Early Forest Service Rangei?sFire Stories

Timothy Cochrone

In thefirst three decades of the Forest of menwho tried to bolt.With bare Service,fire storieswere an integral handshe heldwet blankets over the part of the unofficialoccupational openingto keepout smokeand fumes. lives of the "saddle-horse"rangers, "not Whena blanketcaught fire, he grabbed anotherone. When the overcrowdedwith book learning,"who furyswept past them, was badly burned around made up a majorityof the the service's his armsand head and most of hismen work force. Throughfire storiesthese were"out" [unconscious] but only one "rough-neck"rangers articulated and lifewas lost in thatcrew of fiftymen.2 consolidatedtheir group attitudes, conceptions, and valuesas a group. In some versionsof this legend, one Firestories served as lightningrods of Pulaski'smen is said to havere- for "old-time,commonsense" rangers' markedwhile steppingover the still- views towardfire, firepolicy, heroic unconsciousbody of Pulaski, "Too fire-suppressionefforts, and the divi- damn bad, the rangeris dead."To this, sion of responsibilitiesamong men in Pulaskireplies, "Like hell he is."'3 the woodsy Like the firehero Pulaski,early Perhapsthe best-knownoccupational rangerswere westernersat heart and legend was about Pulaski'sheroics proudof how well they knew theirhome duringthe 1910Great Burn in northern ground. These rangersshared many and westernMontana. valuesof rangeculture and society, includingindependence, self-reliance, RangerPulaski was caught with a large and the symbolicimportance of "raw crewbetween two fireson therugged St. nature.'4Hating paperwork,they de- Joewatershed. But he wasan old miner lightedin going on horseback on his homeground. He crowdedhis "to the Hr meninto an secludedspots where we found nature abandonedmining tunnel andheld them there by sheer physical in completecontrol."5 Early rangers strengthwhen the roar and smoke of the felt at home in an unofficialoccupa- firethrew panic into the crowd. There tional culture;they were less comfort- wasa trickleof waterin theold tunnel, able in a corporate,governmental enoughto soaka blanket.Pulaski stood at themouth and knocked down a couple

16 Forest& Conservation History 35 January1991) atmosphere.Few aspiredto advanceto with a logic, perspective,and oral they focus on unexpected,threatening Washingtonand leavethe social and literature- includingfire stories- of fire behaviorfrom which crews narrow- environmentalclimate of the West. its own. ly escape. A recurrenttheme of early To the bosses of the early rangers, Early firefighters' ability to control rangers'stories is that man cannot al- the upper-echelonForest Service men, fire stemmedmuch more from folk ways control fire. Dangerousand atypi- commonsenserangers were a necessary knowledgeand hard-wonexperience cal firesstimulated the most stories, evil: a compromisebetween western than from any formaltraining. Because rumors,and other folklife forms.10 livestockinterests and the need for on- "therewas literallynothing to work Storiesof the 1910Great Burn under- site stewardshipof forestresources. In with-no knowledgeof fire behavior; scorewith dramaticflair the importance such an atmosphere,the rangersfre- no trainingin the techniquesof fire of following authority:Rangers Pulaski quently found themselvesarbitrating fighting,"rangers resorted to the cumu- and Joe Halm pull out hand guns to betweenlocal ranchersand the largely lativeknowledge they had gained on force frightenedcrew membersto obey eastern,urbane, conservationist ideals the fireline.7 In a defacto apprentice them and stay in the tunneU1Had the of the ForestService, particularly in the system, juniorrangers followed in the firefighters disobeyed, they would have control and allocationof timber and footstepsof fire-wiseveterans. Fire killed themselvesby runninginto the rangeresources.6 For the most part, the storiestaught the apprenticesboth fire- fire.The emphasison the importanceof early rangersknew more about cows fightingtechniques and fireetiquette. organizationand authorityis unique in than trees. Earlyfire-suppression techniques fire stories, contrastingmarkedly with Thus therearose among the rangers provedsuccessful in the front country, contemporarynarratives from other an informalfolk culturethat was but largerterritories, poor access, and occupationalgroupsY2 It contrastsas sometimesat odds with official, really meageradministrative abilities gener- well with the storiestold by contempo- elite, policy. This discrepancyarose ally hamperedthe quick suppressionof raryforesters, for example, which high- from morethan a differencein the atti- backcountryfires.8 light the illogical, egotistical, and tudes betweenthe commonsenserang- Ironically,most fire stories do not eccentricbehavior of bosses. ers and their bosses. Group interaction discuss the actual suppressionof fire.9 among the rangerscreated a subculture, Nor do they overtlyexpress a concern for savingnatural resources. Rather

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A pack traincarries supplies to firefighters.Photo courtesyof US. ForestService.

FireStories 17 PG OK E S M 0 M._H__I' I5ATIED K4azm To TX 1- 4. ICHa A.j1.T :10 -L-.. = -4:~~~~~~~~~~~~ STARBAARE ATLETE VICTIW, IulrnlrubQlotwisf SA4 Iw E tt~~~~~~~CTIMSNUMBER1| Fire;?Wo ThMWrought ;e "o, 1 ssk .' .I- f i t GY PNE EVENING PR WI RES ITS 15PA0READERS D AYS -~~~~~~~O,11* Spb fai,J1HlM9-i0t X J FINDTWENTY MORE LEAD I --Wee iheu t oSupm Fum on Hili Om f theBit a Ta t5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. if hturs TrytCunur do Bi-evedeTaItoke CooSr btveNwiwlow ->>An,.= of ... Fire-.... =oot Caeur d'Aliaps-Dene Cavers All Appalle oftof th- DE- SEVIE -=5trat SurroundingTo ofi. a

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Copies of newspaperstories about the 1910fires with particularattention to thefate of Joe Halm and his party.Photo courtesyof US. ForestService.

TheNature of FireStories fire-linerumors by theirartistry. General strickenmen and animals rushinginto firetalk is descriptive,pointedly infor- the fire ratherthan to safety; and im- The fireline was and remainsparticu- mative,and usually not meant to be promptu,warm relationsshared by fire larly fertileground for the creationand entertaining.Fire-line rumors are fightersand bears duringthe heat of re-creationof folklore. The unusual ephemeraland weddedto the stressful, the fire: and isolatedenvironment-of fear, exciting, or threateningatmosphere of Downon theClearwater [National Forest] hardwork, dirt- the expectationof activelyfighting forest fires. Fire stories two fire-fightinggangs got to theriver in good wages, and the communalnature on the other hand have a dramatic thenick of time.The boss of oneof them of the work encouragecamaraderie, structure:they employ symbols, plots madeeach man duck into the water under conversation,and the emergenceof (with buildup,climax, and conclusion), a blanketor coat,coming up underthis new customs. Yetfor all the sense of measuredtiming, opening and closing drippinghood to breathewhen he had camaraderie,the fire is an individual "formulas' and other hallmarksof to. Risingfor a breathhimself, the fore- experiencefor each firefighter; you are story telling.3 manbrushed against a sturdybody, took neversure what the whole pictureis, or Becausemost storiesrecount specific a peekunder his blanketand discovered will be, while a largefire is blazing. eventsthat occur on the fire line, each thathis neighbor was a blackbearY4 The firestory is an ongoing creation. story is unique. However,some stories Other such themes in fire storiesin- It changeswith each retellingand ironi- do employ "migratorymotifs' plot seg- clude crewsnearly being trapped by fire; cally is usually not perfecteduntil long ments that migratefrom one story to narrowescapes thanks to the quick after the fire is extinguished.Often fire another.Such recurringnarrative thinkingof the fireboss; and most mem- stories are told in the context of a con- themes include firefighters stumbling orableof all for dramaticeffect, the total versationabout firesand their sup- across a still while fightingfire; panic- consumptionof a firecamp by an out- pression. However,the stories can be of-controlfire. distinguishedfrom generalfire talk or

18 Forest& Conservation History 35 Uanuary1991) These migratorymotifs appearto I rememberwe hardlybroke off from SoaialRelations in Fire havedeveloped independently during a theplateau down onto the flat, down Stories few decadesas ForestService personnel towardthe Line Creek Ranger Station. used them over and over.These themes Andas we arrivedat thefence surround- Firestories are multi-faceted, as apt to ingthe station, the ranger jumped off to haveno discernibleconnection to motifs addressForest Service social structure openthe gate and I holleredat himto stay as the naturalworld or humankind's in other folk narrativesand therefore awayfrom the fence. He jumpedback demonstratethe dynamismand creativ- andsaid, "Well, how are we goingto get relationshipto nature.20The stories ity of the genre. The repetitivemotifs in?"And I said,"Take a cluband knock describetrying events, atypical among of fire stories also confirmthat early thewire off fromthe top of thatwire the routineduties of a districtranger. rangershad their own well-articulated gate.Throw it outof theway with the use Suchtales instructboth newcomersand view of the world, with sharedpercep- of theclub, but don't touch the wires." veteransin the informal,yet crucial, tions, attitudes,and values. Not morethan two minutes after that, subtletiesof fire-suppressionefforts.21 a terrificbolt of lightningstruck the fence They also affirmthe importanceof the and . . . [it]was so hot it meltedthe top in hierarchyamong fire-fighting personnel. Nature-HumanRelations wireon thatfence for about a hundred The following exampleaffirms the and offin littlechunks06 FireStores yards [it]dropped importanceof obeying a leader: frequentlyempha- A common theme in fire storiesis The stories also Wehad a comedown there on a little that natureis morepowerful than man. size the awe-inspiringor inexplicable creek[of Jakey's Fork]. I wentdown there The stunningeruption of nature's aspectsof fires.The following brief ex- the firsthalf of the day with . . . a couple powerin fire underminesnormal order change betweentwo veteranfire fight- of kidsfrom Indiana or someplace.And I and puts human-naturerelationships ers illustratestheir sense of wonder. got themdown there, and we hadten- gallontanks on ourbacks putting out in flux. As rangerJoe Halm put it, "All J. A. [Endof onefire story] Well, we caught spotfires. natureseemed tense, unnaturaland that[Goat Creek] fire but we didn't AndI said,"If it goesto crowning ominous"during the 1910fireYl havemuch left when we got things whenit's over here, why, you run out The powerof fireis often dramatized undercontrol because it wasjust too therein theburn, where it's already hot anddry. by a common story-tellingconvention: burnedthere. You see that old log that A. S. I rememberif a spot[fire] would light reversesymbolism. For example, fire ain'tburning there, well, run out thereon as muchas fiftyor one hundredyards fighterslose their self-controland run thatlog in thatburn because that [crown acrossthe fire line, you could hardly into the fireinstead of away from it. fire]will burn you from the top if youstay." getin fastenough to catchit. Night and day are often reversed:dur- Well,sure enough, it startedthere in a A. I'llgo one betterthan that. We were J. littlewhile and crowned and went on. ing a fire, daylightis maskedby smoke, andwe seldomall eatinglunch, very Andone of themweighed about 190 haze, and ash; but nighttimeis lit by stoppedto eatlunch, but this particu- or 200 pounds.And he said,"You must firelight.Water is no longer a cooling, larday we did.That fire blew right at thinkI'm crazy, to runout on one of nourishing,and healthfulresource: ourfeet, and I wouldsay there were thoselogs or somethingby the fire." snowmeltstreams are tepid, springs tenor fifteenmen on thatthing and it AndI said,"No, I wasjust telling you out fromus like boil, and water sourcesbecome un- justswept right just whatto do." we hadn'ttouched it at all7 drinkablebecause of ash content. Dur- Andsure enough, it got to climbing ing the aftermathof the GreatBurn, Firestories further illustrate the rightover us. AndI andthis other kid - the watersupply for the town of Wal- powerof natureover man by acknowl- anythingI said went with him, he wasa lace, Idaho,was so polluted with ash edging the importanceof luck in the hellof a goodboy-we justbucked our that townspeople,including children, "firegame.2n8 Luck is most frequently tanksoff, andGod and run in thatburn. Andthis other boy started looking up, drankbeer. mentionedas a factorin the timing of Anotherdramatic means of illustrat- andthose sparks began to hit himin the a fireblowup, when a fire crownsinto faceand junk. And God, here he come ing fire'ssupremacy over firefighters is treetopsand is most dangerous.The recountingfreakish occurrences in fightinghis clothes [because they were on firefighters' attribution of their suc- He runout thereand this other kid nature.For example, commonsense fire]. cesses to luck reflectstheir respectfor startedteasing him because he hadhis rangersoften noted spectaculardis- their unpredictableand awe-inspiring clotheson firein places. plays of fire and lightning, and some naturalopponent. AndI said,"Jump right down into that recountedstrange phenomena they ex- Althoughfire frequentlythreatened littleold spring."There was a springthere periencedin the high country during the early rangerswith injuryor death, andlittle running water. So he did.22 electricalstorms: most firenarratives reflect an attitude Firestories focus on the crew boss's On anotheroccasion while riding on the of respectand awe, not of animosity. responsibilityfor his men. A boss must LineCreek Plateau, on theeastern part Fireis clearlyundesirable, but it does anticipateand plan for unforeseen of the [CusterNational] Forest I was not become an enemy.Personification, events,and he is responsiblefor his men caughtin anelectrical storm. And ah . .. such as calling fire"old Nick," is rare.9 no matterwhat the situation. Evenif thelightning played all aroundus. Itwas Similarly,fire is rarelyassociated with "inherits"ominous firecondi- so strongthat when the horses got wet, one boss hell, althoughhellish conditions are tions from another,the "fresh"fire boss therewas a blueflame about three inches sometimesnoted. aroundthat run almost continually off is responsiblefor the crew.Pulaski dur- theends of theirears. ing the GreatBurn and Urban Post on

FireStories 19 the tragicBlackwater Creek Fire of eyesto piercethat haze of hellfor a If fire stories are about anything, 1937 took their obligationsas leaders glimpseof evenone of thefifty men for they are about fear.Ironically, however, to the point of self-sacrifice.23The whosesafety I wasresponsible, I received most fire stories actuallymention fear storiesof their exploits in the line of no reply,nor did I catcha singleglimpse only obliquely,if at all. The ranger- fire salutetheir "forestsmarts" a mix- of a humanbeing. storytellerrarely admits to fear,even Then,due to somewhim of theele- ture of courage,experience, and know- ments,the roar almost died away and for duringclose calls. And even those ing how to guide men. a fewseconds there was deathlike silence. storiesthat do mention fear handle it Whenlegends about the deedsof such Andin thisbrief moment, my agonies in a formal, self-consciousmanner that men as Pulaskiand Post movefrom died,for out of thathaze of heatthat preventsthe audiencefrom judgingthe personalto communalownership, the overhungthe lake I heardvoices.26 narratornegatively.29 The story-telling men become folk heroes, servingas a canon of the commonsenseranger, like In short the fire bosses subscribedto focus of occupationalidentity, honor, that of westerncowboys, allowedno a code of chivalryabout protecting and inspiration.The commonsense overtor personaldiscussion of fear.30 their crews.27And since the rangerwas rangers,who believedthat "fieldmen" However,fire storiesdo illustratethe fire-wise,a crew'sbest chance was to from the lower ranksof ForestService potentiallydisastrous consequences of follow his directions.Fire stories pair personnelwere the "realheroes" of the giving in to fear.Crew membersin the the crew'sbelief in and relianceon the service,particularly admired Pulaski storieswho are overcomeby fear or the ranger'sdirections with the ranger's and Post, both field men themselves. searingheat commit foolish acts and heightenedsense of to- But hero status broughtwith it a few responsibility often die as a consequence.Interest- ward his men. Togetherthese messages rules: self-aggrandizingclaims, for ingly, the escape attemptsof panicked show rangersand firefighters alike example, were strictlyprohibited.24 As firefighters often parallelclosely the how best to organizetheir collective taciturnwesterners, fire-wise rangers behaviorof panickedanimals -bear, efforts. downplayedthe fire"threat." elk, and deer.And the result is the In many stories alcohol stands for The self-sacrificeof rangersin many same: death.31 Thus in accidentstories the risk of disorderon the fire line. fire storiesis based on a paternalistic firefighters' loss of self-controlsym- Storiesrecount how firefighters dis- attitudetoward the men.25The follow- bolically equatesthem with animals. coverbackcountry stills and tricksthe ing fire story illustratesthis sense of Regressionfrom rationalthought and rangeruses to keep his crew drinking selflessleadership: officialprotocol to instinct becomes water.Of course, everycommonsense a death sentence.So the accident Kneelingthere under the red-tinged rangerknew that alcohol threatened stories assert the importanceof blanketof smoke,I enduredthe greatest both fire-lineorder and the ForestSer- subduingfear, of strict organization, agony- a feelingof blamefor the death vice's image of high propriety.In all and of a clear distinctionbetween of human beings. Though I was yellingat rangers'stories, firefighters were kept human and animal realms.Humans thetop of mylungs, straining burning from alcohol.28

Ar

A r

In thisphoto taken around 1910, a groupof menworks to controlafire in Mt. HoodNational Forest. Photo courtesy of US. ForestService.

20 Forest& Conservation History 35 (January1991) are superiorto animalsbecause of their ability to think and suppress instinct. The fire storieswarn fire fightersto be carefulby threatening those who lose control not only with death but also with the loss of their very humanity.In sum, fire becomes a test of human judgment,control, and social bonds.

Unofficialversus Official ForestryValues in FireStories Rangers'stories often describefire fightingas a "trialby fire"or a test of quality.A numberof stories demon- stratethe importanceof knowing the "district" the lay of the land and its unusualresources. The Pulaskilegend, for example, demonstratesthe special -_ ? . -- s.r t . ->~~~~~~~~ abilitiesof field men who know their -- districtswell.32 Pulaski could saveforty- some men largelybecause he knew where an abandonedmine tunnel was located and got his men therein time. Amn th tool usdi iecnrlaemtok hw eei trg htoreyo Amria Fors rdcsIdsre inFors HIstr Soit arcive He knew the mine only becausehe had workedin the area as a minerprior to employmentwith the ForestService. The early rangersrelied on and de- fended the knowledgethey had gained rangers'ideas about fire'srole in forest Commonsenserangers were ambiva- from pre-ForestService work or long life differedfrom the ideas of their re- lent towardfire: it was both natural stayson one districtmore than do latter- placements.Indeed, their evenhanded (good) and powerfuland unpredictable day rangers. attitudetoward fire was moreakin to the (bad). Their toleranceof some firesand Fire storiesalso make clear that "naturalfire" policy of contemporary their willingnessto breakfire-fighting occasionally,under trying circum- managementthan to the policies of codes in exceptionalcircumstances dis- stances, formal rules have to be broken their immediatesuccessors. At the tinguishedthe old-timers'attitudes to ensurethe overallsafety of men.33 bottom of the early rangers'attitude from the officialpolicy of the Forest Fireconditions may call for creative, was a folk idea that "harmonious" Service.The service'sharsh rhetoric, on-the-spot solutions that contradict presettlementbiological conditions even tirade,against all fire is simply officialpolicy, as when Pulaskipulls should be the model for all subsequent absent from the older fire stories. In his pistol to preventhis men from leav- management.36 short the field men rode to a different ing the mine tunnel. Willingnessto The firstForest Service rangers often drummerthan their bosses, who were breakrules, leavingthe rangeropen to considerednaturally caused firesless largelyresponsible for creatingofficial criticismthat might cost him his job, sinisterand less urgentthan firescaused firepolicy. The commonsenserangers underscoresthe extremepersonal re- by carelesscampers or rancherson sharedwith many culturesthroughout sponsibilityof rangersfor their men. their grazingallotments. Ranger re- the world the idea that fireis both In the storiesfire is taken for granted sponses to the BlackwaterCreek Fire in good and bad.38 as a part of forestlife, and firecontrol northwesternWyoming illustrated this as part of defendinga ranger'sterritory set of priorities.The firstrumor to cir- TheUse and Implicationsof and reputation.34Listeners learn that culate on the fireline was that the fire firemust be tolerated-even though was "man-caused.:37Though this FireStories toleranceis easierwhen the fireis on rumorwas eventuallydisproven, the To understandhow the early rangers another'sdistrict. Commonsense rang- ForestService was in no hurryto com- implementedofficial Forest Service pol- ers figuredthat fire, like forestpests bat it becauseit motivatedcrews to icy, especiallywhen they disagreed and other naturalphenomena that pre- corralthe fire. This did not illustratea with it, we must firstconsider what the ceded White arrivaland management generalpolicy of allowing rumorsto fly commonsenserangers valued. Since fire of forests,had a place in forestlife.35 on the fireline-the servicemoved storieswere primarily told between These "shoot, chop, pack, and ride" quicklyto squelchany rumorsthat it rangers,they are uncensored"docu- was mishandlinga fire. ments;'speaking directly to what rang-

FireStories 21 ersheld near and dear. Candidly auto- fightingfires helped participants see Pulaski,"Surrounded by Fire"'in Rangersof biographical,they give us a windowinto themselvesas ForestService rangers. the Shield,edited by Ovid Butler(Washing- the socialprocesses among rangers. Yetfires engendered mixed emotions ton, D.C.:American Forestry Association, 1934), p. 80. Firestories helped to articulateand andthoughts. Fire was a multivalent 4. JohnW. Bennett,"Range Culture and Society validatethe commonsense rangers' symbol,both bad and good: it gave in the North AmericanWest," Folklife An- sharedbeliefs. The storieshad strong symbolicand social life by servingas nual (1985):90-92. personaland occupational implications a riteof passageinto an elitegroup, S. Glen A. Smith,interview, Missoula, Mon- tana, 1956 (Universityof MontanaOral His- forboth the storyteller and his audience. butit alsotook human life; desirable tory Collection);John K. Rollinson,Pony Theytaught newcomers how to fight becauseit occurrednaturally, yet un- Trailsin Wyoming(Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton, fire,and they provided seasoned fire desirableon one'sown turf. 1941),p. 400; WilburGoodsen, "Reflections fighterswith a definitionof self.The New generationsof technical, of an Old Time Ranger,"Rocky Mountain fire-fightingexperience was a crucible college-trained,and policy-entrenched RegionBulletin 20 (1937):17. 6. SamuelTrask Dana and SallyK. Fairfax,For- in whichrangers were tested. Those rangersface fire as an inheritedtest est and RangePolicy (New York:McGraw- who passedthe test and proved them- fromtheir predecessors of their"com- Hill, 1980), pp. 104ff. selvesas experiencedfire fighters were monsense. Theexperience bonds them 7. Shoemaker,"Fighting Forest Fires," p. 34. elevatedto the statusof "fire-wise'"In withfire-wise old-timers. As theForest 8. StephenPyne, Fire in America:A Cultural short,fire stories are about a secular,in- Servicehas expanded and specialized, Historyof Wildlandand RuralFire (Prince- ton, New Jersey:Princeton University Press, formal, occupationalrite of passage.39 however,fewer and fewer Forest Service 1982), pp. 261ff. The rangerhad to provehis worth by employeesthemselves actually fight 9. The stories'tendency not to discussthe in- demonstratinghis ability to get along forestfires. Their one linkto thepast is tricaciesof fire behaviorpersists today. in any circumstancenature could the old firestories still told, if themod- RobertMcCarl notes a similar"disinterest" throw at him.40 in discussingfire behavior in smokejumpers' ernforesters choose to listen.Today "jumpstories." Robert McCarl, "Jump Story: The early ForestService rangers' somewould step over the bodyof fire An Examinationof an OccupationalExperi- view of firesas rites of passage arose storiesand remark, "Too damn bad, ence Narrative,"Folklore Forum 11 (1978):2. from their fraternal,all-male ethos, a thefire story is dead."To this, however, 10. Forpracticality and closure,my examplesare remnantof cowboy culture.Fire stories the sootyfire fighter, veteran forester, basedon storiesabout two principalfires in the northernRocky Mountains: the 1910 servedfirst to define a select occupa- andfolklorist can all reply,"Like hell GreatBurn and the 1937 BlackwaterCreek tional group in which individual it is." A Fire.The GreatBurn, which was reallymulti- achievementoccurred in the context ple firesin northernIdaho and northwestern of dangerouscooperative work. They ,burned more than one million for- also establisheda pecking orderamong ested acresand killedmore than eightymen. Inwe The BlackwaterCreek Fire, fourteen miles the firefighters themselves: a man's east of YellowstoneNational Park,was much demonstrationof competenceraised 1. The namesof this earlygroup of rangers smallerbut still traumatic.Fifteen fire fight- his social statureamong his peers. varywidely, often dependingon the com- ers werekilled as a crownfire trapped two And for those not yet tested by fire, the mentator'sopinion of them. Labelssuch as crewson steeplyforested terrain. storiesraised the question:What would 'commonsense,""pick-up,""saddle-horse,' 11. Joe Halm, "TheGreat Fire of 1910,"American "rough-neck,'or what a hard-boiled Forests(July 1930): 423; Pulaski,"Sur- I do undersimilar circumstances? forest supervisorcalled "theold-time, trapper, cow- roundedby Fire,"p. 79; Shoemaker, Firestories exhibit the tripartite boy, and ignorantranch hand" rangers have "FightingForest Fire," p. 37. structurecharacteristic of rites of pas- all been used. Personalcorrespondence with 12. JackSantino, "Characteristics of Occupa- sage: separation,marginality, and MaryWhite, Dubois, Wyoming, 21 July 1982; tional Narratives,"Smithsonian Folklife incorporation.41The separationphase AlfredClayton, "The Evolution of a Forest Studies3 (1978):59ff. Ranger,'American Forests 36 (August1930): 13. As artisticcreations, fire stories carry a heavier begins with the onset of the fire and 511;S. Edwin Cazier,The Last SaddleHorse culturalload of symbolsand metaphorthan firefighting. The marginalityphase Ranger(Afton, Wyoming:Star Valley Inde- firetalk. In contrast,fire talk is meantto be begins when the fire becomes danger- pendent,1983), pp. 34ff;Joe Back, interview strictlyinformative, aiding the exchangeof ous or behavesunusually, or in Halm's with author,Dubois, Wyoming,9 July 1982 ideas about firebehavior and suppression words, "whenall of natureseems un- (WyomingArchives, Museum and Historical techniques.For moreon the relationship Department,Cheyenne, Wyoming); John betweenfire-line legends and rumors,see natural.'This middle phase, with its Lowell,"Early History of the U.S. ForestSer- TimothyCochrane, "Blackwater Creek For- inversions,earthiness, and different vice and EventsLeading up to the Author's est FireLegends and Rumorsand Their rules, occupies the bulk of firenarra- Connectionwith It,"in EarlyDays in the Relationships,"Northwest Folklore 5 tives. In contrast,the final phase, in- US. ForestService, vol. 1 (Missoula,Mon- (Spring1987): 3-14. 14. Greeley,Forests and corporation,is usuallygiven short tana:U.S. ForestService, 1944), p. 152. In Men, p. 17. these notes the location of interviewtran- IS. Halm, "TheGreat Fire of 1910,"pp. 426, shrift, but it is alwaysassumed by the scriptsappears in parenthesesafter the first 428; Pulaski,"Surrounded by Fire,"pp. 78, successfulsuppression of the fire and mentionof each interview. 80; JackAlbano, interview, Kaysville, Utah, the narrator'spresence while narrating 2. WilliamGreeley, Forests and Men (Garden 24 May 1965 (IntermountainRegion Office); the story.Its overt"lack" underscores City,New York:Doubleday, 1951), p. 17. JamesG. Bradley,"When Smoke Blotted out the Sun,"American West 11 (November the high value this group places on 3. TheodoreShoemaker, "Fighting Forest Fires-Then and Now,"in EarlyDays in the 1974): 4, 8; Alice Shoemaker,interview with individuality. ForestService, vol. 2 (Missoula,Montana: author,Dubois, Wyoming,11 June 1983 Earlyrangers thus used forest firesto U.S. ForestService, 1955), p. 37; EdwardC. (Dubois Museum);Edward G. Stahl,Early define their occupationalculture and Days in the ForestService, vol. 3 (Missoula, personalidentity.42 Above all else, Montana:U.S. ForestService, 1962), p. 240.

22 Forest& Conservation History 35 January1991) 16. Smithinterview, 1956. point of the firecooperators may be explained 36. This conceptionblithely ignores the notion 17. Albano interview,24 May 1965. by theirwestern animosity toward the Forest thatnative Americans may have greatly altered 16. Les Shoemaker,interview with author, Serviceand towardits attemptsto maintaina the "natural"environment. Clarence J. Dubois, Wyoming,24 June 1983 (Dubois "goodimage." Fred Hawley, interview with au- Glacken,Traces on the RhodianShore: Na- Museum);M. E Pincetl,"Fire at Plum Bar," thor,Dubois, Wyoming,13 July 1983 (Dubois tureand Culturein WesternThoughtfrom AmericanForests 30 (November1924): 677. Museum);Redman interview, 5 July 1983. AncientTimes to the End of the Eighteenth 19. I found only one instancein which firewas 29. Formally"bracketing off' fear in this way lets Century(Berkeley: University of California personifiedto the degreeof being givena a storytelleracknowledge its powerwithout Press,1967), p. 705. 1 havenoted this same name. Len Shoemaker,Saga of a Forest undermininghis credibilityand manliness. folk idea amonga numberof LakeSuperior Ranger:A Biographyof WilliamR. Kreutzer McCarlnoted a similarreaction among commercialfishermen. Timothy Cochrane, (Boulder:University of ColoradoPress, smokejumpersand structural(urban) fire "TheFolklife Expressions of ThreeIsle Royale 1958), p. 150ff. fighters.Robert McCarl, "Jump Story," p. 3; Fishermen:A Senseof PlaceExamination" 20. Althoughfire storiesare a rich bank of rang- McCarl,"The District of Columbia' p. 196. (M.A. thesis, WesternKentucky University, ers'attitudes and conceptions,we must be Overallthe tendencytoward understatement, 1982), pp. 85-89. carefulabout assumingthat the principles a droll senseof humor,and a lack of per- 37. The most completeexample of this rumoris embodiedin the narrativesare rules or axioms sonally boastfulclaims in firestories seems in the nationalCivilian Conservation Corps of behavior.Although some studiesassume consistentwith other westerntraditions newspaper,Happy Days, 28 August1937. See that attitudesare inflexibleand rigid, most of story telling.Here, as in other ways, also the BlackwaterCreek Fire File, U.S. Forest folkloristsargue that attitudesand concep- "commonsenserangers" seem veryclosely ServiceRegion Office, , . tions dependon context and varyfrom one alignedwith westerncowboy culture. 38. EmersonHough, "Fireas an Agentin story-tellingsituation to another.In short the 30. ElizabethAtwood Lawrence,Rodeo: An Human Culture,"Smithsonian Institution valuesembodied in storiesare dynamic,not AnthropologistLooks at the Wildand the Bulletin139 (1926):143; GastonBachelard, staticor superorganic,as some might imply. Tame(Knoxville: University of Tennessee The Psychoanalysisof Fire,translated by Thus it is moreaccurate to view a story as an Press,1982), pp. 70, 106. Alan C. M. Ross (Boston:Beacon Press, ongoing effortof articulationrather than the 31. UrbanPost, "BlackwaterFire on the Sho- 1964), p. 7. It is interestingto speculateabout applicationof a completed"code.' shone;'Fire ControlNotes 20 (September how symbolismmight haveinfluenced fire 21. Santino,"Characteristics of Occupational 1937): 313, 315;Blackwater Creek Fire File, policy.For example, if fireis traditionally Narratives'p. 60. U.S. ForestService Region Office, Denver, evaluatedas ambiguous,then policymakers 22. Arthur(Dutch) Nipper, interview with au- Colorado;Pulaski, "Surrounded by Fire;' may find it difficultto convincethe publicof thor, Crowheart,Wyoming, 3 June 1983 p. 79; StanCohen and Don Miller, The Big a strictlynegative view. IndeedI believethat (Dubois Museum). Burn:The Northwest'sForest Fire of 1910 this was exactlythe point of the ForestSer- 23. Howeverthe homageto self-sacrificein fire (Missoula,Montana: Pictorial Histories Pub- vice'sextremely sharp rhetoric against fire storiesgoes only so far.Both Pulaskiand Post lishingCo., 1978), p. 16; Bradley,"When duringthe 1930s: the agencywas attempting livedthrough their ordeals. In contrast,a SmokeBlotted out the Sun;"p. 7. to overcomethe traditionalambivalence BlackwaterCreek Fire crew boss, PaulTyrrell, 32. Pulaski,"Surrounded by Fire;'p. 79; Greeley, about fire. The inertiaof past opinion could who died from injuriessuffered while holding Forestsand Men, p. 17.Greeley's comments be budgedonly by extremetirades. and shelteringthree panic-stricken CCC men, are unusualin that althoughhe was not a 39. The ritesof passagemost discussedin writing is not rememberedin occupationallegends. commonsenseranger he recognizedthe im- havebeen religiousand formal,and produce 24. The reluctanceto boast about life-savingac- portanceof Pulaski's"knowing his home a radicalchange in the personundergoing tions is similarto the story-tellingcanons of ground" a valueheld stronglyby the field the ritual.Secular, informal rites of passage, contemporaryurban firemen. Robert McCarl, men themselves. like those in firestories, are much less studied. "TheDistrict of ColumbiaFire Fighters' 33. Forexample, in the BlackwaterCreek Fire, Classicworks on ritesof passageare: Arnold Project' SmithsonianFolklife Studies 4 Postand his men escapedinto an open park van Gennep,The Rites of Passage,translated (1985): 197. by ignoringthe rule againstfleeing uphill. by MokikaB. Vizedomand GabrielleL. 25. Joe Halm, "Allin a Day'sWork," in Early Post, "BlackwaterFire;" p. 309; ArthurA. Caffee(Chicago, Illinois: Aldine, 1960);and Days in the US. ForestService, vol. 4 (Mis- Brownand KennethP. Davis, ForestFire Victor Turner,The Ritual Process(Chicago, soula, Montana:U.S. ForestService, 1976), Controland Use (New York:McGraw-Hill, Illinois:Aldine, 1969). RobertMcCarl has p. 93; Haim, "TheGreat Fire of 1910' 1973), p. 498. Otherexamples of informal noted amongsmokejumpers a rite of passage p. 426; BlackwaterCreek Fire File, U.S. For- instructionsthat warn fellow employeesto similarto the role fireplays for rangerson est ServiceRegion Office, Denver, Colorado. breakthe ruleswhen necessaryin tryingcir- the ground,in "Smokejumper'sInitiation' 26. W. C. McCormick,"Trapped by Fire" cumstancesare found in McCarl,"Jump Journalof AmericanFolklore 89 (January/ AmericanForests 44 (July 1938): 322. Story,'p. 5; McCarl,"District of Columbia March 1976): 49-66. 27. Thereare occasionalexceptions to this atti- FireFighters' Project;' p. 203. 40. Many ritesof passageinvolve immersion in tude of extremeresponsibility, but the ranger 34. Glen Smith'sand TheodoreShoemaker's earthyand chaoticconditions very like those who careslittle about his men is verymuch commentsabout frontiertownspeople watch- that occuron the fireline. Also, ritesof pas- disparaged.Albert Cole, "EarlyExperiences," ing forestedmountainsides burn affirm that sage frequentlyinvolve role reversalsor sym- EarlyDays in the ForestService, vol. 1 (Mis- westernersaccepted forest fire. I suspectcom- bolic reversals,such as daylightmasked by soula, Montana:U.S. ForestService, 1944), monsenserangers shared some of this "early" smokeand haze, or the night lit up by flames. p. 52; Albano interview,24 May 1965. westernsentiment. Smith interview, 1956; BarbaraA. Babcock, The ReversibleWorld 28. TomRedman, interview with author,Dubois, Shoemaker,"Fighting Forest Fires," p. 34. (Ithaca,New York:Cornell University Press, Wyoming,5 July 1983 (Dubois Museum); 35. Joe Back, interviewwith author,Dubois, 1978), p. 24ff. CharlesS. Cowan, The EnemyIs Fire(Seattle, Wyoming,13 July 1983 (Dubois Museum); 41. Turner,The RitualProcess, pp. 94-130. :Superior, 1962), p. 71;E. John BrianAttebery, "Land Use Attitudesand 42. StephenPyne, "TheFire Next Time: Old Fire Long, "Menaceof the Stills"American For- Ethicsin Idaho Folklore;'in -Idaho Folklife: Problemsand New ProblemFires' Ninth ests 62 (May 1956): 36-39; C. Y. Garber, Homesteadsto Headstones,edited by Louie Conferenceon Fireand ForestMethodology, "Fireon Pine Creek' Idaho Yesterdays11 Attebery(Salt Lake City: Universityof Utah 27 April 1987,San Diego, California.Pyne (November1967): 27. In contrastto Forest Press,1985), p. 226; TimothyCochrane, concurswith this assertion.He notes the Servicepersonnel, fire cooperators-private "AFolk Biographyof an UnitedStates Forest importancethat fireexperiences- as ritesof citizenswho werethe primarywork forcefor ServiceRanger, Westerner, and Artist:A. G. passage-have on young, predominantly fire controlprior tO the New Deal -tell some Clayton"(Ph.D. dissertation,Indiana Univer- male, firefighters. storiesin which rangersdo use alcohol from sity, 1986), p. 118. stills found in the woods. The negativeview-

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