Life and Death on the Northwestern Plains: Mortuary Practices and Cultural Transformations

LAURAL. SCHEIBER

The study ofhuman burials provides us with a rich in adjacent regions that were probably visited by source of information about people's lives-who highly mobile people. The sample consists of lor they were, what activities they pursued during life, sites and 706 individuals recorded throughout the and how they may have participated in rituals of area, with the highest concentrations in the state of death and mourning. Bioarchaeologists consider Wyoming (Figure 2.1). skeletalbiology,mortuatyofferings,andtbearchae- ological context in order to make interpretations HISTORYOF about the past. Archaeologisrs and physical anthro- BIOARCHAEOLOGICALRESEARCH pologists have studied human burial sites from the Early Projects Northwestern Plains since the inception ofprofes- The earliest professional recovery of human skel- sional archaeology in the region during the 1930s. etal remains on the Northwestern Plains was con- Most mortuary sites includeone or two individuals ducted by the Works Progress Administration foundinisolated,ofcen &eatened,graves.Thema- (WPA) during the 1930s (Mulloy 1958; Snodgrass jorityhavebeenexcavatedundersalvageconditions 1958; Woolworrh et al. 1960) and by archaeolo- in order to preserve the materials from destruction gists working for the River Basin Surveys (RBS) of related to road and reservoir construction, mineral the Missouri Basin Project from the 1940s to the development, and eiosion. In this chapter, overall 1960s (Bass 1981; Krause 1998; Wedel 19~~).The assessment is provided of bioarchaeology on the WPA projects were conceived as federal aid assis- Northwestern Plains. Significant trends are high- tance for unemployed laborers, whereas archae- lighted concerning temporal information, mot- ologists working for the RBS recovered burials tuary contexts, and paleodemography, combined from sites that were threatened by water inunda- with osteobiographical portraits. The sample in- tion from reservoir construction.Most ofthis early dudes all known recorded burials fromaportionof work occurred in southern Montana and north- eastern Colorado, and extreme western Nebraska titularly significant for addressingprevailingques- (Figure 2.1). The defined area thus partially over- tions of chronology and typology, and little or no laps the IntermountainPlateau and Rocky Moun- analysis followed (Snodgrass 1958; Wedel 1948). A tains to the west and the High Plains on the east. well-knownexampleofoneoftheseprojectsisexca- This flexible border allows consideration of trends vations at Pictograph Cave (z~YLI),a site located

12 and Bioarchaeology of the Northwestern Plains

Edited by

GEORGEW. GILLAND RICK L. WEATHERMON

Foreword by WILLIAMM. BASS

THEUNIVERSITY OF UTAHPRESS SaltLake City Plains: 11

400 roba ably visited by kilometers iple consists of 302 miles 2j8 led throughout the L I ltions in the state of FIGURE2.1. Study area as a portion of the Northwestern Plains.

ery of human skel- ern Plains was con- :ss Administration loy 1958; Snodgrass and by archaeolo- n Surveys (RBS) of m the 1940s to the : Wedel 1947). The as federal aid assis- .s, whereas archae- Number of Sites ; recovered burials 0 sites or no data i by water inunda- n. Most ofthis early ontana and north- ring this time, the r not treated as par- ing prevailing ques- ~gy,and little or no 858; Wedel 1948). A ~eseprojectsisexca- YLI), a site located FIGURE2.1. Distribution map of sites with burials. LAURAL. SCHEIBER in a large cave southeast of Billings, Montana tures (Gilmore 1999; Tate 1~~9).The Late Archaic (Mulloy 1958). From 1937 until 1941. the Montana occupation also revealed a z,40o-~ear-oldsingle ArchaeologicalSurveyexcavated thesite,underthe flexed interment in a prepared burial pit, located auspices of the WPA. William Mulloy later devel- next to the wall of the shelter. This adult male was oped a Northu~esternPlains chronology based on 40-50 years old when he died and probably had his excavations of the site, published in A Prelimi- limited use of his tight arm (Finnepn 1978). Two nary Historical Outlinefir the Northwestern Plains ground-stone metates were placed over his skull (1958). The artifacts from this campsite were well upon burial. This internment in the southern part preserved and included tanned leather, fletched ar- of the study arearepresents one ofonly a handful of rows, and paint applicators-some of which may Northwestern Plains burials found in a multicom- have been used to draw the more than loo picto- ponent campsite. graphs that gave the cave in name. Dutingthe exca- vations, the team also uncovered partial skeletons Academicand ProfesssinalArchaeology of nine individuals, including six adults and three Dr. George Gill (1976a, 1976b,1978,1983,198~) at children. The adults were primarily males, and the the University of Wyominghas conducted most of children ranged in age from fetal to six years old the systematic bioarchaeology in Wyoming since (Snodgrass 1~58).They were associated with aLate the 1970s. Because of the close relationship be- Prehistoric-age occupation, and most were recov- tween archaeology and physical anthropology at ered from the same area of the cave, suggesting ei- the University ofWyoming, many human remains ther a remembered and preferred place of burial or discovered through professional and cultural re- a catastrophic event leading to a mass burial. Infot- source management projects have been analyzed by mation about the burial positions or potentially as- GiU, so that files on most of the burials recovered sociated artifacts was not published. within the state ate available for study. Contrihu- tions by the Office of the Wyoming State Archae- Amateur Involvement ologist in particular are also noteworthy (e.g., Avocational archaeologists involved with the Wy- Truesdale and Gill 1987; Zeimens et a1.1978). Most oming, Montana, and Colorado archaeological systemadc excavationshave been conductedfor the societies participated in a number of burial investi- purposes of collecting biological and cultural in- gations, especially in the late 1750s and early 1960s formation about Plains populations for compata- (Bass and Barlow 1964; Galloway 1963a, 1965b; tive studies (Gill 1991a). Research during the last Medina 1775; Steege 1960; Stephenson 196~). decade has led to increased involvement of Native 'Ihese conscientious collectors often documented Americans in the excavation, curation, and repatri- burial locadons &er disturbance by others, as well ation ofsome of these remains. as occasionally participated in excavations ofbutial The lack of a professional physical anthropol- sites.Their involvement remainsanimportant con- ogist in Montana or Colorado devoted to Plains tribution to the study ofprehistory on the Plains, bioarchaeology, combined with active Native although today they seldom participate in excavat- American involvement with the disposition of un- ing human remains. marked graves (e.g., the Colorado Commission ?he Colorado Archaeological Society exca- of Indian Affairs) and the passage of the Native vated a rockshelter known as the Bradford House American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act I11 site (5JFS2)on the Ken-Caryl Ranch southwest (NAGPRA) in 1990, has probably contributed to of Denver during 1974 and 1971 (Johnson and Ly- the decline of burial recovery and bioatchaeologi- ons 199~).This campsite was used during Middle cal research in these states during the last three de- Archaic, LateAtchaic,and Woodland timeperiods, cades. However, professionals from Montana State as evidencedhy rich deposits ofstonetools, worked University (Malouf 196~),the University of Mon- bone, unmodified fauna, and at least zo hearth fea- tana (Arthur 1966), the University of Colorado

24

LAURA L. SCHEIBER

TABLE2.1. Northwestern Plains Burials by Time Period

TOTALINDIVIDUALS TOTALINDIVIDUALS WITH TOTALSITES REPORTED RECORDEDINFORMATION

% WITHIN % WITHIN % WITHIN WITHIN KNOWN WITHIN &+om WITHIN KNOWN ALLTIME TIME ALLTIME TIME ALLTIME TIME TIMEPERIOD 0. PERIODSPERIODS NO. PERIODSPERIODS NO. PERIODSPERIODS

Middle Archaic 7.0 12.3 6.3 11.1 123 17.4 24.3 Late Prehistoric 44 14.6 25.7 13.2 18.3 21.5 28.5 Protohistoric- 80 26.5 46.8 257 36.4 50.7 89 27.0 35.7

131 43.4 199 28.2 81 24.5 302 100.0 100.0 706 100.0 100.0 330 100.0 100.0

broad research questions can be addressed, includ- The two earliest locations with human remains ing biological and cultural change through time are the Anzick site (rqPA~o6)in south-central anddemographic and pathological trends. Montana and the Gordon Creek site (5LR99) in north-central Colorado, both initially investigated ?heAncient Ones (11,200-3000~~;pz~0-10~0~~)duringthe 196os.'Theseremainshave recently been Human burials from the Northwestern Plains that the focus of reanalysis and discussion, especially are more than 3,000 years old are extremely rare. vis-i-vis the recovery of and subsequent power To date, only seven sites and nine individuals have struggle over the early skeleton from Washington been recovered from Paleoindian, Early Archaic, State known as the Ancient One or Kennewick and Middle Archaic contexts (Carlson et al. 1999; Man (Muniz rooz; Owsley and Jantz zoor; Swed- Gill 1984, n.d.; Stewart 1964; Zeimens et al. 1978; lundandhderson 19~9). see also Magennis et al. zooo). The chronometric At the Auzick site, a one-and-a-half-year-old association for most of these sites was determined child wasplaced in agrave almost 11,000 years ago, by radiocarbon dating. The remains were found with more than loo stone tools and bone artifacts isolated and in habitations, from both primary and such as finely crafted oval and lanceolate bifaces, secondary interments. Individuals age from young fluted Clovis projectile points, and large mammal childcen to elderly adults, and most remains are bone foreshafts (Lahren and Bonnichsen 1974; fragmentary. Those that are relatively complete and Owsley and Hunt zoo^).' Someone in the group mature may demonstratelesspronouncedEastAsi- applied a thicklayer ofred ocher to the child's body atic features (i.e., the Mongoloid skeletal complex) and the chosen funerary objects in preparation for than more recent Native American populations, burial and placed them in a rod ledge overlook- suggesting that microevolution during the last ing the surrounding countryside. The people who Ir,ooo years was slow and gradual (Gill, this vol- made the diagnostic Clovis stone tools ("Clo- ume [ch. 171; Loworn et al. 1~99).However, given vis" people) often left behind caches of beautifully thevariablerecoveryinspaceandtime,neitherbio- craftedobjects (Frison I~~I:~I),but this is the only logical nor cultural connections between the indi- cache known from a mortuary context (Owsley viduals can be easily traced. and Hunt 2001). Perhaps the people who buried

26

k;i TABLE2.9. Radiocarbon Dates Associated with Northwestern Plains Burials

I CALIBRATEDDATE SITENAME (SITE NO.) LABNO. DATEBP RANGE, ONE SIGMA' SOURCE REFERENCE(S) Paleoamerican Anzick (24PA506) Not reported Not reported BC 9600 f 60 bone Owsley and Hunt 2001 Anzick (24PA506) Not reported Not reported BC 8730 f 50 bone Owsley and Hunt 2001 Gordon Creek (5LR99) GX-0530 9700 f 250 BC 9380 (9216) 8694 bone Breternitz et d. 1971 Gordon Creek (5LR99) Not reported 9400 f 120 BC 9088 (8672) 8480 bone Swedlund and Anderson 1999 Anzick (24PA506) Not reported Nor reported BC 6650 f 90 bone Owsley and Hunt 2001

Early Archaic J. David Love (48SU4479) B-169796 7290 f 50 BC 6214 (6156) 6097 sediment University of Wyoming (UW) Oste- ology Lab file Dunlap-McMurcy (48NA67) RL-651 5350 f 160 BC 4345 (4191) 3979 charcoal Zeimens et d. 1978 RL-543 5250 f 150 BC 4317 (4020) 3944 charcoal Zeimens et d. 1978 Meadow Draw (48UT63) RL-1150 5040 f 160 BC 3982 (3858) 3653 bone UW Osteology Lab file Sidney (25CH55) B-66571, CAMS-9886 3710 f 60 BC 2466 (2427) 2288 bone Loworn et d. 1999

Late Archaic Wind River Canyon RL-1876 3520 f 140 BC 2030 (1823) 1685 charcoal Frison and Van Norman 1985 (48HO10) Wirkin (5AH6) GX-725 3190 f 80 BC 1522 (1471) 1400 bone Swedlund and Goodman 1966 Jimmy Men (48PA899) Not reported 2940 f 260 BC 1490 (1172) 826 charcad Wyoming Cultural Records Whitewater (24PH9001) Not reported 2620 f 200 BC 799 (637) 403 bone UW Osteology Lab file Enron (48SW595) Not reported 2550 f 70 BC 802 (675) 546 feature fill UW Osteology Lab file BoarS Tusk (48SW502) RL-617 2480 f 110 BC 799 (637) 403 bone Eakin 1980 Bradford House 111 (5JF52) UGa-993 2440 f 185 BC 801 (447) 263 bone Finnegan 1978; Medina 1975 Willson (48G09003) UCR-3696A, CAMS-54126 2100 i 40' BC 195 (134)49 bone UW Osteology Lab file Willson (48G09003) UCR-3696B, CAMS-56209 2080 f 40 BC 168 (76) 4 bone UW Osteology Lab file Weld Burial (5WL2055) B-39363 2080 f 160 BC 360 (75) AD 79 bone Wanner and Brunswig 1992 Iran Jaw (24RB93) TX-3066 1790 f 50 AD 134 (240) 323 wood charcoal Gill and Clark 1983 TABLE2.3. (cont'd) Radiocarbon Dates Associated with Northwestern Plains Burials I

Woodland Benick Ranch (48AB571) B-36257, ETH-6378 2340 C 70 BC 410 (398) 380 bone beads Davis 1992 BenickRanch (48AB571) B-47929 1510f60 AD 441 (550) 636 bone Davis 1992 BenickRanch (48AB571) B-48470 1400 t 60 AD 604 (652) 669 bone Davis 1992 Ehrlich (5WL1813) B-47466 2095 t 185 BC 198 (108) 3 charcoal Brunswig and Wanner 1793 Ehrlich (5WL1813) B-50673 1740 ?I 60 AD 238 (290) 389 charcoal Brumwig and Wanner 1793 Ehrlich (SWL1813) 8-46465 710 & 60 AD 1268 (1287) 1379 bone Brunswigand Wanner 1993 Carter Lake (5LR42) B-59298 1850 k 90 AD 69 (133) 318 charcoal Gleichman andMutaw 1974 I Carter Lake (5LR42) B-59297 1650 f 90 AD 260 (412) 534 charcoal Gleichman and Mutaw 1794 Hutcheson (5LR97) GX-531 1805 k 105 AD 82 (237) 379 bone Wade 1966 Michaud A (5AH2) GX-0529 1800 + 105 AD 82 (238) 383 bone Wwd 1971 Muddy Creek (48CR325) RL-1338 1790 ? 70 AD 131 (240) 339 wood Reher 1987 Kerbs-Klein (5WL47) RL-188 1780 k 130 AD 82 (243) 413 bone Scott 1979 Huntley (48607) UCR-3697B, CAMS-56211 1730 + 40 AD 242 (306) 390 bone UW Osteology Lab file Huntley (48G07) UCR-3697A, CAMS.56210 1680 f 40 AD 263 (388) 418 bone UW Osteology Lab file Dicken (48G09004) B-37535 1570 + 60 AD 420 (474) 560 bone Adams 1991 Hazeltine Heights (5AM3) 1-885 1305 k 100 AD 648 (688) 849 bone Buckles et al. 1963 Badlands (25SX9001) NWU-61 750 f 90 AD 1215 (1278) 1376 charcoal Gill andLewis 1977 Late Prehistoric County Line Draw Not reported 1700 k 60 AD 256 (364) 418 bone beads UW Osteology Lab file (48PL7001) Aurora (5AH244) B-4730 1570 f 95 AD 402 (474) 602 charcod Gilmore et al. 1999 I Torrington (48G06) UCR-3691 1540 f 40 AD 435 (502) 569 bonc? UW Osteology Lab file Aurora (5AH244) B-4733 1230 + 80 AD 686 (778) 892 bone Gilmore et al. 1797 Aurora (5AH244) B-4732 1040 + 50 AD 978 (1000) 1023 charcoal Gilmore et al. 1999 Baimil(48SW7101) B-26887 1430 f 60 AD 584 (640) 660 feature charcoal Sheridan et al. 1992 Lcna Gulch (5JF 1780) B-126837 1430 ? 50 AD 599 (640) 658 charcoal Jepson and Hand 1999 Lena Gulch (5JF1780) B-124401 1310 + 40 AD 663 (687) 768 charcoal Jepson and Hand 1999

---.a

TABLE2.3. (cont'd) Radiocarbon Dates Associated with Northwestern Plains Burials

.

~ I .. . -. ..~ ~ ." "U.\-,v,* IJ-~U~TU AU 432 (~UL]307 Done! U W Usteology Lab hle Aurora (5AH244) B-4733 1230 f 80 AD 686 (778) 892 bone Gilmore er al. 1999 Aurora (5AH244) B-4732 1040 + 50 AD 978 (1000) 1023 charcoal Gilmore er al. 1999 Bairoil(48SW7101) B-26887 1430 k 60 AD 584 (640) 660 feature charcoal Shendan et al. 1992 Lena Gulch (5JF1780) B-126837 1430 + 50 AD 599 (640) 658 charcoal Jepson and Hand 1999 Lena Gulch (5JF1780) B-124401 1310f 40 AD 663 (687) 768 charcoal Jepson and Hand 1999

TABLE1.3 (cont'd) Radiocarbon Dates Associated with Northwestern Plains Burials

CALIBRATEDDATE SITE NAME(SITE NO.) LAB NO. DATEBP RANGE,ONE SIGMA' SOURCE REFERENCE(S) Mummv Cave (48PA201) 1-1009 1230+ 110 AD 665 (778) 958 debris Husted and Edrar- n.d. Shute Creek (48LN1296) Not reported bone Gillam 1989 Shute Creek (4SLN1296) B-27117 bone Gillam 1989 PKBurial(48SH308) A-548 bonc Haynes er al. 1967 Hanna Seminoe 1 (48CR121) RL-736 bone UW Osteology Lab file EsppCornwell (48CR4001) B-10696 juniper beads Truesdale 1984 Antelope Mine (48C0481) Not reported unknown Greiseret al. 1982 Turk (48WA301) A-583 bone Haynes et al. 1967 Rattlesnake (24M01071) GX-2976 bone Tayloret al. 1974 Stone Fence (48CR933) RL-1005 bone Miller and Gill 1980

Protohistoric Bridger Gap (48UT920) B-13156 90 + 60 AD 1671 (1805) 1955 wood Truesdale and Gill 1985

Narc Sii~numbcrrbeginning with 9000 arc tcmporzry d~~ignlrionr.Only darer from dirccdy arrociaicd artificrr or fcamrcr or f~ombonr ucindudcd 'Scuiver and Rcimcr 1993; Srvivcreral. 1998; Sruivcicr al. 2005. LAURAL. SCHEIBER

TABLE2.4. Northwestern Plains Burid Contexts

PROTOHISTORIC- BURIALCONTEXT LATEARCHAIC WOODLAND LATEPREHISTORIC

MoundlCernerery

NorcTiblcdo=noi includcriruoldcr &an LmArchsir (n =7), ~iccrhvnknom nmcpcriod8 (n = 131),or ricer fromknknkn rimcpcnodr wich mknombed concexrr (n = 18). 'Orhci indudes above gound 6.habindon, and nonc of the above. this child did not plan to return to their iached" side'notched dart points. At their campsites, they objects, and the presence of these finely crafted constructed features such as fire pits and boiling items may suggest that the child maintained a par- features, stonecircles, and pit houses (Frison 1991). titularly special place in the community. Twenty-one potential Late Plains Archaic Only a handful ofhuman remains dating to the burial sites have been recorded on the Northwest- Early and Middle Plains Archaic have been iden- ern Plains, with 15 individuals. Late Archaic buri- tified. In southwestern Wyoming, an older Female als are fairly evenly distributed throughout most of . was interred in a hearth feature within a pit house Wyoming (except for the central part of the state) thatwasradiocarbondated to about 7.300 years ago and the eastern one-third of Montana. Only a few after she was discovered during mitigation excava- Late Archaic burials have been identified in Colo- tions at an oil well pad in 1002 (48SU4479 [Gill rado. Individuals of the Late Archaic were primar- zooz]). At the Dunlap McMurry site (48NA67) ily buried in isolated shallow pits, although some located near Casper, Wyoming, an elderly man were also placed in rockshelters, campsites, and aged 50-65 years was found buried in ashallowpit cairns (Table I.~).Single interments are the dom- amongdozens offire pits in a 6,000-year-oldcamp- inant pattern (90 percent) in Late Archaic grave site(2eimensetd. 1978).AcrewfromtheOfficeof sites. the Wyoming State Archaeologist and the Univer- Late Archaic burials areoften difficult to recog- sity of Wyoming salvaged this site during highway nize because they lack diagnostic artifacts and pat- construction in 1975. This burial patrern of bod- terned burialpractices. Of the 15 in this sample, 13 ies buried or placed in the middle of camp deposits (5z percent) have been dated through radiocarbon is also observed during the Middle Plains Archaic analysis or by the presence of associated diagnos- at the McKean site (48CK7 [Frison 1991; H,as- tic artifacts such as projectile points. The remain- pel and Wedel 198~1)and the Dead Indian Creek ingburials weredesignatedLareArchaicsites based site (48PA55~[Gill 1984]),both in northern Wyo- on cranial morphology, the presence of ground stone, burial style, and stratigraphy. Without bet- ter dating methods and more stringent criteria for Late Plaim Archdic assigning periods, analysis of morphological and (jooo-IJOO BP: IOJO BC-AD +JO) cultural temporal trends in burials may be jeop- Archaeologists have documented an increased ardized. The Northwestern Plains chronology is number of sites and presumably of people on the primarily based on changes in weapon technol- Northwestern Plains after about 3,000 years ago. ogy. Because projectile points rarely occur in Late Late Plains Archaic hunter-gatherers occasion- Archaic burials, other criteria must be used. Con- ally participated in communal bison hunting, versely, the absence of chipped-stone points found with material culture ranging froi coiled bas- in burials during this time period is itself a clue to ketry to ground stone to diagnostic corner- and Late Archaic lifeways and the potential decreased

30 Life and Death on the Northwestern Plains

TABLE2.5. Northwestern Plains Burials, Age Distribution by Cultural Time Period

< 15 0 (.ON) 12 (27.9%) 17 (30.9%) 22 (33.3%) 15-19 1(5.6%) 4 (9.3%) 2 (3.6%) 6 (9.5%) 20-39 4 (22.2%) 13 (30.2%) 12 (21.8%) 26 (41.3%) 40+ 13 (72.2%) 14 (32.6%) 24 (43.6%) 10 (15.9%) Average 47.7 31.4 33.0 25.0 ~ ~~ Total 18 (100%) 43 1100%) 55 (100%) 63 1100%) known rim= periods wirh

~eircampsites, they TABLE2.6. Northwestern Plains Burials, Sex Distribution by Cultural Time Period re pits and boiling PR~T~HIST~RIC- )uses (Frison 19~1). SEX LATEARCHAIC WOODLAND LATEPREHISTOMC HISTORIC x Plains Archaic Male 10 (45.5%) 19 (30.8%) 27 (32.1 %) 23 (21.3%) on the Northwest- Female 7 (31.8%) 20 (29.2%) 24 (28.6%) 34 (31.5%) Late Archaic buri- Unknown1 5 (22.7%) 26 (40.0%) 33 (39.3%) 51 (47.2%) hroughout most of Not Collected II part of the state) Total 22 (100%) 65 (100%) 84 (100%) 108 (100%) Jntana. Only a few identified in Colo- .chaic were primar- importance ofweapons as symbols ofpersonal pos- gest normal signs ofagingand alikely natural death its, although some sessions in mortuary rituals. (Gill 1991a). Extremely elderly individuals are most :rs, campsites, and On average, people during the Late Archaic often associated with Late Archaic burials, such nents are the dom- were generally in good health. The majority of the as Boar's Tusk and Iron Jaw (2413B93). found in a Late Archaic grave individuals in the sample (72 percent) were more cairn burial in southern Montana (Gill 1983; Gill than 40 years old, and almost all of them (94 per- andClark 1~83). n difficult to recog- cent) were more than 20 years old (Table 2.5). Their ic artifacts and pat- mean age is 48 years. No children and only one Plains Woodland (1000-2000 BP; AD 0-1000) in this sample, 13 individual aged 15-19 years old have been recov- The Plains Woodland period, sometimes referred rough radiocarbon ered in a sample of 18 individuals. Females (41 per- to as the Early Ceramic, marks the introduction of issociared diagnos- cenc) are less represented thaimales (59 percent; ceramiccookingvesselsinto the materialinventory ,oints. The remain- Table 2.6). of hunter-gatherers on the Northwestern Plains. Archaicsites based One of the Late Archaic sites that has been Although debate continues as to the degree of mi- resence of ground well dated is the 2,500-year-old Boar's Tusk site gration of eastern Woodland ideas versus actual ~phy.Without bet- (q8SW50z),namedaftertbelarge rockremnantof people, most of the data from the Northwestern xingent criteria for an ancient volcano on the edge of the Red Desert Plains suggests largely in situ cultural change with- norphological and in southwestern Wyoming (Eakin 1~80).A man in out biological replacement (Johnson and Johnson (rials may be jeop- his fikies or sixties apparently fell facedown in the 1998). Burials that date to the Plains Woodlandpe- ains chronology is sand at the site, perhaps dying of old age, exhaus- riod on the Northwestern Plains are geographically I weapon technol- tion, or both. His body was not laid to rest in apre- limited to the North and South Platte River drain- .arely occur in Late paredburialbut,instead, waseventually coveredby ages in southeastern Wyoming, northeastern Col- nust be used. Con- the sand (Figure 2.3). He may have been alone or orado, and western Nebraska and are thus more stone points found was traveling with people who chose not to bury associated with the High Plains. They temporally >d is itself a clue to him. Signs of spondylosis (a degenerative joint dis- overlap the terminal Late Plains Archaic and the lotentid decreased ease of the spine) and severe dental abscesses sng- beginning of the Late Prehistoric. For the present

Life and Death on the Northwestern Plains

as Woodland (Nick- t have been reported >f the Plains Wood- :oo years ago. Burial ring thelater Wood- I 700-year-old sub- Iebraska containin'g iplete pottery vessel s through time, rhe FIGURE z q. Benick Ranch buds. nged from comu- liic activities to pri- land burials (however, see Gill and Lewis 1977). age profile divides falrly evenly among individ- could be associated Whatever these group interments represented to uals less than 15 years old (28 percent), 29 to 39 :Prehistoricpeoples the people whoconstructed them, diagnosticlithic years old (30 percent), and more than 40 years old tools and pottery were not usually placed in the (33 A small number of teenagers (9 per- ith multiple graves graves as funerary offerings. Instead, people were cent) complete the total. Theaverageageis 31 years. the Bisterfeldt site more often buried with ornaments and objects of Based on a sample of 43 individuals, people during :braska (Breternitz ~ersonaladornment. Morphologically, the people this time were no longer regularly living to old age ), and the Huntley buried at these sites are indistinguishable from and had a much higher inc~denceof youth and in- IT, Wyoming, were chose in the previous period (Davis 199r),thus pos- fant mortality. The sample is composed of 51 per- dlecmrs, leavinglit- ing the question of why and how this change in cent females and 49 percent males (seeTable 2.6). :ex[, burials, and fu- cultural beliefs about group cemeteries, funerary Bur~alsat the Benick Ranch site (+8AB571), :esence ofpottery is offerings, and flexed burial positions occurred. located on a terrace of the Laramie River in south- Jeriod, and in many Demographic analysis of Woodland burials ern Wyoming, provide a detailed look at what ap n the Late Archaic, demonstrates a mortality profile very different pears to be a typical Woodland pattern (Davis and ely found in Wood- from that of the Late Archaic (see Table 2.5). The Miller, this volume; Figure 2.4). Six individuals LAURAL. SCHEIBER were buriedin agroup interment about 1,500 years ity of the precontact burials found on the North- ago, including three children under the age of six western Plains date to the Late Prehistoric period. years old and two older adults aged 44 to 65 years Unlike burials from previous periods that often (Davis 1792). These individuals show pathologies lack diagnostic artifacts, Late Prehistoric funerary common to hunter-gatherers, such as osteoarthri- offerings are more likely to include time-sensitive tis of the vertebral column, dental abscesses, and materials. transverse lines ofarrested growth. Forty-four burial sites on the Northwestern The Dicken site was salvaged during winter Plains date to the Late Prehistoric period, with 1790by a team from Eastern Wyoming Collegeand 73 individuals. Although so far none has been re- theUniversityofWyomingwhengraveloperations corded from the middle or northwest parts of in Goshen County exposed a minimum of 12 skel- Wyoming, these burials are otherwise distributed etons (Adams ~ggr),buried 1,500 years agoona ter- fairly evenly throughout the study area. As during race of the North Platte River in eastern Wyoming. the Late Archaic, single interments are the most Because of the fragmentary, crushed, commingled common during the Late Prehistoric (61 percent). condition of the remains, a complete osteologi- However, two to five individualswere buried at 24 cal analysis has not yet been completed. Of thelr percent ofthe sites, andasmany as nineindividuals known individuals, three elderly adult women, one have been recorded. This pattern is more similar to adult woman, five adult males, one adolescent, and the Woodland, although within different primary one child are identified. contexts. Isolated burials are uncharacteristic of the As is the case in the' Late Archaic, the majority WoodlandperiodontheNorthwesternPlains.0ne of the Late Prehistoric burials were found in iso- example is an adult man found in Sioux County in lated contexts (47 percenc; see Table 2.4). How- western Nebraska (z5SXz5), fully extended and ever,morethanone-thirdwasfoundinrockshelters buriedwith alarge complete Woodlandvessel (Gill (39 percent). This pattern represents a change from and Lewis 17~~).This pattern is similar to Wood- both the preponderance of isolated burials of the land practices in eastern Nebraska and Kansas, al- Late Archaic and the ossuary burials of the Wood- though morphologically the skeleton is identical land. The reasons that people may be buried in height; larger, more rugged crania; greater robust- crevices,preferences for burial closer to the sky, or a icity; and greater stature (Gill and Lewis 19~~:72).decision to hide the dead fromothers. At 600 years old, this burial is almost roo years The average age at death for these 55 individu- younger than the rest of the known sample from als was 33 years, similar to the Woodland specimens the Northwestern Plains. (31 years; see Table 2.5). The highest frequencies of individual ages occur in the 40+ years category Late Prehistoric (~Joo-zjoBP; AD IJO-1700) (44 percent), followed by the less than 15 years cat- The Late Prehistoric period marks several changes egory(jz percent). The least number ofindividuals in the lifeways ofprehistoric people on the North- were aged 15-19 when they died. All of these data western Plains. Besides the introduction of ceramic resemble the Woodland data. Females account for vessels and the concomitant changes in cooking 47 percent, and males, for 53 percent, of the known technology that occurred during the Woodland sexed individuals (see Table 2.6). and continued here, the bow and arrow replaced at- ~nexam~leofanunusual~ate~rehistoricburial latls and spears (Frison rg7r). Some of the changes form is the Stone Fence burial (48CR933). This in projectile point types and pottery probably sig- interment was recovered from a crevice in south- nify the movement ofnewpeoples into the Plains, central Wyoming during July 1777 after bones be- whereas others represent diffusion of ideas from gan to erode from a prominent sandstone outcrop other areas and interregional contact. The major- (Miller and Gill 1780). Judgingfrom the disartic-

34

i Life and Death on the Northwestern Plains ound on the North- dated nature of the skeletal elements and the ab- (19~1a)suggeststhat 12 arrows hithimfrombehind e Prehistoric period. sence of cenain bone elements, this middle-aged and two hit him from the front. Several large rocks ; periods that often ~nanwas probably interred in a secondary bundle were found on top of his body. The presence of the Prehistoric funerary burial and was buried sometime between AD 1334 stones may suggest hurried concealment by his dude time-sensitive and 1616. Grave goods include a handful of bone assailant(s). Adeliberate placement by his group or beads. Bundle burials are well known from Proto- other natural postdepositional processes are much 1 the Northwestern historic contexts several hundred later but are less likely interpretations. The children found near istoric period, with nor common during the Late Prehistoric. This in- him were not shot by arrows but may also have ir none has been re- dividual retains Archaic physical features such as been victims of violence. An adult man from the northwest.parts of a mesocranic skull, small size, high vault, and less Bairoil site, found in the same area of the state as therwise distributed rugged cranium (Miller and Gill 1980:2~0),which the Robber's Gnlch site, also showed multiple signs tudy area. As during are frequent traits among individuals living in this oftrauma (Sheridan et al. I~~Z). ments are the most area of Wyomingcalled the Wyoming Basin. ~istoric(61 percent). Intergroup conflict is suggested based on skel- Protohistoricand Hiitoric ds were buried at 24 eta1 indicators in several of the burials, including boo-IOOBP;ADr700-1900) y as nine individuals severe skeletal injuries (Sheridan et al. 1992). the The majority ofdated burials from the Northwest- rn is more similar to presence of projectile points embedded in bone ern Plains are from the Promhistoric and Historic in different primary (Agogino 1962; Joyes et al. 1984; Martindale and period, a term used here to signify the time period Gill 1983). and to a lesser degree the presence of after direct or indirect contact with Europeans un- .rchaic, the majority points in the graves (Bass and Lacy 1963; Gallo- til the end of the nineteenth century. Although ; were found in iso- way 1968; Grey 1963; Frison 1988; Truesdale and archaeologistscannotpositivelyassociatemostpre- .e Table L.~).Hnw- Gill 198~).This pattern is in strong contrast to historicpopulationswithknowntribaldescendant ound in rockshelters both Late Archaic and Woodland burials. Projec- groups, after about AD 1700 these tribal identities :sents a change from tile points, either embedded in hone or present in can be explored in more detail. The Northwestern dated burials of the the burial assemblage, are found in one-third of Plains was a crossroads for numerous peoples dur- >unalsof the Wood- the sites (Scheiber and Gill 1~9~).Distributions ingtheProtohistoric,andmanypeopleburiedtheir :may be buried in .. among males and females are equally high. In- dead within the study area considered here. Some I may include an in- creased hostilities have been noted on the Central of these Native American inhabitants include the :ar escarpments and andNorthern Plains during this time period as well Crow, Lakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Blackfeet, closer to the sky, or a (Blakeslee 1994; Hollimon and Owsley 1994; Ow- Assiniboin, Atsina, Kiowa, Plains Apache, and others. sley 1994).Increasedcompetitionforresourcesand Shoshone (Hanson 1998). The Flathead, Kutenai, ~rthese 55 individn- territory may have led to these increased hostilities. Kalispell, Pawnee, Ute, and Bannock also visited hodlandspecimens The projectile points left as grave offerings may not the region. This was a dynamic time on the Plains highest frequencies necessarily indicate aggression but could be related frontier. European contact brought many changes, 40+ years category to ideas and identities surrounding weapon tech- as Native peoples became increasingly involved ess than 15 years cat- nology and the afterlife. Less than half of the total with the fur trade andwere pushed andpulledinto imber of individuals number of burials with projectile points contain new territories. These changes are reflected in sub- :d. All of these data embeddedpoints. sistence and settlement strategies, marriage pat- Females account for Projectile points that do indicate a prehistoric terns, trade negotiations, labor, and demography :rent, of theknown homicide were discovered at the Robber's Gnlch (Champagne 1994: Dobyns r992; Whelan 1983; ). site (48CR3595) in the Red Desert of southern Wolf 1982). Material inventories changed as well, irePrehistoricburial Wyoming (Martindale and Gill 1983; Figure 2.5). as firearms, equestrian tadde, metal pots and orna- d (48CR93j). This An adult man in his thirties and two children aged ments, cotton and wool clothing, and glass beads a crevice in south- 1%and 9 years were recovered. The man was lying wereimovacivelyincorporatedintonativelifeways. :977 after bones be- facedown in an arroyo with 14 Late Prehistoric Direct evidence of contact through intermarriage :sandstone outcrop comer-notched projectile points embedded in his and intimate relationships is witnessed by mixed- g from the disartic- skeleton and contained in the body cavity. Gill heritage individuals, both in this sample and in the LAURA L. SCHEIBER

FIGURE 2.5. Robber's Gulchindividual. wider region (Love11 and Dublenko 1999: Scheiber by early collectors hoping to find old guns, knives, andGill1997; Snow and Fitzpatrick 1~88). and beadwork (Frison, this volume). Estimating Two hundred fifty-seven individuals from at cultural affiliation is possible for some of these in- least 80 sites are associated with the Protohistoric. dividuals, and repatriation efforts are under way in These numbers more than double sample sizes several cases (Douglas W. Owsley, personal com- from all other known time periods and account for munication ~003;Weathermon and Miller, this 47 percent ofthe totalsite sample and51percent of volume). the total individual sample. This large sample size Most Protohistoric burials in Montana have is probably related to a combination of factors, in- been recovered from the central part of the state, cludingthe higher number of people who traversed especially south-central Montana-the present lo- this region, better preservation conditions, and im- cation of the Crow and Northern Cheyenne reser- proved dating techniques based on the presence of vations, established in 1851 and 1884, respectively. whiteEuropean- or American-manufacturedmate- Protohistoric burials have been documented from rials. Also, these burials were more actively sought mostof Wyoming.Thediscovery ofalargenumber

36 P F L~feand Death on the Northwestern Plalns

of burials in the southeastern part of the state may and very few older adults are found. The majority be related to farmingactivities that have unearthed of the individuals in this sample of 63 (41 percent) many ofthese below-groundgraves. Also, many na- were ro to 39 years old. A high percentage (33 per- tive groups actively participated in trading at Fort cent) of children less than 15 years old indicates Laramie duringits heyday from 1834 to 1890 (Lav- that they were dying in similar numbers as young ender 1983). Numerous Protohistoric burials were adults. Only a small number of individuals (16 per- also found in northwestern Wyoming, a tradi- cent) reached 40 years of age. The main difference tional homeland for the Crow for at least joo years between the Protohistoric/Historic Native Ameri- (Frison 1967). The Big Horn Mountains in north- cans of the Northwestern Plains and their contem- western Wyomingprovidedappropriate terrain for porarywhite pioneers is the reduced percentage of rockshelter burials, which became common in the children among pioneers (one-third of the Native later periods (see Frison, this volume). The distri- American sample is children, whereas one-sixth bution in central Wyoming in particular marks a of whites are children [Scheiber and Gill 1~~71). sharp change from the absence of Late Prehistoric Within the Native Americans, slightly more fe- burials from the same area. This rise may be a result males (60 percent) than males (40 percent) have of increased migration into the Wind River Basin been recorded (see Table 2.6), which also differs and the establishment of the Wind River Reser- from the Historicpioneers, who are predominantly vation for the Shoshones and later for the Arapa- male (Gill, thisvolume, "Introduction"). hos ca. 1868 (Larson 1965). OnlyoneProtohistoric The Pitchfork burials (48PA4z) illustrate burial has been documentedfrom eithernortheast- Protohistoric interments and lives on the North- ern Colorado or the panhandle ofNebraska. western Plains during the expansion of the west- The majority of these Protohistoric burials (78 ern frontier (Figure 2.6). Approximately AD 1810, percent) were found as single interments, although two young men in their twenties died of unknown as many as 15 individuals have been recorded from causes and were placed in a protected shelter of one site. Those sites with the highest number of rocks on what 70 years later would become part of individuals are oken most closely associated with the Pitchfork Cattle Ranch in the Greybull River European trading posts, such as the Bordeaux Valley of northwestern Wyoming (Edgar and Tur- Trading Post (Gill et al. 1984; Korell1981), orwirh nell 1978; Gill 1976a; Scheiber 1994). They were European-introduced diseases, such as smallpox buried in extended positions with numerous Eu- (Frison, this volume). Individuals were frequently ropean- and Native-manufactured objects indud- buried in rockshelters or small caves (56 percent) ing glass beads, dentalia shells, shell hair pipes, a during the Protohistoric period, followed in fre- metal earring and bracelet, buffalo robes, a blue or quency by isolated burials (18 percent; see Table red coat with brass buttons. and a carved wooden ind old guns, knives, 2.4). Similar to thecase during the Late Prehistoric, bowl (Gill t976a) Based on the high number of iolume). Estimating numerous reasons could account for burial in rock- ectoparasites recovered from preserved hair, these For some of these in- shelters. Although ethnographers and explorers individuals may not have been maintaining stan- ~rtsare under way in commonly described tree or scaffold burials on the dard grooming practices or had poor nutrition, vsley, personal com- Northwestern Plains, these account for only 9 per- which led Gill and Owsley (1~85)to suggest that on and Miller, this cent of this sample. This absence may be related to they could have been living away from their home looting or decomposition before official docnmen- for as long as a year prior to their death. They must Is in Montana have tation. On the other hand, only during the Proto- have had companions, as evidenced by their care- ral part of the state, historic are scaffold or tree burials documented at ful placement in a protected shelter of rocks. This ana-the present lo- all. This burial practice is undoubtedly underrepre- is a concrete example ofhow bioarchaeology can be ern Cheyenne reser- sented in this summary. used to create detailed osteobiographies. d 1884, respectively. The average individual age during the Protohis- Another postcontact burial is the Korell- n documented from toric is 25 years (see Table 2.5). Many more people Bordeaux cemetery(48GOsq), located in thevicin- cry ofalargenumber duringthe Protohistoric were dyingat a youngage, ity of the old Bordeaux Trading Post, in operation

Life and Death on the Northwestern Plains

and dated Native American mortuary contexts, heide (1997) attribute this decline to changing they have been grouped together as "other" for subsistence strategies from hunting and gathering this analysis. I here compare the three most com- to mixed horticulture, increased Euro-American mon contexts: isolated (34 ~ercent),rock crevices contact and trade, and increased population with (41 percent), and moundslossuaries (g percent). accompanying decline in sanitary conditions. The Late Archaic burials are primarily found in isolated lackofincreasedchildmortalityon theNorthwest- contexts, away from large rock formations, usually ern Plains shows that these populations were not in the gound overlooking a terrace, riverbank, or affected by such problems. other lain (68 ~ercent).Late Prehistoric burials A decreasing age at death among adults is also are also often isolated (49 percent), but rockshel- observed through time (p = ,006; see Table 2.5). ter burials in small rock outcrops are much more Subadult (15-19 years old) interments are uncom- frequent (39 percent). By the Protohistoric time mon through time, averaging10 percent of individ- period, though, rockshelter burials are much more uals older than 15 years. Once individuals reached common (56 ~ercent)than isolated ones (LOper- the teen years, they would more likely survive until cent). On the other hand, Plains Woodland buri- at least early adulthood. On the other hand, thefre- als are almost exclusively restricted to multiple queucy ofyoungadult (20-39 year old) deaths was individuals buried in low mounds or ossuaries (63 low during the Archaic (LLpercent of adults more ~ercent),with few isolated burials (~g~ercent) and than 15 yearsold) andsteadily increased to reach its only one crevice burial recorded. Although small maximum during the Protohistoric (63percent). In sample sizes are considered these differences are contrast,oldadult (40+ yearsold) deathswerevery statisticallysignificant (p = .ooo). high during the Archaic (7rpercent) anddecreased to the Protohistoric (24 percent). People during the Late Plains Archaic lived to be very old, with .dered adult white Mortality distribution also changed through time an average of 4%years. Woodland and Late Prehis- s,also found in the during the last 3,ooo years on the Northwestern toric individuals averaged 31 years and 33 years at escribed (Gill et al. Plains. Age distributions were collapsed into sev- death, respectively. By the Protohistoric, mortal- eral categories: preadults (< 15 years), teens (15-19 ity decreased even further, so that the average in- ears), young adults (20-39 ears), and old adults dividual age was15 years old. The shorter life span EXT (4o+ years). Distinct patterns emerge when exam- and few elderly individuals of the Protohistoric are II biology and mor- ining the demographic profiles through time. perhaps not surprising and probably relate largely our understanding The number ofLate Archaic child burials isvery to epidemic disease, intensified hostilities, and in- discussion focuses small in comparison with those in the other time creasing labor demands, combined with social dis- .ough time: burial ~eriods(see Table z.5). NO child burials have been ruption and constant negotiations for space and 3thercontributors recorded. This absence may be explained by a much position. However, the Protohistoric was the end Bone anddentalpa- lower incidence of infant and youth mortaliry (sta- of a general trend of declining mortality rates that biological change tistically the number of children from the Late Ar- appears to have started during the Late Prehistoric. .ese issues will not chaic sample is lower than the number of children This pattern is probably in part an outgrowth se.of the very small fromal1otherperiods;p = .I%)orby limitedsample of population increase, territory circumscription. nd Middle Archaic sizes. On the other hand, child mortality was very and resource depletion. Projectile points recovered tesis to the 143sites similar throughout the last z,ooo years, averaging fromLatePrehistoric burialsma~relate toincreased led biological data percent of the Late Prehistoric, Woodland, and intergroup conflict in some cases but may also re- land, Late Prehis- Protohistoric samples. This pattern is markedly dif- flect ideological changes associated with burial rit- ferent from the Central Plains, whichdemonstrates uals in others. Increased conflict alone probably nurial varied mark- increased mortaliry of younger children through did not totally cause the decline in age at death, al- ).Although burials time and where even the Woodland populations though it may have contributed heavily toward it. ,Ids have been doc- show almost a~opercent~hildmortalit~rate (Ow- A declining age at death in more sedentary neigh- :cent of the known sley and Bruwelheide 1~9~).Owsley and Bruwel- bor populations has been attributed to changing LAURAL. SCHEIBER diet and decreasing sanitary conditions especially small, the marked decline in average age at death duringsmallpox epidemics, but these explanations from 48 years during the Archaic to zg years dur- seem less applicable to the more nomadic hunter- ingthe Protohistoric represents a dramatic change gatherers of the Northwestern Plains. In compari- in longevity. son to the case on the Eastern and Southern Plains, Mortuary practices altered though time as people living in the western areas were healthier well, from primarily below ground to primar- and lived longer lives, regardless of time period ily above ground. This change may reflect shifting ideas about the afterlife among the inhabitants of The ratio of biologically assigned males to fe- the Northwestern Plains or the arrival of new im- males through time remains fairly equal and stable, migrancs with their own mortuary rituals. Rock- although a slight (but not significant) increase in shelter burials in particular may represent the least the number of female deaths occurred in the Pro- amount of time needed to prepare for burial and tohistoric period (seeTable 2.6).Evidence from the could imply a more hastened and perhaps less pub- eastsuggesrsthatyoungmothersandtheirbabiesof lic process. On the other hand, Woodland people the (Proto)Historic period were most significantly probably returned to their prepared interments for affected by disease and compromising social condi- several years as each new member of a family group tions (Owsley andBruwelheide 199~).Inaddition, passed away. These burials show more energy and age and sexare not correlated though time, mean- time investment in burial ritual and createdvisible ing, for example, that older women or youngermen changes to the local landscape, perhaps indicative are not found in disproportionate numbers. of more public ceremonies. The bioarchaeological data generated from the SUMMARYAND CONCLUSIONS analysis of human burials are different from other I have provided a brief summary of the kinds of archaeological data. Human remains, associated research questions that bioarchaeology on the funerary objects, and the prepared burials in which Northwestern Plains can address. No one period they areplacedcontain the actual physical remains has a sufficient sample size to draw significant con- of once living people and demonstrate careful ef- dusions about populations in the past. Instead, forts by their families to bury them in a cultur- these bioarchaeological datacan more useFuUy pro- ally appropriate manner. These events differ from vide snapshots about individual lives. In grouping other activities of discard and disposal and repre- individuals who may have been born hundreds or sent specific activities that can remind us of indi- thousands of years apart, we cannot also commit viduals and their everyday lives. However, because the error of assuming that people belonged to the human burials ofthe Northwestern Plains areofren same culturalgroup or shared similar identities. Ln- located away from habitations or campsites, they dividuals buriedduringthesame timeperiodcould are less likely to be included as part of explicit ar- represent various neighboring permanent inhab- chaeological research designs. Even when found as itants or nomadic travelers. Similarly, the sample isolated discoveries, mortuary data can be studied precludes a thorough analysis by geographic area to help trace the culture history of Plains peoples. within the Northwestern Plains, although some The study of human skeletal and funerary remains variation may relate to unique communities inhab- complements and strengthens standard archaeo- iting different areas. logical interpretations and adds a human element Through time, the sample sizes increase, per- to the study of Plains inhabitants. haps indicative of rising populations. Two traits that do not change are the relatively low number of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS children compared with numbers in neighboring This chapter is an updated and summarized ver- areas and the equal number of males and females. sion of Scheiber and Gill (lgg7).These data derive The most dramatic difference through time relates from a thorough review of published literature as to mortalityproiiies. Although the sample sizes are well as unpublished files from the University of

40 Life and Death on the Northwestern Plains average age at death Wyoming Human Remains Repository, the Wyo- similarity to many of the sites in southern and east- haic to 25 years dur- ming Cultural Records Office, and the Montana ern Wyoming, and (3) treatment of the Historic ts a dramatic change Archaeological Records Office. The most signifi- pioneer burials has been omitted because these are cant changes since the original 1997publication are treated elsewhere in this volume. zd though time as that (I) sites from the western one-third of Mon- ground to primar- tana have been eliminated because they were con- NOTE may reflect shifting sidered to be more properly associated with the r. Recent reanalysis suggests char a second child burial ~gthe inhabitants of Intermountain Plateau than the Plains, (2) sites recovered from rhe Anzick site is not associated with le arrival of new im- from northeastern Colorado and western Ne- the Clovis cache and is instead several thousand years younger (Owsleyand Hunt ~oor). mary rituals. Rock- braska have been included because of their overall ly represent the least epare for burial and ndperhaps less pub- i, Woodland people ?ared interments for Ier of a Family group )w more energy and 11 and created visible :, perhaps indicative

.generated from the iifferent from other remains, associated ,red burials in which ual physical remains Ionstrate careful ef- y them in a cultur- e events differ from disposal and repre- I remind us of indi- s. However, because .tern Plains are often i or campsites, they s part of explicit ar- Even when found as data can be studied .y of Plains peoples. ~dfunerary remains : standard archaeo- Is a human element ,tS.

~d summarized ver- .). These data derive dished literature as I the University of

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