Paleoglaciological Study of the Ahlmannryggen, Borgmassivet and Kirwanveggen Nunatak Ranges, Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica, Using Worldview Imagery

Department of Physical Geography

Paleoglaciological study of the Ahlmannryggen, Borgmassivet and Kirwanveggen nunatak ranges, Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica, using WorldView imagery

Taisiya Dymova

Master’s thesis NKA 227 Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, 30 Credits 2018

Preface

This Master’s thesis is Taisiya Dymova’s degree project in Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology at the Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University. The Master’s thesis comprises 30 credits (one term of full-time studies).

Supervisors have been Arjen Stroeven, Robin Blomdin and Jennifer Newall at the Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University. Examiner has been Krister Jansson at the Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University.

The author is responsible for the contents of this thesis.

Stockholm, 2 September 2018

Lars-Ove Westerberg Vice Director of studies

Abstract

Paleoglaciological reconstructions based on glacial geological and geomorphological traces are used to test and constrain numerical models of ice sheet extent and dynamics. MAGIC-DML (“Mapping, Measuring and Modelling Antarctic Geomorphology and Ice Change in Dronning Maud Land”) project is trying to reconstruct the timing and pattern of ice surface elevation changes since the mid-Pliocene across western Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica. The study area has sparse pre-existing field data and considerable ice sheet model uncertainties. A remote sensing-based mapping of glacial geomorphology on nunataks and structures on the ice sheet surface is presented for a coastal-inland transect including Ahlmannryggen, Borgmassivet, and Kirwanveggen using high-resolution WorldView imagery. The primary aim of the study is to map traces of a thicker ice sheet on nunatak slopes that were formerly partly or entirely covered during ice surface highstands. Panchromatic and multispectral images were analysed in a multi-step procedure using ArcGIS, including image processing and mosaicking, visual feature recognition, and mapping. The identification of key landforms (such as till veneers and erratic boulders) required the adoption of some assumptions to differentiate, for example, till from regolith. Where patterned ground was mapped, we infer a presence of till rather than regolith because subglacial erosion is more likely to produce finer material than subaerial weathering. Very large boulders on plateau surfaces are mapped as erratics because they could not have been delivered by slope processes to local highpoints. However, the reliability of derived paleo-ice sheet reconstructions is limited by both the necessary assumptions and the absence of crosscutting relationships between landforms. At face value, the presence of till cover and erratics above the present ice surface on some nunataks indicate thicker ice in the past. According to the geomorphological mapping of the transect, in Kirwanveggen the former ice elevation was at least 100 m higher, in Borgmassivet the ice lowered more than 600 m and in Ahlmannryggen the ice was at least 300 m thicker. Additional mapping of structures on the ice sheet surface is used to yield target field routes for upcoming field season(s) to potential cosmogenic nuclide (CN) sampling locations. The chronology derived from CN dating will permit the delineation of ice sheet surface elevations as targets for ice sheet modeling.

Contents

1 Introduction 5

2 Study area 5 2.1 Physiography ...... 5 2.1.1 Nunataks ...... 5 2.1.2 Ice streams ...... 5 2.1.3 Geological setting ...... 6 2.2 Morpho-tectonic and glacial history ...... 8 2.2.1 Palaeozoic: sedimentation on Gondwanaland ...... 8 2.2.2 Mesozoic (late Jurassic): break-up of the Gondwanaland ...... 8 2.2.3 Cenozoic (from Eocene until middle Miocene): onset of warm-based glaciation ...... 8 2.2.4 Cenozoic (from Middle Miocene until Pliocene): onset of cold-based conditions ...... 9 2.2.5 Quaternary: thinning of the ice sheet ...... 9 2.2.6 Last Glacial Maximum ...... 9 2.2.7 Post-LGM warming ...... 10

3 Background 10 3.1 Geomorphological signiﬁcance of landforms on nunataks and the ice sheet surface ...... 10 3.1.1 Ice and snow features ...... 15 3.1.2 Sedimentary and bedrock features ...... 16 3.2 Cosmogenic nuclides and their use for ice thinning reconstruction ...... 17

4 Methods 18 4.1 Data and software ...... 18 4.1.1 Remote sensing datasets ...... 18 4.1.2 Dataset processing ...... 19 4.1.3 Data plotting ...... 21 4.2 Geomorphological mapping ...... 21 4.2.1 Ice ﬂow directions ...... 22

1 4.3 Mapping validation ...... 23 4.4 Sampling site selections ...... 24

5 Results 25 5.1 Glacial geomorphology ...... 25 5.1.1 Landform examples ...... 26 5.1.2 Distribution of glacial deposits ...... 26 5.2 Sampling sites ...... 34

6 Discussion 47 6.1 Paleoglaciological reconstruction ...... 47 6.2 Exposure ages of the samples ...... 47 6.3 Evaluation of the WorldView dataset ...... 49

7 Conclusions 49

8 Appendix 54 8.1 Python scripts written to perform mosaicking in ArcMap ...... 54 8.2 MatLab scripts used for generating some of the ﬁgures ...... 56 8.2.1 Figure 1 ...... 56 8.2.2 Figure 2 ...... 56 8.2.3 Figure 3 ...... 57 8.2.4 Figure 12 ...... 58 8.3 The WorldView images used for mapping ...... 58

List of Figures

1 An overview bedrock topography map of Dronning Maud Land. The study area is shown by the red polygon. The Borgmassivet range and the escarpment are clearly visible as areas of high elevation (brown) inside the red polygon. Jutulstraumen appears as a deep ice stream on the eastern side of the study area. The ice streams and mountain ranges are labelled on Fig. 2. The continental shelf is clearly visible as light blue shallow area compared to darker blue surrounding deep area of the ocean. The bedrock topography is derived from Fretwell et al. (2013). Generated with Antarctic Mapping Toolbox (Greene et al., 2017), see Appendix 8.2.1...... 6 2 An overview map of the study area. The study area is shown by the red polygon. The red dotted line indicates the transect shown on Fig. 3. The shaded relief image is derived from MODIS Mosaic of Antarctica (Haran et al., 2014). Ice speed is derived from Rignot et al. (2017) and is displayed in colors explained in the colorbar. The colors on colorbar may slightly differ from the colors on the map since the ice speed map was drawn as a transparent layer above the shaded relief image. Darker colors indicate higher ice speed. Blue arrows indicate ice flow direction and magnitude (Rignot et al., 2017). The blue line indicates the grounding line derived from Fretwell et al. (2013). Generated with Antarctic Mapping Toolbox (Greene et al., 2017), see Appendix 8.2.2...... 7 3 The transect of the study area showing the bedrock topography in black, ice cover in light blue and the ocean in dark blue. The figure shows some topographical features of the study area: how Kirwanveggen dams the ice flowing from the inland polar plateau; that the Penck Trough lies below sea level; Borgmassivet reaches the altitudes similar to Kirwanvegen escarpment; Ahlmannryggen is slightly lower and is separated from Borgmassivet by a valley. The data is derived from Fretwell et al. (2013). The transect extent is indicated on Fig. 2. Generated with Antarctic Mapping Toolbox (Greene et al., 2017) ...... 8 4 a) The EAIS in warmer climate during the Early-Mid Pliocene (earlier than 3 Ma). b) The EAIS in colder climate during the Mid-Late Pleistocene (later than 1 Ma). Dashed line represents the ice sheet level during the warmer climate. SST on the figures means sea surface temperature. Modified from Yamane et al. (2015) ...... 9 5 Example of the imagery before (a) and after (b) dataset processing. a) Rough multispectral WV images, b) multispectral mosaic...... 20

2 6 Blue ice areas as seen in (a) "natural colour" band combination and in (b) "standard falce colour" band combination of the WorldView imagery. Differentiation between snow and ice cover is much clearer in the standard false colour as can be seen in these images...... 21 7 Images of Flårjuven Buff area. (a) The map showing slope angles of the raster cells. Red colours represent steeper slopes. Examples of route proposal and values for steepness calculated for the steepest parts of the route (critical points) are shown. Sampling sites are numerated according to the descriptions in Table 4. (b) The WV panchromatic imagery with geomorphological features shown. 22 8 (a-c )WorldView images of till, in the panchromatic band, showing a variety of cases where such interpretation was based on assumptions (red stars with numbers mark the sampling sites described in Table 4 and shown on Fig. 18 to ??): (a) glacial erratics and patterned ground lying on top of a plateau with approximate elevation of 1200 m a.s.l.; (b) glacial erratics up to 10 m in diameter lying on a plateau that appears flat in the image but actually has 10◦ inclination. Elevation approximately 1300 m a.s.l.. Note the different scale used in F igure 8b; (c) patterned ground on top of a plateau interpreted as till; (d) striped bedrock structure can resemble sorted ground...... 23 9 The example of mapping validation. a) Aerial photo showing patterned ground on Grunehogna Peaks provided by South African research team (J. Newall, pers. comm.). b) WV panchromatic image of the same patterned ground...... 24 10 The example of mapping validation. a) Aerial photo showing the eastern part of Grunehogna Peaks (the location of sampling sites 12 and 13, see Fig. 19) provided by South African research team (J. Newall, pers. comm.). Sediment cover appears reddish brown. Patches of refrozen ice on the supraglacial moraine appear light blue The aerial image also provides an idea of the typical steepness of the slopes in the study area. b) WV multispectral image of the same area. The sediment cover appears dark and homogenous. c) WV panchromatic image of the same area. The texture of bedrock is visible, the sediment cover looks more homogenous, separate large boulders lying above it appear as black dots. Moraine ridges and separate boulders can be distinguished on supraglacial moraines. d) WV multispectral image showing an example of geomorphological mapping. For the legend see Fig. 15 ...... 25 11 Google Earth imagery showing a nunatak in Gjelsvikfjella with patterned ground and glacial erratics on top. They were sampled by Y. Suganuma and his team (J. Newall, pers. comm.) ...... 26 12 An overview map of BIAs and LSSs. BIAs are indicated as blue polygons, LSSs are indicated by blue lines. The study area is shown by the black polygon. The shaded relief image is derived from MODIS Mosaic of Antarctica (Haran et al., 2014). Ice flow velocity is derived from Rignot et al. (2017) and is displayed in colors explained in the colorbar. Contour lines are marked with elevation numers in m a.s.l. Generated with Antarctic Mapping Toolbox (Greene et al., 2017), see Appendix 8.2...... 28 13 Glacial geomorphological map of the area close to the ice shelf. The black polygon is showing the extent of figure 14 ...... 29 14 The example of geomorphological mapping of the area close to the ice shelf...... 30 15 Glacial geomorphological map of Ahlmannryggen. The legend also applies for the Borgmassivet geomorphological map (Fig.16). The mapping of Flårjuven area is shown closer on Fig.7b. The mapping of Grunehogna area is shown closer on Fig.21a and 10d ...... 31 16 Glacial geomorphological map of Borgmassivet. See Fig.15 for legend. The mapping of Borga area is shown closer on Fig.22a ...... 32 17 Glacial geomorphological map of Kirwanveggen...... 33 18 The overview map of the sampling sites. Due to a large amount of sampling sites on the Ahlman- nryggen and Borgmassivet nunataks, these areas are shown separately on Figures 19 and 20. .... 35 19 The map of the sampling sites on Ahlmannryggen nunatak range...... 36 20 The map of the sampling sites on Borgmassivet nunatak range...... 37 21 Grunehogna Peaks shown on a) the glacial geomorphological map (present) and b) the paleoglaciological reconstruction map (past). The transparent layer of paleo ice surface is drawn above the layer showing present bedrock exposure. The paleo ice direction is shown by a large blue arrow in (b). Grunehogna Peaks appear covered by ice almost everywhere in the reconstruction...... 48

3 22 Borga Mountain shown on a) the glacial geomorphological map (present) and b) the paleoglaciological reconstruction map of Borga mountain as inferred from the mapping (past). The transparent layer showing paleo ice surface is drawn over the present topography derived from TanDEM-X. The paleo ice direction is shown by large blue arrows in (b). Borga Mountain appears covered by ice almost everywhere in the reconstruction...... 49 23 Kirwanveggen on a) the glacial geomorphological map (present) and b) the paleoglaciological reconstruction map (past). The paleo ice direction is shown by a large blue arrow in (b). Kirwanveggen appears completely covered by ice in the reconstruction...... 50

List of Tables

1 Landform identification criteria on satellite images...... 11 2 Table summarizing the properties of cosmogenic nuclides, the atoms from which they are formed, and in which minerals such atoms occur. Derived from Ivy-Ochs & Kober (2007)...... 18 3 Datasets used for the geomorphological mapping ...... 19 4 Identified sampling sites...... 38 A1 Panchromatic WorldView imagery selected after dataset processing. Columns refer to the Commercial Satellite Imagery Naming Conventions of the Polar Geospatial Center. The acquisition time stamp indicates the day and the hour of image acquisition by the acronym yyyymmddhhmmss. The original name indicates the original time stamp, the image type (P: panchromatic, M: multispectral), and the Digital Globe product type (1b: standard, 2a: rectified)...... 58 A2 The multispectral WorldView images selected after the dataset processing. Columns refer to the Commercial Satellite Imagery Naming Conventions of the Polar Geospatial Center. The acquisition time stamp indicates the day and the hour of image acquisition by the acronym yyyymmddhhmmss. The original name indicates the original time stamp, the image type (P: panchromatic, M: multispectral), and the Digital Globe product type (1b: standard, 2a: rectified)...... 62

4 1 Introduction

This project is part of an international collaboration called MAGIC-DML (“Mapping, Measuring and Modeling Antarctic Geomorphology and Ice Change, in Dronning Maud Land”) which aims to build a palaeoglaciological reconstruction of western Dronning Maud Land (DML) in East Antarctica. Glacial reconstructions such as this are based on glacial geological and geomorphological traces (landforms, deposits) and are used to test and constrain numerical models of ice sheet extent and dynamics. MAGIC-DML focuses on the timing and pattern of ice surface elevation changes since the mid-Pliocene across the study area, where pre-existing ﬁeld data is sparse. This master thesis project contributes to the paleoglacial research with remote-sensing-based geomorphological mapping of a key area for MAGIC-DML investigations: the coastal-inland transect Ahlmannryggen-Borgmassivet- Kirwanveggen. The new high-resolution WorldView dataset was used to enable the study of this remote region in detail and provide route-planning information for the upcoming MAGIC-DML ﬁeld season(s). The primary aim of this study is to map traces of a thicker ice sheet on nunatak slopes that were formerly partly or entirely covered during ice surface highstands and to present plausible paleoglaciological interpretations and reconstructions based on them. Several steps are conducted within the framework of this project:

• acquire, select and mosaic the satellite data; • map and interpret the geomorphology of the transect including Borgmassivet, Ahlmannryggen, and Kirwan- veggen in DML; • identify appropriate locations for the collection of rock samples for cosmogenic nuclide (CN) dating;

• reconstruct the paleoglaciology of the study area and estimate maximum past ice elevations;

• evaluate the WorldView imagery for paleoglaciological reconstruction and route planning.

2 Study area 2.1 Physiography 2.1.1 Nunataks A nunatak is an exposed mountain summit emerging from an ice field (Bharatdwaj, 2006), such as mountain summit towering above the ice sheet surface in Antarctica. The study area covers a transect of the western sector of Dronning Maud Land (DML) that stretches from the ice shelf in the north (4◦22’W 70◦55’S; 1◦29’W 70◦54’S) to the escarpment which forms the edge of the polar plateau to the south. (5◦16’W 74◦6’S; 2◦15’W 74◦3’S) (Fig. 1). The transect has an approximate N-S orientation and is 350 km long by 130 km wide giving a total area of 40600 km2. Kirwanveggen lies 350 km inland from the coast (Fig-s 2, 3). It is a part of an escarpment running from SW to NE. The nunataks there reach elevations from 2100 to 2500 m above sea level (a.s.l.). These mountains serve as a barrier to the ice flow and form a steep step in the ice elevation. The area to the south of Kirwanveggen escarpment is the polar plateau, Amundsenisen (2800 m a.s.l.; Chang et al., 2016; Fig. 1) and the area to the north is a low-lying coastal area, Ritcherflya (2000 m a.s.l.; Chang et al., 2016; Fig. 1). The Borgmassivet is a nunatak range in the center of the study area covering ca 3000 km2 (Fig-s 2, 3).The average altitude of the nunatak summits is 2500 m a.s.l., in places towering ca 800 m above the ice surface. Ahlmannryggen is a ridge to the north of Borgmassivet (Fig. 2, 3) which is almost completely covered by ice. It is situated 200 km from the margin of the ice sheet and is comprised of nunataks with elevations of up to 1843 m a.s.l. (Neethling, 1969). The present-day ice surface lies approximately 400 m below the nunataks. Sanae IV, a South African Antarctic research base, is located on the Vesleskarvet nunatak (2◦50’W 71◦40’S), in the north-western part of Ahlmannryggen.

2.1.2 Ice streams The majority of ice in the study area is drained by the SE branch of Jutulstraumen (Fig-s 1, 2) which is a deep-lying and warm-based ice stream (Høydal, 1996). Jutulstraumen (660 km in length, a drainage area of 120.000 km2, 12.5 km3 a−1 in yearly discharge, and an average ice velocity of 1 km a−1; Herzfeld, 2012) borders Borgmassivet and Ahlmannryggen along its western side. It drains the ice from the Amundsenisen polar plateau into the Fimbul ice

5 Figure 1: An overview bedrock topography map of Dronning Maud Land. The study area is shown by the red polygon. The Borgmassivet range and the escarpment are clearly visible as areas of high elevation (brown) inside the red polygon. Jutulstraumen appears as a deep ice stream on the eastern side of the study area. The ice streams and mountain ranges are labelled on Fig. 2. The continental shelf is clearly visible as light blue shallow area compared to darker blue surrounding deep area of the ocean. The bedrock topography is derived from Fretwell et al. (2013). Generated with Antarctic Mapping Toolbox (Greene et al., 2017), see Appendix 8.2.1. shelf (Fig. 2). The Penck Trough sits between the Kirwanveggen escarpment and the Borgmassivet (Fig-s 2, 3). The ice stream that occupies the Penck Trough drains less ice (Rignot et al., 2011) and merges with Jutulstraumen. Another tributary glacier is Viddalen that drains the ice from Borgmassivet and Ahlmannryggen into Jutulstraumen (Fig. 2). Schyttbreen delineates the study area to the west and it is ﬂowing into the Jelbart ice shelf (Fig. 2).

2.1.3 Geological setting The geology inﬂuences the rate and pattern of erosion in the region (Sugden, 1978) and is the key to the MAGIC- DML sampling strategy. Therefore it is important to describe it in the scope of this study. The Jutulstraumen and Pench trough are lying above the boundary between two diﬀerent terrains: the Grunehogna and Maudheim provinces (Groenewald et al., 1995). The Grunehogna province comprises the Archean Basement and is lying north-

6 Figure 2: An overview map of the study area. The study area is shown by the red polygon. The red dotted line indicates the transect shown on Fig. 3. The shaded relief image is derived from MODIS Mosaic of Antarctica (Haran et al., 2014). Ice speed is derived from Rignot et al. (2017) and is displayed in colors explained in the colorbar. The colors on colorbar may slightly differ from the colors on the map since the ice speed map was drawn as a transparent layer above the shaded relief image. Darker colors indicate higher ice speed. Blue arrows indicate ice flow direction and magnitude (Rignot et al., 2017). The blue line indicates the grounding line derived from Fretwell et al. (2013). Generated with Antarctic Mapping Toolbox (Greene et al., 2017), see Appendix 8.2.2. west of these troughs and includes Borgmassivet and Ahlmannryggen. The Borgmassivet and Ahlmannryggen are composed of 3000 myr old granitic rocks (Chang et al., 2016) which are overlain by the Ritscherflya supergroup, a sequence of sedimentary deposits (shallow marine, tidal flat, braided stream and alluvial fan). These are cut by the Borgmassivet intrusion (mafic sills of ca 1107 M yrs old; Grosch et al., 2007), and capped by the Straumsnutane lavas of similar age (Moyes et al., 1995). Kirwanveggen belongs to the Maudheim province which comprises the Proterozoic basement: Precambrian gneisses (ca 1100 M yrs old), the Lower Palaeozoic quartzites known as Urfjell Group, the sandstones of the Permian-Triassic Amelang Plateau Formation, and the Jurassic tholeiitic basalts (Chang et al., 2016; Kleinschmidt et al., 2000; Harris et al., 1989).

7 Figure 3: The transect of the study area showing the bedrock topography in black, ice cover in light blue and the ocean in dark blue. The ﬁgure shows some topographical features of the study area: how Kirwanveggen dams the ice ﬂowing from the inland polar plateau; that the Penck Trough lies below sea level; Borgmassivet reaches the altitudes similar to Kirwanvegen escarpment; Ahlmannryggen is slightly lower and is separated from Borgmassivet by a valley. The data is derived from Fretwell et al. (2013). The transect extent is indicated on Fig. 2. Generated with Antarctic Mapping Toolbox (Greene et al., 2017)

2.2 Morpho-tectonic and glacial history 2.2.1 Palaeozoic: sedimentation on Gondwanaland Before the break-up of the Gondwana supercontinent a large planation surface (sediments that were probably deposited in Early Permian) was distributed across western DML (Näslund, 2001). Now this surface forms some nunatak summits (e.g. in Kirwanveggen).

2.2.2 Mesozoic (late Jurassic): break-up of the Gondwanaland During the rifting of East Antarctica and South Africa flood basalts covered the Permian sediments (Elliot, 1992). A new passive continental margin was uplifted, and an escarpment formed at the edge of the highly elevated plateau, separating it from the low-lying seaward land (Naslund, 2001). Kirwanveggen is one of the examples of the current location of this escarpment. The escarpment was retreating because of intensified denudation processes, including predominantly weathering and fluvial erosion (Jacobs et al., 1995). The Ahlmanryggen ridge containing the nunataks north of Borgmassivet (Fig. 2), according to Näslund (2001), is considered a residual erosional feature of the escarpment retreat (an inselberg area). Intense tectonism, related to the continental break-up, produced troughs, which may be a part of rift system (Groenewald et al., 1991). The Jutulstraumen ice stream is currently occupying one of them, the Penck-Jutul Trough (Fig-s 1, 2; Näslund, 2001).

2.2.3 Cenozoic (from Eocene until middle Miocene): onset of warm-based glaciation After initiation of Cenozoic glacial conditions at the late Eocene pre-existing tectonic and fluvial morphology of western DML was locally eroded by warm-based glaciers (Holmlund & Naslund, 1994). There is an evidence of dendritic fluvial systems existing at that time (Jamieson et al., 2005), which points to cirque and valley glaciers occupying the highlands rather than ice sheet style glaciation. An alpine landscape (Sugden, 1978) was developed in western DML. The steep cirques mapped in this study area are examples of glacial erosion of this period. The high topography of DML makes it a possible location for ice sheet inception (Jamieson et al., 2010). The Eocene-Oligocene boundary (around 34 Ma) is accepted to be the time of initiation of Antarctic wet-based ice sheet growth, as evidenced from ice-rafted dropstones in marine sediments (Näslund, 2001). The ice sheet growth was caused primarily by declining atmospheric CO2 concentrations (DeConto & Pollard, 2003), opening of the Southern Ocean circulation (Kennett, 1977), cold summers due to a combination of orbital parameters (Coxall et al., 2005) and a 4oC temperature drop (Liu et al., 2009). Until ca 14 Ma the Antarctic Ice Sheet was fluctuating between warm-based ice sheet and mountain glaciation

8 phases. The former is evidenced by meltwater deposits oﬀshore (Marchant et al., 1993). Since the onset of the Cenozoic, the DML mountains were consistently ice-covered.

2.2.4 Cenozoic (from Middle Miocene until Pliocene): onset of cold-based conditions Cold-based ice sheet conditions were initiated following a 6-7oC drop in temperature ca 14 Ma (Shevenell et al., 2004), so the glacial erosion of the western DML mountains ceased. Meanwhile the ice streams occupying deep troughs like Penck-Jutul may have been at pressure-melting point at the base similar to the present state (Näslund, 2001). The ice sheet achieved its maximum extent reaching the edge of continental shelf (see the extent of the ice shelf on Fig. 1) by 14 Ma, and retreated to its present state by ca 13.6 Ma (Jamieson et al., 2010). During the Pliocene Antarctica experienced the Middle Pliocene Climatic Warm Event (3.29-2.97 Ma) during which the ice level above the escarpment mountains was at least 200 m higher than today (Liu et al., 2010). The warmer climate led to an increased precipitation transport from the Southern Ocean, leading to an ice sheet thickening over the polar plateau (Altmaier et al., 2010).

2.2.5 Quaternary: thinning of the ice sheet In the early Pleistocene (ca 3 Ma) the ice surface level was at least 500 m higher than present in some places of the escarpment area in DML, as evidenced from 10Be exposure data and rock weathering analysis of the Sør Rondane Mountains in DML (Suganuma et al., 2014). A decrease in precipitation was inferred as result from steady global cooling since the end of the Pliocene (Fig. 4; Yamane et al., 2015). As a result since the onset of the Quaternary the ice sheet experienced signiﬁcant thinning (Fig. 4; Suganuma et al., 2014).

Higher sea Warmer Decreased More surface climate sea ice evaporation temperature

Thicker Pliocene EIAS Increased snowfall

Lower sea Colder Increased Less surface climate sea ice evaporation temperature

EIAS thickness decrease in Less snowfall the interior Margins of EIAS grow

Figure 4: a) The EAIS in warmer climate during the Early-Mid Pliocene (earlier than 3 Ma). b) The EAIS in colder climate during the Mid-Late Pleistocene (later than 1 Ma). Dashed line represents the ice sheet level during the warmer climate. SST on the ﬁgures means sea surface temperature. Modiﬁed from Yamane et al. (2015)

2.2.6 Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) is deﬁned as the last period when the ice sheets in both hemispheres reached their integrated maximum (Clark et al., 2009). The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) thickened close to the coast because sea level was lowered, which enabled the grounding line to advance further out on the continental shelf (Hättestrand

9 & Johansen, 2005). The ice sheet elevation at the position of the present grounding line was supposedly 600-1200 m higher during the LGM (Lintinen, 1996). The ice sheet reached the outer edge of the shelf around 21 ky BP (Lintinen, 1996; Mackintosh et al., 2013; the extent of the ice shelf can be seen on Fig. 1). The central part of the ice sheet thinned because of the decrease in precipitation (Siegert, 2003) related to cold atmospheric temperatures. In Ahlmannryggen, glacial deposits are found at elevation up to 1160 m a.s.l. (Neethling, 1969) indicating that it was, at one point, ice-covered at that elevation, but the age of glacial deposition remains unknown.

2.2.7 Post-LGM warming The EAIS retreat is calculated to have started ca 14 Ka and was completed by ca 7 Ka (Mackintosh et al., 2011). It is thought to be the result of sea level rise and a warming of the ocean waters around the ice sheet (Mackintosh et al., 2011). The culmination of ice sheet recession occurred after Meltwater Pulse 1a (12-6 Ka) (Mackintosh et al., 2014). This accelerated retreat may be attributed to an instability of the system comprised of ice stream dammed by ice shelf caused by melting close to the grounding line and under the ice shelf. A minimum age of deglaciation of 7652- 8149 Ka in Ahlmannryggen is provided by radiocarbon dating of mumiyo (waxy organic material found in petrel breeding colonies; Steele & Hiller, 1997). It is still unconstrained whether the summits of Ahlmannryggen were overridden by ice during the LGM since this kind of dating provides only the minimal deglaciation age (Mackintosh et al., 2014). Presently the ice sheet in western DML is stable or even growing according to the observations of lichen growing on nunataks close to the ice surface (Lintinen, 1996).

3 Background 3.1 Geomorphological significance of landforms on nunataks and the ice sheet surface The aim of the geomorphological study is to identify landforms which yield information regarding the history and dynamics of glaciation in the study area. The nunatak landscape is characterized by glacially shaped rocks and sediments surrounded by various ice features. Below the paleoglacial and glacial significance of the mapped landforms is discussed. Additional definitions and morphological descriptions of the landforms are provided in Table 1.

10 Table 1: Landform identiﬁcation criteria on satellite images.

Scale and Optimal Possible identification Landform Morphology Texture/color features used dataset errors for mapping Ice cracks 10’s - 1000’s m long and ranging in When filled by snow, width from meters up to 100 m. They cut possible confusion with across the ice flow with different orientations. Multispectral Blue-white colour of the crevass From 1:2,500 snowdrift features. Transverse crevasses either occur at the edges WV images Crevasses walls; shadows inside the to 1:6,000; Closed crevasses can be of nunatak plateaus, within ice falls or on ice in standard fracture. polylines. difficult to distinguish bumps. Splaying crevasses occur close to ice false colours. from open crevasses. streams or on prominent ice bumps, intersecting transverse crevasses. Multispectral Particular type of transverse crevasse. It WV images Possible confusion with occurs at the head of cirques and separates Thin long shadow extending in false From 1:2,500 avalanche crown Bergschrund shallow ice from deep ice. They are a few parallel and close to the head of colours or to 1:3,500; fractures. meters wide and up to several hundred ice sheet cirques. panchro- polyline. meters long. matic WV images. Irregular broken ice surface which occurs Same characteristics as where ice flows over very steep slopes, with a crevasses, but occurring in a Multispectral From 1:6,000 difference in altitude of hundreds of meters. more irregular pattern. Ice WV images Ice fall to 1:8,000; Thetowersoficeformingtheicefallare blocks occurring in close in false polygon. named séracs. They are separated by proximity help to identify the colours. crevasses up to twenty meters wide. ice fall. Possible confusion with light blue ice which Delimited bare-ice region, up to several appears blue because of square kilometers in some areas, located on Multispectral From 1:3,000 its hummocky topography Blue ice area nunatak plateaus or on the lee side of Characteristic homogeneous WV images to 1:8,000; but it is not an ablation (BIA) nunataks or on the ice sheet surface in blue colour. in standard polygon. centre. Possible confusion relation to bumps. false colours. of small blue ice areas with refrozen ice patches.

Longitudinal Parallel and unbroken lineations on the ice Possible confusion with From Surface surface extending continuously up to Subtle ice ridges, close and hummocks on ice surface LIMA 1:100,000 to Structures hundreds of km in length, with an elevation parallel to each other. Linear, due to the uneven bed images 1:400,000; (LSSs) of 1-2 m and a spacing of few km. They occur curved or sinuous. topography. polylines. on ice streams, outlet glaciers and ice shelves. Multispectral Snow Powder snow and ice blocks Around Conical accumulation of snow, occurring or panchro- avalanche form conical accumulation zones 1:4,000; below steep nunatak slopes and ice falls. matic WV run-out which emerge on the ice. polygon. images. Multispectral Talus of broken ice pieces, ranging in size Around White coloured blocks, outlined and Possible confusion with Ice block from a few tens of centimeters to around 20 1:3,500; by shadows on the surrounding panchro- boulders. talus m wide, generally lying under ice falls. polygon, ice surface. matic WV points. imagery. Sub-circular patches of refrozen ice, Multispectral extending up to few thousand square meters Blue sub-circular patches Around Possible confusion with WV images Refrozen ice in size, often occurring inside supraglacial possibly with lighter small 1:1,1000; BIA. in false moraines. Supraglacial lakes were also patches in the middle. polygon. colours. included in this category for simplicity. Erosional channel features occurring on the Branching network of channels, Multispectral Supraglacial Around Supraglacial moraine ice surface, in some cases cutting supraglacial light-coloured comparing to the or panchro- meltwater 1:4,000; limits. moraines, up to 50 m width, and several km sediments and dark compared to matic WV channels polyline. long. the ice. imagery. Supraglacial sediment cover with ridge or

12 apron morphology, up to a few square Area of dark colour, more or Possible confusion with kilometers in extent. Supraglacial moraine less homogeneous depending on Multispectral bedrock outcrop where From 1:1,000 Supraglacial occurs close to nunatak slopes or on local the sediment thickness. Possible or panchro- the debris cover colour is to 1:6,000; moraine glaciers surrounding nunataks, often presence of internal blue or matic WV very dark due to a dense polygon. associated with BIAs. Ridges, thermokarst white spots, due to snow cover images. sediment texture. depressions, refrozen ice, and boulders can be or refrozen ice. observed . Possible confusion with Linear/curvilinear ridges of sediment, up to 5 Subtle ridges of dark colour, Multispectral bedrock ridges where the km long, that are part of a supraglacial From 1:1,000 Moraine more or less sharp depending on or panchro- debris cover colour is very moraine veneer or a till veneer on nunatak to 1:6,000; ridges the distribution and amount of matic WV dark due to a dense slopes. If they occur in a group, they polylines. sediments. images sediment texture. typically run parallel to each other. Well-defined depression that has Multispectral Possible confusion with the same texture and colour as From 1:3,000 Wind blown ice/snow depression up to 2 km and ice cliffs or with bedrock the surrounding snow/ice. Wind up to Wind scoop long that commonly appears close to panchro- ridges covered by scoops often contain BIAs 1:6,000; obstacles like nunataks. matic WV snow/ice. situated at the base of their lee polylines. imagery. side. Sastrugi appear as small parallel Possible confusion with features on the ice field. Their other small-scale Sastruga is a feature created by katabatic colour is consistent with the From 1:1,000 Panchromatic wind-blown features wind erosion and deposition. It has colour of ice while their shape is up to Sastrugi WV produced by winds elongated form and can reach up to 2 meters outlined by shadows. The 1:8,000; imagery. blowing in different in height (Mather, 1962). direction of sastrugi should be polylines. direction. more or less consistent in the area of interest. Panchromatic Possible confusion with WV imagery bare bedrock when bare in order to bedrock has a colour view with similar to the sediments. More or less homogeneous dark the higher Nearly impossible to colour sediments. Often resolution distinguish between till ’blanket’- like pattern. It can be needed to and regolith in the distinguished from bedrock identify satellite imagery. This Sediments of various composition covering because it has a darker colour, single confusion can be resolved the bedrock on nunatak plateaus and slopes can contain boulders and boulders, or Sediment From 1:2,000 by using aerial imagery, and sometimes continuing on to the adjacent descend down to the ice with an multispec- cover (till or to 1:5,000; ground truthing in the 13 ice. Sediment veneer can form small patches uneven edge. In some areas tral WV regolith) polygons. field or by looking at the between bedrock outcrops or cover almost an where the sediments and the modified presence of boulders entire slope with an extent of up to 0.5 km2. bedrock appear of the same band which are probably colour, sediment cover is combination, erratics and therefore identified as regolith that was to indicate till. The formed on the same rock. distinguish presence of ridges could between also indicate till, since bedrock the ridges are the result (redder) and of ice reworking. sediments (blacker). Possible confusion with frost wedged bedrock which could have Panchromatic Sediment of various compositions forming symmetrical structure WV images, stripes or polygons roughly hexagonal in Dark area containing stripes or From 1:800 and stripes similar to the Patterned for identifi- shape, of a diameter up to 15 m. They occur polygonal shapes marked by to 1:1,000; one of patterned ground ground cation of on some nunatak plateaus and erratics can thin snow boundaries. polygons. (given the geology we single lay on top of them. could be seeing polygonal boulders. jointing; J. Newall, pers. comm.).

Half-open, semicircular shaped niches located Around Multispectral on nunatak slopes, extending up to 5 square Bowl-shaped nunatak slopes 1:6,000; or panchro- Concave nunatak slopes. Cirques kilometers. Cirques are usually ice free at the delineated by clear ridges polyline matic WV head and ice covered at the bottom. They circular in shape. tracing the images. often contain a bergschrund inside. cirque ridge. “Three-dimensional” blocks Regolith derived from the clearly visible since their upper Large boulders up to 10 m in diameter, lying slope processes or side looks lighter than the Around among other sediments on supraglacial Panchromatic bedrock outcrops 14 Erratics “two-dimensional” sediment 1:500; moraines, sediment cover, bedrock surfaces, WV images. emerging from the cover underneath. Another side points. and patterned ground. sediment cover. of the block is outlined by a shadow. 3.1.1 Ice and snow features Ice features yield information on the present-day ice sheet dynamics, i.e. its ice ﬂow conditions, subglacial topography and surface mass balance. Snow features are shaped by wind, and they, therefore, provide information about dominating wind directions in the area.

Crevasses are ice cracks up to hundreds of meters wide and up to thousands of meters long. Crevass orientation and spacing can inform about ice flow characteristics. Transverse crevasses open perpendicular to ice flow direction, under longitudinally extending flow. Splaying crevasses form parallel or obliquely to ice flow and where longitudinal strain rate is compressional or near zero and shear strain dominates (Harper et al., 1998).

Bergschrund is a type of transverse crevasse which separates shallow and deep ice at the head of a cirque or by a steep rock wall. The presence of a bergschrund indicates an increase of ice thickness, deformation and sliding velocity of ice below the crack comparing with ice above it (Mair and Kuhn, 1994).

Ice falls are irregular broken ice surfaces that occur where the ice bed is particularly steep. The presence of an ice fall indicates a pronounced acceleration of the ice ﬂow due to a break in slope at the glacier bed (Smiraglia and Diolaiuti, 2011).

Blue ice areas (BIAs) are defined as being bare-ice regions up to ten square kilometers, characterized by a negative surface mass balance. BIAs are a conspicuous feature of the study area. The spatial coverage of BIAs is considerable in comparison to the rest of the continent (1 percent of Antarctic continent surface; Bintanja, 1999). The presence of a BIA can give an indication of glacier mass balance, wind direckltion, ice flow characteristics and ice age stratigraphy. They occur where topography blocks snowdrift transport, induces wind scouring due to wind acceleration, or both. Therefore they tend to occur on nunatak plateaus, on the lee side of nunataks relating to a wind direction, or behind undulations in the ice sheet surface. Across these areas, sublimation and wind scouring exceed snow accumulation. The presence of a BIAs influences ice flow; under steady state conditions, ice flows horizontally towards and vertically upward to the BIAs to compensate for surface ablation. A consequence of the upward movement of the ice is a surface ice stratigraphy in the ablation zone, with the oldest ice outcroping closest to the nunatak (Bintanja, 1999; Fogwill et al., 2012).

Longitudinal surface structures (LSSs) are parallel curvy lineations on the ice surface, extending continuously for up to hundreds of kilometres in length, with an elevation of 1-2 m and a spacing of 1-5 kilometres (Glasser et al., 2014). LSSs occur on ice streams, outlet glaciers, and ice shelves and are assumed to form parallel to ice flow direction. They help to understand the conditions at the ice-bed interface and ice flow characteristics. Indeed, they are supposed to be the result of the transmission of uneven basal morphology to the ice surface (Ely and Clark, 2016). Alternatively, they indicate the presence of laterally compressive and longitudinally extensional ice flow, occurring in fast flowing areas or at the convergence of ice tributaries (Ely and Clark, 2016).

Wind scoops are wind-blown snow depressions up to 2 km long that commonly appear close to obstacles. They provide information about dominating wind directions in the area, since they usually form around nunataks due to the channeling of the wind.

Sastruga is a snow ridge up to2minheightcreatedbykatabatic wind erosion and deposition. Sastrugi are oriented parallel to the wind direction. Therefore they can be used to infer katabatic wind direction (Mather, 1962).

Refrozen ice patches usually occur inside thermokarst depressions of supraglacial moraines. They give indication of above zero surface temperature conditions, probably due to the low albedo of some sediment patches. Supraglacial lakes serve as an accumulation area of meltwater percolating from the adjacent areas (e.g. Lintinen. 1996).

Supraglacial meltwater channels are formed by water moving on the surface of the ice. Running water could be the result of ice melting due to the low albedo of a supraglacial sediment cover.

Snow avalanches indicate instability of the slopes from where they were sourced from, usually due to the steepness and to the presence of ice falls. Snow avalanches often result from cornice collapse events.

15 3.1.2 Sedimentary and bedrock features Bedrock landforms and sediment cover of the nunataks and on the ice surface often allow an inference of past and present ice ﬂow conditions. These are crucial landforms used for paleoglaciological reconstruction and important for determining the timing and rate of ice surface lowering, using diﬀerent dating techniques.

Sediment cover or sediment veneers on nunataks slopes and plateaus are blankets of sediment of varying size covering the bedrock and in places, continuing to the adjacent ice. If the sediment cover can be classiﬁed as having a glacial origin (e.g. till), the spatial distribution of the the sediment across the nunatak slopes can be used to reconstruct the minimum elevation that the former ice surface reached (Hättestrand and Johansen, 2005). If the till contains stable boulders, that show no signs of having moved or rolled over, CN dating can be used to infer the timing of the last ice sheet thinning (Fogwill et al., 2012).

Patterned ground occurs on some plateaus where the sediment cover is organized into stripes and/or polygons. The common interpretation for patterned ground in ice-free areas of Antarctica is that it displays the action of periglacial processes on unconsolidated sediments (Sletten et al., 2003). These processes likely occur in till rather than regolith (formed from in situ weathered bedrock) because subglacial erosion is more likely to produce finer material than subaerial weathering. Thermal contraction, cracking of ground surface, filling of the cracks by fine- debris wedges and soil motion due to debris wedge accretion are the main processes producing polygons. Depending on the phase in patterned ground development, the polygons can have different shapes: mature patterned ground polygons are usually more equidimensional and equiangular and with straighter boundaries than the younger ones (Sletten et al., 2003). This can be useful for the paleoglaciological interpretation. Another alternative interpretation of patterned ground is that it forms from till lying on buried ice which contracts and sublimates (Marchant et al., 2002). Using satellite imagery, it is impossible to distinguish between these two kinds of patterned grounds. Regardless of formation means, patterned ground needs a long time to form, from 103 to 106 years (Sletten et al., 2003). This can provide a minimum exposure age of the patterned ground areas. However, patterned ground could occur on preglacial surfaces much older than 106 years, which has been preserved under cold-based non-erosive ice for more than one glacial cycle (Stroeven and Kleman, 1999). CN dating could discriminate this condition. The CN dating could be performed on patterned ground boulders because, even if sediments were moved by frost heave processes, it is unlikely that these big boulders overturned.

Supraglacial moraine is a supraglacial sediment cover with ridge or apron morphology, up to a few square kilometers in size. Supraglacial moraines occur close to nunatak slopes or on local glaciers around nunataks, often associated with BIAs. Depending on the type of supraglacial moraine, they yield information on both present and past ice flow characteristics. Some of them consist of material accumulated from the base of the ice sheet and carried to the surface of the glacier without removal by lateral flow. In this case sediment is carried upward by compressive ice flow caused by a massive obstruction as ice moves toward an ablation centre or by differences in velocity between contiguous ice flows (a zone of fast flow moving into a zone of stagnant ice). The result is the formation of shear moraines and, in some cases, of an adjacent apron structure. These supraglacial moraines indicate the existence of a compressive ice flow and its direction. The time of exposure of the sediments indicates for how long the process of sediment concentration has been continuing (Chinn, 1991; Fogwill et al., 2012). Other supraglacial moraines are made up of talus debris coming from surrounding nunataks slopes and reworked by ice (Hättestrand and Johansen, 2005). When either kind of supraglacial debris covers continue as till veneer on to surrounding nunatak slopes, they give an indication on former ice surface elevations (Hättestrand and Johansen, 2005; Fogwill et al., 2012). The shape and location of supraglacial moraine fields can also be used to infer local paleoglaciology, since their deformation by local glaciers can be due to an increase in accumulation (Chinn, 1991; Hättestrand and Johansen, 2005).

Moraine ridges are observed as a component of both supraglacial moraines and till veneers on nunatak slopes. Moraine ridges on the ice are generally shear moraines originated through sediment upward movement due to ice compressive flow. They are usually ice cored since the ablation ceases under a sufficiently thick debris cover. When ice thickens and thins it deposits these moraine ridges on nunatak slopes, giving rise to moraine ridges. CN dating of boulders or clasts located on the surface of moraine ridges, can contribute to the understanding of the timing of ice thickness fluctuations (Fogwill et al., 2012).

16 Glacial erratics provide some of the clearest evidence for past ice level changes because of their position on the tops and slopes of the nunataks above the present ice sheet (Sugden et al., 2005). Erratic boulders have diﬀerent lithologogies to the underlying bedrock or sediment, and indicate transport and deposition by ice (Fabel et al., 2002). Through CN dating of erratics, it is possible to date the surface exposure, and so, time since the ice retreated from the nunatak slopes or plateaus (Altmaier et al., 2010). When erratics occur on supraglacial moraines, exposure ages indicate the timing of ice retreat from a speciﬁc ice margine position (Altmaier et al., 2010).

Cirques Glacial cirques are half-open, semi-circular shaped niches formed in nunatak slopes. Cirques are the results of erosion by wet-based local alpine glaciers (Fu and Harbor, 2011). Therefore, they were likely not shaped by the present cold-based ice sheet, but were probably forrmed following the Early Cenozoic Antarctic glacial inception (Stroeven and Kleman, 1999), and then preserved under cold-based ice (Näslund, 2001).

3.2 Cosmogenic nuclides and their use for ice thinning reconstruction One of the goals of this thesis is to contribute to Magic-DML ﬁeld seasons during which samples for CN dating will be collected in order to determine the timing of past changes in ice surface levels. CNs form in the top few meters of rock exposed at the Earths surface by interactions between cosmic rays and the mineral structure of the rocks or sediment (Table 2; Lal, 1991). As soon as the top layer is eroded away, the cosmogenic "clock" is set to zero, and nuclide accumulation starts from the beginning. CN concentrations in a rock is a function of the time since the rock was exposed to incoming cosmic rays at the Earth’s surface. Therefore, the abundance of CNs within a rock gives information about its exposure history and thus the timing of deglaciation (Phillips et al., 2016). CN dating is particularly suitable for the Antarctic environment, due to several reasons (Davies et al., 2012): • shielding by vegetation cover of the bedrock and boulders is unlikely; • the snowcover burial of the sampling spot is unlikely on nunatak slopes and plateaus due to high winds, especially if the boulder is large;

• there is almost no material for radiocaron dating in the nunatak area. CN dating is useful in reconstructing the rates of ice thinning, by providing the exposure ages of glacially eroded bedrock and moraines (Gosse and Phillips, 2001). Exposure ages of samples from the top of a nunatak plateau provide the minimum time constraints for when the ice thinned and left the plateau exposed for the first time (Altmaier et al., 2010). In the ice sheet environment it is possile to reconstruct the rate of ice thinning by dating the bedrock and erratics at different elevations. The exposure ages should, in theory, be younger at lower elevations and older at higher elevations above the present day ice surface. This gradient provides the information about the rate of ice thinning (Suganuma et al., 2014). Dating boulders from a supraglacial moraine yields information as to how long sediment concentration has been taking place on the ice (Chinn, 1991). There are a number of standard assumptions often used while performing CN dating. The most useful glacial landforms for dating are those that are least likely to contain inherited CNs from previous exposure events (leading to age overestimation), or ones that have not been affected by post-depositional processes, such as, burial, exhumation and erosion leading to age underestimation. Quartz-bearing erratics on stable slopes are considered to be good targets for CN dating since they commonly contain less inheritance than bare bedrock (Bentley et al., 2006). The latter has commonly not been sufficiently eroded to reset the cosmogenic clock, because of minimal or absent erosion by cold-based ice. However, cold-based ice may also preserve versatile features like boulder fields and patterned ground (Stroeven and Kleman, 1999). For the reasons described above a strategy involving of sampling multiple CN analyse is used to determine complex exposure/burial histories and give indications about the thermal regime of the ice sheet in the past. For this purpose the bedrock is dated together with an erratic lying on it. Then if the exposure ages provided by both samples are similar, the ice sheet regime that led to formation of this bedrock-erratic pair is assumed to have been warm based, allowing for the ice sheet to erode enough bedrock to remove pre-existing nuclides. If the erratic provides a significantly younger exposure age than the bedrock, it suggests the thermal regime was cold-based during the last glaciation, and the bedrock was not eroded to a sufficient depth to remove any prior CN inventories. From the list of the nuclides used by MAGIC-DML (Table 2) it can be seen that the use of various nuclides can provide exposure ages of millions of years before present. Cosmogenic carbon dating can provide the data with tens of thousands of years resolution, and can therefore show more recent ice surface changes while aluminium and berillium isotopes can yield exposure ages of several million years.

17 Table 2: Table summarizing the properties of cosmogenic nuclides, the atoms from which they are formed, and in which minerals such atoms occur. Derived from Ivy-Ochs & Kober (2007).

Nuclide Half-life Suitable minerals Target elements Applicable time range

10 Be 1.5 million years Quartz O, Si Several million years

14 C 5730 years Quartz O Up to 20,000 years

26 Al 700 thousand years Quartz Si Up to several million years

36 35 Cl 300 thousand years All minerals Ka, Ca, Cl Up to 1 million years

3 He Stable Olivine, pyroxene Many To millions of years

21 Ne Stable Quartz, olivine, pyroxene Si, Mg To millions of years

4 Methods 4.1 Data and software 4.1.1 Remote sensing datasets The geomorphological mapping was conducted using several datasets (Table 3). A LANDSAT Image Mosaic of Antarctica (LIMA) was used for the overview of the area and for mapping ﬂowlines. DigitalGlobe Worldview-2 (WV02) and Worldview-3 (WV03) panchromatic and multispectral images were used for the rest of the mapping. Panchromatic band of WV imagery allowed to identify small-sized features, such as individual boulders, sediment cover, patterned ground, and bedrock structures. Multispectral WV images were mainly used for mapping ice structures. The datasets were projected in the WGS 1984 Antarctic Polar Stereographic System.

18 Table 3: Datasets used for the geomorphological mapping

Name Description Resolution Source

True-colour, high spatial resolution image of Antarctica Bindschadler LIMA constructed from nearly 11000 Lansat-7 ETM+ scenes 240 m et al. (2008) (Bindschadler et al., 2008) Polar Geospatial High resolution panchromatic and 8-band multispectral 0.46 m Panchromatic, WV02 Center images acquired by WorldView-2 satellite. 1.84 m +8 Multispectral (PGC) (2016) Polar Geospatial High resolution panchromatic and 8-band multispectral 0.31 m Panchromatic, WV03 Center images acquired by WorldView-3 satellite. 1.24 m +8 Multispectral (PGC) (2016) High resolution digital elevation model (DEM) generated by the two TerraSAR-X twin satellites, covering almost all German 30 m. Vertical accuracy: TanDEM-X the transect except a 15 km stripe to the east of Space 2m Borgmassivet and Ahlmannryggen and 50 km to the east Agency of Kirwanveggen. Liu et al. (2015) 200 m. Vertical accuracy: through RAMP Ice 2 m for the ice shelves, 15 Continent-wide DEM combining topographic data from a NASA Surface m for the interior ice variety of sources. Was used for Kirwanveggen where National DEM sheet, 35 m for the TanDEM-X coverage is not suﬃcient. Snow and version 2 steeper ice sheet Ice Data perimeter Center (NSIDC) Map series of Dronning Maud showing names of topographic objects (nunataks, ice streams etc.), ice Norwegian Dronning thickness, moraines, crevasses, ice shelves, crests, uneven Scale 1:250,000 Polar Maud Land ablation areas, bay ice and ice cliﬀs. Relief shown by Institute contours and spot heights. Depths shown by isolines. Geological Norwegian map of Geological data collected from various sources. Scale 1:250,000 Polar Dronning Institute Maud Land

4.1.2 Dataset processing The unprocessed available imagery was not suitable for geomorphological mapping (Fig. 5). In order to use the WV images (723 multispectral, 725 panchromatic) in our geomorphological mapping approach, they were processed using a multi-step procedure in the ESRI ArcMap 10.5 computer software. 1. The images were sorted into different group layers according to the year, month and day of the acquisition to simplify the search of suitable images. 2. Different group layers were visualized separately in order to find an image sequence that covered the study area transect (Fig. 2). 3. The images were sieved in order to choose the best coverage: remove duplicates and damaged imagery. Some images were unsuitable for the purpose of the project due to cloud cover, overexposure, and the presence of stripes. The result of this procedure produced a group layer containing the chosen imagery (204 panchromatic and 222 multispectral, see Tables A1 and A2 in Appendix 8.3).

19 3°27'W 3°24'W 3°21'W 3°18'W 3°27'W 3°24'W 3°21'W 3°18'W a ¯ b ¯¯ 72°0'S 72°0'S 72°2'S 72°2'S

012 km 012 km

Figure 5: Example of the imagery before (a) and after (b) dataset processing. a) Rough multispectral WV images, b) multispectral mosaic.

4. The next step was the creation of two mosaic databases for panchromatic and multispectral imagery. Since ArcMap does not include a tool for creating a mosaic from the group layer, mosaicking, if performed manually, demands a time-consuming process of search for the imagery from the obtained group layer in the file explorer. Therefore two scripts were written in Python (Listing 1 and Listing 2 in Appendix 8.1) which create the two mosaics from the group layers obtained in ArcMap. The ArcPy package was used for the script. All the steps are explained in the listings in Appendix 8.1. 5. To best enhance the spectral signature of mapped landforms the multispectral mosaic was visualized in different band combinations. In addition to the “natural colour” band combination 5,3,2 (Red, Green, Blue), the “standard false colour” 7,5,3 (NIR1, Red, Green) and the “modified false colour” 7,3,2 (NIR1, Green, Blue) band combinations were used. The standard false colour band combination was used for mapping the ice structures (e.g. BIAs, refrozen ice areas, and supraglacial lakes) since it enhances the contrast between snow and ice (Fig. 6). The modified false colour band combination was used to help distinguishing between bare bedrock that appeared more red and sediment cover that appeared more black.

6. One of the objectives was to estimate if sites could be reached by snow scooter or on foot, and if slopes with glacial erratics can be considered stable. The TanDEM-X database was processed using the “Slope” tool in Spatial Analyst toolbar of ArcGIS in order to obtain a raster map representing slope angles. The resulting map helps to estimate approximate slope angles on plateaus with erratics (Fig. 7 ). In order to calculate more exact slope angles, for example in critical parts of a proposed route (Fig. 7 ), the transect proﬁle was created over the TanDEM layer, and the angle was calculated as arctangens of the elevation gain divided by distance.

7. Where glacial deposits were identiﬁed, the Raster Calculator from the Spatial Analyst toolbar in ArcGIS was

20 applied to the TanDEM-X and RAMP databases, in order to obtain a layer showing how the change of ice thickness inﬂuenced nunatak exposure. This technique was used for paleoglaciological reconstructions (See Discussion).

3°3'W 3°0'W 2°57'W 3°3'W 3°0'W 2°57'W a ¯ b ¯¯ 71°54'S 71°54'S 71°56'S 71°56'S

Legend 012 km 012 km ^_ Sampling sites

Figure 6: Blue ice areas as seen in (a) "natural colour" band combination and in (b) "standard falce colour" band combination of the WorldView imagery. Diﬀerentiation between snow and ice cover is much clearer in the standard false colour as can be seen in these images.

4.1.3 Data plotting The overview maps were created using Antarctic Mapping Tools in MatLab created by Greene et al. (2017). There were several advantages of using MatLab for creating the large-scale images:

• all the ﬁgures can be redone using the existing code, while ArcGIS requires a lot of manual work to be repeated even if a small change is needed in an already existing image;

• it allowed the use of ice velocity data as well as bedrock topography to visualize interesting features of the area (e.g. patterns of ice ﬂow, dramatic depths of the troughs)

The code is provided in the Appendix 8.2.

4.2 Geomorphological mapping The geomorphological mapping was conducted using visual interpretation of the satellite imagery and manual digitization of the landforms in ArcMap. The landforms were stored in the shape ﬁle format. The criteria used for

21 3°27'W 3°24'W 3°21'W 3°27'W 3°24'W 3°21'W a b 71°59'S 71°59'S 5 ^_ ^_9 ¯ ^_8 72°0'S 11° 72°0'S ^_7D ^_14 Legend 6 ^_ Sampling sites ^_ 72°1'S 72°1'S Possible routes 15 D Critical point ^_ 0 - 1 Legend

1 - 3 Flow line 3 - 5 25 Boulder 5 - 10 ^_ 16.5°

72°2'S Crevasse 72°2'S 10 - 15 D Bergschrund 15 - 20 Sediment cover 20 - 30 Patterned ground 30 - 40 Supraglacial moraine 40 - 50 Moraine ridge 50 - 80 Wind scoop 72°3'S 72°3'S Legend 012 km 012 km ^_ Sampling sites

Figure 7: Images of Flårjuven Buff area. (a) The map showing slope angles of the raster cells. Red colours represent steeper slopes. Examples of route proposal and values for steepness calculated for the steepest parts of the route (critical points) are shown. Sampling sites are numerated according to the descriptions in Table 4. (b) The WV panchromatic imagery with geomorphological features shown. mapping are thoroughly described in Table 1. During the mapping process, both till and regolith were mapped as "sediment cover", since it was usually impossible to identify one from the other using the imagery. Ground truthing, during the MAGIC-DML 2016-17 field season (Newall, pers. comm.) yielded largely a negative correlation between previous till mapping attempts and field evidence. Hence, in this thesis several assumptions were used to indicate the sites with glacial deposits:

1. Large boulders lying on flat plateaus were considered as glacial erratics (Fig. 8a, 8b), since they are unlikely to be derived from slope processes. However, after analysing the slope maps, it was often found that nunatak plateaus were rarely flat (Fig. 8b). 2. Where patterned ground was observed (Fig. 8a, 8c) a cover of glacial till is assumed. This is a fair assumption since patterned ground is formed in the presence of fine material, which cannot be easily derived from subaerially weathered regolith. 3. Stripes on the nunatak slopes were interpreted to be sorted ground if the stripes descend down slope (Fig. 8c) and as bedrock frost-wedged structures if they are parallel to the elevation contour lines (Fig. 8d).

4.2.1 Ice flow directions Ice flow directions were drawn using ArcGIS in order to compare the present flow pattern in the nunatak region to possible past ice flow configurations. Different features mapped on the ice can be used to infer present-day ice flow

22 3°24'W 2°44'W 2°43'30"W 2°43'W a ¯ ¯ b ¯ ^_12 ^_7 72°3'20"S 72°0'30"S

0 0,05 0,1 00,10,2 km km

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Figure 8: (a-c )WorldView images of till, in the panchromatic band, showing a variety of cases where such interpretation was based on assumptions (red stars with numbers mark the sampling sites described in Table 4 and shown on Fig. 18 to ??): (a) glacial erratics and patterned ground lying on top of a plateau with approximate elevation of 1200 m a.s.l.; (b) glacial erratics up to 10 m in diameter lying on a plateau that appears flat in the image but actually has 10◦ inclination. Elevation approximately 1300 m a.s.l.. Note the different scale used in F igure 8b; (c) patterned ground on top of a plateau interpreted as till; (d) striped bedrock structure can resemble sorted ground. patterns. This information is described in Chapter 3.1.1. For example, the distribution of LSSs are the best indicators of regional ice flow pattern, as their orientation largely mirrors ice flow. Ice flow directions can be inferred from other features such as the distribution of crevasses, since ice flows predictably relative to these. Ice flow directions can also be inferred from the distribution of supraglacial moraines, as they are indicators of compressive ice flow; ice moving towards lobate moraines and paralell to straight moraines because of the difference in ice velocities between adjacent ice routes. Finally, the distribution of BIAs can be used to reconstruct ice flow directions, as ice flows towards these local ablation zones. DEMs were used to infer larger-scale ice flow direction, which is usually visible on ice sheet velocity maps like MEaSURE (Rignot et al., 2017).

4.3 Mapping validation The landforms on the WV imagery can be challenging to identify, especially so without any frame of reference as to how the mapped features appear on the ground. In order to evaluate the remote sensing-based mapping to field observations, I compare some of the landforms to photographs taken during the MAGIC-DML 2016-17 field season and by other research groups. For example, Figure 9 shows that the polygons visible on the WV imagery represent patterned ground. Figure 10 shows how the sediment cover differs from the bedrock, and how it is confirmed by the aerial imagery.

2°47'30"W 2°47'36"W 2°47'42"W 0 0,025 0,05

a b km ¯ 72°2'40"S 2°47'36"W

Figure 9: The example of mapping validation. a) Aerial photo showing patterned ground on Grunehogna Peaks provided by South African research team (J. Newall, pers. comm.). b) WV panchromatic image of the same patterned ground.

Google Earth imagery of the area around nearby Troll research station (operated by the Norwegian Polar Institute) was also inspected, with a focus on the nunataks where glacial erratics were identiﬁed and sampled by the Japanese colleagues (J. Newall, pers. comm.). In the area around the Troll station, which is located approximately 150 km to the east of the study area, available Google Earth imagery has even better resolution than WV and allows a detailed study of the landforms similar to the ones in the study area. For example, Figure 11 clearly shows that sediment cover looks darker than bedrock and that the boulders lying on patterned ground polygons are not parts of the bedrock.

4.4 Sampling site selections During the ﬁeld season 2017-18 the MAGIC-DML research team visited Borgmassivet and Ahlmannryggen to collect samples for CN dating. One of the aims of the thesis was to identify proper locations for sampling and ground validation across the transect (including Kirwanveggen which will be visited in the future). The sampling sites were chosen according to the following criteria:

• Presense of erratics on relatively ﬂat plateaus where they are stable (e.g. Figure 8a). Erratics are less likely to contain inheritance so they should provide the timing of the last deglaciation.

• Presence of patterned ground which serves as an indication of till deposits, lying on ﬂat surfaces to ensure that possible boulder samples are stable (e.g. Figure 8c).

• Presence of bare quartz-bearing bedrock (granites, gneisses, sandstones etc.), especially if it is possible to sample the rock at diﬀerent elevations. Presence of ice-free quartz-bearing bedrock at the edge of high- elevated nunataks plateaus can provide the age when the nunatak was ﬁrst deglaciated.

• Presence of erratics lying on quartz-bearing bedrock for the sampling of bedrock-boulder paires. Dating of the erratic can provide the age of the last deglaciation while the bedrock can indicate prior exposure periods and thermal regime of the ice during that time. If the ages provided by the boulder and the bedrock are concordant with each other, we can assume that the bedrock was eroded by wet-based ice. However, the resulting exposure age is not necessarily the age of the last deglaciation. • The accessibility of the proposed sampling locations. The most important factors for accessibility were steep slopes, crevasses, and wind scoops. Some of the plateaus with erratics and till are only accessible by helicopter (e.g. the plateau on Fig. 8b was visited during the ﬁeld trip to Grunehogna Peaks using the helicopter).

• Other logistical considerations, e.g. grouping the sampling sites so that they are located within 100 km from the closest Antarctic base (Sanae IV Station) or potential camping sites.

¯ 2°42'W 2°42'30"W 72°3'20"S 2°43'W a b ¯ 72°3'S 2°42'30"W

00,10,2 km

2°42'W 2°42'30"W 72°3'20"S 2°43'W 2°42'W 2°42'30"W 72°3'20"S 2°43'W ¯ c ¯ d 72°3'S 72°3'S 2°42'30"W 2°42'30"W

00,10,2 00,10,2 km km

Figure 10: The example of mapping validation. a) Aerial photo showing the eastern part of Grunehogna Peaks (the location of sampling sites 12 and 13, see Fig. 19) provided by South African research team (J. Newall, pers. comm.). Sediment cover appears reddish brown. Patches of refrozen ice on the supraglacial moraine appear light blue The aerial image also provides an idea of the typical steepness of the slopes in the study area. b) WV multispectral image of the same area. The sediment cover appears dark and homogenous. c) WV panchromatic image of the same area. The texture of bedrock is visible, the sediment cover looks more homogenous, separate large boulders lying above it appear as black dots. Moraine ridges and separate boulders can be distinguished on supraglacial moraines. d) WV multispectral image showing an example of geomorphological mapping. For the legend see Fig. 15

Sites with erratic boulders were given the highest priority. The suitability of patterned ground for CN dating is uncertain because the material it consists of could have been overturned by periglacial processes since the last deglaciation. On the other hand, patterned ground is still a valuable site to visit since it can serve as an indication of the presence of glacial till. In places which appear to be poor in identifyable glacial deposits, quartz-bearing bare bedrock was indicated as a potential sampling site. Supraglacial moraines were also considered, especially if they looked well-expressed and were located away from the mountain slopes, to avoid the probability that they were derived from relatively recent rock falls.

5 Results 5.1 Glacial geomorphology The geomorphological mapping results are shown in Figures 12 to 17. Figure 12 represents a generalized overview of the study area where only LSSs and BIAs are shown on a shaded relief imagery. It is clear that the nunatak extent is small, especially in Kirwanveggen. The BIAs are distributed all over the study area, but are most prominent in

25 Figure 11: Google Earth imagery showing a nunatak in Gjelsvikfjella with patterned ground and glacial erratics on top. They were sampled by Y. Suganuma and his team (J. Newall, pers. comm.)

Kirwanveggen. LSSs are most concentrated over major ice streams and appear more sparsely on ice draining the smaller valleys in the nunatak ranges.

5.1.1 Landform examples Ice structures are distributed all over the transect. BIAs are often located over the subglacial hummocks, where they are commonly covered by crevasse fields. Their distribution is also regulated by local wind patterns - BIAs are found on the lee side of nunataks, which is consistent with the study of Bintanja (1999). An example of local wind patterns is illustrated in Figure 17 by the direction of sastrugi - snowdrift features formed by katabatic winds. Supraglacial moraines are often draped across BIAs close to the nunataks (Fig. 15). They often include moraine ridges and areas of refrozen ice. Glacial cirques often delimit the nunatak edges. They are most visible in the Borgmassivet (Fig. 16). Ice flowing down the nunatak slopes often form ice falls or bergschrunds. Boulders were identified among the sediment covers and patterned ground on the nunatak plateaus and in supraglacial moraines. Only large boulders (from 2 m in diameters) could be identified. The boulders are shown as point symbols on the geomorphological map since they are considered as an important source of information.

5.1.2 Distribution of glacial deposits In this study glacial deposits left by a thicker ice sheet are represented by erratic boulders and till. Most of the deposits were identified in Ahlmannryggen (especially on Flårjuven Bluff and Grunehogna Peaks). Some till deposits were identified on Borga Mountain in Borgmassivet. Kirwanveggen appeared to be the poorest region in regards to glacial deposits that can be seen on WV imagery. Supraglacial moraines are also most abundant in Ahlmannryggen, but their nature is uncertain - the moraines may consist of the material derived from relatively recent rockfalls. Glacial erratics were identified in Ahlmannryggen at approximate elevations of 1279 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 6), 1166 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 7), 1123 m a.s.l. ( sampling site number 8), 1161 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 9), 1228 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 10), 1376 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 11), and elevation 1307 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 12). In Kirwanveggen erratics were identified at approximate elevation of 2167 m

26 a.s.l. (sampling site number 35) and 2278 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 32), which is, however, a less reliable site. Patterned ground (possibly containing till) was found among sediment covers in Ahlmannryggen, Borgmassivet and Kirwanveggen. It was identiﬁed at approximate elevations of 1376 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 11), 1261 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 14), 1289 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 15), and 1491 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 37) in Ahlmannryggen, 2531 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 24) in Borgmassivet, and 2167 m a.s.l. (sampling site number 35) in Kirwanveggen.

27 Figure 12: An overview map of BIAs and LSSs. BIAs are indicated as blue polygons, LSSs are indicated by blue lines. The study area is shown by the black polygon. The shaded relief image is derived from MODIS Mosaic of Antarctica (Haran et al., 2014). Ice ﬂow velocity is derived from Rignot et al. (2017) and is displayed in colors explained in the colorbar. Contour lines are marked with elevation numers in m a.s.l. Generated with Antarctic Mapping Toolbox (Greene et al., 2017), see Appendix 8.2

28 50 3 2°0'W 2°0'W

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300 14 Fig.

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450 400

150 Schyttbreen 200 3°30'W 3°30'W km Contour lines LSS Crevasse scoopWind Blue ice cover Sediment moraine Supraglacial Glacial geomorphological map of the area close to the ice shelf. The black polygon is showing the extent of ﬁgure 14 Legend 0510

Jelbart 500

71°30'S 50 71°20'S Ice Shelf 100 550 4°0'W Figure 13:

29 Legend ^_2 ^_ Sampling sites Contour lines LSS Crevasse Wind scoop Blue ice Sediment cover Supraglacial moraine

0 0,55 1,1 km

150

200 30

250

300

350

400

450

^_3

400

500 350

Figure 14: The example of geomorphological mapping of the area close to the ice shelf. 500 750 450 3°30'W 3°0'W500 2°30'W 500 Sanae IV Station Legend

550 Contour lines

71°40'S Cirque 600 Boulder 950 LSS 650 Blue ice

950 700 Crevasse Bergschrund

Sediment1050 cover

50 7 750 Patterned ground

Schyttbreen Supraglacial moraine 850 Moraine ridge 71°50'S 100 800 Refrozen1 ice

900 Snow avalanche Wind scoop 850 Water channel

1050

11 Ice fall 900 950

1000 1000

1000 1050 1250 1150 50 12 72°0'S 950 1250 Flårjuven Grunehogna

Fig. 7 1150 1300 1300 1350 Fig. 21 1400 1400 1200 1450 1250 1500 1450 15 1550 1050 1250 140000

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1450 950

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1500

Figure 15: Glacial geomorphological map of Ahlmannryggen. The legend also applies for the Borgmassivet geomorphological map (Fig.16). The mapping of Flårjuven area is shown closer on Fig.7b. The mapping of Grunehogna area is shown closer on Fig.21a and 10d 31 1400 4°0'W 3°30'W 3°0'W

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1450

1500 1200

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Fig. 22 1400

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72°30'S 160 2500 2150 2000 2500 2100 1900 165 2300 2450 0 1900 2400 1800 1700 2150 00 2050 1750 25 2600 1950 0 2650225 23 2000 1850 2000 23 00

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2050 1650 2200 2100 850 1 1700 Jutulstraumen 73°0'S 2100 0510 km 4°0'W 3°30'W 3°0'W

Figure 16: Glacial geomorphological map of Borgmassivet. See Fig.15 for legend. The mapping of Borga area is shown closer on Fig.22a 32 km 2°30'W 2°30'W 0510

00 00

22 23 00 2400

2700 3°0'W

2800

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00 23 Amundsenisen Hallgrenskarvet 3°30'W 3°30'W

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Tverreggtelen 2000

1900 4°0'W 4°0'W Enden

0 Kvervelnatten 200

4°30'W Pencksökket 2400 4°30'W Skappelnabben 5°0'W Kuvungen

5°0'W 2100 Contour lines Boulder Cirque LSS Blue ice Crevasse Bergschrund cover Sediment Patterned ground moraine Supraglacial Moraine ridge Snow avalanche Shear lines channel Water scoop Wind Ice fall Refrozen ice direction Sastrugi Glacial geomorphological map of Kirwanveggen.

Legend

2000

73°30'S 73°40'S 73°50'S 73°20'S 000 2 Figure 17:

33 5.2 Sampling sites Forty sampling sites were identified for CN sampling. They are described in Table 4 and shown on the maps (Fig-s. ??, 18 to 20). Most of the sampling sites are located in Ahlmannryggen on Flårjuven Bluff and Grunehogna Peaks (Fig-s. 7 and 19). Grunehogna Peaks are the highest mountains in Ahlmannryggen, therefore the samples from this area may provide data for the oldest deglaciation times. Although Grunehogna peaks are accessible only by helicopter, they contain the largest amount of identified glacial landforms. In Borgmassivet Borga mountain and Högskavlen plateau appeared to be rich in sampling sites (Fig-s. 20 and 22). There are few sites in Kirwanveggen, where only two spots most probably contain glacial deposits while the rest of the sites are located in areas with quartz-bearing bedrock suitable for sampling. In the area close to the grounding line three sites were identified. However, they lack sediments that can confidently be classified as till. Information on bedrock composition is also mostly lacking in this area. Some sites in the study area were marked for the purpose of ground truthing rather than for sampling. Table 4 summarizes the information for the proposed sampling locations. The "Location" column contains geographical coordinates and topographical names of the sites. Geomorphological information contains the description of the place according to the geomorphological map. The local bedrock geology is described according to geological map of the Norwegian Polar Institute (2017). This information can be useful if a paired sampling or bedrock sampling is possible. Erratics and till could be sourced from a different location and therefore their geology can be different from the bedrock. There is a description of possible expected outcomes from CN dating and from field validation in the column "Paleoglaciological significance...". The "Logistics" column lists possible difficulties that can arise along the route to the site (slope steepness, crevasses, wind scoops).

34 6°0'W 3°0'W

03060 km 71°0'S

100 ^_1 100 2 300 100 ^_ 200 ^_3 100

Fig.19 4 ^_ 1000

5 9 300 10 400 7^_^_8 500 ^_ 600 ^_^_14 ^_ 11 25 6 13^_^_^_ 15 1100 72°0'S 7 20 ^_^_17 12 00 1500 19^_^_1816 800 90 0 Jutulstraumen 1 00 0 000 13 140 Schyttbreen 1100 Fig.20 1100 23 1200 16 1500 00 21 ^_^_ 1700 22^_24 180 ^_ 0 27 30 ^_^_^_^_29 26 ^_28 ^_31

2100 73°0'S 2100

2500 33 ^_^_32 2200 ^_34 Pencksökket35 400 36^_^_ 2 38 37 ^_ 2500 2000 39 2600

1900 Legend 2100 ^_ 40 ^_ ^_ Sampling sites Transect

2000 Contour lines 00 27

0 74°0'S 6°0'W2300 280 2900 3°0'W 0°0

Figure 18: The overview map of the sampling sites. Due to a large amount of sampling sites on the Ahlmannryggen and Borgmassivet nunataks, these areas are shown separately on Figures 19 and 20.

35 600 3°30'W 3°0'W 2°30'W 650 Lorentzen- 4 piggen 650 ^_ 700 750 950

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1250 1300 1350

1500 1500 1550 ^_17 1400 1450 18 16 1500 ^_ 1450 ^_ Aurhö Legend Slettfjell 1400 1250 1650 ^_ Sampling sites 1600 1450 1200 Contour lines Sediment cover 72°10'S 20Overnuten 1550 Patterned ground 1500 1600 140 1500 ^_ 1000 1500 1150

0 1100 Styrbords- 03,57 19 1050 ^_ knattane km 1450 3°30'W 3°0'W 2°30'W 1000

Figure 19: The map of the sampling sites on Ahlmannryggen nunatak range.

36 1600 4°0'W 3°30'W 1650

Legend 1550

^_ Sampling sites Contour lines 1600 1700 Boulder 1750 Sediment cover 00 Patterned ground 18

850 Supraglacial moraine Framskotet 23 1 185 0

72°30'S ^_ 0 1800 175 22 22^_24 2150 1950 2500 ^_ 00 0 Spiret 20 205

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100 00 2 19 1850 2500 2400 1950 1950 1950 2150 2500 0 2150

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km 50 2000 17 4°0'W 3°30'W 2050

Figure 20: The map of the sampling sites on Borgmassivet nunatak range.

37 Table 4: Identiﬁed sampling sites.

Paleoglaciological significance and ground Elevation Logistical ID Location Geomorphology Geology validation (m a.s.l.) considerations The slope is Passat nunatak surrounded by a Ground validation should show if the (mouth of windscoop on the bedrock is quartz-bearing. If so, dating the Schyttbreen ice east, but could be 1 Bedrock outcrop. Unknown. bedrock should give indication about the ice 74 stream) reachable from NW surface lowering in an area close to the 71◦17’56.928"S or SW, paying grounding line. 3◦54’39.257"W attention to the crevasses. Robertskollen (east The site is side of mouth of surrounded by a Dolerite. Not Schyttbreen ice Dating of the sediments should give wind scoop on the 2 Supraglacial moraine. quartz-bearing 243 stream) indication about the ice sheet retreat. north eastern side bedrock. 71◦27’3.206"S and by crevasses on 3◦19’4.978"W the western side. 38 Robertskollen (east The site could be side of mouth of Supraglacial moraine or Ground validation should check if the reached from the Dolerite. Not Schyttbreen ice possible rock falls sediments are till or talus derived. In the east since in the 3 quartz-bearing 342 stream) underneath a nunatak former case, dating them could be useful to west there is a bedrock. 71◦29’8.545"S slope. reconstruct the ice surface lowering. windscoop and 3◦12’29.254"W crevasses. The site is Supraglacial moraine reachable only Lorentzenpiggen with few roughly parallel Mafic sill. Not Dating of the ridges close to the nunatak from the south (Ahlmannryggen) 4 ridges close to the quartz-bearing slope could give indication of the rate of ice 794 west since it is 71◦45’15.566"S nunatak slope and bedrock. surface lowering. closed by a 2◦49’54.326"W refrozen ponds. windscoop in the north. Close to Aurnupen Supraglacial moraine Peak Mafic sill. Not Dating of the moraine sediments could give complex with refrozen ice 5 (Ahlmanryggen) quartz-bearing indication about the minimum age since they 927 ponds and ridges in the 71◦59’27.382"S bedrock. have been accumulating. southern part. 3◦23’25.365"W Uncertain steepness of the slope at the Flårjuven Buff Plateau with apparent Mafic sill. Not Dating of erratics should give indication of beginning of the (Ahlmannryggen) sediment cover and 6 quartz-bearing the minimum time since the ice was thick 1279 route onto 72◦1’0.922"S erratics. The boulders bedrock. enough to cover the nunatak plateau. nunatak. Narrow 3◦25’43.947"W may be unstable. and probably steep access to plateau 6 in particular. Ground validation should check the assumption according to which patterned Uncertain ground is constituted of till rather than Flårjuven Bluff Plateau with erratics steepness of the Mafic sill. Not regolith. Dating of erratics on patterned (Ahlamnnryggen) lying on homogeneous slope at the 7 quartz-bearing ground should give indications about the ice 1166 72◦0’30.019"S sediment cover and beginning of the bedrock. retreat from the plateau. Depending on the 3◦23’44.331"W patterned ground. route onto age obtained, it should be possible to nunatak. understand if this patterned ground is relict and preserved under cold-based ice. Aurnupen Peak Ground validation should distinguish 39 Plateau with erratics Mafic sill. Not (Ahlmannryggen) between till and regolith. Dating of erratics Accessible only by 8 lying on homogeneous quartz-bearing 1123 71◦59’49.605"S would indicate the minimum age since the ice helicopter. sediment cover. bedrock. 3◦22’26.34"W abandoned the plateau.

Aurnupen Peak Plateau with erratics Mafic sill. Not Dating of erratics would inidicate the (Ahlmannryggen) Accessible only by 9 lying on homogeneous quartz-bearing minimum age since the ice abandoned the 1161 71◦59’33.011"S helicopter. sediment cover. bedrock. plateau. 3◦21’32.764"W Högfonna formation: Plateau with erratics feldspatic Ground validation should show if erratics lie Grunehogna Peaks Possible steepness lying either on bare quartzite, shale on bare bedrock or on homogenous sediment (Ahlmannryggen) of the slope 10 bedrock or on sediment and jasper bearing cover. Dating the erratics would indicate the 1228 72◦2’17.79"S (approximately cover. The boulders may conglomerate minimum age since the ice abandoned the 2◦51’15.204"W 17◦). be unstable. (Bredel, 1982). plateau. Quartz-bearing bedrock. Schumacherfjellet The eastern site is formation: probably accessible argillaceous and only by helicopter arenaceous Ground validation should check the presence Two sites are marked or maybe on foot Grunehogna Peaks sedimentary rocks of bare bedrock or sediment cover besides the with number 11. Erratics from the western (Ahlmannryggen) (Krynauw et al., patterned ground. Dating of erratics coupled 11 lying on patterned 1376 side (the steepest 72◦2’56.587"S 1988). with the dating of the possible bedrock ground and sediment slope angle is 30◦). 2◦46’30.728"W Quartz-bearing should indicate the minimum age since the cover on flat plateaus. The western site is bedrock. Paired ice abandoned the plateau. reachable with the sampling could be steepest slope possible if bare angle less than 15◦. bedrock is exposed. Plateau with erratics Grunehogna Peaks probably lying on Diorite. Quartz is Dating of erratics should provide a minimum (Ahlmannryggen) sediment cover. The Accessible only by 12 an accessory time constraint for when the ice surface 1307 72◦3’17.605"S boulders may be unstable helicopter. mineral. thinned, leaving the plateau surfaces exposed. 2◦43’30.776"W because the plateau has an inclination of 10◦. Ground validation can clarify whether the Grunehogna Peaks A couple of sinuous 40 Diorite. Quartz is boulders are erratics or derived from rock The moraine is (Ahlmannryggen) supraglacial moraine 13 an accessory fall. Dating of erratics should provide the 1338 surrounded by a 72◦3’3.386"S ridges with boulders lying mineral. time when the ridges were built and the ice wind scoop. 2◦42’23.348"W on top. retreated. Ground validation should show the nature of Flårjuven Bluff patterned ground. If it is consituted of till, Uncertain slope at Well-developed patterned Mafic sill. Not (Ahlamnnryggen) its dating should give indication about the the beginning of 14 ground on the nunatak quartz-bearing 1261 72◦0’42,998"S minimum age of plateau deglaciation. The the route onto the plateau. bedrock. 3◦23’4,852"W results of the dating could also show if the nunatak. patterned ground is relict. Ground validation should show the nature of Flårjuven Bluff patterned ground. If it is in till, its dating Uncertain slope at Well-formed patterned Mafic sill. Not (Ahlamnnryggen) should give indication about the minimum the beginning of 15 ground on the nunatak quartz-bearing 1289 72◦1’27,907"S age of plateau deglaciation. The results of the route onto the plateau. bedrock. 3◦22’44,641"W the dating could also show if the patterned nunatak. ground is relict. Dating of the sediments in the middle of the moraine should inidicate the time at which the ice lowered to it’s present thickness and Aurhö Peak An extensive supraglacial Mafic sill. Not has been accumulating sediments in the area. (Ahlamannryggen) moraine with complex 16 quartz-bearing Dating of sediments on the ridges could 1277 72◦8’7.17"S ridge structures and bedrock. display the minimum age since the ice has 3◦12’4.941"W ponds. been flowing towards northwest and towards northeast in the two opposite sides of the moraine. The moraine is Ground validation should discriminate surrounded by a Slettfjell Mountain Thick moraine ridges between erratics and rock fall derived Mafic sill. Not wind scoop on the (Ahlmannryggen) close to the bedrock plus material. Dating of sediment on the moraine 17 quartz-bearing 1244 NE side, but 72◦7’2.6"S nice curved thin moraine ridge and the contiguous sediment cover bedrock. should be 3◦18’14.118"W ridges nearby. should indicate when the ice deposited the accessible from the ridge and started retreating. SW. Since the ridge lies above the present ice surface, dating the sediment of the ridge Down to Slettfjell A supraglacial moraine should indicate when the ice was thicker than Mountain with two opposite Mafic sill. Not 41 today. Dating of the sediments on the rest of 18 (Ahlamnryggen) concave sides, a thick quartz-bearing 1244 the moraine should indicate since when the 72◦7’54.17"S ridge and several refrozen bedrock. ice has been flowing toward southwest and 3◦18’34.451"W ponds. toward northeast on the two opposite sides of the moraine. Steepness of Styrbordsknattane Ground validation should show if the Patterned ground and Mafic sill. Not snow-covered slope (Ahlmannryggen) patterned ground comprises till and if 19 probable erratics on top quartz-bearing 1464 to the north-east of 72◦13’8,983"S boulders on top of it are glacial erratics. In of the nunatak. bedrock. the nunatak is up 3◦25’2,657"W this case they can be used for CN dating. to 14◦. Schumacherfjellet formation (argillaceous and arenaceous sedimentary rocks, quartz-bearing berock) or mafic Dating of the boulders forming the ridge Ovenuten Peak sill (not should indicate for how long the ice has been (Ahlmannryggen) A thin moraine ridge 20 quartz-bearing flowing with this flow pattern. Moreover, this 1230 72◦11’24.555"S lying on a BIA. bedrock). The would indicate the minimum age since the ice 3◦28’31.587"W lithologies refer to has been thick as today. Ovenuten nunatak, beacuse the lithology of moraine sediments is not indicated on the geological map. A supragalcial moraine Ground validation should distinguish Hatten Peak adjacent to a nunatak between rock fall derived boulders and Mafic sill. Not The moraine is 42 (Borgmassivet) slope and a BIA. A ridge erratics. Dating of the erratics on the ridge 21 quartz-bearing 1676 surrounded by a 72◦33’59.119"S with the same shape of should give indication about the BIA bedrock. wind scoop. 4◦10’2.31"W the moraine border is thickness fluctuation. present. Högfonna formation (feldspatic quartzite, shale Ground validation should check if the Borga Mountain Bedrock outcrops and jasper bearing difference in colour and texture in the Uncertain (Borgmassivet) 22 emerging from sediment conglomerate, sediment covers reflects a difference in 2044 steepness of the 72◦31’0.649"S covers of different colours. quartz-bearing sediment charecteristics, for example between slopeupto40◦. 3◦36’51.792"W bedrock) and mafic till, regolith and rock fall transported debris. sill (not quartz-bearing bedrock). Ground validation should discriminate the Framskotet Supraglacial moraine Mafic sill. Not nature of the channels. Dating of the (Borgmassivet) complex cut by channels 23 quartz-bearing sediments on the ridge should indicate when 1684 72◦30’34.942"S and with a rigde on the bedrock. they started to be concentrated close to the 3◦42’2.19"W east side. nunatak slope. Ground validation should show the nature of Spiret Peak Patterned ground lying patterned ground. If it is formed within till, Mafic sill. Not (Borgmassivet) on a plateau close to its dating should give an indication about the Accessible only by 24 quartz-bearing 2531 72◦31’19.554"S patches of homogeneous minimum age of plateau deglaciation. The helicopter. bedrock. 3◦36’53.59"W sediment cover. results of the dating could also show if the patterned ground is relict. Ground validation should show the Flårjuven Bluff characteristics of these bedrock structures Uncertain slope at Mafic sill. Not (Ahlamnnryggen) Area of the plateau with which can be misinterpreted with patterned the beginning of 25 quartz-bearing 1344 72◦2’4.852"S bedrock structures. ground from the imagery. Its dating could the route onto bedrock. 3◦23’31.592"W give indication about ice retreat from the nunatak plateau. Högfonna formation (feldspatic quartzite, shale and jasper bearing A supragalcial moraine Ground validation should discriminate the conglomerate, with defined polygonal nature of the channels. Dating of sediments Close to quartz-bearing shape, complicated ridge in the middle of the moraine should indicate 43 Högskavlen bedrock) or mafic structures, refrozen ice a minimum age from when the sediments Mountain sill (not 26 ponds and enigmatic have started to accumulate in this area due 1885 (Borgmassivet) quartz-bearing channels (enigmatic since to lowering of the ice surface. Dating of the 3◦45’58.503"W bedrock). The they do not appear to ridges could reveal from when local galciers 72◦38’47.973"S lithologies refer to continue on the have been flowing towards the moraine, by Högskavlpiggen surrounding ice). deforming it. nunatak because the lithology of moraine sediments is not indicated on the geological map. Högfonna formation: feldspatic Veten Mountain A cirque with bedrock Ground validation should distinghiush the quartzite, shale (Borgmassivet) outcrops at different sediment cover between till and regolith and Steepness of the 27 and jasper bearing 2045 72◦37’26.406"S elevations emerging from show if the dating of the bedrock is possible slopeupto50◦. conglomerate 3◦51’12.847"W the sediment cover. on different elevations. (Bredel, 1982). Quartz-bearing bedrock. Högskavlnebbet Ground validation should distinghiush the Possible steepness Peak Mafic sill. Not sediment cover between till and regolith. If of the slope (up to Homogenous sediment 28 (Borgmassivet) quartz-bearing the sediment is till, dating would inidcate the 1261 40◦) and narrow cover on a plateau. 72◦37’43.469"S bedrock. minimum age since the ice abandoned the access to the 3◦39’2.694"W plateau. plateau. Ground validation should check if the area is bedrock or sediment cover. Indeed, the Raudberget geological map indicates it as bedrock of Mountain Thick sediment cover Raudberget different lithology compare to the plateau 29 (Borgmassivet) different in colour from formation: likely 2158 above. If the landform will be validated as 72◦38’40.422"S the bedrock. sedimentary rock. sediment and especially till, the dating could 3◦30’22.055"W give indication on the time of ice retreat.

Högfonna formation: feldspatic Högskavlen Dating of the bedrock outcrop and boulders quartzite, shale (Borgmassivet) A cirque with boulders (if they are erratics) could give indication Steepness of the 30 and jasper bearing 2271 72◦39’22.234"S lying on bedrock ridges. about the timing and rate of ice thinning slopeupto50◦. ◦ conglomerate

44 3 43’54.266"W inside the cirque. (Bredel, 1982). Quartz-bearing bedrock. Högfonna formation: Difficulty of the Högfonna feldspatic climbing due to the Mountain quartzite, shale Dating bedrock at different altitudes should steepness of the 31 (Borgmassivet) Smooth cirque bedrock. and jasper bearing give indication about the ice retreat history 2116 slopeupto40◦ and 72◦44’31.452"S conglomerate in the cirque. dangerous 3◦31’28.663"W (Bredel, 1982). bergschrund in the Quartz-bearing cirque. bedrock. Uncertain Hallgrenskarvet Possible erratics lying on Augen Gneiss or Ground validation should check the presence steepeness of the (Kirwanveggen) sediment cover or bare migmatite. of erratics. Their dating (if present) should 32 2278 slope, probably 73◦22’37.747"S bedrock on a gentle Quartz-bearing give indication about the rate of ice reatreat better to reach it 3◦22’35.846"W nunatak slope. bedrock. from the plateau. from above. Uncertain steepness of the Ground validation could reveal the presence slope. A wind Tverreggtelen Hill Pegmatite and of ice flow indicators on the bedrcok (i.e. Bedrock outcrop scoop is present on (Kirwanveggen) leucogranite. striae, crescentic gouges). Dating of the 33 emerging on a slope 2048 th NE side of the 73◦24’0.605"S Quartz-bearing bedrock should display the time and rate of among sediment cover. site which, but it 3◦29’39.117"W bedrock. ice thinning. It could be also useful for paired should be possible dating, if there is till among sediments. to reach it from NW. During the ground validation researchers Pegmatite and Uncertain Hallgrenskarvet should look for erratics on flat surfaces. The Bedrock outcrops leucogranite or steepnees of the (Kirwanveggen) paired dating with bedrock outcrops should 34 emerging from sediment migmatite. 2083 slope and probable 73◦22’15.05"S give indication of the age of the last cover in a nunatak slope. Quartz-bearing difficulty in 3◦24’51.985"W deglaciation of the plateau and the ice bed bedrock. climbing up. conditions at that time. Ground validation should check if this patch Kvervelnatten Peak Patterned ground patch Banded and is actually patterned ground or weathered Uncertain (Kirvanveggen) lying on a slope among orthogneiss. bedrock. In case of patterned ground, 35 2167 steepness of the 73◦30’59.807"S homogenuous sediment Quartz-bearing sediments could be sampled and dated since ◦ slope. 45 3 53’21.987"W cover or bedrock. bedrock. they are likely till left by last or previous deglaciation. Kvervelnatten Peak Interesting ridged Gneiss. Ground validation should check the nature of Uncertain (Kirwanveggen) 36 structure, quartz-bearing Quartz-bearing the ridges. The samples can be taken from 2115 steepness of the 73◦30’47,27"S bedrock. bedrock. the ridges on different elevations. slope. 3◦52’36,445"W Ground validation should show the nature of Kvervelnatten Peak Banded and patterned ground. If it is consituted of till, (Kirwanvegen) Patterned ground on the orthogneiss. its dating should give indication about the 37 2122 73◦30’50,571"S nunatak slope. Quartz-bearing minimum age of plateau deglaciation. The 3◦52’18,045"W bedrock. results of the dating could also show if the patterned ground is relict. Metagabbro, Uncertain Augen gneiss, Ground validation should show if the steepness of the banded and Enden Point Nunatak slope with difference in colours between sediments and slope. A wind orthogneiss. (Kirwanveggen) bedrock outcrops bedrock visible from the images is evident scoop is present on 38 Quartz-bearing 2207 73◦37’36.307"S emerging from sediments also in the field. Dating of bedrock samples the NE side of the bedrock. These 4◦10’57.737"W cover of different colour. at different altitudes should give indication site, but it should lithologies refer to about the rate of ice sheet thinning. be possible to the entire nunatak reach it from NW. slope. Skappelnabben Bare bedrock outcrop Uncertain Banded and The ground validation should check the Spur with interesting steepeness of the orthogneiss. bedrock structure. If it is not too weathered, 39 (Kirwanveggen) structures on a gentle 2484 route (up to 20◦) Quartz-bearing it could be dated to obtain indication about 73◦43’15.845"S slope of the nunatak on the slope from bedrock. the ice retreat from the escarpment. 4◦32’15.701"W escarpement. the east. Steepness of the bedrock slope more Kuvungen Dating both the bedrock and the moraine than 50◦ and Kuvungen Hill Bedrock outcrop formation: sediments should give indication of the presence of a wind (Kirwanveggen) emerging on the nunatak 40 Paleozoic quartzite. timing of ice sheet retreat from the nunatak 2154 scoop in the 73◦49’45.544"S slope and supraglacial Quartz-bearing slope and the age since the accumulation of northeast. The site 5◦7’1.944"W moraine under the slope. bedrock. sediments on ice has started. should be reachable from the northwest. 46 6 Discussion 6.1 Paleoglaciological reconstruction During the geomorphological mapping of the study area no cross-cutting relationships between glacial landforms could be found, prohibiting more detailed paleoglaciological reconstructions. However, simple reconstructions are proposed for the three investigated nunatak ranges (Ahlmannryggen, Borgmassivet and Kirwanveggen). The elevations of glacial erratics and till found on nunataks were used as a minimum estimate of past ice surface levels. The numbers for ice level change provided below are determined by eye according to the elevation map and are approximate. Therefore the sources of error include the following: • the present ice level is estimated in relation to the closest nunatak which may be not the best reference point since the nunatak ranges may influence the ice flow across them: e.g. ice level may be higher close to the nunataks than at the corresponding point on Jutulstraumen; • the present ice level upstream the nunatak is commomly higher than downstream; • the past ice level (where the ice has been) is estimated according to Tandem-X dataset which has vertical accuracy of 2 m. In Ahlmannryggen the highest occurrence of till and erratics was found is 1376 m a.s.l. at Grunehogna Peaks (sampling site 11). It is a reliable spot since the plateau is flat which is supported by the fact that it is covered by well defined polygons of patterned ground. The paleoglaciological reconstruction for the area of Grunehogna Peaks is shown in Figure 21. The ice sheet level was at least 300 m higher sometime in the past. With a substantially thicker ice sheet the ice flow pattern would likely have been simpler than it is at present, with local glacier flow within nunatak areas, and blue ice areas close to the remaining nunataks ( Fig. 21b) may have been smaller. The ice was presumably flowing to the NE across the nunatak into Jutulstraumen. Another group of nunataks in Ahlmannryggen marked by numerous sampling sites is Flårjuven Buff which is shown in Figure 7. This nunatak has lower elevation than Grunehogna Peaks and should have been completely covered by ice flowing towards the NW direction into Schyttbreen. In Borgmassivet fields of patterned ground were identified on Borga mountain, at 2531 m a.s.l. These glacial deposits are the most reliable for the reconstruction in Borgmassivet (Fig. 22). They were probably deposited during a retreat of the ice sheet at least 600 m thicker than today. As in the Ahlmannryggen reconstruction, the ice flow pattern was likely simpler and the BIAs were less extensive. Today the ice is flowing to the NW into the Schyttbreen on the western side of Borga mountain and to the NE into Jutulstraumen on the eastern side of Borga mountain. When the ice surface was 600 m higher, the ice was probably flowing in same two directions separated by a palaeo-ice divide instead of a nunatak. One part of the ice was flowing to the NW into the Schyttbreen. On the opposite side of the ice divide, ice was flowing to the NE into Jutulstraumen (Fig. 22b). In Kirwanveggen glacial deposits visible in the imagery are sparse, but the maximum elevation of mapped readily identified till was 2167 m a.s.l. on Kvervelnatten Peak (sampling site 35). Figure 23 shows that the majority of the nunataks in Kirwanveggen were still exposed if the ice elevation was 2167 m a.s.l. Ice was flowing in the NW direction and possibly joining the Pencksökket ice stream. Therefore the general pattern of ice flow has not changed since the times when ice was around 100 m thicker than nowadays. From these simple reconstructions it can be hypothesized that the ice thickness was subject to larger changes in nunatak regions closest to the grounding line (Borgmassivet and Ahlmannryggen) than further inland (Kirwan- veggen). This is consistent with the studies on glacial history in nunatak regions (Raymo et al., 2006; Suganuma et al., 2014; Naslund et al., 2000). For example, Lilly et al. (2010) provide paired exposure ages of bedrock and erratics from Grove mountains in the interior of East Antarctica that shows that the ice surface was likely lower there during glacials than during interglacials.

6.2 Exposure ages of the samples As was discussed in Chapter 2.2, the Antarctic ice sheet was cold-based in most places for the last 14 million years (Shevenell et al., 2004). Non-erosive ice could preserve a previous exposure signal in the CN inventory in bedrock and erratics, particularly on nunataks (Sugden et al., 2005). Therefore the resulting exposure age of the proposed samples can be much older than the LGM, since the CN inventory may also include exposure during previous low ice stages. There is also a possibility that the bedrock or erratics were partially buried by sediments or eroded subaerially which would yield lower exposure ages than the age since the last deglaciation. However the sedimentation and erosion rate in the study area can only be checked in the ﬁeld. If it is assumed that throughout the Quaternary the

47 a 2°48'W 2°46'W 2°48'W 2°46'W Legend b Legend

^_ Sampling sites ^_ Sampling sites Ice flow direction Bedrock Boulder Ice surface¯ Blue ice Patterned ground Sediment cover Supraglacial moraine 72°2'S 72°2'S Moraine ridge Wind scoop

Legend

^_ Sampling sites Blue ice Boulder 11 Patterned11 ground 11 ^_ 11 Sediment^_ cover ^_ ^_ Supraglacial moraine 72°3'S

72°3'S Moraine ridge 0 0,25 0,5 0 0,25 0,5 km km Wind scoop

Figure 21: Grunehogna Peaks shown on a) the glacial geomorphological map (present) and b) the paleoglaciological reconstruction map (past). The transparent layer of paleo ice surface is drawn above the layer showing present bedrock exposure. The paleo ice direction is shown by a large blue arrow in (b). Grunehogna Peaks appear covered by ice almost everywhere in the reconstruction. ice surface around the nunataks has been gradually lowering, this means that subaerial weathering of the bedrock is likely more significant at the top of nunataks compared to locations closer to the current ice surface. Therefore, bedrock at higher elevations may have been more eroded subaerially than bedrock at lower elevations. This factor should also be taken into accound while analysing exposure ages of the proposed sampling sites. Glacial erratics lying on the plateaus of Ahlmannryggen nunataks could be derived from Borgmassivet or Kirwan- veggen when the ice was thicker. These mountain ranges are rich in quartz-bearing materials (Geological map of Dronning Maud Land, Norwegian Polar Institute, 2017) and therefore such erratics can be valuable material for CN dating. There are no published CN ages available for the study area. However, according to studies in other nearby regions ( Altamaier et al., 2010; Suganuma et al., 2014) the highest ice level was attained during the Early Pleistocene, and the last ice lowering occurred during the Early Holocene (Mackintosh et al., 2011), and there is evidence that the ice level has been stable for a long time until the present (Lintinen, 1996). It is reported that the LGM cooling did not influence the interior of East Antarctica (Lilly et al., 2010; Suganuma et al., 2014), so my expectation is that the samples obtained from Kirwanveggen nunataks would yield Early Pleistocene CN ages. On the contrary, the coastal areas of East Antarctica were influenced by sea level drop during the LGM when the large ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere were active (Raymo et al., 2006). Hence in Ahlmannryggen and Borgmassivet the ice level may have been higher during the LGM since the ice sheet could advance further to the continental shelf. Therefore, it is my expectation that the exposure ages obtained from erratics deposited on the highest nunatak plateaus could yield Mid-Pliocene to Early Pleistocene exposure ages (around 3 Ma). This is the time when the ice sheet hypothetically reached its maximum extent and thickness in the nunatak area. The samples collected from the nunatak slopes could show Middle Pleistocene exposure ages. It should be noticed that the bedrock surfaces and erratic boulders on the slopes could be subject to ice sheet reburial due to climate fluctuations. It should influence the resulting CN dates: erratic boulders may show smaller exposure age since the last deglaciation while the bedrock surface can have more complex exposure history since the it is not eroded by cold-base ice . The till and bedrock surfaces lower on the slopes of the nunataks could show LGM and Early Holocene exposure ages.

48 3°36'W 3°28'W 3°36'W 3°28'W a b 72°30'S 72°30'S 23 23 ¯ ^_ ^_ ^_22 ^_22 ^_24 ^_24 72°33'S 72°33'S Legend

^_ Sampling sites Ice flow direction Legend Boulder Cirque ^_ Sampling sites Blue ice Blue ice Crevasse Crevasse Patterned ground Legend Cirque Sediment cover Ice divide Boulder 72°36'S Supraglacial moraine 72°36'S ^_ Sampling sites Patterned ground Moraine ridge Ice surface Sediment cover Wind scoop Bedrock Supraglacial moraine Moraine ridge 024 km 024 28 km Wind scoop ^_28 ^_28

Figure 22: Borga Mountain shown on a) the glacial geomorphological map (present) and b) the paleoglaciological reconstruction map of Borga mountain as inferred from the mapping (past). The transparent layer showing paleo ice surface is drawn over the present topography derived from TanDEM-X. The paleo ice direction is shown by large blue arrows in (b). Borga Mountain appears covered by ice almost everywhere in the reconstruction.

6.3 Evaluation of the WorldView dataset One of the goals of the project was to test if the high-resolution WorldView (WV) imagery is suitable for detailed geomorphological and paleoglaciological studies in nunatak environments in Antarctica. The high resolution of the panchromatic images allowed to distinguish between sediment cover and bedrock, to identify patterned ground and single boulders, if they were sufficiently large. Till was not straightforward to distinguish from regolith in the imagery, but this was also the case during the 2016/17 MAGIC-DML field season - during ground truthing the team would see no notable difference in the imagery at locations where on the ground they could observe a clear transition from till to regolith (J. Newall, pers. comm.). After the assumptions described in section 4.2 were applied, it was possible to predict some of the locations of glacial deposits on the nunataks. However cross-cutting relationships between glacial landforms were not possible to identify using the WV dataset. It is worth mentioning that during the 2016/17 MAGIC-DML field work only one example of cross-cutting was observed - striations of varying orientations. The feasibility to infer possible succession of landforms from the imagery, and the accuracy of used assumptions has been evaluated during the 2017/18 MAGIC-DML field season in order to improve the technique of remote-sensing based paleoglaciological analysis. The WV imagery showed to be extremely useful for planning the routes for the field campaign. Dangerous areas like open crevasse fields, wind scoops and places where avalanches are common were easy to identify. The route planning was also aided by the use of high-resolution DEM in order to estimate steepness of the slopes. The value of site selection for sampling based on remote sensing using WV imagery has also been assessed in the field. Together with ground-truthing this will provide the absolute evaluation for this use of the WV dataset.

7 Conclusions

A remote sensing-based geomorphological and paleoglaciological study of the Ahlmannryggen, Borgmassivet, and Kirwanveggen nunatak ranges was conducted, using the high-resolution satellite imagery from the World-View

49 4°40'W 4°0'W 3°20'W 4°40'W 4°0'W 3°20'W a b ¯ 34 34 73°20'S ^_^_32 73°20'S ^_^_32 ^_33 ^_33 32

Pencksökket

35 35 36^_^_ 36^_^_ 37 37

^_38 ^_38 Legend

^_ Sampling sites Legend 73°40'S 39 73°40'S 39 ^_ Ice flow direction ^_ ^_ Sampling sites Boulder Blue ice Cirque Crevasse Blue ice Cirque Crevasse 40 40 Boulder ^_ Patterned ground ^_ LegendPatterned ground Sediment cover Sediment cover Sampling sites Supraglacial moraine ^_ Supraglacial moraine Moraine ridge Bedrock Moraine ridge 01020 01020 Wind scoop Ice surface km km Wind scoop

Figure 23: Kirwanveggen on a) the glacial geomorphological map (present) and b) the paleoglaciological reconstruction map (past). The paleo ice direction is shown by a large blue arrow in (b). Kirwanveggen appears completely covered by ice in the reconstruction. dataset. Panchromatic and multispectral images were analysed in a multi-step procedure using ArcGIS, including image processing and mosaicking, visual feature recognition and mapping. The identification of some landforms (such as till veneers and erratic boulders) required the adoption of some assumptions. Where patterned ground was mapped, a presence of till rather than regolith was inferred because subglacial erosion is more likely to produce finer material than subaerial weathering. Very large boulders on plateau surfaces were mapped as erratics because they could not have been delivered by slope processes to local highpoints. However the reliability of derived paleo-ice sheet reconstructions is limited by both the necessary assumptions and the absence of cross-cutting relationships between landforms. At face value, the presence of till cover and erratics above the present ice surface on some nunataks indicate thicker ice in the past. According to the resulting reconstruction, the ice sheet surface has lowered by around 300 m across Ahlmannryggen, 600 m across Borgmassivet and 100 m in Kirwanveggen. Ice flow was mostly influenced by ice thinning in Borgmassivet and Ahlmannryggen areas and became more complex due to larger nunatak exposure. Target routes for the upcoming field season were yielded by identifying 40 potential cosmogenic nuclide sampling and ground truthing locations. Glacial erratics and till localities had the highest priority, while quartz-bearing bedrock was proposed for sampling in areas where glacial deposits appear to be absent. The sampling sites are distributed all over the transect from the grounding line to the escarpment. The information useful for field planning was collated and summarized in a table. The WorldView (WV) dataset was evaluated for the purposes of geomorphological and paleoglaciological studies. WV imagery has a good potential to be used for Antarctic studies. Ground truthing during the 2017/18 MAGIC- DML field season can improve the remote sensing techniques for paleoglaciological studies adopted here, by verifying mapping and landform interpretations.

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8 Appendix 8.1 Python scripts written to perform mosaicking in ArcMap

54 10 # Here a mosaic is created . 11 # The first parameter of the function "arcpy . CreateMosaicDataset_management" is the path to the file database where the mosaic should be created . 12 # The file database should be created before running the script in ArcMap environment . 13 # The second parameter of the function "arcpy . CreateMosaicDataset_management" is the name of the mosaic to be created . 14 # The third parameter of the function " arcpy . CreateMosaicDataset_management" is the path to the coordinate system . I t i s stored in AppData on the User ’ s computer . 15 # How to find AppData? Search for %appdata% in "Run" window in start menu 16 # ( it is well explained in this video https ://www. youtube .com/watch?v=vPi3nMmaunY) 17 18 mosaic = arcpy . CreateMosaicDataset_management( 19 "C:\ Users\C997GD1\Documents\MAGIC−DML\outdata\Borg_massif .gdb" , "Borgmassivet_pan" , 20 "C:\ Users \C997GD1\AppData\Roaming\ESRI\Desktop10 .5\ArcMap\ Coordinate Systems\ Polar_Stereographic . prj ") 21 22 # Here each raster that is in our group layer is added to the mosaic : 23 24 for image in lyrGroup : 25 if not image . isGroupLayer : 26 arcpy . AddRastersToMosaicDataset_management( 27 mosaic , "Raster Dataset" , 28 image . dataSource) Listing 1: Python code used for creation of panchromatic mosaic in ArcMap.

1 import arcpy 2 3 # Here a variable lyrGroup for the group layer is created . 4 # As a parameter for arcpy .mapping . Layer function the full path to the group of selected layers is added . 5 # The group layer should be saved on your computer before running the code 6 # (right click on the group layer in ArcMap and p r e s s " Save a group l a y e r " ) 7 8 lyrGroup = arcpy . mapping . Layer ( r"G:\GIS_project\multispectral_mosaic\Good_mul_images . lyr " ) 9 10 # Here the variables for the mosaic are defined : 11 12 noband = "8" #number of bands is equal to 8 13 14 pixtype = " 8_BIT_UNSIGNED" #the bit depth of the WV images is 8 15 16 pdef = "WORLDVIEW−2_8BANDS" #8−band mosaic dataset is created 17 18 wavelength = "" #we can change minimum and maximum values for wavelengths and choose the ones we need 19 20 21 # Here a mosaic is created . 22 # The first parameter of the function "arcpy . CreateMosaicDataset_management" is the path to the file database where the mosaic should be created . 23 # The file database should be created before running the script in ArcMap environment . 24 # The second parameter of the function "arcpy . CreateMosaicDataset_management" is the name of the mosaic to be created . 25 # The third parameter of the function " arcpy . CreateMosaicDataset_management" is the path to the coordinate system . I t i s stored in AppData on the User ’ s computer . 26 # How to find AppData? Search for %appdata% in "Run" window in start menu 27 # ( it is well explained in this video https ://www. youtube .com/watch?v=vPi3nMmaunY) 28 29 mosaic = arcpy . CreateMosaicDataset_management( 30 "C:\ Users\C997GD1\Documents\MAGIC−DML\outdata\Borg_massif .gdb" , "Borgmassivet_mul" , 31 "C:\ Users \C997GD1\AppData\Roaming\ESRI\Desktop10 .5\ArcMap\ Coordinate Systems\ Polar_Stereographic . prj " , 32 noband , pixtype , pdef , wavelength 33 ) 34 35 36 # Here each raster that is in our group layer is added to the mosaic : 37 38 for image in lyrGroup : 39 if not image . isGroupLayer :

55 40 arcpy . AddRastersToMosaicDataset_management( 41 mosaic , "Raster Dataset" , 42 image . dataSource) Listing 2: Python code used for creation of multispectral mosaic in ArcMap. 8.2 MatLab scripts used for generating some of the ﬁgures 8.2.1 Figure 1

1 % Create a figure : 2 FigHandle = figure ; 3 set(FigHandle , ’Position ’ , [100 , 100, 1440, 900]) ; 4 % Zoom into the area of Dronning Maud Land with extent of 2000 km: 5 mapzoom( ’dronning maud land ’ ,2000, ’inset ’ , ’sw’) 6 % Draw the bed e l e v a t i o n data derived from bedmap2 ( Fretwell et al . , 2013) : 7 bedmap2( ’bed ’ ) 8 shadem(−18) 9 % Draw the c o o r d i n a t e g r i d : 10 antmap( ’lats ’, −90:10:−50, ’lons ’ , −22:10:50) 11 % Draw the s c a l e bar : 12 scalebar( ’location ’ , ’ne’ , ’color ’ , ’white ’); 13 % Draw the extent of the study area : 14 S = shaperead( ’Trancest . shp ’); 15 for k=1:length(S) 16 [ lat ,lon] = ps2ll(S(k).X,S(k).Y); 17 patchm( lat , lon , ’r’, ’FaceAlpha ’ ,.2 , ’EdgeColor ’ , ’r’, ’LineWidth ’ ,2) 18 end 19 % Draw the l a b e l s f o r the locations derived from SCAR(1992) : 20 scarlabel( ’Amundsenisen ’ , ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’color ’ ,[1 1 1]) 21 scarlabel( ’Ritscherflya ’ , ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold ’ , ’color ’ ,[1 1 1]) 22 scarlabel( ’Princess Martha Coast ’ , ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’fontweight ’ , ’bold ’ , ’color ’ ,[1 1 1]) 23 scarlabel( ’Dronning Maud Land ’ , ’FontSize ’ ,20, ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’HorizontalAlignment ’ , ’center ’ , ’ color ’ ,[1 1 1]) 24 scarlabel( ’Nansenisen ’ , ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’color’ ,[1 1 1]) 25 scarlabel( ’Wegenerisen ’ , ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’color ’ ,[1 1 1]) 26 scarlabel( ’Heimefrontfjella ’ , ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’color ’ ,[1 1 1]) 27 % Draw the l a b e l s f o r the c o o r d i n a t e grid : 28 t = textm(−70,−15, ’70\ circS ’ , ’color ’ ,0.8∗ [1 1 1] , ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,9 , ’ vert ’ , ’top’); 29 t = textm(−80,−4, ’4\circW ’ , ’color ’ ,0.8∗ [1 1 1] , ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’vert ’ , ’top’); 30 t = textm(−80,7, ’7\circE ’ , ’color ’ ,0.8∗ [1 1 1] , ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −12, ’ vert ’ , ’top’); 31 t = textm(−80,16, ’16\circE ’ , ’color ’ ,0.8∗ [1 1 1] , ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −22, ’ vert ’ , ’top’); 32 t = textm(−80,26, ’26\circE ’ , ’color ’ ,0.8∗ [1 1 1] , ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −32, ’ vert ’ , ’top’); 33 t = textm(−80,36, ’36\circE ’ , ’color ’ ,0.8∗ [1 1 1] , ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −42, ’ vert ’ , ’top’); 34 t = textm(−80,46, ’46\circE ’ , ’color ’ ,0.8∗ [1 1 1] , ’FontWeight ’ , ’bold’, ’FontSize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −52, ’ vert ’ , ’top’); 35 % Save the figure 2 times expanded in size : 36 export_fig dml.png −q101 −m2 Listing 3: Matlab code used for generating an overview map of Dronning Maud Land.

8.2.2 Figure 2 The code for generating the Figure 2 is following:

1 2 % Create a figure : 3 FigHandle = figure ; 4 set(FigHandle , ’Position ’ , [100 , 100, 1440, 900]) ; 5 % Draw a l a y e r o f shaded r e l i e f derived from MODIS MOA ( Haran et al . , 2014) : 6 modismoa( ’viddalen ’ , ’contrast ’ , ’lc’); 7 % Draw the i c e speed derived from MEaSUREs (Rignot et al . , 2017) : 8 measures( ’speed ’ , ’viddalen ’ , ’alpha ’ ,0.5 , ’colormap ’ ,cmocean( ’amp’ )); 9 % Draw the v e l o c i t y arrows indicating the ice movement d i r e c t i o n ( Rignot et al . , 2017) : 10 measures( ’vel’, ’viddalen ’ , ’color ’ ,[0.03 0.19 0.42] , ’arrowdencity ’ ,3 , ’inset ’ , ’sw’ , ’size’ ,.2) ; 11 % Draw contour lines with elevations from 500 to 2500 m with step 1000 m: 12 [ h ,C]=bedmap2( ’surfc ’ ,500:1000:2500)

56 13 % Draw contour labels : 14 clabel(C,h , ’LabelSpacing ’ ,2000) 15 % Draw contour lines for elevations 1000 and 2000 without labels ( derived from bedmap2 ( Fretwell et al . , 2013)) : 16 bedmap2( ’surfc ’ ,[1000 2000]) 17 % Draw blue grounding l i n e derived from bedmap2 ( Fretwell et al . , 2013) : 18 GL=bedmap2( ’gl’, ’color ’ ,[0 .5 .6] , ’LineWidth ’ ,2) ; 19 % Draw the s c a l e bar : 20 scalebar( ’location ’ , ’se’); 21 % Draw the l a b e l s f o r the locations : 22 scarlabel( ’Jutulstraumen ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,75) 23 scarlabel( ’Borgmassivet ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’backgroundcolor ’ ,[0 .5 .6]) 24 scarlabel( ’Ahlmannryggen ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’backgroundcolor ’ ,[0 .5 .6]) 25 scarlabel( ’Kirwanveggen ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold ’ , ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’backgroundcolor ’ , [0 .5 .6]) 26 scarlabel( ’Fimbul ice shelf ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’backgroundcolor ’ ,[0 .5 .6]) 27 scarlabel( ’Jelbart ice shelf ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’backgroundcolor ’ ,[0 .5 .6]) 28 scarlabel( ’Schytt glacier ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,90) 29 scarlabel( ’Penck trough ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,60) 30 scarlabel( ’Viddalen ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,30) 31 % Draw the c o o r d i n a t e g r i d : 32 antmap( ’lats ’, −75:1:−69, ’lons ’ , −12:2:7) 33 % Draw the l a b e l s f o r the c o o r d i n a t e grid : 34 t = textm(−70,−9, ’70\ circS ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’color ’ ,0.8∗ [1 1 1] , ’rotation ’ ,7 , ’ vert ’ , ’top’); 35 t = textm(−71,−9, ’71\ circS ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,7 , ’vert’, ’top’); 36 t = textm(−72,−9, ’72\ circS ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,7 , ’vert’, ’top’); 37 t = textm(−73,−9, ’73\ circS ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,7 , ’vert’, ’top’); 38 t = textm(−74,−6, ’6\circW ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,7 , ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 39 t = textm(−74,−4, ’4\circW ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,6 , ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 40 t = textm(−74,−8, ’8\circW ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,7 , ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 41 t = textm(−74,−2, ’2\circW ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,5 , ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 42 t = textm(−74,0, ’0\circ ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold ’ , ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 43 t = textm(−74,2, ’2\circE ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −5, ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 44 t = textm(−74,4, ’4\circE ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −6, ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 45 % Draw the t r a n s e c t f o r f i gure 3: 46 A = shaperead( ’ Across . shp ’ ); 47 for k=1:length(A) 48 [ lat ,lon] = ps2ll(A(k).X,A(k).Y); 49 L=linem( lat , lon , ’color ’ , ’red ’ , ’LineStyle ’ , ’−− ’ , ’LineWidth ’ ,2) 50 end 51 % Draw the study area extent : 52 S = shaperead( ’Trancest . shp ’) 53 for k=1:length(S) 54 [ lat ,lon] = ps2ll(S(k).X,S(k).Y); 55 patchm( lat , lon , ’r’, ’FaceAlpha ’ ,.2 , ’EdgeColor ’ , ’r’, ’LineWidth ’ ,2) 56 end 57 % Save the figure 2 times expanded in size : 58 export_fig viddalenOverviewLc .png −q101 −m2 Listing 4: Matlab code used for generating an overview map of the transect.

8.2.3 Figure 3

1 2 % Set the coordinates of the transect : 3 lon=[−2.8181 −3.5858] 4 lat=[−69.8236 −73.9553] 5 % Create a figure : 6 figure 7 % Create a profile along the transect using the data derived from bedmap2 ( Fretwell et al . , 2013) : 8 bedmap2_profile( lat , lon ) 9 % Print the location names : 10 annotation( ’textbox ’ ,[.72 .72 .1 .1] , ’String ’ , ’Pench Trough ’ , ’FitBoxToText ’ , ’on’) 11 annotation( ’textbox ’ ,[.78 .78 .1 .1] , ’String ’ , ’Kyrwanveggen ’ , ’FitBoxToText ’ , ’on’) 12 annotation( ’textbox ’ ,[.63 .63 .26 .26] , ’String ’ , ’Borgmassivet ’ , ’FitBoxToText ’ , ’on’) 13 annotation( ’textbox ’ ,[.54 .54 .25 .25] , ’String ’ , ’Ahlmannryggen ’ , ’FitBoxToText ’ , ’on’) 14 annotation( ’textbox ’ ,[.25 .25 .4 .4] , ’String ’ , ’Fimbul Ice Shelf ’ , ’FitBoxToText ’ , ’on’) Listing 5: Matlab code used for generating a vertical transect of the study area.

57 8.2.4 Figure 12 The Matlab code used for creating an overview geomorphological map:

1 %Create a new figure : 2 FigHandle = figure ; 3 set(FigHandle , ’Position ’ , [100 , 100, 1440, 900]) ; 4 % Draw a l a y e r o f shaded r e l i e f derived from MODIS MOA ( Haran et al . , 2014) : 5 modismoa( −72.44,−3,400, ’contrast ’ , ’lc’) 6 % Draw the i c e speed derived from MEaSUREs (Rignot et al . , 2017) : 7 measures( ’speed ’ , −72.44,−3, ’mapwidth ’ ,400, ’alpha ’ ,0.3 , ’colormap ’ ,cmocean( ’amp ’ )); 8 % Draw the c o o r d i n a t e g r i d : 9 antmap( ’lats ’, −75:1:−69, ’lons ’ , −12:2:7) 10 % Draw the l a b e l s f o r the c o o r d i n a t e grid : 11 t = textm(−70,2, ’70\circS ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’color ’ ,0.8∗ [1 1 1] , ’rotation ’, −5, ’ vert ’ , ’top’); 12 t = textm(−71,2, ’71\circS ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −5, ’vert ’ , ’top ’ ); 13 t = textm(−72,2, ’72\circS ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −5, ’vert ’ , ’top ’ ); 14 t = textm(−73,2, ’73\circS ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −5, ’vert ’ , ’top ’ ); 15 t = textm(−74,−6, ’6\circW ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,7 , ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 16 t = textm(−74,−4, ’4\circW ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,6 , ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 17 t = textm(−74,−8, ’8\circW ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,7 , ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 18 t = textm(−74,−2, ’2\circW ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’ ,5 , ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 19 t = textm(−74,0, ’0\circ ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold ’ , ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 20 t = textm(−74,2, ’2\circE ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12, ’rotation ’, −5, ’vert ’ , ’bottom ’ ); 21 %Draw the labelled contour lines with elevations from 500 to 2500 m with step 1000 m: 22 [ h ,C]=bedmap2( ’surfc ’ ,500:1000:2500 , ’color ’ ,rgb( ’brick red ’)) 23 clabel(C,h , ’LabelSpacing ’ ,2000) 24 bedmap2( ’surfc ’ ,[1000 2000] , ’color ’ ,rgb( ’brick red ’)) 25 % Draw the blue i c e a r e a s from s h a pefiles created in ArcGIS 26 BI = shaperead( ’Blue_ice . shp ’); 27 for k=1:length(BI) 28 [ lat ,lon] = ps2ll(BI(k).X,BI(k).Y); 29 patchm( lat , lon , ’EdgeColor ’ ,rgb( ’deep blue ’ ),’FaceColor ’ ,rgb( ’blue green ’)) 30 end 31 % Draw the study area extent : 32 S = shaperead( ’Trancest . shp ’) 33 for k=1:length(S) 34 [ lat ,lon] = ps2ll(S(k).X,S(k).Y); 35 patchm( lat , lon , ’r’, ’FaceAlpha ’ ,0 , ’EdgeColor ’ , ’r’, ’LineWidth ’ ,2) 36 End 37 % Draw the extent of the figures with geomorphological maps 38 F = shaperead( ’Figures .shp ’); 39 for k=1:length(F) 40 [ lat ,lon] = ps2ll(F(k).X,F(k).Y); 41 patchm( lat , lon , ’black ’ , ’FaceAlpha ’ ,0 , ’EdgeColor ’ , ’black ’ , ’LineWidth ’ ,1.2) 42 end 43 % Annotations to figures : 44 textm(−71.28,−4, ’Fig. 9’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12) 45 textm( −73.35,−5.1, ’Fig . 12 ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold ’ , ’fontsize ’ ,12) 46 textm( −71.7,−3.85, ’Fig. 10’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold’, ’fontsize ’ ,12) 47 textm( −72.47,−4.36, ’Fig . 11 ’ , ’fontweight ’ , ’bold ’ , ’fontsize ’ ,12) 48 % Draw the s c a l e bar : 49 scalebar( ’location ’ , ’nw’ ); 50 % Draw the f l o wlines : 51 FL = shaperead( ’Flow_lines . shp ’); 52 for k=1:length(FL) 53 [ lat ,lon] = ps2ll(FL(k).X,FL(k).Y); 54 linem( lat , lon , ’color ’ ,rgb( ’royal blue ’)) 55 end 56 % Save the figure 2 times expanded in size : 57 export_fig mapping_overview4 . png −q101 −m2 Listing 6: Matlab code used for generating an overview geomorphological map of the study area.

8.3 The WorldView images used for mapping

58 Table A1: Panchromatic WorldView imagery selected after dataset processing. Columns refer to the Commercial Satellite Imagery Naming Conventions of the Polar Geospatial Center. The acquisition time stamp indicates the day and the hour of image acquisition by the acronym yyyymmddhhmmss. The original name indicates the original time stamp, the image type (P: panchromatic, M: multispectral), and the Digital Globe product type (1b: standard, 2a: rectiﬁed).

Sensor Acquisition time stamp Catalog ID Original name 1 WV02 20130131085005 103001001F5D0600 13JAN31085005-P1BS-500130373080 2 WV02 20130131085006 103001001F5D0600 13JAN31085006-P1BS-500130373080 3 WV02 20130131085007 103001001F5D0600 13JAN31085007-P1BS-500130373080 4 WV02 20130131085008 103001001F5D0600 13JAN31085008-P1BS-500130373080 5 WV02 20130131085009 103001001F5D0600 13JAN31085009-P1BS-500130373080 6 WV02 20130131085010 103001001F5D0600 13JAN31085010-P1BS-500130373080 7 WV02 20130131085011 103001001F5D0600 13JAN31085011-P1BS-500130373080 8 WV02 20130131085013 103001001F5D0600 13JAN31085013-P1BS-500130373080 9 WV02 20130828084551 10300100255B1300 13AUG28084551-P1BS-500095295090 10 WV02 20130828084552 10300100255B1300 13AUG28084552-P1BS-500095295090 11 WV02 20130828084553 10300100255B1300 13AUG28084553-P1BS-500095295090 12 WV02 20130828084554 10300100255B1300 13AUG28084554-P1BS-500095295090 13 WV02 20130828084555 10300100255B1300 13AUG28084555-P1BS-500095295090 14 WV02 20130828084556 10300100255B1300 13AUG28084556-P1BS-500095295090 15 WV02 20130828084557 10300100255B1300 13AUG28084557-P1BS-500095295090 16 WV02 20130828084559 10300100255B1300 13AUG28084559-P1BS-500095295090 17 WV02 20130828084709 1030010025CF4A00 13AUG28084709-P1BS-500099257050 18 WV02 20130828084710 1030010025CF4A00 13AUG28084710-P1BS-500099257050 19 WV02 20130828084712 1030010025CF4A00 13AUG28084712-P1BS-500099257050 20 WV02 20130828084713 1030010025CF4A00 13AUG28084713-P1BS-500099257050 21 WV02 20130828084731 1030010026180A00 13AUG28084731-P1BS-500095295040 22 WV02 20130828084731 1030010026180A00 13AUG28084731-P1BS-500095295040 23 WV02 20130828084732 1030010026180A00 13AUG28084732-P1BS-500095295040 24 WV02 20130828084733 1030010026180A00 13AUG28084733-P1BS-500095295040 25 WV02 20130828084734 1030010026180A00 13AUG28084734-P1BS-500095295040 26 WV02 20130828084735 1030010026180A00 13AUG28084735-P1BS-500095295040 27 WV02 20130916084732 1030010026291900 13SEP16084732-P1BS-500095316070 28 WV02 20130916084733 1030010026291900 13SEP16084733-P1BS-500095316070 29 WV02 20130916084734 1030010026291900 13SEP16084734-P1BS-500095316070 30 WV02 20130916084735 1030010026291900 13SEP16084735-P1BS-500095316070 31 WV02 20130916084736 1030010026291900 13SEP16084736-P1BS-500095316070 32 WV02 20130916084737 1030010026291900 13SEP16084737-P1BS-500095316070 33 WV02 20130916084739 1030010026291900 13SEP16084739-P1BS-500095316070 34 WV02 20130916084740 1030010026291900 13SEP16084740-P1BS-500095316070 35 WV02 20130916084741 1030010026291900 13SEP16084741-P1BS-500095316070 36 WV02 20130916084742 1030010026291900 13SEP16084742-P1BS-500095316070 37 WV02 20140212090407 103001002C9CDE00 14FEB12090407-P1BS-500143382190 38 WV02 20140212090408 103001002C9CDE00 14FEB12090408-P1BS-500143382190 39 WV02 20140212090409 103001002C9CDE00 14FEB12090409-P1BS-500143382190 40 WV02 20140212090410 103001002C9CDE00 14FEB12090410-P1BS-500143382190 41 WV02 20140212090411 103001002C9CDE00 14FEB12090411-P1BS-500143382190 42 WV02 20140212090412 103001002C9CDE00 14FEB12090412-P1BS-500143382190 43 WV02 20140212090413 103001002C9CDE00 14FEB12090413-P1BS-500143382190 44 WV02 20140222093516 103001002C59F100 14FEB22093516-P1BS-500145765060 45 WV02 20140222093517 103001002C59F100 14FEB22093517-P1BS-500145765060 46 WV02 20140222093519 103001002C59F100 14FEB22093519-P1BS-500145765060 47 WV02 20140222093519 103001002C59F100 14FEB22093519-P1BS-500145765060 48 WV02 20140225092347 103001002D401900 14FEB25092347-P1BS-500146136190

59 49 WV02 20140225092348 103001002D401900 14FEB25092348-P1BS-500146136190 50 WV02 20140225092349 103001002D401900 14FEB25092349-P1BS-500146136190 51 WV02 20140225092350 103001002D401900 14FEB25092350-P1BS-500146136190 52 WV02 20140225092507 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092507-P1BS-500129763090 53 WV02 20140225092509 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092509-P1BS-500129763090 54 WV02 20140225092510 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092510-P1BS-500129763090 55 WV02 20140225092511 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092511-P1BS-500129763090 56 WV02 20140225092512 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092512-P1BS-500129763090 57 WV02 20140227095006 103001002D12F500 14FEB27095006-P1BS-500130024120 58 WV02 20140227095117 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095117-P1BS-500143325070 59 WV02 20140227095118 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095118-P1BS-500143325070 60 WV02 20140227095119 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095119-P1BS-500143325070 61 WV02 20140227095121 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095121-P1BS-500143325070 62 WV02 20140227095122 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095122-P1BS-500143325070 63 WV02 20140227095123 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095123-P1BS-500143325070 64 WV02 20140227095125 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095125-P1BS-500143325070 65 WV02 20140227095126 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095126-P1BS-500143325070 66 WV02 20140227095126 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095126-P1BS-500143325070 67 WV02 20141218090401 103001003D522800 14DEC18090401-P1BS-500409152090 68 WV02 20141218090402 103001003D522800 14DEC18090402-P1BS-500409152090 69 WV02 20141218090403 103001003D522800 14DEC18090403-P1BS-500409152090 70 WV02 20141218090404 103001003D522800 14DEC18090404-P1BS-500409152090 71 WV02 20141218090406 103001003D522800 14DEC18090406-P1BS-500409152090 72 WV02 20141218090406 103001003D522800 14DEC18090406-P1BS-500409152090 73 WV02 20150101084717 103001003C714700 15JAN01084717-P1BS-500320700150 74 WV02 20150101084718 103001003C714700 15JAN01084718-P1BS-500320700150 75 WV02 20150101084719 103001003C714700 15JAN01084719-P1BS-500320700150 76 WV02 20150101084720 103001003C714700 15JAN01084720-P1BS-500320700150 77 WV02 20150101084722 103001003C714700 15JAN01084722-P1BS-500320700150 78 WV02 20150101084723 103001003C714700 15JAN01084723-P1BS-500320700150 79 WV02 20150101084724 103001003C714700 15JAN01084724-P1BS-500320700150 80 WV02 20150101084724 103001003C714700 15JAN01084724-P1BS-500320700150 81 WV02 20150922080251 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080251-P1BS-500597088030 82 WV02 20150922080252 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080252-P1BS-500597088030 83 WV02 20150922080253 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080253-P1BS-500597088030 84 WV02 20150922080254 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080254-P1BS-500597088030 85 WV02 20150922080255 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080255-P1BS-500597088030 86 WV02 20150922080256 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080256-P1BS-500597088030 87 WV02 20150922080257 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080257-P1BS-500597088030 88 WV02 20150922080258 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080258-P1BS-500597088030 89 WV02 20150922080259 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080259-P1BS-500597088030 90 WV02 20150922080300 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080300-P1BS-500597088030 91 WV02 20150922080448 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080448-P1BS-500597110070 92 WV02 20150922080449 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080449-P1BS-500597110070 93 WV02 20150922080450 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080450-P1BS-500597110070 94 WV02 20150923090458 1030010048035500 15SEP23090458-P1BS-500597107080 95 WV02 20150923090459 1030010048035500 15SEP23090459-P1BS-500597107080 96 WV02 20150923090500 1030010048035500 15SEP23090500-P1BS-500597107080 97 WV02 20150923090642 103001004A25F000 15SEP23090642-P1BS-500597115060 98 WV02 20150923090643 103001004A25F000 15SEP23090643-P1BS-500597115060 99 WV02 20150923090644 103001004A25F000 15SEP23090644-P1BS-500597115060 100 WV02 20150923090645 103001004A25F000 15SEP23090645-P1BS-500597115060 101 WV02 20150923090647 103001004A25F000 15SEP23090647-P1BS-500597115060

60 102 WV02 20150923090648 103001004A25F000 15SEP23090648-P1BS-500597115060 103 WV02 20150923090708 1030010049617800 15SEP23090708-P1BS-500597105050 104 WV02 20150923090709 1030010049617800 15SEP23090709-P1BS-500597105050 105 WV02 20150923090711 1030010049617800 15SEP23090711-P1BS-500597105050 106 WV02 20150923090712 1030010049617800 15SEP23090712-P1BS-500597105050 107 WV02 20150923090713 1030010049617800 15SEP23090713-P1BS-500597105050 108 WV02 20150923090714 1030010049617800 15SEP23090714-P1BS-500597105050 109 WV02 20150923090715 1030010049617800 15SEP23090715-P1BS-500597105050 110 WV02 20150923090716 1030010049617800 15SEP23090716-P1BS-500597105050 111 WV02 20150923090717 1030010049617800 15SEP23090717-P1BS-500597105050 112 WV02 20150923090718 1030010049617800 15SEP23090718-P1BS-500597105050 113 WV02 20151002083427 103001004B559F00 15OCT02083427-P1BS-500597315040 114 WV02 20151007084944 1030010049D22400 15OCT07084944-P1BS-500606134010 115 WV02 20151007084945 1030010049D22400 15OCT07084945-P1BS-500606134010 116 WV02 20151007084946 1030010049D22400 15OCT07084946-P1BS-500606134010 117 WV02 20151007085131 103001004AA04A00 15OCT07085131-P1BS-500606216070 118 WV02 20151007085132 103001004AA04A00 15OCT07085132-P1BS-500606216070 119 WV02 20151007085133 103001004AA04A00 15OCT07085133-P1BS-500606216070 120 WV02 20151007085134 103001004AA04A00 15OCT07085134-P1BS-500606216070 121 WV02 20151007085135 103001004AA04A00 15OCT07085135-P1BS-500606216070 122 WV02 20151007085136 103001004AA04A00 15OCT07085136-P1BS-500606216070 123 WV02 20151007085138 103001004AA04A00 15OCT07085138-P1BS-500606216070 124 WV02 20151027081249 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081249-P1BS-500609599060 125 WV02 20151027081250 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081250-P1BS-500609599060 126 WV02 20151027081251 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081251-P1BS-500609599060 127 WV02 20151027081252 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081252-P1BS-500609599060 128 WV02 20151027081253 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081253-P1BS-500609599060 129 WV02 20151027081254 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081254-P1BS-500609599060 130 WV02 20151027081255 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081255-P1BS-500609599060 131 WV02 20151027081256 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081256-P1BS-500609599060 132 WV02 20151027081257 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081257-P1BS-500609599060 133 WV02 20151027081257 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081257-P1BS-500609599060 134 WV02 20151027081330 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081330-P1BS-500609603030 135 WV02 20151027081331 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081331-P1BS-500609603030 136 WV02 20151027081332 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081332-P1BS-500609603030 137 WV02 20151027081333 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081333-P1BS-500609603030 138 WV02 20151027081334 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081334-P1BS-500609603030 139 WV02 20151027081335 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081335-P1BS-500609603030 140 WV02 20151027081336 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081336-P1BS-500609603030 141 WV02 20151027081337 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081337-P1BS-500609603030 142 WV02 20151027081338 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081338-P1BS-500609603030 143 WV02 20151027081339 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081339-P1BS-500609603030 144 WV02 20151211085529 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085529-P1BS-500578043070 145 WV03 20141113084048 104001000439F700 14NOV13084048-P1BS-500258313030 146 WV03 20141113084050 104001000439F700 14NOV13084050-P1BS-500258313030 147 WV03 20141113084052 104001000439F700 14NOV13084052-P1BS-500258313030 148 WV03 20141113084054 104001000439F700 14NOV13084054-P1BS-500258313030 149 WV03 20141113084056 104001000439F700 14NOV13084056-P1BS-500258313030 150 WV03 20141113084058 104001000439F700 14NOV13084058-P1BS-500258313030 151 WV03 20141113084100 104001000439F700 14NOV13084100-P1BS-500258313030 152 WV03 20141113084102 104001000439F700 14NOV13084102-P1BS-500258313030 153 WV03 20141113084103 104001000439F700 14NOV13084103-P1BS-500258313030 154 WV03 20141113084104 104001000439F700 14NOV13084104-P1BS-500258313030

61 155 WV03 20141113084113 10400100042CB300 14NOV13084113-P1BS-500268597140 156 WV03 20141113084115 10400100042CB300 14NOV13084115-P1BS-500268597140 157 WV03 20141113084117 10400100042CB300 14NOV13084117-P1BS-500268597140 158 WV03 20141113084119 10400100042CB300 14NOV13084119-P1BS-500268597140 159 WV03 20141113084121 10400100042CB300 14NOV13084121-P1BS-500268597140 160 WV03 20141113084122 10400100042CB300 14NOV13084122-P1BS-500268597140 161 WV03 20141113084124 10400100042CB300 14NOV13084124-P1BS-500268597140 162 WV03 20141113084126 10400100042CB300 14NOV13084126-P1BS-500268597140 163 WV03 20141113084128 10400100042CB300 14NOV13084128-P1BS-500268597140 164 WV03 20141113084138 10400100041D0F00 14NOV13084138-P1BS-500258426170 165 WV03 20141113084139 10400100041D0F00 14NOV13084139-P1BS-500258426170 166 WV03 20141113084141 10400100041D0F00 14NOV13084141-P1BS-500258426170 167 WV03 20141113084143 10400100041D0F00 14NOV13084143-P1BS-500258426170 168 WV03 20141113084144 10400100041D0F00 14NOV13084144-P1BS-500258426170 169 WV03 20141113084146 10400100041D0F00 14NOV13084146-P1BS-500258426170 170 WV03 20141113084147 10400100041D0F00 14NOV13084147-P1BS-500258426170 171 WV03 20141113084149 10400100041D0F00 14NOV13084149-P1BS-500258426170 172 WV03 20141124081447 1040010004B7B900 14NOV24081447-P1BS-500258380140 173 WV03 20141124081449 1040010004B7B900 14NOV24081449-P1BS-500258380140 174 WV03 20141124081451 1040010004B7B900 14NOV24081451-P1BS-500258380140 175 WV03 20141124081452 1040010004B7B900 14NOV24081452-P1BS-500258380140 176 WV03 20141124081454 1040010004B7B900 14NOV24081454-P1BS-500258380140 177 WV03 20141124081456 1040010004B7B900 14NOV24081456-P1BS-500258380140 178 WV03 20141124081458 1040010004B7B900 14NOV24081458-P1BS-500258380140 179 WV03 20141124081500 1040010004B7B900 14NOV24081500-P1BS-500258380140 180 WV03 20150307085312 1040010008C06300 15MAR07085312-P1BS-500342859040 181 WV03 20150307085315 1040010008C06300 15MAR07085315-P1BS-500342859040 182 WV03 20150307085316 1040010008C06300 15MAR07085316-P1BS-500342859040 183 WV03 20150924084151 1040010011C09600 15SEP24084151-P1BS-500638925020 184 WV03 20150924084152 1040010011C09600 15SEP24084152-P1BS-500638925020 185 WV03 20151212092939 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092939-P1BS-500628075040 186 WV03 20151212092941 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092941-P1BS-500628075040 187 WV03 20151212092942 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092942-P1BS-500628075040 188 WV03 20151212092944 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092944-P1BS-500628075040 189 WV03 20151212092946 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092946-P1BS-500628075040 190 WV03 20151212092948 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092948-P1BS-500628075040 191 WV03 20151212092949 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092949-P1BS-500628075040 192 WV03 20151212092951 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092951-P1BS-500628075040 193 WV03 20151212092953 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092953-P1BS-500628075040 194 WV03 20151212092955 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092955-P1BS-500628075040 195 WV03 20151212093005 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093005-P1BS-500628073010 196 WV03 20151212093007 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093007-P1BS-500628073010 197 WV03 20151212093009 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093009-P1BS-500628073010 198 WV03 20151212093011 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093011-P1BS-500628073010 199 WV03 20151212093013 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093013-P1BS-500628073010 200 WV03 20151212093014 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093014-P1BS-500628073010 201 WV03 20151212093016 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093016-P1BS-500628073010 202 WV03 20151212093018 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093018-P1BS-500628073010 203 WV03 20151212093020 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093020-P1BS-500628073010 204 WV03 20151212093021 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093021-P1BS-500628073010

62 Table A2: The multispectral WorldView images selected after the dataset processing. Columns refer to the Commercial Satellite Imagery Naming Conventions of the Polar Geospatial Center. The acquisition time stamp indicates the day and the hour of image acquisition by the acronym yyyymmddhhmmss. The original name indicates the original time stamp, the image type (P: panchromatic, M: multispectral), and the Digital Globe product type (1b: standard, 2a: rectiﬁed).

Sensor Acquisition time stamp Catalog ID Original name 1 WV02 20140212090407 103001002C9CDE00 14FEB12090407-M1BS-500143382190 2 WV02 20140212090408 103001002C9CDE00 14FEB12090408-M1BS-500143382190 3 WV02 20140219094611 103001002D081700 14FEB19094611-M1BS-500130406030 4 WV02 20140219094612 103001002D081700 14FEB19094612-M1BS-500130406030 5 WV02 20140222093516 103001002C59F100 14FEB22093516-M1BS-500145765060 6 WV02 20140222093517 103001002C59F100 14FEB22093517-M1BS-500145765060 7 WV02 20140222093519 103001002C59F100 14FEB22093519-M1BS-500145765060 8 WV02 20140222093519 103001002C59F100 14FEB22093519-M1BS-500145765060 9 WV02 20140222093556 103001002D60D800 14FEB22093556-M1BS-500145741020 10 WV02 20140222093557 103001002D60D800 14FEB22093557-M1BS-500145741020 11 WV02 20140222093558 103001002D60D800 14FEB22093558-M1BS-500145741020 12 WV02 20140222093559 103001002D60D800 14FEB22093559-M1BS-500145741020 13 WV02 20140222093600 103001002D60D800 14FEB22093600-M1BS-500145741020 14 WV02 20140222093601 103001002D60D800 14FEB22093601-M1BS-500145741020 15 WV02 20140222093602 103001002D60D800 14FEB22093602-M1BS-500145741020 16 WV02 20140222093603 103001002D60D800 14FEB22093603-M1BS-500145741020 17 WV02 20140222093604 103001002D60D800 14FEB22093604-M1BS-500145741020 18 WV02 20140225092352 103001002D401900 14FEB25092352-M1BS-500146136190 19 WV02 20140225092354 103001002D401900 14FEB25092354-M1BS-500146136190 20 WV02 20140225092355 103001002D401900 14FEB25092355-M1BS-500146136190 21 WV02 20140225092356 103001002D401900 14FEB25092356-M1BS-500146136190 22 WV02 20140225092503 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092503-M1BS-500129763090 23 WV02 20140225092504 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092504-M1BS-500129763090 24 WV02 20140225092505 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092505-M1BS-500129763090 25 WV02 20140225092507 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092507-M1BS-500129763090 26 WV02 20140225092509 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092509-M1BS-500129763090 27 WV02 20140225092510 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092510-M1BS-500129763090 28 WV02 20140225092511 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092511-M1BS-500129763090 29 WV02 20140225092512 103001002D1BC400 14FEB25092512-M1BS-500129763090 30 WV02 20140227095003 103001002D12F500 14FEB27095003-M1BS-500130024120 31 WV02 20140227095004 103001002D12F500 14FEB27095004-M1BS-500130024120 32 WV02 20140227095005 103001002D12F500 14FEB27095005-M1BS-500130024120 33 WV02 20140227095006 103001002D12F500 14FEB27095006-M1BS-500130024120 34 WV02 20140227095121 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095121-M1BS-500143325070 35 WV02 20140227095122 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095122-M1BS-500143325070 36 WV02 20140227095123 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095123-M1BS-500143325070 37 WV02 20140227095125 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095125-M1BS-500143325070 38 WV02 20140227095126 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095126-M1BS-500143325070 39 WV02 20140227095126 103001002E31E200 14FEB27095126-M1BS-500143325070 40 WV02 20141201093058 103001003B317A00 14DEC01093058-M1BS-500340579020 41 WV02 20141212092416 10300100396AC300 14DEC12092416-M1BS-500340676090 42 WV02 20141212092417 10300100396AC300 14DEC12092417-M1BS-500340676090 43 WV02 20141212092418 10300100396AC300 14DEC12092418-M1BS-500340676090 44 WV02 20141212092419 10300100396AC300 14DEC12092419-M1BS-500340676090 45 WV02 20141212092421 10300100396AC300 14DEC12092421-M1BS-500340676090 46 WV02 20141212092423 10300100396AC300 14DEC12092423-M1BS-500340676090 47 WV02 20141212092524 103001003B8AE900 14DEC12092524-M1BS-500319474180 48 WV02 20141212092525 103001003B8AE900 14DEC12092525-M1BS-500319474180

63 49 WV02 20141212092526 103001003B8AE900 14DEC12092526-M1BS-500319474180 50 WV02 20141212092527 103001003B8AE900 14DEC12092527-M1BS-500319474180 51 WV02 20141212092528 103001003B8AE900 14DEC12092528-M1BS-500319474180 52 WV02 20141218090401 103001003D522800 14DEC18090401-M1BS-500409152090 53 WV02 20141218090402 103001003D522800 14DEC18090402-M1BS-500409152090 54 WV02 20141218090403 103001003D522800 14DEC18090403-M1BS-500409152090 55 WV02 20141218090404 103001003D522800 14DEC18090404-M1BS-500409152090 56 WV02 20141218090406 103001003D522800 14DEC18090406-M1BS-500409152090 57 WV02 20141218090406 103001003D522800 14DEC18090406-M1BS-500409152090 58 WV02 20150101084600 103001003C6C1A00 15JAN01084600-M1BS-500316124150 59 WV02 20150101084601 103001003C6C1A00 15JAN01084601-M1BS-500316124150 60 WV02 20150101084602 103001003C6C1A00 15JAN01084602-M1BS-500316124150 61 WV02 20150101084603 103001003C6C1A00 15JAN01084603-M1BS-500316124150 62 WV02 20150101084604 103001003C6C1A00 15JAN01084604-M1BS-500316124150 63 WV02 20150101084605 103001003C6C1A00 15JAN01084605-M1BS-500316124150 64 WV02 20150101084724 103001003C714700 15JAN01084724-M1BS-500320700150 65 WV02 20150101084724 103001003C714700 15JAN01084724-M1BS-500320700150 66 WV02 20150922080253 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080253-M1BS-500597088030 67 WV02 20150922080254 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080254-M1BS-500597088030 68 WV02 20150922080255 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080255-M1BS-500597088030 69 WV02 20150922080256 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080256-M1BS-500597088030 70 WV02 20150922080257 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080257-M1BS-500597088030 71 WV02 20150922080258 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080258-M1BS-500597088030 72 WV02 20150922080259 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080259-M1BS-500597088030 73 WV02 20150922080300 10300100497B6E00 15SEP22080300-M1BS-500597088030 74 WV02 20150922080448 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080448-M1BS-500597110070 75 WV02 20150922080449 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080449-M1BS-500597110070 76 WV02 20150922080450 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080450-M1BS-500597110070 77 WV02 20150922080451 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080451-M1BS-500597110070 78 WV02 20150922080452 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080452-M1BS-500597110070 79 WV02 20150922080453 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080453-M1BS-500597110070 80 WV02 20150922080453 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080453-M1BS-500597110070 81 WV02 20150922080454 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080454-M1BS-500597110070 82 WV02 20150922080455 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080455-M1BS-500597110070 83 WV02 20150922080456 103001004A9AB000 15SEP22080456-M1BS-500597110070 84 WV02 20151002083433 103001004B559F00 15OCT02083433-M1BS-500597315040 85 WV02 20151002083434 103001004B559F00 15OCT02083434-M1BS-500597315040 86 WV02 20151002083435 103001004B559F00 15OCT02083435-M1BS-500597315040 87 WV02 20151002083437 103001004B559F00 15OCT02083437-M1BS-500597315040 88 WV02 20151027081257 103001004B695B00 15OCT27081257-M1BS-500609599060 89 WV02 20151027081330 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081330-M1BS-500609603030 90 WV02 20151027081331 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081331-M1BS-500609603030 91 WV02 20151027081332 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081332-M1BS-500609603030 92 WV02 20151027081333 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081333-M1BS-500609603030 93 WV02 20151027081334 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081334-M1BS-500609603030 94 WV02 20151027081335 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081335-M1BS-500609603030 95 WV02 20151027081336 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081336-M1BS-500609603030 96 WV02 20151027081337 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081337-M1BS-500609603030 97 WV02 20151027081338 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081338-M1BS-500609603030 98 WV02 20151027081339 103001004BCE4900 15OCT27081339-M1BS-500609603030 99 WV02 20151208090435 103001004B187500 15DEC08090435-M1BS-500593062020 100 WV02 20151208090436 103001004B187500 15DEC08090436-M1BS-500593062020 101 WV02 20151208090437 103001004B187500 15DEC08090437-M1BS-500593062020

64 102 WV02 20151208090438 103001004B187500 15DEC08090438-M1BS-500593062020 103 WV02 20151208090439 103001004B187500 15DEC08090439-M1BS-500593062020 104 WV02 20151208090440 103001004B187500 15DEC08090440-M1BS-500593062020 105 WV02 20151208090441 103001004B187500 15DEC08090441-M1BS-500593062020 106 WV02 20151208090442 103001004B187500 15DEC08090442-M1BS-500593062020 107 WV02 20151208090443 103001004B187500 15DEC08090443-M1BS-500593062020 108 WV02 20151208090444 103001004B187500 15DEC08090444-M1BS-500593062020 109 WV02 20151208090657 103001004D5CF500 15DEC08090657-M1BS-500593064020 110 WV02 20151209083025 103001004D874C00 15DEC09083025-M1BS-500593066080 111 WV02 20151211085441 103001004E7A8D00 15DEC11085441-M1BS-500546680040 112 WV02 20151211085443 103001004E7A8D00 15DEC11085443-M1BS-500546680040 113 WV02 20151211085444 103001004E7A8D00 15DEC11085444-M1BS-500546680040 114 WV02 20151211085445 103001004E7A8D00 15DEC11085445-M1BS-500546680040 115 WV02 20151211085446 103001004E7A8D00 15DEC11085446-M1BS-500546680040 116 WV02 20151211085448 103001004E7A8D00 15DEC11085448-M1BS-500546680040 117 WV02 20151211085449 103001004E7A8D00 15DEC11085449-M1BS-500546680040 118 WV02 20151211085450 103001004E7A8D00 15DEC11085450-M1BS-500546680040 119 WV02 20151211085451 103001004E7A8D00 15DEC11085451-M1BS-500546680040 120 WV02 20151211085452 103001004E7A8D00 15DEC11085452-M1BS-500546680040 121 WV02 20151211085458 103001004DBE4800 15DEC11085458-M1BS-500578044080 122 WV02 20151211085500 103001004DBE4800 15DEC11085500-M1BS-500578044080 123 WV02 20151211085501 103001004DBE4800 15DEC11085501-M1BS-500578044080 124 WV02 20151211085502 103001004DBE4800 15DEC11085502-M1BS-500578044080 125 WV02 20151211085503 103001004DBE4800 15DEC11085503-M1BS-500578044080 126 WV02 20151211085505 103001004DBE4800 15DEC11085505-M1BS-500578044080 127 WV02 20151211085506 103001004DBE4800 15DEC11085506-M1BS-500578044080 128 WV02 20151211085507 103001004DBE4800 15DEC11085507-M1BS-500578044080 129 WV02 20151211085509 103001004DBE4800 15DEC11085509-M1BS-500578044080 130 WV02 20151211085510 103001004DBE4800 15DEC11085510-M1BS-500578044080 131 WV02 20151211085519 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085519-M1BS-500578043070 132 WV02 20151211085520 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085520-M1BS-500578043070 133 WV02 20151211085521 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085521-M1BS-500578043070 134 WV02 20151211085522 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085522-M1BS-500578043070 135 WV02 20151211085524 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085524-M1BS-500578043070 136 WV02 20151211085525 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085525-M1BS-500578043070 137 WV02 20151211085526 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085526-M1BS-500578043070 138 WV02 20151211085527 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085527-M1BS-500578043070 139 WV02 20151211085529 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085529-M1BS-500578043070 140 WV02 20151211085529 103001004D8E8900 15DEC11085529-M1BS-500578043070 141 WV02 20151211085536 103001004D93FD00 15DEC11085536-M1BS-500546672030 142 WV02 20151211085537 103001004D93FD00 15DEC11085537-M1BS-500546672030 143 WV02 20151211085538 103001004D93FD00 15DEC11085538-M1BS-500546672030 144 WV02 20151211085539 103001004D93FD00 15DEC11085539-M1BS-500546672030 145 WV02 20151211085540 103001004D93FD00 15DEC11085540-M1BS-500546672030 146 WV02 20151211085542 103001004D93FD00 15DEC11085542-M1BS-500546672030 147 WV02 20151211085543 103001004D93FD00 15DEC11085543-M1BS-500546672030 148 WV02 20151211085544 103001004D93FD00 15DEC11085544-M1BS-500546672030 149 WV02 20151211085545 103001004D93FD00 15DEC11085545-M1BS-500546672030 150 WV02 20151211085546 103001004D93FD00 15DEC11085546-M1BS-500546672030 151 WV02 20151211085555 103001004D697300 15DEC11085555-M1BS-500546672020 152 WV02 20151211085556 103001004D697300 15DEC11085556-M1BS-500546672020 153 WV02 20151211085557 103001004D697300 15DEC11085557-M1BS-500546672020 154 WV02 20151211085558 103001004D697300 15DEC11085558-M1BS-500546672020

65 155 WV02 20151211085559 103001004D697300 15DEC11085559-M1BS-500546672020 156 WV02 20151211085600 103001004D697300 15DEC11085600-M1BS-500546672020 157 WV02 20151211085601 103001004D697300 15DEC11085601-M1BS-500546672020 158 WV02 20151211085602 103001004D697300 15DEC11085602-M1BS-500546672020 159 WV02 20151211085603 103001004D697300 15DEC11085603-M1BS-500546672020 160 WV02 20151211085603 103001004D697300 15DEC11085603-M1BS-500546672020 161 WV02 20151211085604 103001004D697300 15DEC11085604-M1BS-500546672020 162 WV02 20151211085617 103001004D800500 15DEC11085617-M1BS-500578036070 163 WV02 20151211085618 103001004D800500 15DEC11085618-M1BS-500578036070 164 WV02 20151211085619 103001004D800500 15DEC11085619-M1BS-500578036070 165 WV02 20151211085620 103001004D800500 15DEC11085620-M1BS-500578036070 166 WV02 20151211085622 103001004D800500 15DEC11085622-M1BS-500578036070 167 WV02 20151211085623 103001004D800500 15DEC11085623-M1BS-500578036070 168 WV02 20151211085624 103001004D800500 15DEC11085624-M1BS-500578036070 169 WV02 20151211085625 103001004D800500 15DEC11085625-M1BS-500578036070 170 WV02 20151211085626 103001004D800500 15DEC11085626-M1BS-500578036070 171 WV02 20151211085627 103001004D800500 15DEC11085627-M1BS-500578036070 172 WV02 20151214084520 103001004E714100 15DEC14084520-M1BS-500578106070 173 WV02 20151214084521 103001004E714100 15DEC14084521-M1BS-500578106070 174 WV02 20151214084522 103001004E714100 15DEC14084522-M1BS-500578106070 175 WV02 20151214084523 103001004E714100 15DEC14084523-M1BS-500578106070 176 WV02 20151214084524 103001004E714100 15DEC14084524-M1BS-500578106070 177 WV02 20151214084526 103001004E714100 15DEC14084526-M1BS-500578106070 178 WV02 20151214084527 103001004E714100 15DEC14084527-M1BS-500578106070 179 WV02 20151214084528 103001004E714100 15DEC14084528-M1BS-500578106070 180 WV02 20151214084528 103001004E714100 15DEC14084528-M1BS-500578106070 181 WV02 20151214084540 103001004C997700 15DEC14084540-M1BS-500578106040 182 WV02 20151214084542 103001004C997700 15DEC14084542-M1BS-500578106040 183 WV02 20151214084543 103001004C997700 15DEC14084543-M1BS-500578106040 184 WV02 20151214084543 103001004C997700 15DEC14084543-M1BS-500578106040 185 WV02 20151214084544 103001004C997700 15DEC14084544-M1BS-500578106040 186 WV02 20151214084545 103001004C997700 15DEC14084545-M1BS-500578106040 187 WV02 20151214084546 103001004C997700 15DEC14084546-M1BS-500578106040 188 WV02 20151214084547 103001004C997700 15DEC14084547-M1BS-500578106040 189 WV03 20150307085312 1040010008C06300 15MAR07085312-M1BS-500342859040 190 WV03 20150307085314 1040010008C06300 15MAR07085314-M1BS-500342859040 191 WV03 20150307085315 1040010008C06300 15MAR07085315-M1BS-500342859040 192 WV03 20150307085316 1040010008C06300 15MAR07085316-M1BS-500342859040 193 WV03 20151212092919 10400100162C4700 15DEC12092919-M1BS-500628077100 194 WV03 20151212092921 10400100162C4700 15DEC12092921-M1BS-500628077100 195 WV03 20151212092922 10400100162C4700 15DEC12092922-M1BS-500628077100 196 WV03 20151212092924 10400100162C4700 15DEC12092924-M1BS-500628077100 197 WV03 20151212092925 10400100162C4700 15DEC12092925-M1BS-500628077100 198 WV03 20151212092927 10400100162C4700 15DEC12092927-M1BS-500628077100 199 WV03 20151212092928 10400100162C4700 15DEC12092928-M1BS-500628077100 200 WV03 20151212092930 10400100162C4700 15DEC12092930-M1BS-500628077100 201 WV03 20151212092931 10400100162C4700 15DEC12092931-M1BS-500628077100 202 WV03 20151212092932 10400100162C4700 15DEC12092932-M1BS-500628077100 203 WV03 20151212092939 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092939-M1BS-500628075040 204 WV03 20151212092941 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092941-M1BS-500628075040 205 WV03 20151212092942 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092942-M1BS-500628075040 206 WV03 20151212092944 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092944-M1BS-500628075040 207 WV03 20151212092946 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092946-M1BS-500628075040

66 208 WV03 20151212092948 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092948-M1BS-500628075040 209 WV03 20151212092949 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092949-M1BS-500628075040 210 WV03 20151212092951 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092951-M1BS-500628075040 211 WV03 20151212092953 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092953-M1BS-500628075040 212 WV03 20151212092955 1040010015A32300 15DEC12092955-M1BS-500628075040 213 WV03 20151212093005 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093005-M1BS-500628073010 214 WV03 20151212093007 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093007-M1BS-500628073010 215 WV03 20151212093009 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093009-M1BS-500628073010 216 WV03 20151212093011 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093011-M1BS-500628073010 217 WV03 20151212093013 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093013-M1BS-500628073010 218 WV03 20151212093014 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093014-M1BS-500628073010 219 WV03 20151212093016 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093016-M1BS-500628073010 220 WV03 20151212093018 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093018-M1BS-500628073010 221 WV03 20151212093020 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093020-M1BS-500628073010 222 WV03 20151212093021 10400100168D9900 15DEC12093021-M1BS-500628073010