sources of energy. Given India’s vast solar potential, it launched National Solar Mission for the advancement and utilization of solar energy for power generation and other uses. It aimed at making solar energy competitive so that it can surpass or at least compete with the use of fossil fuels. It focuses on increased utilization of solar thermal technologies in metropolitan areas, industry, transport and business. It aims at the creation of a solar research center, which can help us tapping the optimum solar potential with increased global partnership on technology advancement. It will also help in increasing domestic manufacturing capacity. As a result of National Solar Mission, National Institute of Solar Energy was established under Ministry of New and Renewable Sources in 2013 to assist and supervise the implementation of National Solar Mission. Prime Minister of India Shri. Narendra Modi, and the then President of France, Mr. Francois Hollande launched 9 Societal Responses to International Solar Alliance (ISA) in Paris on the side-lines of CoP 21 in 2015. Anthropogenic Climate ISA aims to provide a platform to the countries that lie completely or partial Change between the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer and have great solar potential. Thus it aims at increasing solar cooperation amongst the nations, which India can utilize in the country. 12.6.1.2 National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency Earlier agriculture and related activities were the main emitter of greenhouse gases but these days energy sector particularly emissions from industry and transport have become the main source of greenhouse gases. So, National Action Plan on Climate Change mainly focused on enhanced energy efficiency. It wants to promote energy strategies that can escalate the energy use efficiency and help us in yielding savings of 10,000 MW by 2012 and 23m tonnes of fuel savings per year. Under this mission in 2010, government also amended the Energy Conservation Act 2001 to include energy conservation in buildings. It brings a scheme for companies to trade energy-savings certificates. It also provided for energy incentives, including cheap taxes on energy-efficient gadgets. Indian Government in April 2015 launched Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric vehicles (FAME) with an aim to boost sales of eco-friendly vehicles in the country. Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) labels on vehicles to show their fuel efficiency. In 2017, government launched Energy Conservation Building Code 2017, developed by Ministry of Power and Bureau of Energy Efficiency. It aims at 30-50% energy savings by commercial buildings. It focuses on reducing building energy consumption and promotes low carbon growth. ECBC 2017 gives clear directions to builders, designers and architects to achieve minimum 25% of energy savings to be ECBC compliant. It includes a scheme named Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT). This allows energy-intensive industries, including thermal power plants, iron and steel, and cement to limit the consumption of energy and sell their energy saving certificates to those that have fallen short. Between 2012 and
2015, it led to savings of 31MtCO2e which is around 1% of India’s current annual emissions. 12.6.1.3 National Mission on Sustainable Habitat Sustainable development is the key to climate change mitigation and adaptation. That is why Indian Government launched National Mission on Sustainable Habitat in urban areas to help in increasing measures of sustainable development. It aims at extending the Energy Conservation Building Code, treatment and recycling of urban waste management. It also aims to promote procurement of efficient vehicles. Supreme Court has directed the government that no Bharat Stage 4 vehicle will be sold in India with effect from 1st April, 2020. Bharat Stage 6 norms will come into force from same date. Delhi has become the first state to adopt BS6 norms for vehicles. 12.6.1.4 National Water Mission Climate change will have severe impact on water supply either through receding glaciers or salt water intrusions near coastal areas. So, there is a dire need for National Water Mission. It sets a target of a 20% enhancement in water utilization efficiency by means of pricing and other relevant and pragmatic measures. National Water Mission adopts an 10 integrated water resource management. It urges to conserve water. It stresses on minimizing wastage and ensure more equitable distribution both across State Response to Climate Change and within states. 12.6.1.5 National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem Himalayan Ecosystem is the backbone of India’s agriculture, monsoon, water supply and bio diversity. Taking care of its vulnerability to climate change, a special mission National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem has been launched by government. It aims to understand the process that affects Himalayan glacier. After its understanding the mission will develop policy measures for sustaining and safeguarding it. It focuses on forest cover, biodiversity and other environmental assets in the Himalayan area 12.6.1.6 National Mission for a Green India The mission for Green India aims at enhancing green and forest cover in India to lessen the impact of greenhouse gases. It aims to increase the forest/tree cover of 5 million hectare. It focuses not only on quantity but quality also. It also aims at increasing forest cover from 23% to 33% of the country. It has the target of annual CO2 sequestration increase by 50- 60Mt by the year 2020. To involve people and securing their participation in enhancing green India, this mission aims to increase forest-based livelihood income for about 3 million households living in and around the forests. It also focuses on promotion of alternative fuels like methanol, ethanol, hydrogen, CNG, LPG and Hybrid Electric Vehicles. 12.6.1.7 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture Since India’s half of the population depends on agriculture or its supporting activities and it is going to be severely hit by climate change, National Mission on Climate Change has specifically launched a separate mission - National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture. It aims at supporting adaptation to climate change. It will focus more on climate-resilient crops, extension of climate insurance mechanisms, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms and adapted agricultural practices. 12.6.1.8 National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change Indian government wants to continuously work hard till the problem of climate change is solved. The National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change promote research to enhance the knowledge on the impacts and threats of climate change so that we can deal with it better. It also seeks higher private sector participation to build up adaptation and mitigation technologies via venture capital funds. It also focuses on increased international collaboration and improved climate modeling capacities. 12.6.2 Low Carbon Growth In order to combat climate change, India has focused on low carbon growth in all sectors of economy. It has tried to minimize conventional sources, promote renewable sources and reduction in carbon emissions. For this purpose, government has taken several initiatives in several fields of the economy which are as following. 11 Societal Responses to 12.6.2.1 Energy Reforms Anthropogenic Climate Change Since India is the world’s second largest coal consumer after China and Energy sector being the one of the prime contributor to greenhouse gases has faced many reforms in India. Indian government has tried to change the face of energy sector in India by focusing on low carbon growth and maximum utilization of renewable energy sources. India is one of the countries with the largest production of energy from renewable sources. According to Paris Agreement by 2030, India will achieve 40% of its total electricity generation from non- fossil fuel sources. In 2015, India set a goal that by 2022 it will install 175GW of renewable energy capacity. It will include 100GW solar, 60GW onshore wind, 10GW bioenergy and 5GW small hydro. It revised Tariff Policy in 2016. It makes it compulsory for power distributors and some large electricity users to buy a proportion of their energy from renewable sources. It also waives inter-state transmission charges for solar and wind energy. India is the 4th largest wind power producer in the world after China, the US and Germany. The success of government’s efforts for renewable energy is visible through the fact that target of installing 20 GW of solar power by 2022 was achieved four years ahead of schedule in 2018. So, India has set a new target of generating 100 GW of solar power by 2022. India has the second largest solar park in the world at Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, with a capacity of 1000 MW. To promote low carbon growth, India strives hard for energy efficiency. India in 2001 established the Bureau of Energy Efficiency. Its main responsibility is to reduce the energy intensity of the economy. Ministry of Power has established a national smart grid mission which tries to build energy efficient grid system in India to minimize the wastage in electricity. A new action plan to cut cooling energy requirements has been launched. Government also aims to replace India’s 14m conventional street lights with LEDs by 2019 with the help of subsidies. 12.6.2.2 Transport Greenhouse gases from vehicles are main source of global warming. Hence India promotes low carbon transport initiatives. In 2011, India launched National Mission for Electric Mobility. It aims to promote electric vehicle (EV) and hybrid manufacturing. It has a target of 30% share of sales for EVs by 2030. It also aims for all new urban buses to be fully electric by 2030. In 2015, India launched its FAME scheme to subsidise electric and hybrid cars, mopeds, rickshaws and buses. India has amended its biofuels policy in 2018. It proposed 20% blend of bioethanol and 5% of biodiesel by 2030. Aviation only represented 1% of India’s emissions in 2014, but given its increasing demand India has become a signatory to Corsia, the UN aviation emission offset scheme. India also promotes coastal shipping and inland water transport, due to their fuel efficiency and cost effectiveness. 12.6.2.3 Agriculture and Forests Agriculture is responsible for around16% of India’s GHG emissions through methane produced from livestock, rice cultivation and nitrous oxide emitted from fertilisers. Already facing a challenge to feed the second largest population of the world with increased and frequent droughts and floods, agriculture is most vulnerable sector to climate change. Under India’s National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), it has taken several steps to tackle 12 agricultural emissions like promotion of lower methane emission rice State Response to Climate Change production, crop diversification away from rice, chemical-free farming and soil health pilot projects. In order to cut down nitrous oxide emissions, neem coating of urea was made compulsory in 2015. India has installed 200,000 solar water pumps to cut down energy consumption. India is also increasing its forest to become a net CO2 sink. It aims at promoting the forest cover area from 24% to 33% of its area. 12.6.2.4 Oil and Gas 29% of India’s total energy consumption comes from oil and it is estimated to be more than double by 2040. Given the large amount of greenhouse gases they emit, India has tried to minimize its consumption and increase its prudent utilization. India has made subsidy cuts and petrol and diesel tax rises to address climate concerns. Gas makes up only 6% of energy consumption in 2017. The government aims to more than double the share of gas in the energy mix to 15% by 2022, so that we can lessen the GHGs emission and use a clean fuel. 12.6.2.5 Disaster Management As a measure of adaptation, India has taken several disaster management steps. It enacted its Disaster Management Act in 2005. It aims at mitigation and preparedness. In 2016, India launched a disaster management plan, which integrates global disaster risk reduction frameworks. India also made an assessment of vulnerability and adaptation under NATCOM which was presented to UNFCCC in 2012. Government has launched various problem specific plans to deal with different disasters like it launched “Flood Management Programme (FMP)” a State sector Scheme in XI Plan which was continued during XII Plan as well. Check Your Progress 3 Note: 1) Use the space given below for your answers. 2) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit. 1. What is National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)? ...... 2. What do you mean by low carbon growth strategies? ...... 3. What are the 8 missions under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)? ......
...... 13 Societal Responses to Anthropogenic Climate 12.7 OTHER ADAPTATION MEASURES Change 12.7.1 National Action Programme to Combat Desertification India is a party to the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is the National Coordinating Agency for the implementation of the UNCCD in the country. A 20 year comprehensive National Action Programme (NAP) to combat desertification in the country has been prepared. The objectives of the programme are community based approach to development; activities to improve the quality of life of the local communities; awareness raising; drought management preparedness and mitigation; Research and Development initiatives and interventions which are locally suited; and strengthening self- governance leading to empowerment of local communities. It is proposed to initiate activities that include, among others, assessment and mapping of land degradation, drought monitoring and early warning system groups, drought preparedness contingency plans, and on-farm research activities for development of indigenous technology. 12.7.2 Watershed Development Programme In India, watershed development has been running under Ministry of Environment and Forest since 1990s. It is now placed under Ministry of Rural Development and Department of Land Resources. Now, it has been integrated with climate change adaptation measures. It aims at mitigating the adverse effects of drought on crops and livestock and to control desertification. Climate change results in reduction in water availability, land productivity, and rural livelihoods. In such times, watershed development areas provide a sense of relief. Watershed management ensures village communities to participate in mitigation and adaptation strategies. They can be trained for carbon free economy in watershed villages. 12.7.3 Command Area Development This program was launched by government of India in 1974-75 with the vision to bridge the gap between irrigation potential and actual utilization. It has been integrated with National Water Mission. It is suggested that modernization of command area will result in increase of about 20% in irrigation efficiency. This is very necessary to save the agriculture from climate vulnerability. Earlier, it was implemented as a State Sector Scheme. Later on, it was merged with Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP). Now it is being implemented under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojna (PMKSY) from 2015-16. Now Command area Development works are restricted to 99 prioritized AIBP projects. 12.7.4 Crop Diversification Due to climate change, flood and drought, cyclone and other natural disasters became severe threat and its frequency is likely to increase in future. Under such situations, crop diversification is an effective adaptation option. Along with maintaining biodiversity, it protects farmer from complete crop failure. It provides better food security and alternative income generation option to farmers. It also 14 reduce chances of crop failure due to insects, diseases and weed. Due to variety of products, it enables farmers to grow surplus products for sale and thus obtain State Response to Climate Change increased income to meet other needs related to household well-being. It can be implemented in a variety of forms and at a variety of scales, allowing farmers to choose a strategy that both increases resilience and provides economic benefits. It require knowledge and skills in affected areas about crop-production techniques, integrated farming systems (including crop rotation and intercropping), and climate resilient production techniques. 12.7.5 NICRA- National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) is “a network project of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) launched in February, 2011. The project aims to enhance resilience of Indian agriculture to climate change and climate vulnerability through strategic research and technology demonstration. Further, the project aims to demonstrate site-specific technology packages on farmers’ fields for adapting to current climate risks; and to enhance the capacity building of scientists and other stakeholders in climate resilient agricultural research and its application. The research on adaptation and mitigation covers crops, livestock, fisheries and natural resource management. The project consists of four components such as Strategic Research, Technology Demonstration, Capacity Building and Sponsored/Competitive Grants”. As of now, the project has shown remarkable results in the development and transfer of technologies such as on-farm water harvesting and management; improved crop varieties (abiotic stress tolerant); conservation agricultural practices; site-specific nutrient management; agro-advisory services, etc (http:// www.nicra-icar.in/nicrarevised/index.php/home1). 12.8 LET US SUM UP
It is clear that India being the second largest populous country and with massive poverty is extremely vulnerable to climate change. Indian Government has sincerely taken a notice of the issue and is trying to give best responsible response to it. It holds the position that some urgent steps must be taken to deal with climate change but not at the cost of development and poverty eradication rights of developing countries. Developed countries should understand their historic responsibility for the past emissions with certain binding cuts on carbon emissions and also by giving assistance in technology and funds to the developing countries. Only with this a vast, in depth and meaningful action can be taken on climate change. On the other hand, India is also taking noteworthy measures at national level. It focuses on sustainable development, clean development, low carbon growth so as to minimize the impact and growth of the climate change. India has also taken steps to minimize its vulnerability by launching focused flagship programmes to deal with different types of disasters. India has taken massive initiatives to promote green growth. It is also contributing in cutting down the emissions worldwide by various measures like Clean Development Mechanism. Thus we can say that India’s response to climate change is pro-active, balanced and just.
15 Societal Responses to Anthropogenic Climate 12.9 KEYWORDS Change Clean Development : A mechanism defined under Article 12 of the Mechanism (CDM) Kyoto Protocol through which investors (governments or companies) from developed (Annex B) countries may finance greenhouse gas emission reduction or removal projects in developing (Non-Annex B) countries, and receive Certified Emission Reduction Units for doing so, which can be credited towards the commitments of the respective developed countries. Desertification : Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas is reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities. Sustainable Agriculture : Sustainable agriculture involves successful management of agricultural resources to satisfy human needs while maintaining the environmental quality and conserving the natural resources. Crop Diversification : Crop diversification is growing of different crops suited to different sowing and harvesting times, assists in achieving sustainable productivity, conserve natural resource, and minimise the environmental impacts of crop cultivation. 12.10 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/ REFERENCES
Dubash, Navroz K. (2012). The Politics of Climate Change in India: Narratives of Equity and Co-Benefits. Working Paper No. 2012/ 1. Delhi: Centre for Policy Research Climate Initiative. https://www.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/ climate_change_adaptation_activities_in_india_part_i.pdf IPCC, 2012: Glossary of terms. In: Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation [Field, C.B., V. Barros, T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. A Special 16 Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate State Response to Climate Change Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, pp. 555-564. Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (2014) Statement by Hon’ble Minister at the High Level Segment of UNFCCC COP-20. New Delhi: GOI. Retrieved on 15 May, 2019 from http://www.envfor.nic.in Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change (2008) National Action Plan on Climate Change. Retrieved on 5 May, 2019 from http://pmindia.nic.in/ climate_change.htm Raghunandan. D. (2013), Rethinking India’s Climate Policy and the Global Negotiations, Oxfam: India Web Links http://www.nicra-icar.in/nicrarevised/index.php/home1 https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-AnnexII_FINAL.pdf IPCC (2001) Third Assessment Report. Retrieved on 9 May, 2019 from https:/ /www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.shtml 12.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1 1. The answer should include following points:
Pervasive impacts of climate change on all the ecosystems and human existence;
Mitigation of and adaptation to climate change involve technologies, finance, and global action.
Climate change policy development and action demand proactive measures by both developed and developing countries. Check Your Progress 2 1. The answer should include following points:
India has become a key player that is actively shaping the International policy for climate change. India represents the voice of poor countries who can’t risk their social economic growth for the climate change.
India has always argued that developed countries should take responsibility for climate change given their historic emissions. India has always demanded that per capita emissions should be the key factor to allocate responsibilities for climate change. It was due to India’s efforts along with other developed countries that common but differentiated responsibilities were acknowledged in UNFCCC.
India is equally concerned about the gravity of climate change that is why it has always demanded that developing countries especially 17 Societal Responses to like the leading one should also take voluntary commitment but only Anthropogenic Climate on the receipt of finance and technology transfers from industrial Change Nations.
India plays a role of protector which ensured development and poverty eradication rights of developing countries while pushing developed countries for strong action on climate change. 2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is a mechanism defined under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol through which governments or companies from developed (Annex B) countries may finance greenhouse gas emission reduction or removal projects in developing (Non-Annex B) countries, and in turn receive Certified Emission Reduction Units for doing so, which can be credited towards the commitments of the respective developed countries. In other words, as per this mechanism, developed countries help sustainable development efforts in developing countries. CDM greatly helps developing countries to enhance their sustainable development hence help in the larger cause of climate change adaptation. Check Your Progress 3 1. Government of India launched National Action Plan on Climate Change way back in 2008 specifically to deal with climate change. It is an umbrella mission which includes eight National Missions which deal with solar energy, energy efficiency, sustainable agriculture and habitats, water and forestry, the Himalayan ecosystem and research. 2. Low carbon growth strategies aim to combat climate change. The strategies aim to minimize the use of conventional sources, promote renewable sources and reduce the carbon emissions. The sectors mainly focussed for low carbon growth strategies are energy sector, transport, oil and gas sector, agriculture and forest sector. 3. The eight missions under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) are National Solar Mission; National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency; National Mission on Sustainable Habitat; National Water Mission; National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem; National Mission for a Green India; National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture; and National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.
18 UNIT 13 RESPONSE OF SUBNATIONAL GOVERNMENT Structure 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Objectives 13.3 Setting the Context 13.3.1 Potential role of Subnational Governments 13.4 Aligning Subnational Goals with National and International Commitments 13.4.1 Subnational Global Climate Leadership 13.4.2 The Paris Agreement, 2015 13.5 Political Champions as Proactive Agents of Change: Empirical Evidences 13.5.1 Peter Vadasz (Austria) 13.5.2 Maurizio Caranza (Italy) 13.5.3 Rangaswamy Shanmugam (India) 13.6 Climate Networks and Subnational Sustainability 13.6.1 The Mexican City Pact 13.6.2 Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI) 13.6.3 C40 Cities 13.6.4 Governors’ Climate and Forests Task Force (GCFTF) 13.6.5 Under 2 Coalition 13.6.6 Action on Climate Today (ACT) 13.7 Policy Entrepreneurs in Climate Action 13.7.1 Strategic Activities 13.7.2 Advocacy 13.7.3 Networking 13.7.4 Idea Generation 13.7.5 Lobbying 13.7.6 Problem Framing 13.7.7 Opportunity Seizing 13.8 A General Behavioural Model towards Combating Climate Change 13.8.1 Motivation 13.8.2 Power 13.8.3 Capacity 13.8.4 Incentives 13.8.5 Constraints 13.9 Let Us Sum Up 13.10 Keywords 13.11 Suggested Further Reading/References
13.12 Answers to Check Your Progress 19 Societal Responses to Anthropogenic Climate 13.1 INTRODUCTION Change In recent decades, there has been a considerable restructuring of the institutional arrangements for sustainable human development. Concurrently, there has been an increasing global concern towards re-examining the economic development with regard to depletion of natural resources. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) stated that although the impacts of anthropogenic climate change are evident across the world, most of the impacts are likely to unfold in the coming decades. In this context, the role of governments, both national and subnational (state actors) are vital in combating climate change. While national governments across the world are making efforts to mitigate GHG emissions, a growing number of climate initiatives are being evolved in subnational governments, such as, states, provinces, and municipalities. Indeed, research and social experiments carried out in different parts of the world have highlighted the transformative role of subnational governments in climate change action (Pablo, et.al, 2018). In this Unit, the response of subnational government in tackling climate change shall be discussed. For the understanding of the learner, the term ‘subnational’ government refers to states/provinces/departments, counties, municipalities, villages, etc. 13.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain the role of subnational government in combating climate change;
analyse various empirical evidences pertaining to subnational climate agenda;
justify the need for networks and alliances in subnational response; and
examine the General Behavioural Model of Local Government with reference to renewable energy. 13.3 SETTING THE CONTEXT
Smith et.al (2011) observes that there was a growing environmental consciousness since the late 1960s and early 1970s. Due to human-nature interaction, the environmental issues emerged as an important element of the geo-political agenda. In 1972, the ‘United Nations Conference on the Human Environment’ was held in Stockholm to engage policymakers in simultaneous promotion of development and environment outcomes. Mrs. Indira Gandhi, the erstwhile Prime Minister of India in her keynote address at the conference insisted that: “…modern man must re-establish an unbroken link with nature and with life” (DeLoughrey and Handley, 2011). Indeed, it was a first of its kind conference that had put environment on the political agenda by inviting leaders from across the world. In this line of logic, various research studies reveal that the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century is burning of fossil fuels and clearing forests. Indeed, the World Bank’s Report on ‘Little Green Data Book 2014’ (Jitendra, 2015) indicates that the natural resources of the world, such as, forests, minerals, energy, agricultural land and protected areas are getting depleted at a faster rate of 45 percent in a year. Experts anticipate that climate change could cause risks to social and natural systems, which may create stress 20 to the vulnerable and marginalised communities. Therefore, the need of the hour is to align climate policy with sustainable development in terms of mitigation and adaptation to the effects. 13.3.1 Potential role of Subnational Governments
The Brundtland Report, 1987, incorporated a chapter on the environmental issues faced by the cities. Also, a global plan of action for sustainable development was adopted to conserve environment (Ozdemir, 2013) in the Earth Summit (1992) through ‘Rio Declaration on Environment and Development’ and ‘Agenda 21’. Subsequently, the European Union (EU) gave a clarion call to the local authorities to establish Local Agenda 21 (LA21) in Chapter 28 of the Agenda 21. Through this LA21, the EU seeks to establish community participation, cooperation, and coordination between local authorities at the global level (Betsill M. and Bulkeley, 2006). At the global level, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) highlighted the need for development and implementation of educational and public awareness programmes on climate change (UNFCCC, 1992). In line with such environment perspectives, the role of subnational governments as agents of change has grown substantially in recent years. Let us understand this perspective in subsequent paragraphs.
In response to UNFCCC, a coalition of local government networks was envisioned to recognise, engage, and empower the subnational governments (WMCCC, 2010) towards energy conservation, citizen participation, and promotion of renewable energy. For instance, in the 13th Conference of Paris (COP-13) held in Bali (2007), the signatories of the World Mayors and Local Government Climate Protection Agreement called upon national governments to: (a) “measure and report on annual reductions of greenhouse gas emissions”; and (b) “act and reduce emissions consistent with a 60% global reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050” (REN21, 2011).
Indeed, interdependence between the state entities, that is, from ‘federal’ to ‘state’ to ‘local’ is relevant for climate resilience vis-a-vis planning, organizing, coordinating, building capacities, learning and sharing of best practices. To illustrate, the government of Colombia has evolved a vertically integrated climate change system to articulate the priorities of national, regional, and local governments. Primarily, it has been conceived to foster sustainable cities and to reconcile bottom-up and top-down climate change strategies. Capizzi et.al, (2017) reports that the Colombian Federation of Municipalities organises workshops, capacity building programmes, and updates about new legal obligations etc. for its municipalities. It is becoming increasingly evident that nations across the world would be unable to engage in international climate obligations without explicit involvement of subnational action (Betsill M. and Bulkeley, 2006). From the above discussions, we can understand the potential role of subnational governments in tackling climate change.
13.4 ALIGNING SUBNATIONAL GOALS WITH NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS
With the aim to respond effectively to the environmental issues related to resource depletion, deforestation, biodiversity, reef systems, fisheries, energy security, etc., the process of dialogue and cooperation among state as well as non-state actors 21 Societal Responses to has been judiciously acknowledged at both local and global platforms. In fact, Anthropogenic Climate Change the role of non-state actors has become a core feature of climate governance that they carry out a multitude of roles, such as, information-sharing, capacity building, policy advocacy, etc. Consequently, the increasing collaborations between state and non-state actors have led to increase in legislations, policies, and social experiments at all levels of government, irrespective of the country- context. To illustrate, a Report on the ‘Global Trends in Climate Change Legislation and Litigation’ states that when the Kyoto Protocol was signed, there were only 72 climate laws and policies across the world. However, as of 2018, there are 1,500 climate laws and policies which denote a twentyfold increase in a span of more than two decades (Nachmany and Setzer, 2018). The climate policies and laws are related to carbon pricing, renewable energy schemes, and vehicle emissions standards. 13.4.1 Subnational Global Climate Leadership A Memorandum of Understanding on ‘Subnational Global Climate Leadership’ was signed in May, 2015, by a group of 12 state governments from seven countries vis-à-vis California, Oregon, Vermont and Washington (USA), Acre (Brazil), Baden-Wurttemberg (Germany), Baja California and Jalisco (Mexico), Catalonia (Spain), Ontario and British Columbia (Canada) and Wales (UK). In order to promote climate action at their level of jurisdiction and to contribute to national government targets, the memorandum seeks to fix the emission limits to below 1990 levels by the year 2050 (UNFCCC, 2015). The signatories (The Climate Group, 2015) seeks to cooperate and coordinate in the issues of common interest like renewable energy; zero emission vehicles, alternate modes of transport – public transit, biking, walking; public outreach; consistent monitoring, reporting, and verification across jurisdictions, etc. In the ensuing paragraph, let us discuss about the state of California in combating climate change. Case Example: Cap and Trade Program (The state of California) Let us discuss about one of the successful climate initiatives of California. Under the Cap and Trade Program, the state of California in 2006 unanimously resolved, that by the year 2020, the GHG emissions would be within the 1990 levels. Cap and Trade is one of the major forms of emissions trading which fixes a cap (limit) on emissions and regulates market to comply within the prescribed limits. This includes reduction of GHG emissions from all domains of economic activity such as, power plants, manufacturers, refineries, and other polluting industries. To illustrate, an industry which could manufacture more goods with low carbon emissions is rewarded in the form of earning allowances (credits). The concerned industry has two options at this level, either to sell (through auction) the allowances to the most polluted industry or save these allowances for their future emissions (EDF, n. a). Ward (2017) points out that through the auction of allowances, the companies could raise more than 4 billion dollars since 2013 and majority of the revenue has been invested to further cut emissions under the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund. Indeed, the revenue has multiplied since inception that according to the International Carbon Action Partnership (2019), the total revenue for the year 2018 was 3.02 billion dollars, out of which 35% has been allocated for the welfare of disadvantaged and low-income communities of California. 22 13.4.2 The Paris Agreement, 2015 With the aim to foster climate resilience, a long term goal was chalked out by 196 entities in the Paris Agreement (2015). Primarily, this was signed to safeguard livelihoods and food security and nutrition and to increase the adaptive capacity of people and institutions (UNFCCC, 2015). The Agreement entrusted the responsibility of the world nations to decide their own climate targets through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). 62 countries including India account for 52 percent of global GHG emissions had signed the agreement (Koshy, 2016). In tune with NDCs, India, in its climate action plan pledged to reduce its carbon emissions per unit of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to 33 percent by 2030. In response to global climate action, the Agreement aimed to involve subnational governments in evolving policies and implementation strategies. In the climate negotiations the preamble acknowledges “the importance of the engagement of all levels of government and various actors in accordance with respective national legislations of Parties, in addressing climate change” (The Paris Agreement, 2015). Subnational governments were not signatories to the agreement, yet, Article 7(2) signifies that climate change “adaptation is a global challenge faced by all with local, sub-national, national, regional and international dimensions…and makes a contribution to the long-term global response to climate change to protect people, livelihoods and ecosystems” (The Paris Agreement, 2015). Pablo et.al (2018) points out that despite the fact that United States of America (USA) withdrew from the Paris Agreement, the state of California (USA) extended its support to global climate action. Such efforts intend to align subnational climate interventions with the global climate agreements, thus, making meaningful contribution in combating climate change. Check Your Progress 1 Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Explain the potential role of subnational government in combating climate change...... 2) Describe the cap and trade program of the state of California...... 3) Give a brief account on the Paris Agreement, 2015......
...... 23 Societal Responses to Anthropogenic Climate 13.5 POLITICAL CHAMPIONS AS PROACTIVE Change AGENTS OF CHANGE: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCES
In this section let us look into the role of individual champions (political) who have had made a positive impact in climate action. 13.5.1 Peter Vadasz (Austria) In the late 1980s, the city of Gussing, Austria, encountered a lot of social and economic problems, such as, inadequate industrial growth, high unemployment rates, migration, poor infrastructure facilities, inflation, etc (Joanneum Research, 2015). To resolve the problems, the city strategised to become 100% fossil fuel free and energy self-sufficient. Eventually, this could map Gussing as a success model for sustainable energy supply of a city (Joanneum Research 2015). One of the crucial factors of success in Gussing’s success model of renewable energy was its Mayor Peter Vadasz. To overcome the problem of economic crisis in the city it was aimed to: (a) optimum utilisation of local resources; (b) creation of new job market; and (c) increase in regional added value through renewable energy (European Centre for Renewable Energy, 2011). Due to the strong political will from the Mayor, in 1993, the local council adopted a resolution to draft an energy study on the future energy supply. In 1996, a biomass district heating plant was constructed to cater to the energy needs of 4,000 inhabitants and as a first step all the public buildings of Gussing were connected to the grid. Later, other key stakeholders teamed up in this project like European Centre for Renewable Energy (German abbreviation EEE), European Union, Austria, Burgenland Province, companies, national and international research institutes working in the field of renewable energy, and the citizens of Gussing (European Centre for Renewable Energy, 2011). The impact is worth emulating as the city has achieved its 100% energy self- sufficient (excluding industrial energy consumption) and reduction of carbon emissions from 37,000 tons in 1996 to 22,500 tons in 2009. It attracted more than 50 new companies and created more than 1,000 new job opportunities for its inhabitants (Joanneum Research, 2015). According to European Centre for Renewable Energy, 2011, the municipal revenue increased from 340,000 Euros in 1993 to 1.5 million Euros in 2009. Indeed, the success factors of Gussing model began includes strong political and administrative commitment, increased economic value, high citizen participation, and wider publicity. 13.5.2 Maurizio Caranza (Italy) Varese Ligure, a municipality situated in the province of La Spezia, Italy, aimed to develop a renewable energy supply at an affordable cost to its inhabitants. The ‘100%-Renewable Energy-region project’ in Europe was an opportunity for the village to transform itself into a sustainable community. The project indicated that to access the funds from European Union (EU) the locals were to renovate their houses. The funds were utilised for installation of wind turbines and solar photovoltaic cells, and local water supply. In fact, Beermann (2009) while citing the work of Giovanna Dunmall accounts that the former political head-Mayor Maurizio Caranza viewed the “structural conditions of the 24 mountainous municipality vis-à-vis geographical isolation, lack of modern industry, the run-down property and outdated farming techniques as a chance for renewal rather than a reason for resignation”.
Initially, the challenge was to convince people but later the local political head could manage to win the trust of the inhabitants by establishing a sustainable tourist destination through organic farming and renewable energy. To illustrate, in 1996, the Environment Education Centre was started to educate children about sustainable agriculture, energy consumption and climate change (Guevara-Stone, 2014). Guevara-Stone (2014) reports that since the late 1990s, “there has been a 500 percent increase in tourists, an additional 514,000 dollars in annual tax revenues, 140 new jobs and a stable population”. With the pioneering efforts of the Mayor, the municipality could meet its energy needs as well as sell the surplus to the national grid at an annual profit of 30,000 Euros (Beermann, 2009). 13.5.3 Rangaswamy Shanmugam (India)
In 1996, the Odanthurai gram panchayat commenced its green initiative by installing solar street lighting. To become self-sufficient in energy sector, the panchayat took a step forward by investing in wind mill. The erstwhile gram panchayat leader Rangaswamy Shanmugam had a vision to make the village community as owners of natural resources in terms of land and wind. Under the Remunerative Enterprises Scheme, in 2006, the Tamil Nadu state government sanctioned the project which was first of its kind to be undertaken by a local body in India (Down to Earth, n. d.). Since Odanthurai is located close to the wind turbines, the panchayat leader aspired to utilise the resources for the common good. Consequently, with a cost of Rs. 1.53 crores, a 350-kw wind power generator was installed with an estimated average of 9.0 lakh units of energy per annum (Palanithurai G., et.al, 2008).
In a bid to reduce the carbon consumption, he procured solar lights for the panchayat and thus saved about fifty thousand rupees annually to the village panchayat (Palanithurai G., et.al, 2008). Indeed, the sustainable practices had made professionals and government officials to pay frequent visits to Odanthurai and the local leader was invited to share his sustainable practices with rural institutions like State Institute of Rural Development (SIRD), Kerala Institute of Local Administration (KILA), Renewable Energy Training Centre (RETC), Gandhigram Rural University and alike (Palanithurai G., et.al, 2008). As of 2018, the panchayat receives an annual income of 1.9 million by selling surplus energy to the grid (Balasubramaniam, 2018).
Given the empirical evidences on human-induced climate change, the policy deliberations on renewable energy at the international forums have been influencing the policies and actions of local government. From the above evidences, we can understand the indispensable role of political champions of subnational governments in reducing GHG emissions and promotion of renewable energy. 25 Societal Responses to Anthropogenic Climate 13.6 CLIMATE NETWORKS AND SUBNATIONAL Change SUSTAINABILITY
In this section, we shall discuss the intercontinental climate networks towards subnational sustainability. 13.6.1 The Mexican City Pact In 2010, with the ambition to take concrete steps in climate change mitigation and adaptation, the Mexican City Pact (MCP) was signed by mayors of 138 cities. This Pact is also known as the ‘Global Cities Covenant on Climate and Energy’. Significantly, it intended to create a platform for cities and subnational governments for direct access of financial resources with different institutions vis-à-vis regional, national, and transnational. As climate change management became a priority at the regional level, local governments voluntarily came forward for measurable, reportable, and verifiable climate action by launching the Carbonn Cities Climate Registry (cCCR). The following are the ten action points adopted by the city mayors (Climate Initiatives Platform, 2018): a. Voluntarily reduce their GHG emissions; b. Adopt and implement local measures of climate mitigation; c. Development of local strategies for adaptation; d. Register the climate commitments, measures and actions; e. Spur the creation of mechanisms for direct access to the international funding for the local climate actions; f. To establish the secretariat of the MCP; g. To promote the civil society inclusion in the fight against climate change; h. Search of alliances with multilateral institutions and national governments for the local climate actions; i. Promote alliances and cooperation among cities; and j. Disseminate the message of the MCP. Consequently, the cities have been working on the following areas using various strategies (Climate Initiatives Platform, 2018): energy, transportation and mobility, water, carbon finance, soil use/zoning, urban development, public policy, biodiversity, air quality and GHG emissions, wastes, education, health, studies, plans and inventories, and agriculture. With the objective to build climate resilient society, thousands of cities across the world have resolved to reduce carbon emissions by diversifying their options in renewable energy (Global Covenant of Mayors, 2019). From Table 13.1, we can infer that in the European Union (EU) and Western Europe the commitment of the cities have been exuberant. To illustrate, in the city of Basel, Switzerland, green roofs have been implemented as a climate adaptation measure for the reduction of indoor temperatures, absorption of rainwater, prevention of urban floods, protection of micro-climatic conditions, etc. Owing to introduction of subsidies as well as incentive programmes, green roofs became a viable financial alternative. 26 Table 13.1: Cities committed to combat climate change in different regions Region Number of Cities Committed
Sub Saharan Africa 113
East Asia 33
European Union and Western Europe 7316
Latin America and Caribbean 200
Middle East and North Africa 53
North America 177
Oceania 35
South Asia 16
Southeast Asia 63
Source: Website of Global Covenant of Mayors (As on April, 2019) In order to promote green roofs, the canton of Basel-Stadt came up with a 5% levy on energy bills for its customers under the Energy Saving Fund. In 2002, an amendment was made to the Building and Construction law of Basel that “all new and renovated flat roofs must be greened and designed to improve biodiversity”, thus, making the city of Basel as “one of the world’s largest areas of green roofs per capita” (Climate-ADAPT, 2018). 13.6.2 Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI) In 1990, with the objective to promote sustainable urban development and to represent environment concerns of local governments in global platforms, Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI) was formed. It is an intercontinental network comprising of 1,750 local and regional governments. Previously known as International Coalition for Local Environmental Initiatives, ICLEI acts as a facilitator in influencing sustainable policies and establishing linkages across subnational and national governments, global policy actors, and stakeholder group vis-à-vis city-to-city, city-to-region, local-to-global, and local-to-national networks. One of the core missions of ICLEI is to foster a global movement of local governments for a sustainable future through collective action. ICLEI steers to bring sustainable change in five development pathways, in terms of “low-emission, nature-based, equitable, resilient, and people-centric development” (ICLEI, 2018). 13.6.3 C40 Cities With the objective to reduce carbon emissions, the erstwhile Mayor of London Ken Livingstone convened representatives from 18 megacities in the year 2005 to form ‘C20’. One of the notable initiatives was to create policies and strategies for renewable energy market. Within a year of its inception, it had grown up to 40 cities and thus came to be known as C40. The core mission of C40 27 Societal Responses to is to conduct workshops amongst the member cities and to exchange best Anthropogenic Climate Change practices on what was done and what was learnt as part of combating climate change. The development of C40 into a strong network of city governance came under the guidance of Mayor David Miller of Toronto (Canada) who had chaired C40 Chair during 2008-2010. In 2009, UN climate talks held in Copenhagen (Denmark) acknowledged the potential role of cities in influencing climate strategies. One of the milestones in the development of C40 was its formal merger with Cities Programme of the Clinton Climate Initiative (CCI). This step intended to strengthen mutual partnership in reducing GHG emissions in realising climate goals, such as, Climate Positive Development Programme and the Carbon Finance Capacity Building Programme. To illustrate, in 2011, to promote climate action in cities, the C40 personnel teamed up with CCI City Directors and relevant programme officers (C40, 2019). The former New York Mayor Bloomberg (past Chair of C40) commented that the C40 had taken “more than 4,700 actions to tackle climate change and the will to do more are stronger than ever” (Knapp, 2013). Further, C40 entered into partnerships with the World Bank and ICLEI in order to streamline the process of climate financing. 13.6.4 Governors’ Climate and Forests Task Force (GCFTF) With the objective to realise policy innovations and leadership at the subnational level, Governors’ Climate and Forests Task Force (GCFTF) was launched in the year 2008. Initially, Memorandum of Understanding on climate and forests cooperation was signed among nine governors from Brazil, Indonesia, and USA. By 2009, the membership grew up to 38 and unveiled its subnational presence in ten countries vis-à-vis Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Indonesia, Ivory Coast, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Spain and USA. Primarily, the aim of GCFTF was to design innovative approaches to low emissions development and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) and implement at the respective subnational levels. Apart from responding effectively to the adversary impacts of tropical deforestation and climate change, GCFTF aims to take action against ecological disruption, biodiversity loss, food/energy/water insecurity, and rural poverty (GCFTF, 2019). One of the notable working cultures of GCFTF is to encourage its respective country coordinators to: (a) identify good practices; (b) share experiences to the wider public domain; and (c) develop common outlook. Another noteworthy approach of GCFTF is to seek solutions as a jurisdiction-wide approach and not as an individual project approach. Due to the commonality of problems in people’s livelihood and similarity of environmental hazards, this network seeks to provide comprehensive response to: (a) evolve cross-sectoral policies; (b) stimulate learning and training; (c) support policy innovations; (d) involve civil servants and civil society; and (e) promote collaborations from all levels of government and different stakeholders (GCFTF, 2019). 13.6.5 Under2 Coalition Under2 Coalition comprises of over 220 governments that account for 1.3 billion people in the world (Under2 Coalition, 2019). In line with global frameworks 28 on climate change, the chief objective of this endeavour is to form networks with proactive state and regional governments to evolve and execute climate policies. Let us look into one of the examples in the subsequent paragraph.
Case Example: The case of Bio Bus Project in Santa Fe (Argentina)
In 2018, the province of Santa Fe (Argentina) started a green innovation ‘Bio Bus’ project in urban transport which includes electric buses that run on solar energy and biodiesel. As part of Under2 Coalition project, the Bio Bus is an exemplary initiative of powering public transport by using renewable energy in place of fossil fuels. In an effort to create sustainable mobility, few of the conventional buses in the city of Rosario in Santa Fe have been converted to hybrid bus and it has made substantial impact in terms of both costs and carbon emissions. For instance, the hybrid buses consume 30% less fuel compared to conventional fuel (Under2 Coalition, 2019). The Under2 Coalition (2019) reports the potential impact of bio bus: (a) economic impact – promotes investments in solar energy; (b) social impact – generation of green jobs, improves public health in urban areas; (c) environmental impact – clean and green environment leads to local biodiversity.
13.6.6 Action on Climate Today (ACT)
Funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) Action on Climate Today (ACT) is a five year initiative that seeks to build resilience with governments of South Asia vis-à-vis Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Indian states – Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Kerala, and Maharashtra. Let us look into one of its initiatives in Kerala (ACT, 2019).
Case Example: The state of Kerala
Since 2016, ACT has been supporting the following activities: (a) climate change priorities into the state’s planning board; (b) assessment of vulnerabilities among coastal communities; (c) evolve a budgeting tool for State Action Plan Financing Framework (SAPFIN) at all levels of government; and (d) technical assistance to the Climate Change Cell (ACT, 2018). ACT along with ‘Climate and Development Knowledge Network’ has also been instrumental in developing a policy brief on ‘Gender Policy Framework for State Action Plans on Climate Change’ (SAPCC). It was submitted to the Ministry of Environment, Forestry, and Climate Change by the end of 2018. Indeed, based on Kerala’s initiative, the Ministry has requested all the states in India to examine their respective SAPCC from gender perspectives (India Environment Portal, 2018).
At the state level, ACT has accelerated the state’s capacity to access national and international funds. To illustrate, in order to promote integrated farming in the coastal wetlands, the fisheries department could access climate finance of Rs. 125 crores from National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change (NAFCC). Secondly, by establishing networks with Kerala Institute of Local Administration (KILA) and Directorate of Environment and Climate Change, ACT has so far trained 330 Gram Panchayats to evolve Local Action Plan on Climate Change (LAPCC) (ACT, 2018).
Owing to the complexity of the environment problems, the number of alliances and networks has been multiplying in the recent years, such as, U.S. Conference of Mayors Climate Protection Agreement, European Covenant of Mayors and 29 Societal Responses to alike. From the empirical evidences cited in this section, the need for interface Anthropogenic Climate Change between subnational governments and global municipal networks could be gauged. Check Your Progress 2 Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Describe the renewable efforts taken up by the local political leaders’ with examples...... 2) Give an account on the Mexican City Pact...... 3) Highlight the role of ‘Action on Climate Today (ACT)’ in Indian context...... 13.7 POLICY ENTREPRENEURS IN CLIMATE ACTION
Policy entrepreneurs are a variety of actors spread across different institutions who usually express concern about a common problem and calls for prompt action of policy makers. According to Kingdon’s Model of Policy Streams, “policy entrepreneurs are key figures active in the policy community, who invest their time, energy and resources... (Kingdon, 1995)”. In fact, Kingdon identifies “policy entrepreneurs” as individual actors, such as, cabinet secretaries, senators, economists, and others. Rinfret, et.al (2018) classifies policy entrepreneurs as political/bureaucratic champions, parliamentarians/congressmen, scientists who promote their research agenda, and members of interests group or organisations. A key figure in policy entrepreneurship to illustrate is the former Vice President of USA, Al Gore who supports legislative efforts to combat climate change in both USA as well as in other countries (Rinfret, et.al, 2018). The chief activities associated with policy entrepreneurs are as follows (Taliawi, 2017): 13.7.1 Strategic Activities It include evolving operational roadmap, long and short term goals, etc. For example, Soren Hermansen, a native of Samso (an island village in Denmark) could transform a fossil fuel dependent village into a model renewable energy village within a decade, that is, 1997-2007. As a result, in comparison to the 30 national average of 6.2 tonnes of carbon footprint in a year, the inhabitants could achieve a negative carbon footprint (also known as climate positive) of 12 tonnes per person in a year (Lewis, 2017). With his mission to inspire local communities to achieve energy self-sufficiency across the world, Soren’s best practices have been used as a sustainable model for projects. 13.7.2 Advocacy It includes disseminating global concerns on climate change through popular media and mobilising public opinion. Taliawi (2017) asserts the role of UNFCCC as policy entrepreneur in aligning the climate agenda of the signatory countries to the Kyoto Protocol through newsletters, press headlines, speeches, workshops, and others. 13.7.3 Networking It includes establishing connections with concerned stakeholders and pursuance of climate negotiations. To illustrate, the Climate Alliance is an extensive network of the European Union (EU) comprising of cities, municipalities, districts, provinces, and non-state actors. It is considered as one of the world’s largest city network which collaborates in combating climate change with as many as 1,741 members spread across 26 EU countries. Chiefly, the members complement each other in extending support to the administrative and technical structures of local bodies (The Climate Alliance, 2019). 13.7.4 Idea Generation It includes developing proposals and staying rooted with local concerns. In India, with the objective to tackle water shortage in peak summer, the Ladakh inventor Sonam Wangchuk built a 64 foot ice stupa in 2015. The conical artificial glacier could irrigate 5000 poplar and willow trees in Phyang Monastery in Ladakh (Yashwant, 2016). In recognition of his mountain project, the municipal head of Pontresina (a mountain village in Switzerland) expressed interest to learn this low-technology and high innovation project for sustainable agriculture and tourism (Yashwant, 2016). There have been similar policy entrepreneurs who could make fundamental change in conception and execution of sustainable projects. 13.7.5 Lobbying It includes mobilising proponents of policies and related stakeholders. For instance, Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), a not for profit organisation has been instrumental in reduction of sulphur content in diesel and petrol, use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in public transport systems, etc (CSE, 2019). 13.7.6 Problem Framing It includes collecting empirical evidences to substantiate and aligning solutions to the proposed problem. For instance, Mahesh Chandra Mehta’s public interest environmental litigation has been instrumental in evolving environmental jurisprudence in Indian constitution (MCMEF, 2019). In fact, he interpreted the constitutional right to life as a right to clean and healthy environment and spearheaded the cause of ‘polluter pays principle’ in India wherein polluters are liable to compensate for their contribution towards environment hazards. 31 Societal Responses to As a result of his petition on protecting Taj Mahal from the nearby refineries Anthropogenic Climate Change and industries in Agra, the Supreme Court passed a landmark judgment to ban the use of coal and coke and instructed industries to use Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) (MCMEF, 2019). 13.7.7 Opportunity Seizing It includes turning crises into opportunities for promoting the problem agenda. For instance, Dr. Debra Roberts, Head of the Environmental Planning and Climate Protection Department, EThekwini Municipality, Durban (South Africa), has turned environment problems into opportunities in the municipality. She has been a pioneer in climate change adaptation of African cities that the municipality leads grassroots innovations and actions. To illustrate, she has led the municipality in reforestation projects on a massive scale, thus, envisioning it as a resilient city in the long run (EThekwini Municipality Website). Each policy entrepreneurial activity is mutually dependent and influences the policy process of the governments at all levels. And policy entrepreneurs extend their support depending on their domain expertise. 13.8 A GENERAL BEHAVIOURAL MODEL TOWARDS COMBATING CLIMATE CHANGE
Based on China’s local government scenario, Qi et.al (2008) conceptualises a model, MPC-IC model to comprehend the response of local government with respect to variables, such as, motivation, power, capacity, incentives, and constraints. The authors are of the opinion that these variables play a crucial role in determining the proactive behaviour of the local government toward climate change. Let us understand the below mentioned variables with special reference to local government institutions of various countries: 13.8.1 Motivation The model highlights that the government revenue as the major motivating factor that could lead to harmonious development of social equity, stability, and environmental well-being. With economic development as the primary factor to drive in the interest of local government, the model postulates to create a business ecosystem which would generate taxes, fees, and dividends for the local economy. Secondly, the model indicates that the motivation of government at the local level is determined by the motivation of officials at the apex level. Qi et.al (2008) identifies motivation factor as the “collective expression” of key government officials. Example 1 – The Town of Kuzumaki (Japan) In an effort to substitute renewable energy for fossil fuels and to protect the town from economic collapse in the late 1990s, the former Mayor of Kuzumaki - Tetsuo Nakamura was able to build eco-consciousness among its inhabitants (Loth, 2007). Through town hall meetings, educational excursions, publishing newsletter, the city council were able to encourage local people to embrace renewable energy. For instance, the farm waste of the town has been used 32 to generate biomass power (REN21, 2011). 13.8.2 Power The second variable in this model is ‘Power’. According to Qi et.al (2008), “power acts as a key factor in local government behaviour”. This could be inferred as the power of local government to align plans and actions in tune with government policy and the authority to legislate eco-friendly initiatives as per the local context. Example 2 - The City of Ashville: Resolution on Renewable Energy In 2018, the city of Ashville (United States of America), passed a resolution to reduce municipal energy consumption from fossil-fuelled energy and to secure 100% renewable energy by 2030. The resolution intends to ensure that the concerns of the marginalised communities are to be incorporated. Further, it was resolved to co-convene a joint Energy Innovation Task Force (EITF) with Buncombe County for funding renewable energy planning services (Ashville Resolution, 2018). 13.8.3 Capacity Firstly, this includes the capacity to utilise financial resources allocated for renewable energy and to mobilise human resources for the same. Secondly, this includes the ability of local governance in using its discretion to deal with context-specific issues, such as, choosing the renewable energy options as appropriate to the locality (wind or solar), identifying potential partners and service providers, engaging public in smart metering technologies, etc. Example 3 - The City of Toronto: Reduction in Carbon Emissions With the ambition to prioritise energy conservation and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 30% by 2020, the city of Toronto (Canada), has installed solar plant on all public buildings. Further, to provide finances at low-interest rates for renewable energy projects, it has established a corpus fund of 20 million dollars under the Sustainable Energy Fund. In order to promote innovative modes of community ownership, it has facilitated for ‘solar neighbourhood’ initiatives. According to The Atmospheric Fund Report, “Toronto has reduced its carbon emissions in 2016 by 6% and 33% since 1990…” (Smith, 2019). The report highlights that the city has achieved this target ahead of schedule, that is, before 2020. On an optimistic note, the report suggests that “Toronto’s carbon emissions are continuing to decline and are on the right track to meet its goal of reducing carbon emissions by 80% by 2050" (Smith, 2019). 13.8.4 Incentives With the objective to ensure energy security, governments establish benchmarks for the lower level governments for innovation and citizen participation. Primarily, such initiatives have been instituted to provide incentives to those institutions that commit to reduce carbon emissions. The incentives are often in the form of financial incentives that serve as an influential mechanism to take up such alternative sources of energy. To illustrate, the apex department may provide incentives or rewards to the local governments that could comply with environment mandates and standards.
33 Societal Responses to Example 1 - Njeezhoor Gram Panchayat: Renewable Energy Award Anthropogenic Climate Change With the aim to recognise the eco-friendly attempts initiated by local government, enterprises, organisations, individuals, etc. in renewable energy technologies, the state government of Kerala has instituted the “Kerala State Renewable Energy Awards” in 2017. Indeed, Njeezhoor Gram Panchayat in the Kottayam district of Kerala was honoured with Rs. 1 lakh prize under the local government category (ANERT, 2018) for being self-reliant in solar power generation. By crediting the local government efforts, the state government stay committed to its energy conservation and thus motivates other local governments to emulate sustainable practices. 13.8.5 Constraints Qi et.al (2008) opines that “the local governments are confined by their political, legal, administrative and social frameworks…” However, in China the constraints on local governments are less stringent that often they are not affected by public opinion owing to its top down structure. In Indian context, local governments too face similar constraints, especially, in terms of skilled manpower while implementing sustainable initiatives. As a result, the best practices often function in silos that replication takes time to evolve. To illustrate, establishing wind farms in India requires a whole gamut of administrative and legal processes which includes land acquisition, commissioning of services, operations and maintenance. Indeed, the tendency of subnational governments to reduce carbon emissions and initiate renewable energy options is largely determined by the efforts of leaders at the local level. On the whole, the model MPC-IC puts forth a broad checklist to understand the status of renewable energy in subnational government. Although, this was conceived by the scholars for the use of local government, this framework could be applied for other subnational governments as the issues are of similar in nature. Check Your Progress 3 Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1) What do you understand by the term ‘policy entrepreneurs’? ...... …………...... 2) Explain the role of policy entrepreneurship in combating climate change with appropriate examples...... 34 3) Explain the General Behavioural Model of Local Government in terms of ‘motivation’ and ‘power’...... 13.9 LET US SUM UP
Precipitated by the adversary impact of climate change, such as, melting of polar ice sheets, rising sea levels, extreme weather conditions, frequent drought and water crisis, etc., sustainable development initiatives has been integrated into the operations and governing mandate of state and non-state actors. Due to human-nature interaction, the environmental issues emerged as an important element of the geo-political agenda. Experts anticipate that climate change could cause risks to social and natural systems, which may create stress for the vulnerable and the marginalised. In line with such environment perspectives, the role of subnational governments as agents of change has grown substantially in recent years. Subnational governments across the world continue to serve as sustainable models that there has been an increase in intercontinental networks in terms of capacity building, information sharing, mobilising public opinion, policy entrepreneurship. Indeed, scaling up of sustainable climate initiatives from local to global and vice-versa enable to increase the adaptive capability of individuals and institutions. 13.10 KEYWORDS
Bottom-up Climate : Climate change strategies are evolved by Change Strategies lower level governments or grassroots champions. It is emulated at the national or international level. Carbon Pricing : It is an instrument that captures the costs of GHG emissions that the citizen is liable to pay, such as, droughts, heat waves, flooding, sea level rise, change in soil chemistry, climate-induced diseases, extreme weather conditions, etc. Carbonn Cities Climate : It is a global mechanism developed for Registry (cCCR) local governments by local governments at the World Mayors Summit in 2010. It enables them to publicly and regularly report their local climate action developments vis-à-vis greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction commitments, emissions inventories, climate mitigation, adaptation actions, targets achieved, etc. Carbon Finance Capacity : It is a partnership between the World Building Program (CFCB) Bank Institute (WBI), Carbon Finance Assist (CF-A) Program and the C40 Cities Initiative 35 Societal Responses to to assist emerging megacities of developing Anthropogenic Climate Change and emerging countries. Cities under the CFCB programme get support in reducing or avoiding GHGs. Climate Positive : Under C40’s Urban Planning and Development Program Development Initiative, the Climate Positive Development Program supports the creation and implementation of large-scale urban communities that reduce GHG emissions and serve as models for cities to grow in environmentally sustainable and economically viable ways. Climate Resilience : According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, climate resilience is the “capacity of social, economic, and environmental systems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance, responding or reorganizing in ways that maintain their essential function, identity, and structure, while also maintaining the capacity for adaptation, learning, and transformation.” Emissions Trading : It is a market-based approach to control pollution. Geo-political Agenda : It refers to the combination of factors, such as, geography, economics, demography and its impact on politics and policy of a state. Governance Innovations : Governance innovations are novel rules, regulations and approaches that seek to address a public problem in more efficacious and effective ways, lead to better policy outcomes and enhance legitimacy. Green Roof : A green roof system is an extension of the existing roof which involves, at a minimum, high quality water-proofing, root repellent system, drainage system, filter cloth, a lightweight growing medium, and plants. Jurisdiction-wide Approach : Jurisdictional approaches seek to facilitate a consensus among different people, governments and the private sector for sustainable rural development within a jurisdiction. Jurisdictions are selected on the basis of whether they have the authority to address the challenges associated with sustainable rural development.
36 Nationally Determined : It embodies efforts by each country to Contributions (NDCs) reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Negative Carbon Footprint : It means that an activity goes beyond or Climate Positive achieving net zero carbon emissions to actually create an environmental benefit by removing additional carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Both the terms are used interchangeably. Smart Metering : It provides customers reliable information on Technologies how they use energy and enable those customers to reduce their excess consumption. Solar Neighbourhood : It provides people with affordable locally produced clean energy without installing any panels on their rooftops. It is a sustainable practice to fight again climate change. Top-down Climate Change : Climate change strategies are evolved by Strategies the national governments or global actors. It is implemented by lower level governments. 13.11 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/ REFERENCES
Action on Climate Today, (2019). About Us. Retrieved from: https:// www.actiononclimate.today/about/ Action on Climate Today, (2018). Gender inclusive State Action plan for Climate Change (SAPCC) Kerala. Retrieved from: https:// www.actiononclimate.today/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/ gender_inclusive_state_action_plan_for_climate_change_sapcc_kerala_av_v2.pdf Agency for Non-conventional Energy and Rural Technology (ANERT), 2018. Kerala State Energy Renewable Awards 2018. Retrieved from: http://103.251.43.130/index.php?option=com_content& view=article&id=265 Ashville Resolution (July, 2018). Resolution authorizing the City Manager to enter into an inter-local agreement with Buncombe County to co-fund a request for proposals for renewable energy planning services. Retrieved from: https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2018-11/documents/step_2- _asheville_resolution_to_support_a_re_planning_rfp.pdf Ashville Resolution (October, 2018). Resolution establishing a 100% renewable energy goal for the city of Ashville. Retrieved from: https:/ /www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2018-11/documents/step_1- asheville_re_resolution.pdf Capizzi, Pasquale (et.al), (2017), Enabling subnational climate action through multi-level governance. Retrieved from: https://www.international-climate- 37 Societal Responses to initiative.com/fileadmin/Dokumente/2017/ Anthropogenic Climate Change GIZ_ICLEI_UNHabitat_2017_EN_Enabling_subnational_climate_action.pdf Balasubramanian, Sharada (2018). Odanthurai uses renewable energy for all-round development. Retrieved from: https://indiaclimatedialogue.net/2018/06/13/odanthurai-uses-renewable-energy-for- all-round-development/ Beermann, Jan. (2009). 100% Renewable Energy Regions in Europe - A comparative analysis of local renewable energy development. Retrieved from: http://seacourse.dk/download/Beermann09.pdf Betsill, M., Michele, and Bulkeley, Harriet. (2006). Cities and the Multilevel Governance of Global Climate Change. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/ stable/27800607 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). (2019). Pollution Monitoring. Retrieved from: https://www.cseindia.org/pollution-monitoring-557 C40. (2019). History of the C40. Retrieved from: https://www.c40.org/ history Climate-ADAPT (2018). 10 Case Studies-How Europe is adapting to Climate Change. Retrieved from: https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/about/ climate-adapt-10-case-studies-online.pdf Climate Initiatives Platform (2018). Retrieved from: http:// climateinitiativesplatform.org/index.php/Mexico_City_Pact Deloughrey, Elizabeth and Handley, B. George (2011). (Ed. s.) Postcolonial Ecologies: Literatures of the Environment. New York: Oxford University Press Down to Earth, n. d., A local body’s way-A Tamil Nadu Panchayat invests in wind energy. Retrieved from: https://cdn.downtoearth.org.in/themes/DTE/ images/case-studies-51-52.pdf Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) (n.a). California’s cap-and-trade program step by step. Retrieved from: https://www.edf.org/sites/default/ files/californias-cap-and-trade-program-step-by-step.pdf EThekwini Municipality-Communications Unit. (n.a). Climate Change Award for Dr Debra Roberts. Retrieved from: http://www.durban.gov.za/ Resource_Centre/Press_Releases/Pages/Climate-Change-Award-for-Dr-Debra- Roberts.aspx European Centre for Renewable Energy (2011). The Development of Renewable Energy in Güssing. Retrieved from: http://lgddlawarmii.pl/data/ documents/Rozwoj-Energii-Odnawialnej-w-Gussing.pdf GCFTF (2019). The Governors’ Climate & Forests Task Force. Retrieved from: https://gcftf.org/about Global Covenant of Mayors. (2019). Retrieved from: https:// www.globalcovenantofmayors.org/regions/
38 Guevara-Stone, Laurie (2014). How a small town in Italy became a model of sustainability. Retrieved from: https://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2014/01/06/how-small-town-italy- became-model-sustainability ICLEI, World Congress (2018). ICLEI in the Urban Era. Retrieved from: https://worldcongress2018.iclei.org/wp-Content/uploads/ World%20Congress%202018%20booklet.pdf IPCC, (2007). Summary for Policymakers, In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Retrieved from: https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ar4-wg1- spm-1.pdf India Environment Portal. (2018). Gender inclusive State Action plan for Climate Change (SAPCC) Kerala. Retrieved from: http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/content/461498/ gender-inclusive-state-action-plan-for-climate-change-sapcc-kerala/ International Carbon Action Partnership (2019). USA - California Cap-and- Trade Program. Retrieved from: https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/ ?option=com_etsmap&task=export&format=pdf&layout=list&systems%5b%5d=45 Jitendra (2015). Cost of growth: Global natural resources depleting by 45% a year. Retrieved from: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/cost-of-growth- global-natural-resources-depleting-by-45-a-year-44836 Joanneum Research – Life: Centre for Climate, Energy & Society, (2015). “Model Gussing:” A vision of energy self-sufficiency. Retrieved from: https:/ /pocacito.eu/sites/default/files/ModelG%C3%BCssing_G%C3%BCssing.pdf Kingdon John, W. (1995). Agendas, alternatives and public policies. Boston, MA: Little, Brown Knapp, Taylor Robyn. (2013). Major Cities Adapting to Climate Change. Retrieved from: https://www.firstaffirmative.com/firstaffirmative-blog-2017/ major-cities-adapting-to-climate-change Koshy, Jacob (2016). Paris Agreement: 5 things you should know. Retrieved from: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Paris-Agreement-5-things- you-should-know/article15422333.ece Lewis, Dyani. (2017, February, 24th). Energy positive: how Denmark’s Samsø island switched to zero carbon. Retrieved from: https:// www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2017/feb/24/energy-positive-how- denmarks-sams-island-switched-to-zero-carbon Loth, Renee. (2007, March 28th). Japan’s Energy Wisdom. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/28/opinion/28iht-edloth.1.5055154.html
39 Societal Responses to MCMEF. (2019). Environmental Jurisprudence. Retrieved from: https:// Anthropogenic Climate Change mcmef.org/environment-jurisprudence/ MCMEF. (2019). Landmark Cases. Retrieved from: https://mcmef.org/landmark- cases/ Nachmany and Setzer, (2018). Global Trends in Climate Change Legislation and Litigation. Retrieved from: http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/wp-content/ uploads/2018/04/Global-trends-in-climate-change-legislation-and-litigation-2018- snapshot-3.pdf Ozdemir, Gokcen (2013). Good Governance in Sustainable Human Development: A Subnational Case in Turkey. Retrieved from: http:// www.argudenacademy.org/docs/Gokcen-Ozdemir-Good-Governance.pdf Pablo, Juan, et.al. (2018). What roles do sub-national governments play in Nationally Determined Contributions? Between rhetoric and practice in REDD+ countries. Retrieved from: http://www.cifor.org/publications/ pdf_files/infobrief/7109-infobrief.pdf Palanithurai, Ganapathy, et.al (2008). Change Makers at Grassroots: Local Governance in Action. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company Qi et.al (2008). Translating a Global Issue into Local Priority: China’s Local Government Response to Climate Change. Retrieved from: https:/ /www.jstor.org/stable/44319851 REN21 Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (et.al), (2011). Global Status Report on Local Renewable Energy Policies. Retrieved from: http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/Resources/ REN21_Local_Renewables_Policies_2011.pdf Rinfret, R. Sara, et.al. (2018). Public Policy: A Concise Introduction. CQ Press: California Smith, Ainsley (2019). Toronto has reduced its carbon emissions by 33% since 1990: Report Retrieved from: https://dailyhive.com/toronto/toronto-continues-reduce- carbon-emissions-2019 Smith, Roy (et.al) (2011). International Political Economy in the 21st Century. London: Pearson Education Limited. Taliawi, El, Ola. (2017). An Exploration into the Role of Organizations as Policy Entrepreneurs: the Case of the UNFCCC Secretariat on the Road to the Kyoto Protocol. Retrieved from: www.ippapublicpolicy.org/file/paper/ 594eba4a4138f.pdf The Climate Alliance. (2019). Municipalities. Retrieved from: http:// www.climatealliance.org/municipalities/the-network.html?page=866 The Climate Group. (2015). Global climate leadership memorandum of understanding (MoU). Retrieved from: https://www.theclimategroup.org/sites/ default/files/under2-mou-with-addendum-english-a4.pdf The Paris Agreement, (2015). Retrieved from: https://unfccc.int/process-and- 40 meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement Under2 Coalition (2019). About the Under2 Coalition. Retrieved from: https:/ /www.under2coalition.org/about Under2 Coalition (2019). Santa Fe launches solar-powered buses. Retrieved from: https://www.under2coalition.org/sites/default/files/ under2_coalition_santa_fe_case_study.pdf UNFCCC. (1992). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved from: https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/ background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/conveng.pdf UNFCCC. (2015).Under 2 MOU a Subnational Global Climate Leadership. Retrieved from: https://unfccc.int/news/under-2-mou-a-subnational-global- climate-leadership UNFCCC. (2015). Paris Agreement. Retrieved from: https://unfccc.int/files/ meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf Ward, Bob (2017). The extension and successes of California’s cap-and- trade programme suggests the future of US climate policy may not be so bleak. Retrieved from: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2017/07/28/the- extension-and-successes-of-californias-cap-and-trade-programme-suggests- the-future-of-us-climate-policy-may-not-be-so-bleak/ World Mayors Council on Climate Change (WMCCC). (2010). Local Government Climate Road Map. Retrieved from: http:// www.worldmayorscouncil.org/initiatives/local-governmnet-climate- roadmap.html Yashwant, Shailendra. (Huffington Post, 2016, May 18th). Sonam Wangchuk’s Ice Stupas Are Firing Up Interest From Ladakh To The Swiss Alps. Retrieved from: https://www.huffingtonpost.in/shailendra-yashwant-/sonam- wangchuks-ice-stupa_b_10001210.html 13.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1 1) Your answer should include the following points: (i) International forums had set the stage to strengthen local government capacities. (ii) Subnational networks aim to recognise, engage, and empower the subnational government. (iii) Subnational global climate networks aim to resolve common issues related to energy, emissions reduction, carbon monitoring, etc. 2) Your answer should include the following points: (i) The Cap and Trade program of California was started in 2006 with the aim to reduce carbon emissions. (ii) It is one of the major forms of emissions trading which fixes a cap (limit) on emissions and regulates market to comply within the fixed limits. 41 Societal Responses to (iii) It includes power plants, manufacturers, refineries, and other polluting Anthropogenic Climate Change industries that it approximately covers 80% of the polluting industries of the state. 3) Your answer should include the following points: (i) A long term goal was chalked out by 196 parties in the Paris Agreement (2015) to foster climate resilience. (ii) It entrusted the responsibility of the world nations to decide their own climate targets through NDCs. (iii) It highlighted that the climate change impacts have to be addressed at all levels governments. Check Your Progress 2 1) Your answer should include the following points: (i) The success of Gussing model of renewable energy was due to its Mayor Peter Vadasz. (ii) The 100%-RE-region project in Europe was an opportunity for the village to transform itself into a sustainable community. (iii) To become self-sufficient in energy sector, the Odanthurai panchayat took a step forward by investing in wind mill. 2) Your answer should include the following points: (i) The Mexican City Pact (MCP) was signed by mayors of 138 cities in the World Mayors Summit on Climate. (ii) Local governments voluntarily came forward for measurable, reportable, and verifiable climate action by launching the Carbonn Cities Climate Registry. (iii) The ten action points adopted in the Summit. 3) Your answer should include the following points: (i) Action on Climate Today is actively associated with subnational governments of India. (ii) It has extended its technical assistance to the state of Kerala in climate adaptation. (iii) It has so far trained 330 Gram Panchayats in evolving Local Action Plan on Climate Change. Check Your Progress 3 1) Your answer should include the following points: (i) Policy entrepreneurs are a variety of actors spread across different institutions who usually express concern about a common problem and calls for prompt action of policy makers. (ii) Policy entrepreneurs includes individual actors, such as, cabinet secretaries, senators, economists, and others. 42 (iii) They may also include political/bureaucratic champions, congressmen, scientists who promote their research agenda, and members of interests group or organisations. 2) Your answer should include the following points: (i) Policy entrepreneurs are involved in various activities depending on their expertise. (ii) They are involved in activities, such as, evolving roadmaps, policy advocacy, idea generation, lobbying etc. (iii) Each policy entrepreneurial activity are mutually dependent and influences the policy process. 3) Your answer should include the following points: (i) Government revenue is the major motivating factor that could lead to harmonious development of social equity, stability, and environmental well-being. (ii) It aims to create a business ecosystem which would generate taxes, fees, and dividends for the local economy. (iii) Power acts as a key factor in local government behaviour.
43 Societal Responses to Anthropogenic Climate UNIT 14 RESPONSES OF GLOBAL SOUTH Change Structure 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Objectives 14.3 North-South Politics 14.4 Sustainable Development and Equality 14.5 Right to Development 14.6 Strategies of Global South 14.7 Let Us Sum Up 14.8 Keywords 14.9 Suggested Further Reading/References 14.10 Answers to Check Your Progress 14.1 INTRODUCTION
The term ‘North’ covers countries that are more industrialized high-income economies and members of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development), whereas Global “South” refers to relatively less developed and developing countries based on gross national income per capita. The global North includes the US, Canada and Western Europe, the developed part of Asia i.e., eastern part, Australia and New Zealand. The global South consists of regions such as Africa, Latin America and developing Asia including the Middle East. The “North-South” divide, is about the differences between the more industrialised nations i.e., the global “North” or first and second World and the relatively less industrialized countries i.e., the global “South” or third world. In this unit, we would be discussing about the “North”-”South” Politics in climate change negotiations; and Strategies of “Global South” against climate change. 14.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain the “North”-”South” Politics in climate change negotiations; and
discuss the Strategies of “Global South” against climate change. 14.3 NORTH-SOUTH POLITICS
More industrialized nations are relatively more socially and economically secured in terms of basic living condition which includes food, shelter and having stable government. Ownership of more industry means to produce more than the need of natives and to look for the market to export 44 commodities. Foreign exchange became the main thriving pillar of economic stability of the north. In contrary to the “North”, the South was and still many Responses of Global South countries are struggling to fulfil the basic needs of the common and struggling with the socio-political conflicts. The Global South focuses upon globalisation, governance, health, and prevention needs whereas “North” prioritize upon innovations in science and technology. According to N. Oluwafemi Mimiko, the South lacks the right technology, it is politically unstable, its economies are divided, and its foreign exchange earnings depend on primary product exports to the North, along with the fluctuation of prices. Majority of population lies in the South whereas reverse is the case of ownership of industries and global income. Most of global South was governed by an imperial European power and in the second half of the twentieth century only started to be governed by its own as a result of decolonization. Issues like establishing a democratic government was the one South was struggling. Under a stable democratic system, one can thrive for environmental issues and challenges. Leader of any developing countries prioritize to tackle issues like poverty, illiteracy and health. Way back in 1980s, the Brandt line was proposed to depict the north-south divide. The Brandt line, a definition from the 1980s dividing the world into the wealthy north and the poor south based upon per capita income. The line encircles the world at about latitude 300 N, passing between North and Central America; northern part of Africa and the middle east, rising north over China and Mongolia, but falling south including Australia and New Zealand in the “ North”. The “Global South” constitutes countries in the tropical and sub-tropical ecosystems. On the other hand, the “Global North” occupy the temperate and Arctic climatic regions. In the era of World Wide Web (www) and artificial intelligence, the South had limited access of these but this divide got diminished recently and few Asian countries has equal access to technology and www at the moment. As regards the global scientific community, the developed countries or the “North” dominates from the perspectives of resources, scientists and research publications. In fact, it is reported that the developed countries account for about 94% of scientific publications that are indexed. The “number of scientists or engineers per million inhabitants” in “Global North” are 2800. On the other hand, in case of the “Global South”, the “number of scientists or engineers per million inhabitants” are 200. The “Global South” need to have basic environmental and social data; monitoring of change, assessments; and more comprehensive research on human and social systems. Further, the contribution of developing countries to scientific knowledge on global environmental issues are less as compared to the developed countries. The reason for lesser contribution from scientific community in developing countries are “different research priorities”, “unequal research capacity”; and research focus on local environmental issues. It is also observed that it is the “North” that sets the agenda for research and hence the environmental issues and concerns of regional importance missed out or not got global priority. There is need to include more and more academia of global South so that environmental issues having global impact can be included more and more at local level. Lack of data on socio-economic and environmental parameters continues to be seen in developing countries. So, it becomes much difficult to 45 Societal Responses to do the impact analysis as well. Internationally, academia (research scholars and Anthropogenic Climate Change young professionals) are getting avenues to experience and get equipped with the current tools through different exchange programmes and scholarships available in North. Under the United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), scientists are called to provide counsel on global environmental issues. Further, the contribution of scientists are important for the success of intergovernmental bodies such as Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Also, scientific prowess is desired in special “ad hoc expert groups” to conventions of International importance; and also in scientific bodies which are entrusted to develop technical standards. 14.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND EQUALITY
Sustainable development is defined as the development that’s achieved not at the cost of resources of the future generation. It covers all the three important dimensions of it i.e. social, economic and political. Globally, we have limited natural resources and for accomplishing each activity we are in need of resources both as input and energy to run it. We can’t imagine any industry being run without availability of raw material and energy to run the same. Northern countries being more industrialized and being geographically located away from sunshine countries need more energy per capita and so is with per capita contribution in emission. Combating global warming by reducing emission rate of global warming gases and other persistent pollutants of global importance as a result of trans-boundary movement is the key to sustainable development. Different theory got proposed to understand development in the North and the South. Tools and models developed in developed country consider parameters and inputs based upon the background of their own, whereas local condition of Global-South got neglected. On prioritizing agenda of research and interest, there is a divide between the North and South since level of education and literacy differs, there are many countries in South yet fighting with poverty and unemployment and so minimizing fossil fuel usage, upgrading technology to reduce emission is still of second priority. Global South is yet in the transition from agriculture based society to industry based so that living standards can be improved. There are few countries in South like China whose power and technological advances even “North” can’t surpass and has impacted global market as well. There are many nations still struggling to provide good health, education and food security like South Africa, Indonesia. History tells us that many of the South nations who were either a ruled by English or Dutch etc. and as a result, the external demand was getting fulfilled rather than internal one or need of the countryman itself. Resources generated were taken away from the nation and as a result even basic need was not fulfilled and are plagued with higher degree of poverty and unemployment. Another development theory states about difference in resource reliance in the North and the South. Like Latin America, the “Global South” receive support from national bank and ministry of Finance for the development whereas most of nations of the North rely on core economies for manufactured products. Like the North, development theories suggested that 46 the South will have to be self-reliant so that own demand can be fulfilled as Responses of Global South well as profit earned by the industry will be invested in some other sector within the nation. During 18th and 19th centuries, native from technologically advanced nations like Germany, United Kingdom, France, Spain, Portugal made a move to sparsely populated nations like North America, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Australia, New Zealand. As a result of uneven immigration pattern, only few countries got technologically sound in later years. In 21st century as well uneven spatial distribution of technological upgradation and innovation persists. This creates a constant eagerness in people to migrate from technologically poor to technologically sound regions. Africans and Southwest Asians want to live and work in Europe whereas Southeast Asians want to resettle in North America and Europe to have quality life. Within America, people of South and Central Americans migrate to North America and as a result, firm policies are put in place to combat it. Recently, the difference in clustering pattern of industry in the North and the South pointed as reason behind variable profit. In the North, industries are much more clustered and as a result the industrial sector becomes more competitive and profitable than investing to start the same in the South. Check Your Progress 1 Note: 1) Use the space given below for your answers. 2) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit. 1. What are the countries that are grouped under “Global North”? ...... 2. What are the countries that are grouped under “Global South”? ...... 14.5 RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT
In the era of global financial and economic crisis, scarcity of food and non-renewable energy are equally important to address. Above all, climate change becomes such a matter of global concern which is making mankind to think about the short term as well as long term strategies to combat to sustain mankind. This crisis has neither left the North nor the South and hence has deepened the poverty and inequality. And society at large is facing socio-economic and environmental unrest. The Universal Declara•tion of Human Rights got framed way back in the year 1948, declaring that “everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in [the] Declaration can be fully realized”. The Declaration on the Right to Development was adopted by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly on 4 December 1986. Under this, the UN recognizes no hierarchy of rights, and all human rights are equal and interdependent. The right to development is just equal 47 Societal Responses to Anthropogenic Climate whether a person got born in the “North” or the “South”. The meaning of right Change thereby is “to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy eco•nomic, social, cultural and political development” beyond a national boundary. The right to development declaration talks about the following points:
A human rights-based approach: The development be carried out in a manner “in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized”.
Participation: It calls for the “active, free and meaningful participation” of people in development.
Equity: It underlines the need for “the fair distribution of the benefits” of development.
Non-discrimination: It permits “no distinction as to race, sex, language or religion”.
Self-determination: It inte•grates self-determination, including full sover•eignty. The key factors of development from a human rights perspective are: Social justice (through inclusion, equality and non-discrimination, taking the human person as the focal subject of develop•ment keeping in mind the most deprived and excluded one); participation, accountability and transpar•ency (through free, meaningful and active participation, focusing on empowerment); and International cooperation (as the right to development is a solidarity-based right). To implement the declaration in toto, there is need to create and have:
Appropriate national and international development policies;
Effective international cooperation;
Reforms at the both national and international levels;
To remove the factors which deter the development, includ•ing human rights violations, racism, colonialism, occupation and aggression;
Promotion of global peace and disarmament and by doing so more contribution towards development as a result of existence of peace. Later, the World Conference on Human Rights, held in Vienna in 1993 reaffirmed the right to development, as a universal and inalienable right and as an integral part of fundamental human rights and urged States to have global peace and harmony by cooperating with each other to achieve development. Further, The United Nations Millennium Summit, 2000 also agreed to combat the consequences of under development—poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, envi•ronmental degradation and discrimination against women—and to establish a global partnership for development. In 2001, these commit•ments were formulated into goals with a deadline of 2015, to set out a series of eight time bound-targets to reduce extreme poverty called the “Millennium Development Goals”. The Monterrey Consensus of the Inter•national Conference on Financing for Development strengthened the framework for a global development partnership, 2002 agreeing on processes to mobilize resources, nationally and internationally 48 for the economic development. The World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2001 held in Johannesburg, South Africa, renewed the commitments to Responses of Global South sustainable devel•opment made a decade earlier across the Atlantic in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Kyoto Protocol, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 2005 has taken more firm action and commitment from the Parties to reduce greenhouse gases to combat global warming and its impact. The Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness (2005) set out principles for donors to improve aid effectiveness and set targets for monitoring progress on new prac•tices. The parties to the Accra Agenda for Action, 2008 also agreed to help developing coun•tries and marginalized people in their fight against poverty by making aid more transparent, accountable and results-oriented. Coming back to the implementation to achieve The Millennium Development Goals, it requires inter•national cooperation. Out of the 8 goals, while goals one to seven set bench•marks for evaluating progress with respect to income, poverty, hunger, primary schooling, gender inequal•ity, child and maternal mortality, HIV/AIDS and other major diseases and environmental degradation. Goal 8 sets out efforts and action to be taken by rich countries, i.e. the North by including action on trade, debt, technology transfer and aid. Goal 8 can therefore be considered to pro•vide a framework for assessing accountability of rich countries. Goal 8, to develop a global partnership for development, includes targets and associated indica•tors in the areas of global trade and finance, aid and the special needs of least developed and landlocked countries. In the era of globalization, there is increasing global interdependence and as a result people’s lives are much more influenced by phenomena that take place beyond their country, whether it is the spread of diseases, depletion of fishing stocks or fluctuations in international financial flows. “Global-South” consequently became more dependent on international resources, policy change and systemic improvement in global governance to accelerate progress in achieving the right to development. The global community needs instruments for making global solidarity work, in order to strengthen accountability for international responsibilities. 14.6 STRATEGIES OF GLOBAL SOUTH
The global South being in the process of establishing its economy from agriculture based to industry based, trying yet to grab advance automated technology, fighting with poverty and hunger and facing consequences of aggravating climate change. Factors like, the globalization has enabled many people to escape poverty, but its benefits are not shared equitably and its costs fall disproportionately on the deprived and vulnerable. The “Global South” is experiencing many challenges viz. “water security”; “income and job security”; “hunger and poverty”, which are warranting for a change or reorientation in economic growth and development trajectory. There is an urgent need to limit temperature increase well below 2oC, so as to at least stabilize the climate. Further, “end of oil” in the coming decades, demand development of alternative energy resources so as to achieve energy security. Further, developing countries are more vulnerable to changing climate. 49 Societal Responses to Now, question is whether “Global South” should bother about Global public Anthropogenic Climate Change goods? To answer this, we will have to understand first what is public goods and secondly global public goods. Public goods are “those goods that are non-excludable, meaning that their benefits or costs are there for all and not a particular person”. The atmosphere, for example, is non- excludable but rival in consumption, because its composition can be changed as a result of pumping in of pollutants through various anthropogenic activities (industries, vehicular emissions, deforestation, exploitation of natural resources etc.) and in turn contribute to global warming, climate change and health. Since atmosphere is being polluted by inhabitants beyond territorial boundaries, it has ability to impact of other nation. Hence, it’s important to care for Global public goods. To do so, “Global South” develops strategies themselves by creating different platforms to put forth their agenda and national priorities as well. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the “Global South” started to emerge as a power of change. The North began to create new forums to discuss priority con•cerns. The formation of G7 (now it is G8), is an example of initiatives taken by “Global North”. The “Global South” also formed, for instance, the BRICS (Brazil, Russian Federation, India, China and South Africa) and IBSA (India, Brazil, and South Africa). Earlier the North was even not bothered to invite the South in discussing development agenda. But, with emergence of power of the South, even the North started to join hand in hand to talk on purely Southern concern and even North-South and global concerns. As a result, global policy-making has changed to a multipolar process. Under regional coopera•tion initiatives, discussion on regional matters as well how and what to discuss upon Global forums are framed and discussed as well. On the issue of global climate change, developing countries are in the process of forming coalitions. The G77 is one important platform in this regard. Other pro-active coalitions include: the “Alliance of Small Island States” (AOSIS), the “Association of South East Asian Nations” (ASEAN), the BASIC group (Brazil, South Africa, India and China), the LDC group, the “Organization of the Oil Exporting Countries” (OPEC) and the Rio Group. Since 2009, BASIC group of countries are playing vital role in climate negotiations. In the recently concluded 27th BASIC Ministerial Meeting on Climate Change, New Delhi, the ministers affirmed their commitment to the implementation of UNFCCC, the Paris Agreement, and to encourage a low carbon growth. They also underlined “the need for Climate Justice and a Just Transition by acknowledging the basic principle equality of all people in accessing the resources, growth and sustainable development as well”. Additionally, South-South cooperation is extremely important to augment the resilience capacity of the developing countries against climate change impacts. Further, such cooperation aid in helping countries to reorient and transform their economies towards low carbon and resilient growth. The vulnerability of least-developed countries (LDCs) to climate change has been categorically reported by scientists. Further, many LDCs are situated in the regions which are affected by the indicators of climate change. In effect, there are 47 countries that constitute the group of LDCs that are highly vulnerable to climate change. These countries basically depend on the land for their livelihood. Their capacity to respond to climate change impacts 50 are severely constrained on account of their limited adaptive capacity. However, these countries were least responsible for the problem of climate change. In Responses of Global South order to help the LDCs to respond to climate change, the parties to UNFCCC established Low Developing Countries Fund (LDCF) way back in 2001. The three objectives for the LDCF are “reduce vulnerability and increase resilience through innovation and technology transfer for climate change adaptation; mainstream climate change adaptation and resilience for systemic impact; and foster enabling conditions for effective and integrated climate change adaptation” (https://www.thegef.org/topics/least-developed-countries-fund-ldcf). The fund aids the LDCs in their attempt to adapt to climate change, through preparation and implementation of “National Adaptation Programme of Action” (NAPAs). The sectors targeted for adaptation to climate change include “agriculture”; “water”; “health”; “disaster risk management”; “infrastructure”; and “fragile ecosystem”. 14.7 LET US SUM UP
The “North-South” divide, is about the differences between the more industrialised nations i.e., the global “North” and the relatively less industrialized countries i.e., the global “South”. The term ‘North’ covers countries that are more industrialized high-income economies and members of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), whereas Global “South” refers to relatively less developed and developing countries based on gross national income per capita. The global North includes the US, Canada and Western Europe, the developed part of Asia i.e., eastern part, Australia and New Zealand. The global South consists of regions such as Africa, LatinAmerica and developing Asia including the Middle East. The “Global South” is experiencing many challenges such as: “water security”; “income and job security”; “hunger and poverty”, which are warranting for a change or reorientation in economic growth and development trajectory. There is also an urgent need to limit temperature increase well below 2oC, so as to at least stabilize the climate. Further, developing countries are more vulnerable to changing climate. With regard to global climate change, developing countries are in the process of forming coalitions. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the “Global South” started to emerge as a power of change. The “Global South” formed groups such as the BRICS (Brazil, Russian Federation, India, China and South Africa) and IBSA (India, Brazil, and South Africa). Other pro-active coalitions include: the “Alliance of Small Island States” (AOSIS), the “Association of South East Asian Nations” (ASEAN), the BASIC group (Brazil, South Africa, India and China), the LDC group, the “Organization of the Oil Exporting Countries” (OPEC) and the Rio Group. South-South cooperation is extremely important to augment the resilience capacity of the developing countries against climate change impacts. It’s true that within the South, there are nations from technologically and industrialized to the marginalized one. Since the issues concerned with “Global South” are diverse, it is utmost difficult to reach a common stand. For instance, the group of island developing countries wanted the BASIC group of countries to support a “deeper emissions cuts” in Durban Conference. But, on the global scale, the South has created the position and voice to be heard and stand on various platforms. The agenda for development is vivid and co- operation to bring sustainable development has been crossed from policy formulation to the development phase.
51 Societal Responses to Anthropogenic Climate 14.8 KEYWORDS Change Hotspot : A geographical area characterized by high vulnerability and exposure to climate change. Vulnerability : The propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability encompasses a variety of concepts and elements including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. 14.9 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/ REFERENCES
http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/ http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/ http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/ http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ http://www.ldc-climate.org/about-us/overview/ https://www.globalchange.gov/climate-change/glossary https://www.thegef.org/topics/least-developed-countries-fund-ldcf https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/ publication/CDP-bp-2012-15.pdf 14.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1 1. The term “Global North” covers countries that are more industrialized high-income economies and members of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). The “Global North” includes the US, Canada and Western Europe, the developed part of Asia i.e., eastern part, Australia and New Zealand. The “Global North” countries occupy the temperate and Arctic climatic regions. 2. The “Global South” refers to relatively less developed and developing countries based on gross national income per capita. The global South consists of regions such as Africa, Latin America and developing Asia including the Middle East. The “Global South” constitutes countries in the tropical and sub-tropical ecosystems.
52 Sustainable Development Goals UNIT 15 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS Structure 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Objectives 15.3 The Concept of Sustainable Development 15.4 Genesis of Sustainable Development Goals 15.5 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 15.6 SDG 13: Take Urgent Action to Combat Climate Change and its Impacts 15.7 India’s Progress and Preparedness Towards SDG 13 15.7.1 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) 15.7.2 Intended Nationally Determined Contribution 15.8 Let Us Sum Up 15.9 Keywords 15.10 Suggested Further Reading/References 15.11 Answers to Check Your Progress 15.1 INTRODUCTION
We can recall from the previous units and can categorically state that say that climate change challenges the existence of humanity; it is a reality and calls for an urgent action at global and national level. According to UNFCC, “the global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate International response, with a view to accelerating the reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions.” In this context, the year 2015 marked a milestone in humanity’s efforts towards building a better and more sustainable future for everyone. In 2015 ”the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)” were agreed by 193 member states of the United Nations and complemented by commitments made in the Paris Agreement which map out a broad spectrum of economic, social and environmental objectives to be achieved by 2030. “The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development having 17 interconnected Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets is a global plan of action for people, planet and prosperity”. Among the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) specified in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, climate change is not only one of the SDG, but it also impacts most of the other SDGs as well. It is a threat enhancer, with the potential to negatively affect humanity’s greatest challenges including health, poverty, hunger, and inequality and ecosystem preservation, among others. Addressing climate change also offers humanity’s greatest chance to positively impact these goals. India also adopted two transformative agreements within the span of a few months: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Paris Climate 53 Societal Responses to Change Agreement. The 2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement share the Anthropogenic Climate Change purpose of creating a more resilient, productive and healthy environment for present and future generations. These two agreements though adopted separately, nevertheless, share the common goal of building a climate safe future that is more sustainable, resilient and prosperous for all. The SDGs are global goals and they are built upon the erstwhile Millennium Development Goals. These goals are exhaustive, universal and integrated and emphasize on core areas of poverty and inequality, economic growth, innovation, sustainable consumption and production, climate change, peace and justice and partnerships. In this unit, we will discuss the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; genesis of Sustainable Development Goals; SDG 13 which demands for “urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts”; and India’s progress and preparedness for achieving SDG 13. 15.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to: explain the genesis of sustainable development and sustainable development goals; discuss the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and Sustainable Development Goals; recognise SDG 13-take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts; and review India’s progress and preparedness on SDG 13. 15.3 THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The term “Sustainable Development” was first coined in 1972 at the United Nations Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm. The most important publication on “Sustainable Development” is the publication by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) or the Bruntland Commission report in 1987 titled “Our Common Future”. The World Commission on Environment and Development was initiated by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1982, and its report, Our Common Future, was published in 1987. It was chaired by then Prime Minister of Norway, Gro Harlem Brundtland, thus earning the name the “Brundtland Commission.” The report was published in an effort to link the issues of economic development and environmental stability and the oft-cited definition of sustainable development was provided as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (United Nations General Assembly, 1987, p. 43). In other words, it is improving the quality of life of the present generation without excessive use or abuse of natural resources, so that they can be preserved for the next generation. Its roots were in the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment where the conflicts between environment and development were first acknowledged. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (the so-called “Earth Summit”) issued a declaration 54 of principles, a detailed Agenda 21 of desired actions, international agreements Sustainable Development Goals on climate change and biodiversity, and a statement of principles on forests. Ten years later, in 2002, at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, the commitment to sustainable development was reaffirmed. Box 15.1: Sustainable Development: From Our Common Future (WCED, 1987) “Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of sustainable development does imply limits - not absolute limits but limitations imposed by the present state of technology and social organization on environmental resources and by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. But technology and social organization can be both managed and improved to make way for a new era of economic growth. The Commission believes that widespread poverty is no longer inevitable. Poverty is not only an evil in itself, but sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to fulfil their aspirations for a better life. A world in which poverty is endemic will always be prone to ecological and other catastrophes”. “Meeting essential needs requires not only a new era of economic growth for nations in which the majority are poor, but an assurance that those poor get their fair share of the resources required to sustain that growth. Such equity would be aided by political systems that secure effective citizen participation in decision making and by greater democracy in international decision making”. “Sustainable global development requires that those who are more affluent adopt life-styles within the planet’s ecological means - in their use of energy, for example. Further, rapidly growing populations can increase the pressure on resources and slow any rise in living standards; thus sustainable development can only be pursued if population size and growth are in harmony with the changing productive potential of the ecosystem”. “Yet in the end, sustainable development is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs. We do not pretend that the process is easy or straightforward. Painful choices have to be made”.
15.4 GENESIS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
In 2000, the Millennium Summit was held in New York, which resulted in the UN Millennium Declaration. The Millennium Declaration resulted in a set of 55 Societal Responses to targets to be achieved by 2015 that included environmental sustainability, the Anthropogenic Climate Change eradication of extreme poverty and equality for women, now known as the Millennium Development Goals. In 2000, 189 countries agreed under the umbrella of the United Nations on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by signing the Millennium Declaration. According to the UN Declaration, the MDGs were to be achieved in a timeline of 15 years and, thus, they expired in 2015. The MDGs were composed by eight goals: seven social goals (namely eradicating hunger, promoting education and gender equality, reducing child mortality, improving maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS, creating a global partnership for development) and one environmental goal (ensuring environmental sustainability). The MDGs reflected, indeed, the idea at that time that health and education were crucial drivers of development, thus sustainability and development were to be achieved by goals mostly focused on the improvement of individuals’ conditions. The era of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which mobilized attention on addressing the challenges of extreme poverty, hunger, illiteracy and disease came to an end in 2015. World Summit on Sustainable Development which was held in Johannesburg renewed international commitment in the pursuit of sustainable development with the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI); 2012 resulted in an outcome document “The Future We Want”. In the document, the States reaffirmed the commitments to all previous sustainable development agreements, plans and targets. They also committed to develop a suite of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) building on the priorities identified in Agenda 21 and the JPOI, and decided to replace the Commission for Sustainable Development with a ‘high-level political forum’ to progress implementation of Agenda 21 and the JPOI, and the achievement of the SDGs. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) was agreed at the United Nations in New York in September 2015. 15.5 2030 AGENDA FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Since its inception in 2015, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development has provided a blueprint for shared prosperity in a sustainable world. The 17 Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development came into force on 1 January 2016. These SDGs are “universal set of goals and targets agreed by 194 UN member states to guide their development policies and initiatives over the next 15 years”. The 2030 Agenda focuses on the “elimination of hunger and reduction of poverty and inequality (opportunity, resource access, gender, and youth) in all their forms”. The 2030 Agenda also buttress the Paris Agreement on climate change by “promoting and facilitating energy efficiency and clean energy”. It also aims to augment the resilience to extreme weather events and climate change; protect the habitat and ecosystem; enhance resource use efficiency; and enable sustainable production and consumption. If we look at the history of SDGs, the Heads of State and Government representatives, held a meeting at the United Nations Headquarters in New York from 25-27th September 2015 and they agreed upon a new 2030 Agenda for 56 Sustainable Development, which was built around 17 goals and 169 targets (UN, 2015). The 2030 Agenda and its seventeen Sustainable Development Goals Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) build on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), are much broader in scope and ambition, encompassing the eradication of poverty and hunger and improved health and nutrition; reduction of inequality; the building of peaceful, just and inclusive societies; the protection of human rights; the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls; and the lasting protection of the planet and its natural resources. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals are: Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere; Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture; Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages; Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all; Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls; Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all; Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all; Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all; Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation; Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries; Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable; Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns; Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts; Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development; Goal 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss; Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels; and Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development. The 2030 Agenda advocates “sustainable development in all of its three dimensions, for all countries (developing and developed), based on the 57 Societal Responses to fundamental recognition and protection of human rights, dignity and equity”. Anthropogenic Climate Change Further, SDGs endeavour to create suitable environment for “sustainable, inclusive and sustained economic growth, shared prosperity and decent work for all, taking into account different levels of national development and capacities” (http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7808e.pdf). These SDGs are ambitious and universal in nature and at the same time they direct towards a path for nations to achieve fair, equitable, inclusive and environment friendly development. In other words, we can say that human and environmental rights underpin the foundation of the SDGs that demand robust and integrated actions nationally and also charted out the role of different actors in the process. The SDGs being interdependent in nature require actions at all levels to attain the development outcomes. Check Your Progress 1 Note: 1) Use the space given below for your answers. 2) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit. 1. Give an overview of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development...... 2. What are Sustainable Development Goals? ...... 15.6 SDG 13: TAKE URGENT ACTION TO COMBAT CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACTS
According to the Sustainable Development Goals Report, 2019, the most urgent area for action is climate change. There is an urgent need to contain the greenhouse gases emissions, so that the global average temperature don’t overshoot 2.0oC. The impacts of climate change are catastrophic and irreversible; increasing frequency and magnitude of disasters; ocean acidification; land degradation and coastal erosion; and loss of biodiversity. The climate change effects the poor and disadvantaged group. They have potential to impact the agricultural production leading to food shortages, famines and hunger. Further, climate change is projected to displace up to 140 million people by 2050. According to the World Meteorological Organization, 2018 was the fourth warmest year on record, with the past four years (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018) being the four warmest years on record. The world continues to experience rising sea levels, extreme weather conditions and increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases. Climate change is a crosscutting and immediate threat to the achievement of the SDGs, and to the survival and well-being of island nations and coastal communities. This calls for urgent and accelerated action by countries as they implement the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and their 58 commitments to the Paris Agreement on Climate Change. Box 15.2: Status and Trends: Climate Change Sustainable Development Goals
Climate change is happening right now, and its effects are clearly visible. The global mean temperature for 2018 is estimated to be 0.99 ± 0.13 °C above the preindustrial baseline, arctic temperatures exceptionally high relative to long-term average, and many countries experienced their warmest year on record. The impacts are being felt all over the world and addressing these require a robust two-pronged approach: reduction in the greenhouse gas emissions, and adaption planning. As of February 2019, 185 parties had ratified the Paris Agreement. Parties to the Paris Agreement are expected to prepare, communicate and maintain successive nationally determined contributions (NDCs). As of 27 February 2019, 182 Parties (181 countries plus the European Commission) had communicated their first NDCs to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Secretariat (UNFCCC).
Climate action requires efforts on mitigation, adaptation and means of implementation – climate finance, technology and capacity building. Just as problems are interrelated, the solutions to poverty, inequality, climate change and other global challenges are also interlinked. Valuable opportunities exist to accelerate progress by examining inter-linkages across goals. For example, tackling climate change requires a shift to clean energy, reversing the trend in forest loss, and changing our production and consumption patterns. Promoting sustainable agriculture can help reduce both hunger and poverty, since close to 80 per cent of those who are extremely poor live in rural areas. Increasing access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene can save millions of lives per year and improve school attendance. Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG 13 Climate Action) commits to take “urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts”, emphasizing globally agreed need to mitigate anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the damages caused by climate change, while acknowledging that the “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.” The UNFCCC acknowledges that “the global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate international response, in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities and their social and economic conditions.” To achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and implement the Paris Agreement, developed and developing countries alike will need to transform their energy systems, ecosystem management, agriculture and land use, urban management, material use, gender outcomes, health, education, governance and other areas. Goal 13 in particular focuses on the “urgent action” required to “combat climate change and its impacts”, thus incorporating both climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation. Its scope includes three targets: 13.1- strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate related hazards and natural disasters in all countries; 13.2- integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning; and 13.3- improve education, awareness raising and human institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction, and early warning. 59 Societal Responses to Box 15.3: Global Warming of 1.5°C Special Report Anthropogenic Climate Change According to the “Global Warming of 1.5°C Special Report” from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the world has already warmed by 1°C, increasing the episodes and intensity of extreme weather events. The report states that limiting global warming to 1.5°C is still possible but would require “rapid and far-reaching” transitions in how we manage land, energy, industry, buildings, transport and cities. Specifically, global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide would need to fall by about 45 per cent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching “net zero” around 2050.
Achieving all other SDGs will be much more challenging without urgent climate action, including those related to poverty, hunger, access to water, terrestrial and marine ecosystems, health, gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls, among others. Conversely, many of the goals and targets can also be achieved in ways that would enable adaptive responses to climate change. The energy transitions envisaged in SDG 7 would contribute significantly to lowering greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions relative to business-as-usual pathways. From the perspective of protection of climate system and GHG emission reduction, UNFCCC and SDG 13 endeavour to strengthen and augment the resilience and adaptive capacity. The developing countries and low income countries in their pursuit to sustainable development, require climate change interventions, which demand both “financial and technological inputs”. BOX 15.4: Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is acknowledged as the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change. 13.1: Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate related hazards and natural disasters in all countries. 13.2: Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning. 13.3: Improve education, awareness raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction, and early warning. 13.a: Implement the commitment undertaken by developed country Parties to the UNFCCC to a goal of mobilizing jointly USD100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible. 13.b: Promote mechanisms for raising capacities for effective climate change related planning and management, in LDCs, including focusing on women, youth, local and marginalized communities. Source: http://www.cisdl.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/SDG_13_ 60 Climate_-_Issue_Brief__-_06.09.2016_-Final_-_UNEP.pdf Sustainable Development Goals 15.7 INDIA’S PROGRESS AND PREPERADNESS TOWARDS SDG 13
In the previous section, you have got an idea of SDG - 13. In this section, we will discuss, India’s preparedness and progress towards SDG 13. We know that India has signed and ratified the Paris Agreement, making it obligatory for it to reach its commitments. India is also a signatory among 192 nations to the 2030 Global agenda for Sustainable Development. The Government of India has entrusted NITI Aayog, with coordinating the SDG Agenda in India and has asked the states to prepare action plans and has also embarked upon exercise to develop national indicators for the 17 Goals, besides undertaking consultations on specific goals. NITI Aayog is expected to come up with the long-term vision (2015-30) and medium term plan (2015-22), in response to which it recently developed a short-term action agenda. NITI Aayog has carried out draft mapping of goals and targets against existing schemes and these goals have been assigned to respective ministries. There is also action at the state level, with states asked to put forward their plans for implementing the SDGs to NITI Aayog, looking at the SDGs as a guiding framework for their long term development strategy. This includes a proposal to introduce an SDG charter for each government ministry. The MoEFCC has been assigned the responsibility of three goals (Goal 12, 13 and 15) directly where they need to coordinate with different ministries on individual targets. Further, they have partial responsibility of another seven goals for which they will engage with other ministries. NITI Aayog is also given the responsibility to develop an energy policy in the light of India’s commitment to the Paris Agreement. The MoEFCC has designed the Nationally Determined Contributions with consultations from state governments, ministries and civil societies. 15.7.1 National Action Plan On Climate Change (NAPCC) In this section, we will discuss the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and other initiatives by the Government of India. The NAPCC consists of eight National Missions namely: Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission; National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency; National Mission on Sustainable Habitat; National Water Mission; National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture; National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem; National Mission for a Green India; and National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change. Under these initiatives, the Government has been able to make significant progress for achieving SDG and SDG 13. Apart from these initiatives, the Indian 61 Societal Responses to government setup the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) in 2010 to finance Anthropogenic Climate Change and promote clean energy initiatives along with allocation of resources for clean energy research. Under Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM), installation of solar photovoltaic (SPV) lights and small capacity lights were done. The scope of the NCEF also includes projects under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), which are being implemented under the flagship programmes of “Grid Interactive and Distributive Renewable Power” and “Research, Design, Development in Renewable Energy”. Several of the NAPCC missions (Energy Efficiency, Water and Greening India, for example) offered opportunities for urban-scale engagement, including one (the Mission on Sustainable Habitat) that focussed explicitly on cities. Following the development of the NAPCC, in 2009, the Government of India asked state governments to follow this process in their respective states, focussing specifically on developing policies and plans that align with the eight NAPCC missions and the development priorities of each state. As of October 2016, 32 states and union territories in India have State Action Plans on Climate Change that have been endorsed by the National Steering Committee on Climate Change (MoEFCC, 2016). The state plans seem to focus largely on good sustainable development strategies, on adaptation rather than mitigation, integrating their climate change action plans with the overall development goals of the state. Despite the fact that India has done well on many sustainable development goals and climate goals, much is yet desired to achieve sustainable development in the real sense. First and foremost is the need for a clear road map to implement the SDGs with identified roles for the state governments, and a monitoring mechanism to measure progress. Public education and awareness are second to none in terms invoking people in achievement of the SDGs. The SDGs are more complex than to be achieved by the policies and government programmes alone. The countries need to harness energy, understanding and participation of all stakeholders including the NGOs to make sustainable development a reality. Under the SDGs’ framework, actions under Goal 13 are largely based on the outcomes of the climate change negotiations in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The 2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement give us the tools to address the challenges posed by climate change, poverty and inequality. We must use them judiciously. And, as UN Secretary- General António Guterres said “we need more action, more ambition and more political will. This will take unprecedented levels of collaborative, multilateral action. It will take increased efforts not by nations alone, but by all segments of society”. 15.7.2 Intended Nationally Determined Contribution The Prime Minister of India, speaking at the SDGs Summit in the UN, in September 2015 said, “Today, much of India’s development agenda is mirrored in the Sustainable Development Goals. Since independence, we have pursued the dream of eliminating poverty from India. We have chosen the path of removing poverty by empowering the poor.” India’s institutional framework on climate change is focused on achieving its pre-2020 commitments and the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) rather than achieving SDGs in general or SDG 13 in particular.
62 India’s effort in integrating climate change measures in national policies have Sustainable Development Goals been focused on achieving pre-2020 commitment and its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) as also reflected by the national indicators. India agreed in Copenhagen (2009) to reduce its energy intensity by 20-25% by 2020 over 2005 level. Through its INDC (2015), it voluntarily committed to reduce its energy intensity by 30-35% by 2030 (over 2005 level), achieve 40% cumulative electric power installed capacity for the fossil fuel based energy resources by 2030 (conditional and transfer of technology and international finance), and create an additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO2 through additional forest cover. The National Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC, 2008) and State Action Plan/s on Climate Change are constrained by financial support, appropriate institutional structure, meaningful monitoring and clear road map. Box 15.5: India’s Commitments
India agreed to reduce its emission intensity by 20-25% by 2020 over 2005 level. In the Paris Agreement, India’s NDC committed to achieve three targets: • 33% - 35% reduction in the energy intensity of its GDP by 2030 over 2005 (20-25% by 2020 over 2005 in the Copenhagen Accord); • 40% cumulative electric power installed capacity for the fossil fuel based energy resources by 2030 (conditional and transfer of technology and international finance);
• Additional carbon sinks of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO2 through additional forest cover. Check Your Progress 2 Note: 1) Use the space given below for your answers. 2) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit. 1. Give an overview of SDG 13...... 2. Discuss India’s preparedness for achieving SDG 13...... 15.8 LET US SUM UP
It is clear that climate change threatens decades of development progress and jeopardizes inclusive and sustainable growth. The SDGs framework provides the best path for addressing this climate emergency in ways that help everyone, in particular women, children, youth, older persons, persons with disabilities and 63 Societal Responses to those living in small island developing states. We have discussed in this unit Anthropogenic Climate Change the genesis of sustainable development and sustainable development goals; recognised the urgency for climate action through SDG 13; and reviewed the progress and preparedness of India towards the SDG 13. 15.9 KEYWORDS
MDGs : The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), endorsed by governments at the United Nations in September 2000, aim to improve human well- being by reducing poverty, hunger, child and maternal mortality, ensuring education for all, controlling and managing diseases, tackling gender disparity, ensuring sustainable development and pursuing global partnerships. Paris Agreement (PA) : At COP21 in 2015, after many years of negotiations, countries signed the momentous Paris Agreement, setting out the global expectations for dramatically reducing carbon emissions. The Paris Agreement entered into force in November 2016 and lays out the overarching global goals and framework for international climate action in the post-2020 period. Under the PA, countries have pledged to keep global temperature increases below 2 degrees from pre-industrial times. Green Climate Fund : Established by the UNFCCC, as an operating entity of the financial mechanism to assist developing countries in mitigation of and adaptation to practices to climate change. 15.10 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/ REFERENCES
Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change (2010). National Action Plan on Climate Change. New Delhi: Government of India. SDG 13 on Taking Action on Climate Change and its Impacts: Contributions of International Law, Policy and Governance, Issue Brief, 2016 UN (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. United Nations Development Group (2016). Mainstreaming the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: Reference Guide for UN Country Teams. UNDG, New York. United Nations (2016). Global Sustainable Development Report: 2016 Edition. New York: United Nations Department of Economic and SocialAffairs, Division for Sustainable Development. WCED. (1987). Our Common Future. Ed. Gro Harlem Brundtland. World Commission on Environment and Development. www.un-documents.net/our- 64 common-future.pdf Web Links Sustainable Development Goals http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/durban_nov_2011/decisions/application/pdf/ cop17_durbanplatform.pdf. http://www.cisdl.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/SDG_13_Climate_- _Issue_Brief__-_06.09.2016_-Final_-_UNEP.pdf http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7808e.pdf http://www4.unfccc.int/ndcregistry/Published Documents/India%20First/ INDIA%20INDC%20TO%20UNFCCC. pdf
15.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check Your Progress 1 1. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development has provided a blueprint for shared prosperity in a sustainable world. The 2030 Agenda focuses on the “elimination of hunger and reduction of poverty and inequality (opportunity, resource access, gender, and youth) in all their forms”. The 2030 Agenda and its seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) build on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), are much broader in scope and ambition, encompassing the eradication of poverty and hunger and improved health and nutrition; reduction of inequality; the building of peaceful, just and inclusive societies; the protection of human rights; the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls; and the lasting protection of the planet and its natural resources. The 2030 Agenda advocates “sustainable development in all of its three dimensions, for all countries (developing and developed), based on the fundamental recognition and protection of human rights, dignity and equity”. Further, SDGs endeavour to create suitable environment for “sustainable, inclusive and sustained economic growth, shared prosperity and decent work for all, taking into account different levels of national development and capacities”. 2. The Sustainable Development Goals are “universal set of goals and targets agreed by 194 UN member states to guide their development policies and initiatives over the next 15 years”. The 17 Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development came into force on 1 January 2016. Check Your Progress 2 1. Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG 13 Climate Action) commits to take “urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts”, emphasizing globally agreed need to mitigate anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the damages caused by climate change, while acknowledging that the “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.” The UNFCCC acknowledges that “the global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate international response, in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities and their social and economic conditions.” Goal 13 in particular focuses on the “urgent action” required to “combat climate change and its impacts”, thus incorporating both climate change 65 Societal Responses to mitigation and climate change adaptation. Its scope includes three targets: Anthropogenic Climate Change 13.1- strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate related hazards and natural disasters in all countries; 13.2- integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning; and 13.3- improve education, awareness raising and human institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction, and early warning. 2. India has signed and ratified the Paris Agreement, making it obligatory for it to reach its commitments. India is also a signatory among 192 nations to the 2030 Global agenda for Sustainable Development. The Government of India has entrusted NITI Aayog, with coordinating the SDG Agenda in India and has asked the states to prepare action plans and has also embarked upon exercise to develop national indicators for the 17 Goals, besides undertaking consultations on specific goals. The MoEFCC has been assigned the responsibility of three goals (Goal 12, 13 and 15) directly where they need to coordinate with different ministries on individual targets. Further, they have partial responsibility of another seven goals for which they will engage with other ministries. NITI Aayog is also given the responsibility to develop an energy policy in the light of India’s commitment to the Paris Agreement. The MoEFCC has designed the Nationally Determined Contributions with consultations from state governments, ministries and civil societies. India has launched the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) which consists of eight National Missions. India’s institutional framework on climate change is focused on achieving its pre-2020 commitments and the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) rather than achieving SDGs in general or SDG 13 in particular. India’s effort in integrating climate change measures in national policies have been focused on achieving pre-2020 commitment and its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) as also reflected by the national indicators. India agreed in Copenhagen (2009) to reduce its energy intensity by 20- 25% by 2020 over 2005 level. Through its INDC (2015), it voluntarily committed to reduce its energy intensity by 30-35% by 2030 (over 2005 level), achieve 40% cumulative electric power installed capacity for the fossil fuel based energy resources by 2030 (conditional and transfer of technology and international finance), and create an additional carbon sink of 2.5–
3 billion tonnes of CO2 through additional forest cover.
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