An investigation into the impact of the urban heat island on the energy consumption and environmental quality of buildings in Sydney and Shanghai

Final Report of the UNSW Research Group

Sydney December 2016 December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

Final Report of the UNSW Group of the Project: An investigation into the impact of the urban heat island on the energy consumption and environmental quality of buildings in Sydney and Shanghai.

Contents SYNOPSIS ...... 2 A. Introduction ...... 4 1 : Identify through the existing literature the strength and the characteristics of the urban heat island in Sydney ...... 8 2.Perform specific and targeted short term measurements in both cities to determine the urban hot spot zones where the heat island gets its maximum intensity ...... 10 3. Determine the energy consumption of the urban buildings in the hot spot areas of both cities using simulation and experimental data collection techniques and document the energy penalty induced by the urban heat island in both cities...... 29 4.Documentation on the Amplitude of the Urban Heat Island in Sydney and Documentation how the urban heat island affects the outdoor environment and climatic ...... 38 5 and 6 : Validation of the Existing environmental conditions in the outdoor spaces and Determination of specific and targeted energy oriented mitigation techniques to be used able to decrease the energy consumption of urban buildings, improve the outdoor environmental quality and decrease local ambient temperatures...... 58 7. Simulate the expected performance of the proposed mitigation technologies in terms of energy reduction of buildings, mitigation of urban heat island and improvement of the global indoor and outdoor environmental quality. Propose proper Adaptation Technologies...... 61 8.Conclusions ...... 70 Scientific Articles Produced ...... 72 Visits and Future Collaboration ...... 72 9.References ...... 73 ANNEX 1 ...... 78

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SYNOPSIS The amplitude, the characteristics and the energy impact of the UHI in Sydney are analysed in details. In parallel, the climatic potential and the impact of several advanced urban mitigation technologies in Sydney are assessed. - Half-hourly climatic data from six meteorological stations located in the greater Sydney area are used to analyse the magnitude and the characteristics of the UHI in the city. The whole analysis is performed for the period 2005-2010. It is found that important temperature differences occur between the eastern and western parts of the city. Both a strong UHI phenomenon and Oasis phenomenon are observed. The average maximum magnitude of the phenomena may reach up to 6 K. - The patterns of the ambient temperature distribution in the city are found to depend highly on the synoptic climatic conditions and the strength of the advection flows. High intensities of the UHI phenomenon are associated with the existence of the sea breeze developed in the Eastern parts of the city, decreasing the temperature of the coastal zone, combined with westerly winds from the inland that heat up the western zones of the city. High intensities of the oasis phenomenon are associated with low wind speeds and a very weak development of the sea breeze in the coastal area. The important release of anthropogenic heat in the central and eastern part of the city, combined with the reduced heat absorption in the western suburbs intensifies the magnitude of the oasis phenomenon. High UHI intensities are mainly observed during the warm summer period while the oasis phenomenon is stronger during the winter and the intermediate seasons. - Using data on the Cooling Degree Days calculated from 23 stations located in the major Sydney area, for the period 2014-2015, it is found that the Cooling Degree Days in Western Sydney is almost three times higher than in the central and Northern parts of the city. - A detailed analysis of the energy impact of the UHI has shown that the cooling needs of buildings in Western Sydney are to about 72 % higher than that of buildings located in the Eastern part of the city, and almost 170 % higher than the cooling needs of similar buildings located in the green zones of Northern Sydney. - It is also found that the peak electricity demand for cooling in Western Sydney is to about 108 % higher than in the Eastern part of the city. Such a significant penalty on the

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electrical power demand obliges utilities to build additional power plants while it has a very significant economic impact for the households of Western Sydney. - The potential of several mitigation technologies, including the use of reflective materials, additional greenery and green roofs are simulated. It is found that the use of the advanced mitigation technologies may reduce the peak ambient temperature of the city, up to 2 K. - The use of advanced mitigation technologies in the city can reduce the cooling load of buildings up to 20 %.

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A. Introduction

The Urban Heat Island (UHI) is the most documented phenomenon of climate change. According to recent studies, the presence of UHI is recognized in more than 400 cities around the world, (Santamouris, 2015, Santamouris 2016). UHI refers to the higher ambient temperatures in the dense urban zones compared to the surrounding suburban or rural areas. The development of the UHI is influenced by the synoptic weather conditions in the area, the local morphological and structural parameters of the city, the thermal quality of the materials used, the magnitude of the anthropogenic heat released, and the presence of heat sources and sinks in the cities (Santamouris and Kolokotsa, 2016). The urban heat island increases considerably the peak electricity demand and the cooling energy consumption of buildings, deteriorates the levels of outdoor and indoor comfort, raises the concentration of several harmful pollutants, affects seriously the human health and increases the risk levels of a vulnerable population (Santamouris, 2015b). Recent research has shown that because of the urban heat island, the peak electricity demand increases between 0.45 % and 4.6 % per degree of temperature rise (Santamouris et al, 2015). In parallel, it is reported that the average cooling energy penalty induced by the urban heat island is close to 68 kWh/p/K, or 0.8 kWh/m2/K, (Santamouris, 2014). Studies carried out in different cities have also shown that UHI may increase the cooling demand of buildings up to 100% (Santamouris et al, 2001, Hassid et al, 2000). The very important increase of the cooling demand induced by the urban heat island in combination with other drivers, like population increase and the rapid penetration of air conditioning devices, may increase the global cooling needs of the residential and commercial sectors up to 750% and 275% by 2050, respectively (Santamouris 2016b). Besides the important energy problem induced by UHI, the impact on thermal comfort, health and vulnerability of urban citizens should not be underestimated. Several studies have reported a serious reduction of outdoor comfort levels because of this phenomenon (Pantavou et al, 2011). In parallel, large scale measurements of the indoor environmental conditions in low income houses during the hot summer period have shown that indoor temperatures exceeded largely the threshold temperatures for health (Sakka, 2012). Finally, recent research has demonstrated the strong correlation between increased urban temperatures and human mortality (Baccini et al, 2008). Coastal cities suffer from the urban heat island despite the development and positive impact of the sea breeze, (Von Glasow et al, 2013). Several experimental and numerical investigations have

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney shown the important impact of the sea on the development of the UHI in coastal cities, (Ado,1992; Yoshikado, 1994; Yoshikado and Tsuchida, 1996; Ohashi and Kida, 2002; Khan and Simpson, 2001; Gedzelman et al., 2003, Freitas et al., 2007, Dandou et al, 2009). Most of the investigations agree that although the UHI persists under the presence of the sea breeze, the intensity of the phenomenon in coastal areas is reduced because of the important transfer of relatively cool air into the city, (Abdullah and Abar, 1991, Saaroni et al., 2000, Suryadevara, 2006, Hua et al, 2008, Sakaida et al, 2011, Sakaida 2014). The specific interaction of the urban heat island and the sea breeze has been studied through numerical and experimental investigations. Several numerical studies have concluded that the UHI delays the flow of the sea breeze because of the creation of a stagnation region over the city, (Ado 1992, Yoshikado et Tsuchida, 1996, Sakaida et al, 2011). This results in a higher cooling impact in the coastal than in the inland urban zones, while the cooling potential of the sea breeze is reduced seriously with the increase of the distance from the coastal areas. Other studies have concluded that the presence of the urban heat island accelerates the flow of the sea breeze towards the city and the speed of the sea breeze increases significantly compared to the case where no city exists (Freitas et al, 2007, Khan and Simpson, 2001). The aim of the present proposal was to establish a joint research collaboration with the Jiao Tang University, in order to investigate the impact of the urban heat island on the energy consumption and environmental quality of buildings in Sydney and Shanghai. Also, this research was conducted to investigate and propose appropriate technologies to mitigate the temperature anomaly and decrease the energy consumption of urban buildings located in zones of high heat island intensity. The research methodology involved the following tasks : 1. Identify the strength and the characteristics of the urban heat island in Sydney and Shanghai through the existing literature. 2. Perform specific and targeted short term measurements in both cities to determine the urban hot spot zones where the heat island gets its maximum intensity. 3. Determine the energy consumption of the urban buildings in the hot spot areas of both cities using simulation and experimental data collection techniques and document the energy penalty induced by the urban heat island in both cities.

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4. Perform specific measurements of the outdoor comfort levels in the selected hot zones and document how urban heat island affects the outdoor environmental and climatic conditions in both cities. 5. Use modelling techniques to simulate and validate the existing environmental conditions in the outdoor spaces and the energy consumption of the urban buildings located in hot spot zones of both cities. 6. Determine specific and targeted energy oriented mitigation techniques to be used in each of the studied cities able to decrease the energy consumption of urban buildings, improve the outdoor environmental quality and decrease local ambient temperatures. 7. Simulate the expected performance of the proposed mitigation technologies in terms of energy reduction of buildings, mitigation of urban heat island and improvement of the global indoor and outdoor environmental quality in both cities. 8. Study, prepare and evaluate proper adaptation techniques, related to the proper sizing of the HVAC systems for buildings located in urban areas suffering from urban heat island. 9. Prepare and submit common research articles in peer review journals, presenting the energy impact and the magnitude of the UHI as well as the energy reduction and the mitigation potential of the selected urban countermeasures. Sydney is located on the south-east coast of Australia at 33.8°S latitude bordering the Tasman Sea to the east. Metropolitan Sydney is classified as Greater Sydney, the Capital City Statistical Division, by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). The Greater Sydney is the capital of New South Wales (NSW). It is the largest city in Australia which covers a land area of approximately 12,367.7 Km2 and is made up of 43 local councils1. The area follows the coastline from Gosford in the north to the Royal National Park in the south. The region includes Parr State Conservation Area and the Blue Mountains to the west. The Sydney metropolitan area lies within the flat Cumberland Basin to the south and west of Port Jackson, and is surrounded by the Hornsby and Blue Mountains Plateaus and steep escarpment in the north and west, with elevations of up to 300 and 600 metres above sea level, respectively (Department of Environment and Planning, 1984). According to Australian Statistical Geography Standard (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012), the Sydney urban area extends 70 Km from the coastline in the east to the Blue Mountains in the west.

1 This number has been reduced to 30 following council amalgamations since this research was conducted. Hence mention of council land areas, populations etc below refer to the pre-amalgamation situation. 6 | University of New South Wales

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Greater Sydney is the most populous city in Australia with a population of approximately 4.92 million people in June 2015 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). Based on the land area, the current population density of metropolitan Sydney is 397.8 persons per square kilometre. The present document reports the activities of the UNSW partners. Scientific Team in UNSW Project Coordinator and Main Scientist : Prof. M. Santamouris, Faculty of BE Associate Professor: Francesco Fiorito, Faculty of BE Dr Shamila Hadad, Faculty of BE Ms Maria Saliari, Physics Department, University of Athens, Greece

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1. Identify the strength and the characteristics of the urban heat island in Sydney through the existing literature

The bibliographic analysis of the published scientific papers referring to the development of the Urban Heat Island Phenomenon in Sydney, Australia has resulted in the following articles: 1. Sidiqui, P. , Huete, A., Devadas, R. : 4th International Workshop on Earth Observation and Remote Sensing Applications, EORSA 2016 – Proceedings, 25 August 2016, Article number 7552800, Pages 217-221, 4th International Workshop on Earth Observation and Remote Sensing Applications, EORSA 2016; Guangzhou; China; 4 July 2016 through 6 July 2016; Category numberCFP1639E-ART; Code 123517, Spatio-temporal mapping and monitoring of Urban Heat Island patterns over Sydney, Australia using MODIS and Landsat-8 (Conference Paper), University of Technology Sydney (UTS), Sydney, Australia

The specific article used satellite images to analyse the intensity of the surface and not of the ambient urban heat island in Sydney. It concludes that : ‘The temporal analysis on seasonal and interannual variations of UHI, revealed maximum intensities in daytime periods, particularly during the summer season. The daytime UHI intensity in Sydney could be as large as 7 - 8 °C in summer days. However, relatively weak UHI intensities were observed in night-time periods during all seasons.’

2. Sharifi, E. , Lehmann, S.: Journal of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Volume 9, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 3-11, Correlation analysis of surface temperature of rooftops, streetscapes and urban heat island effect: Case study of central Sydney, School of Art, Architecture and Design, University of South Australia, Australia , School of Built Environment, Curtin University, Australia

The specific article, studies the night time magnitude of the surface and not the ambient Urban Heat Island in Sydney. It uses satellite images collected during the night time and concludes that : ‘Comparing the surface temperature of streetscapes and buildings’ rooftops (dominant urban horizontal surfaces), indicates that open spaces and particularly

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streetscapes are the most sensitive urban elements to the UHI effect. The correlations between street network intensity, open space ratio, urban greenery ratio and the sUHI effect is being analysed in Sydney’s high-density precincts. Results indicate that higher open space ratio and street network intensity correlate significantly to higher sUHI effect at precinct scale. Meanwhile, 10% increase in the urban greenery can effectively decrease the precinct temperature by 0.6°C’.

3. Sharifi, E. , Lehmann, S. Journal of Sustainable Development, Volume 7, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 23-34, Comparative analysis of surface Urban Heat island effect in central Sydney. Zero Waste Research Centre for Sustainable Design and Behaviour, School of Art, Architecture and Design, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia , School of Built

Environment, Curtin University, Perth, Australia

The present article deals with the surface and not the ambient air urban heat island in central Sydney during the night period. In reality, the article reports very similar results as the article no 2.

In conclusion, the amplitude and the Characteristics of the ambient air UHI in the greater Sydney area has not really been studied, and the present study is the first one that provides specific results and analysis.

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2. Perform specific and targeted short term measurements in both cities to determine the urban hot spot zones where the heat island gets its maximum intensity

Outdoor data collection instrumentation and procedure The outdoor temperature conditions were recorded in fifteen locations in the greater Sydney area using weather stations specifically designed and constructed for this study. The temperature logger was protected in a timber cage, which was finished with white paint. The timber cage was supported by a steel structure with a concrete base. As the outdoor temperature was required to be monitored continuously in several locations, portability of the instruments with quick set up capacity was of great importance. Therefore, the instruments were fitted on the transportable vertical steel pole. The concrete base allows the weather stations to be free standing with no need to be permanently attached to the ground. The overall weight of the weather station was approximately 20 kg and the total height was approximately 1.80 m. Figure 1 (a) illustrates a typical setup of the weather station used in this study.

Instrument specification and accuracy Instrumentation consisted of fifteen Logtag® TRIX-16 temperature recorders (Figure 1 (b)). Each unit operates with internal replaceable battery with a typical use of approximately 2-3 years. The Logtag TRIX-16 temperature recorder features high resolution temperature readings over a measurement range of -40°C to +85°C, with the resolution of 0.1°C and the accuracy of ±0.5°C for temperature between -20°C and +40°C and ±0.7°C for temperature range of +40°C to +60°C. To assure the proper functioning of the instruments, all units were calibrated prior to use in this study. The recording interval was half hourly in this study. LogTag® Analyzer software and reader (Figure 1 (c)) were used to archive the data and export them to other programs for the purpose of analysis.

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(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 1 : Logtag® TRIX-16 temperature recorders

Data collection procedure and protocol Outdoor temperature has been monitored continuously (every 30 minutes) in fifteen locations in the Greater Sydney area. It covered a large land area from the eastern coastal zone (i.e., Coogee Beach) to the western inland parts, e.g., Black town, Glenmore Park. Furthermore, five weather stations were located in the northern and southwestern part of Sydney Central Business District (CBD). The following section provides detailed information about the location of the weather stations installed in the Greater Sydney area. In total, 15 private and public properties have participated in this study. The whole process of getting approvals and installation of all weather stations took approximately three months from 25th August 2016 to 10th December 2016. The following table illustrates the timeline of the weather station preparation and installation (Table 1).

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Table 1 : Weather station preparation and installation timeline Weather station preparation and installation timeline

November 1 October 6 October 25 August 25 11 October 11 October 12 October 12 October 13 6 December 6 8 September 8 15 November 15 15 November 30 December 10 11 11 September 13 September

Blacktown, NSWBlacktown, tern tern Arterial Road, St Ives, NSW UNSW, Paddington, Paddington, NSW UNSW, 26 Oxford St, Newtown,26 NSW 2 Boden Ave, Strathfield BodenAve, Strathfield NSW 2 8 Bessemer 8 St, 44A Macquarie Rd, Auburn,44A NSW 35 Street, Roselands, 35 Leslie NSW 25 Occupation Rd, Occupation NSW Kyeemagh, 25 100 Roberts Avenue, Mortdale, NSW Mortdale, 100 Roberts Avenue, 175 Pennant Hills Pennant Hills Road, Carlingford, NSW 175 - UNSW, 45 NSWCoogee, Street, 45 Beach UNSW, 33B Eas 33B UNSW, Anzac NSW UNSW,Kensington, Anzac Parade, 4 Roseville terrace, Glenmore4 Roseville NSW Park, 5/7 Boronia South, Boronia St. NSW Wentworthville, 5/7 71 Seven Hills Road South, Seven Hills, Seven NSW South, Road Hills Seven 71 Preparation and constructionof the weather Preparation station 173

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Location of the equipment assembly in Sydney Figure 2 illustrates the lactation of the local weather stations in this study.

Case study 1 The weather station was placed in the City of Parramatta located in Sydney’s western suburbs, approximately 24 kilometres from the Sydney Central Business District (CBD). The Parramatta City Council has the estimated resident population of 194,448, with a population density of 31.68 persons per hectare in 2015 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). It covers a land area of 6,138 hectares (61 Km2). The weather station was located in a private house in the suburb of Carlingford which is an established residential area. The 2015 estimated resident population for Carlingford is 6,636, with a population density of 33.72 persons per hectare. Figure 3 shows the weather station installed in this area.

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Figure 2 : Location of the weather stations on Sydney metropolitan map

Table 2 summarises the geographical location of the installed weather stations across Sydney area. Details of each site are given in the following sections.

Figure 3 : Weather station no. 1

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Table 2 : Geographical location of the local weather stations No Stations location Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Altitud Region e (m) 1 Pennant Hills Road, Carlingford 33°47 151°02 95 Inland 2 Boronia St. South, 33°49 150°58 35 Inland Wentworthville 3 Roseville terrace, Glenmore 33°47 150°41 54 Inland Park 4 Oxford St, Newtown 33°53 151°10 40 Inland 5 Boden Ave, Strathfield 33°52 151°04 27 Inland 6 Bessemer St, Blacktown 33°45 150°54 41 Inland 7 Anzac Parade, Kensington 33°55 151°13 36 Inland 8 Beach Street, Coogee 33°54 151°15 32 Coast 9 Paddington 33°53 151°13 56 Inland 10 Seven Hills Rd South, Seven 33°46 150°55 57 Inland Hills 11 Macquarie Rd, Auburn 33°50 151°02 20 Inland 12 Leslie Street, Roselands 33°55 151°05 38 Inland 13 Roberts Avenue, Mortdale 33°58 151°03 14 Inland 14 Eastern Arterial Road, St Ives 33°43 151°10 156 Inland 15 Occupation Rd, Kyeemagh 33°56 151°09 5 Coast1 Note: 1: The weather station was located approximately 500 m from the coast.

Case study 2 The second weather station was located in Holroyd City in Sydney’s western suburbs, approximately 25 kilometres from the Sydney CBD. The land encompasses a total area of 4,019 hectares (40 Km2). The estimated resident population for 2015 is 113,294, with a population density of 28.19 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The weather station was located in a private house backyard in the suburb of South Wentworthville which is an established residential area. The 2015 estimated resident population for South Wentworthville is 5,961. It features a land area of 184 hectares (2 Km2), and therefore, a population density of 32.45

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Figure 4 : Weather station no. 2

Case study 3 The weather station was located in Penrith City at the western border of the Sydney metropolitan area which is about 54 kilometres away from the Sydney CBD. Penrith City and its suburbs have a total land area of 40,400 hectares (404 Km2). The estimated resident population for 2015 is 197,922, with a population density of 4.90 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The weather station was located in a private house yard in the suburb of Glenmore Park. This suburb is a developing residential land use with a total area of 1,120 hectares (11 Km2), an estimated population of 22,240, and a population density of 19.86 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The most important lakes and green areas of Glenmore Park include Penrith Golf Club, Mulgoa Nature Reserve, Blue Hills Wetland, Glenmore Loch, Laguna Lake, Apple Gum Reserve, Blue Hills Park, Central Tree Reserve, Ched Towns Reserve, Forest Redgum Reserve, Rotary Park, and Windmill Park. Figure 5 shows the third weather station installed in Glenmore Park.

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Figure 5 : Weather station no. 3

Case study 4 The Marrickville Council area is located in the inner-western suburbs of Sydney, approximately 4- 10 kilometres west of the Sydney CBD. The area has a total land area of about 1,656 hectares (17 Km2), and a population density of 50.90 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The fourth weather station was placed in a private school in the suburb of Newtown which encompasses a land area of 90 hectares (1 Km2). According to Australian Bureau of Statistics (2015), the 2015 estimated resident population for Newtown is 8,231, with a population density of 91.45 persons per hectare. Newtown is a mixed used area, consists of residential areas, with mostly medium and high-density dwellings, and commercial areas. The main green areas include Matt Hogan Reserve, Norton Russell Reserve, Oxford Street Reserve, Peace Reserve, Pearl Street Reserve, and Camperdown Memorial Rest Park. The position of the weather station is presented in Figure 6.

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Figure 6 : Weather station no. 4

Case study 5 The fifth weather station was placed the Strathfield Council area which is one of the inner-western suburbs of Sydney, located approximately 14 kilometres from the Sydney CBD. The 2015 estimated resident population in this Council area is 40,125, with a population density of 28.88 persons per hectare. The weather station was installed in a private house in the suburb of Strathfield. According to Australian Bureau of Statistics (2015), the estimated population of the suburb of Strathfield is 18,787, with the population density of 33.31 persons per hectare. This suburb covers a total land area of 564 hectares (6 Km2). Strathfield is an established residential area, with some commercial land use, and an industrial area in the west. The major green areas include Hudson Park Public Golf Course, Strathfield Golf Club, Strathfield Park, Hudson Park, Chain of Ponds Reserve, Edwards Park, Frank Zions Reserve, Freshwater Park, Inveresk Park, Pilgrim Park, and Wallis Reserve. Figure 7 shows the weather station installed in a private house backyard in Strathfield.

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Figure 7 : Weather station no. 5

Case study 6 The sixth weather station was installed in an industrial site front yard in Blacktown City which is located in Sydney’s western suburbs approximately 35 kilometres from the Sydney CBD. The Blacktown City estimated resident population is 339,328, with a population density of 14.13 persons per hectare in 2015. The Blacktown City encompasses a land area of 24,019 hectares (240 Km2). The industrial site, where the weather station was placed, is located in the Blacktown suburban area which has an estimated resident population of 47,907, and a population density of 30.12 persons per hectare and covers a land area of 1,590 hectares (16 Km2) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The land is a mixed-use area, with industrial zones in the north and south, commercial areas in the centre and substantial residential and institutional areas. The most important green areas in Blacktown include Alpha Park, Bill Swift Reserve, Campbell Park, Doctor Jim Reserve, Francis Park, Gleesons Trees Reserve, International Peace Park, Lynwood Park, Mitchell Reserve, Mujar Bija Reserve, and Robert Brown Reserve. Figure 8 illustrates the weather station installed in this area.

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Figure 8 : Weather station no. 6

Case study 7 The seventh weather station in this study was located at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) main campus in Randwick City in the south eastern suburbs of Sydney, between 4 and 14 kilometres from the Sydney CBD. The Randwick City has a land area of 3,634 hectares (36 Km2). The estimated population for 2015 is 145,822 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). UNSW main campus is located in the suburb of Kensington which covers a land area of 264 hectares (3 Km2). The 2015 Estimated resident population for Kensington is 14,477, with a population density of 54.90 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). Kensington is an established residential area, with some institutional and commercial land use. The significant dense greeneries of Kensington include John Calopedos Memorial Reserve, Kensington Park, Kensington Rotary Reserve, Kokoda Memorial Park, and Raleigh Park. The weather station is presented in Figure 9.

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Figure 9 : Weather station no. 7

Case study 8 The other weather station was placed on the coast (70 meters from the coast) at the University of New South Wales (Cliffbrook Campus) located which is approximately 6 kilometres from the Sydney CBD. Coogee is a suburb of the Randwick City. The estimated resident population for Coogee is 16,042, and the population density is 83.62 persons per hectare in 2015 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The land of Coogee encompasses an area of 192 hectares (2 Km2). Coogee is an established residential area, with some commercial areas. The main green areas of Coogee include Coogee Beach Aquatic Reserve, Alby Smith Memorial Park, Baker Park, Bangor Park, Bardon Park, Blenheim Park, Coogee Oval, Dunningham Reserve, Ernst Collins Reserve, Goldstein Reserve, Gordon’s Bay Reserve, Grant Reserve, J V Dick Reserve, Leete Park, Neptune Park, and Trenery Reserve. Figure 10 shows the weather station installed in UNSW Cliffbrook Campus.

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Figure 10 : Weather station no. 8

Case study 9 The weather station was located in the City of Sydney, 1-2 kilometres from the heart of Sydney CBD. The City of Sydney is a mixed-use area (consists of residential, commercial, and industrial land use), and encompasses a total land area of 2,672 hectares (27 Km2). According to the 2015 census data released by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the City of Sydney has a population of 205,339, resulting in a population density of 76.84 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The most important dense green areas of the City of Sydney include Royal Botanic Gardens, The Domain, Hyde Park, Moore Park, Centennial Park, and Sydney Park. The weather station was located at UNSW College of Fine Arts in Paddington, which is bounded by Oxford Street in the north and Moore Park Road in the south. The 2015 estimated population for Paddington is 3,236, with a population density of 66.59 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The land area of Paddington is 49 hectares which encompasses the City of Sydney part of the suburb of Paddington. Paddington is a residential and military area, with commercial areas along Oxford Road. The main green area includes Paddington Reservoir Gardens. Figure 11 shows the weather station installed in UNSW College of Fine Arts in Paddington.

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Figure 11 : Weather station no. 9

Case study 10 The weather station was installed in a community garden in Blacktown City approximately 35 kilometres from the Sydney CBD. The Blacktown City encompasses a land area of 24,019 hectares (240 Km2), with an estimated resident population of 339,328, and a population density of 14.13 persons per hectare in 2015. The community garden is located in the suburb of Seven Hills which is a small area of the Blacktown City. Seven Hills is an established residential and industrial area with a land area of 953 hectares (10 Km2). The estimated resident population for Seven Hills in 2015 is 20,178, with a population density of 21.17 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The major lake, reserve and green areas include Best Road Park, Chopin Park, Duncan Park, Grantham Reserve, International Peace Park, Jamberoo Park, James Ridley Park, Melody Gardens, Orana Park, Rotary Lake, Snowy Reserve, and Soldiers Settlement Reserve. The weather station installed in Seven Hills is illustrated in Figure 12.

Figure 12 : Weather station no. 10

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Case study 11 The weather station was placed in Auburn City located in Sydney’s western suburbs, approximately 17 kilometres from the Sydney CBD. Auburn City has a land area of 3,249 hectares (32 Km2) with a population density of 27.11 persons per hectare in 2015 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The weather station was located in a community garden in the suburb of Auburn (North) where the estimated resident population and population density in 2015 are 10,784 and 46.01 persons per hectare, respectively. This small area (234 hectares (2 Km2)) encompasses the northern part of the suburb of Auburn. Auburn (North) is a residential and industrial area, with some commercial land use. The main green areas in this suburb include Auburn Park, Bardo Park, and Northumberland Road Reserve. Figure 13 shows the weather station installed in a community garden in Auburn (North).

Figure 13 : Weather station no. 11

Case study 12 The weather station was located in the Canterbury City, south-west of Sydney, approximately 17 km away from the Sydney CBD. Canterbury City is mainly a residential area with few industrial and commercial sites. The City has a total land area of about 3,356 hectares (34 Km2), with an estimated population of 151,746 and a population density of 45.21 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The weather station was installed in a public property with restricted access in Roselands which covers a land area of 274 hectares (3 Km2). The suburb of Roselands is primarily residential, with a small industrial and commercial land use. The 2015 estimated population for Roselands is 11,869, with a population density of 43.26 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The main greenery areas in Roseland include Leonard

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Reserve, John K Stewart Reserve, Roseanne Reserve, and Scott Reserve. Figure 14 illustrates the weather station installed in this area.

Figure 14 : Weather station no. 12

Case study 13 The weather station was positioned in the Georges River Council area located in the southern suburbs of Sydney, about 15-17 kilometres from the Sydney CBD. The Georges River Council covers a land area of 3,836 hectares (38 Km2), with the estimated resident population of 147,906, and a population density of 38.55 persons per hectare in 2015 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The weather station was placed in a depot open space in the suburb of Mortdale. Mortdale encompasses a land area of 288 hectares (3 Km2). The 2015 estimated resident population for Mortdale is 10,574, with a population density of 36.66 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). Mortdale is a residential area, with industrial and commercial areas. Major greenery area includes Beatty Street Reserve, Colebourne Street Reserve, Jubilee Park, Milsop Reserve, Mortdale Memorial Park, Oatley Heights Park, and Ruby Wing Reserve. The weather station is shown in Figure 15.

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Figure 15 : Weather station no. 13

Case study 14 The Ku-ring-gai Council area is located in Sydney’s northern suburbs, about 16 kilometres from the Sydney CBD. The Ku-ring-gai Council area estimated resident population for 2015 is 122,859, with a population density of 14.38 persons per hectare. Land covers 8,541 hectares (85 Km2). The weather station was placed in a private house backyard in the suburb of St Ives in the Ku-ring-gai Council area. St Ives covers a land area of 1,430 hectares (14 Km2). The 2015 estimated population for St Ives is 18,052, with a population density of 12.62 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). St Ives is mainly a mixed-use of a residential area, with significant areas of parkland/bushland, and a commercial land use. The main dense greenery areas include Garigal National Park, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, Ku-ring-gai Wildflower Garden, Barra Brui Bush, Blackburn Reserve, Browns Forest, Cambourne North Reserve, Dalrymple-Hay Nature Reserve, Dingley Dell Reserve, Governor Phillip Reserve, Hassell Park, McIntosh Park, St Ives Skate Park, St Ives Village Green, and Terramerragal Reserve. The weather station is presented in Figure 16.

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Figure 16 : Weather station no. 14

Case study 15 Rockdale City is located in Sydney’s southern suburbs approximately 12 kilometres from the Sydney CBD. The Rockdale City estimated population for 2015 is 109,862, with a population density of 38.92 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). Land area in Rockdale City encompasses 2,823 hectares (28 Km2). The weather station was placed in a private house backyard in Kyeemagh. This suburb is a residential area, with commercial land use and covers a land area of 530 hectares (5 Km2). The house is located approximately 500 m from the coast. The 2015 estimated population for this suburb is 9,609, with a population density of 18.14 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The import greenery areas include Cook Park, Kyeemagh Boat Ramp Reserve, Lance Studdert Reserve, Tony Baker Reserve, and White Oak Reserve. The weather station is illustrated in Figure 17.

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Figure 17 : Weather station no. 15

Project preliminary outcomes Descriptive statistic The data collected by the first ten weather stations were retrieved from 4th to 14th November. Since weather stations installed at different time and dates (see Table 1), outdoor temperatures collected over the period of 13th October 2016 to 4th November 2016 were used for the preliminary analysis. This period shows the time that all of the weather stations recorded temperature simultaneously. Table 3 summarises the statistical summary of the outdoor temperatures measured by the weather stations located at different places in the Greater Sydney area.

Table 3 : Statistical summary of outdoor climate between 13th October 2016 and 4th November 2016 Weather station Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation WS.3 Glenmore Park 5.5 37.3 18.5 6.9 WS.6 Blacktown 8.1 30.3 18.8 4.9 WS.10 Seven Hills 5.9 31.7 17.8 5.3 WS.5 Strathfield 8.6 30.0 18.1 4.4 WS.2 Wentworthville 6.5 33.5 19.3 6.5 WS.1 Carlingford 5.7 34.5 18.6 6.0 WS.4 Newtown 8.7 28.9 18.5 4.0 WS.7 Kensington 9.0 28.8 17.7 3.8 WS.8 Coogee 10.2 28.2 18.7 3.4 WS.9 Paddington 9.4 27.2 17.6 3.4

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As seen in the table, the outdoor temperature fell within the range of 5.5-37.3°C, with an average of 18.5°C (SD=6.9) in Glenmore Park (the third weather station). The average outdoor temperature was 17.6°C, with a maximum of 9.4°C and a minimum of 27.2°C in UNSW Paddington campus (weather station 9). This indicates a noticeable difference between the climatic condition of Sydney CBD and the eastern coastal zone and western part of the Greater Sydney (e.g. Glenmore Park). Database of outdoor temperature collection round (I) The original database can be found in Annex 1. Annex 1 summarises all the data retrieved from the first ten weather stations installed in Sydney area. This table includes all data collected in all locations simultaneously between 13th October 2016 and 4th November 2016.

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3. Determine the energy consumption of the urban buildings in the hot spot areas of both cities using simulation and experimental data collection techniques and document the energy penalty induced by the urban heat island in both cities.

To determine the energy consumption of the urban buildings and analyse the possible penalty induced by the Urban heat island phenomenon, the following procedure was followed : a) The full climate data of six climatic stations located in the major Sydney area were purchased from the Meteorological Bureau for the period 2005-2016. The selected stations are: Terrey Hills, Observatory Hills, Canterbury Racecourse, Sydney Airport, Olympic Park, and Bankstown. Information on the characteristics of the stations is given in Table 4 below

Table 4: Geographical Information of the stations Stations Latitude (°S) Longitude Altitude (m) (°E) Sydney Observatory Hill 33.8607 151.2050 39 Sydney Airport AMO 33.9465 151.1731 6 Canterbury Racecourse AWS 33.9057 151.1134 3 Bankstown Airport AWS 33.9181 150.9864 7 Sydney Olympic Park AWS (Archery Centre) 33.8338 151.0718 4 Terrey Hills AWS 33.6908 151.2253 199

The selected sites cover approximately 25 km from the coast to the inland border.

Sydney Observatory Hill (151.2050°E, 33.8607°S) is the reference station in this study, which is located on the coast in the City of Sydney, almost at the heart of Sydney CBD and south-west of Sydney Harbour Bridge. The City of Sydney is a mixed-use area (consists of residential, commercial, and industrial land use), and encompasses a total land area of 2,672 hectares (27 Km2). According to the 2015 census data released by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the City of Sydney has a population of 205,339, resulting in a population density of 76.84 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The most important dense green areas of the City of Sydney include Royal Botanic Gardens, The Domain, Hyde Park, Moore Park, Centennial Park, and Sydney Park. The City of Sydney tree canopy cover is 15.2 percent (Jacobs, Mikhailovich, & Delaney, 2014).

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Sydney Airport AMO (151.1731°E, 33.9465°S) is located on the coast, in the City of Botany Bay. The City of Botany Bay is located approximately 6 Km south of the Sydney CBD, surrounded by Sydney inner suburbs on its non-coastal boundaries. The land around the Sydney Airport is a mixed-use development with aviation purposes, and residential, commercial, and industrial areas, which encompasses a total land area of 2,706 hectares (27 Km2), including significant foreshore zones. The 2015 estimated population for the City of Botany Bay is 46,587 with the population density of 17.22 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The major green areas in the City of Botany Bay include The Lakes Golf Club, Mutch Park, Jellicoe Park, and Sir Joseph Banks Park. According to Jacobs et al. (2014), tree canopy cover in the City of Botany Bay is approximately 12.1 percent of the total land area. Canterbury Racecourse AWS and Bankstown Airport AWS represent inland suburbs of Sydney. Canterbury Racecourse AWS (151.1134°E, 33.9057°S) is located in Canterbury City, south-west of Sydney, approximately 17 km away from the Sydney CBD and 7 km from the nearest coastline. Canterbury City is mainly a residential area with few industrial and commercial sites. The City has a total land area of about 3,356 hectares (34 Km2), with an estimated population of 151,746 and a population density of 45.21 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The tree canopy cover in Canterbury City is about 17.5 percent of the total land area (Jacobs et al., 2014), and the main dense greenery areas include the Cooks River, Girraween Park, Riverwood Reserve and Rotary Park. Bankstown Airport AWS (150.9864°E, 33.9181°S) is located in the south-west of Sydney suburban areas in Bankstown City, approximately 22 km south-west of the Sydney CBD and 16 km from the nearest coastal zone. Bankstown City features residential, commercial and industrial land uses in the total land area of 7,682 hectares (77 Km2) with a population of 203,202 and a population density of 26.45 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). Significant dense greeneries in Bankstown City include Georges River National Park, Deepwater Regional Park, and Mirambeena Regional Park, and approximately 17.1 percent tree canopy cover in Bankstown City (Jacobs et al., 2014). Sydney Olympic Park AWS (Archery Centre and VIS Meter2) and Terry Hills AWS are representative of Sydney inland suburbs. Sydney Olympic Park (151.0718°E, 33.8338°S and

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151.0646°E, 33.8521°S) is located in Auburn City, approximately 14 Km west of the Sydney CBD in proximity to Parramatta River and 13 km away from the nearest coastline. Auburn City is predominately mixed-use including residential and industrial areas with some major commercial, recreational, and parkland land uses. Auburn City encompasses a total land area of 3,249 hectares (32 Km2), with the estimated population of 88,059 and a population density of 27.11 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The main dense green areas of Auburn City include Sydney Olympic Park, Auburn Botanic Gardens and Bicentennial Park, and Newington Nature Reserve, with 15.4 percent tree canopy cover for the total land area (Jacobs et al., 2014). Terrey Hills AWS (151.2253°E, 33.6908°S) is part of the northern forest district positioned at 199 m above sea level. This station is located 25 Km north of Sydney CBD in Warringah, 7.5 km from the nearest coastline. Warringah is mainly a residential area with some industrial and commercial sites. It covers a total land area of 14,936 hectares (149 Km2) and includes a large area of dense greenery such as National Park, bushland, and reserves. The total tree canopy cover is 58 percent (Jacobs et al., 2014). There are 156,693 people estimated living in Warringah suburban areas with the population density of 10.49 persons per hectare (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). For the period analysed, 2005 - 2015, the night time ambient temperature varied between -1.1 °C to 36.2 °C. The average, minimum and maximum night-time temperatures for all stations were between 14.4°C to 17.1°C, -1.1°C to 4°C, and 33.9°C to 36.2°C, respectively. Stations located in the Western part of the city (Bankstown, Canterbury and Olympic Village) presented a lower average and minimum night-time temperature compared to the coastal stations of Eastern Sydney. In particular the average and minimum night-time temperatures in Western Sydney were lower by 1.3°C and 3.3°C than the ones recorded in the eastern part of the City. Not important differences concerning the absolute maximum night temperature were observed between Western and Eastern Sydney (Figure 18). The day time ambient temperature during the study period varied from 1.9°C to 44.6°C. The multiyear average ambient temperature was 18.4°C in Terrey Hills, 19.2°C at the Observatory, 19.6°C in Canterbury, 20.0°C in Bankstown, 20.1°C in the Olympic Village and 20.2°C at the Airport. Minimum ambient temperatures varied from 1.9°C to 4.0°C in the Western part of the City and between 5.2°C and 5.4°C in the coastal Eastern suburbs. The absolute maximum temperature ranged between 43.8°C and 44.6°C, while insignificant differences were observed between the

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney various stations. The lowest minimum, average and maximum temperatures were observed in the Terrey Hills station located in a green zone of Northern Sydney (Figure 19).

Figure 18 : Variation of the night time ambient temperature for the six considered stations

b) All data have been submitted to a detailed statistical control and cleaned from possible errors.

Figure 19 : Variation of the day time ambient temperature for the six considered stations

c) The data have been analysed and cleaned for errors and inconsistencies.

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d) In order to investigate the cooling energy penalty induced by the UHI in Sydney, simulations has been carried out to determine the cooling needs of a representative building using the climatic data of all the above stations. Simulations have been performed using the Energy- Plus thermal simulation program developed by the Department of Energy of USA. The building model was selected for the DOE Mid Rise Apartment Reference Building, new construction, 90.1-2004. It is a multifamily residential building and it consists of 27 thermal zones (3 corridors, one office and 23 apartments). The total air conditioned area is 3135 m2. Cooling and heating loads (sensible) were calculated during daytime (9:00-20:00) using the Ideal Loads Air System, a module that is used in situations where the user wishes to study the performance of a building without modelling a full HVAC system. This component can be operated with infinite or finite heating and cooling capacity. In this case infinite heating and cooling capacity was selected. For the purpose of simulation, the following meteorological data from 6 stations were used for 2013 and 2014: Air Temperature, Dew Temperature, Relative Humidity, Air Pressure, Wind speed, Global Horizontal Radiation and Diffuse Horizontal Radiation. e) The obtained results are analysed and conclusions have been drawn. Table 5 reports the corresponding cooling degree days as well as the cooling and heating demand for 2013 and 2014. As shown, the cooling energy penalty induced to the Western part of Sydney is up to 72 % compared to the reference station of the Observatory Hills. When comparisons are performed against the station of Terrey Hills the energy penalty may rise up to 170 %. Figure 20 illustrates the spatial distribution of the cooling demand of the representative building. As it concerns the heating needs of the representative building, it is calculated that Western Sydney presents a higher demand for heating than the load calculated for a building located in the reference area (Observatory Hills). The calculated increase is close to 15 %.

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Table 5 : 2013 2014 Comparison of the heating and cooling needs of a representative building in various locations in Sydney in 2013-2014 CDD CDD Heating Cooling Heating Cooling 2013 2014 kWh/m2 kWh/m2 kWh/m2 kWh/m2 TERREY HILLS 1623.845 905.117 54.1 13.3 58.6 9.8 OBSERVATORY 1757.200 1122.783 34.6 18.5 38.7 15.4 HILL CANTERBURY 2198.170 1663.970 42.0 20.0 45.6 18.0 RACECOURSE SYDNEY AIRPORT 2528.763 1820.625 31.4 23.3 36.9 19.8 SYDNEY OLYMPIC 3137.683 2426.665 38.4 27.6 41.2 24.7 PARK BANKSTOWN 3395.857 2626.903 40.1 29.9 43.3 26.5 AIRPORT

Figure 20 : Spatial Distribution of the Cooling Demand of a representative building in Sydney for 2013 and 2014

f) Using simulation techniques, the additional cooling power induced by the Urban Heat Island in all considered stations, has been calculated. Simulations have been performed for the warmest day of the Year in Western Sydney and in 2013 and 2014. Figure 21

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shows the distribution of the hourly cooling consumption in the considered building for 2014. As shown, the maximum hourly cooling demand in Bankstown is up to 108 % higher than the corresponding cooling power demand in the reference station, (Observatory Hills). This means that the required size of the air conditioners in Western Sydney, is almost the double than in the Eastern part of the city, for exactly the same type and size of the building. Hourly Cooling Consumption of the Whole Building 1400 1200 1000 Observatory 800 Airport MJ/H 600 Canterbury 400 200 BanksTown 0 Olympic Park Terrey Hills

11/21 01:00:00 11/21 02:00:00 11/21 03:00:00 11/21 04:00:00 11/21 05:00:00 11/21 06:00:00 11/21 07:00:00 11/21 08:00:00 11/21 09:00:00 11/21 10:00:00 11/21 11:00:00 11/21 12:00:00 11/21 13:00:00 11/21 14:00:00 11/21 15:00:00 11/21 16:00:00 11/21 17:00:00 11/21 18:00:00 11/21 19:00:00 11/21 20:00:00 11/21 21:00:00 11/21 22:00:00 11/21 23:00:00 11/21 24:00:00 11/21 Figure 21. Hourly required cooling energy, (MJ/h), as calculated for the warmest day of the year in Western Sydney, for all 6 stations

The additional cooling power per hour of the same day, and for each station, is given in Figure 22. As shown, the additional cooling power penalty induced by the UHI phenomenon may reach up to 60 W/m2. Figure 23 presents the spatial distribution of the required additional cooling demand in Sydney.

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Additional Cooling Power ( W/m2) 80

60

40

Airport 20 Canterbury BanksTown W/m2 Olympic Park 0 Terrey Hills

-20

-40

-60

Figure 22. Additional hourly Cooling Power Required, compared to the reference station, for the warmest day of the year in all considered zones of Sydney.

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Figure 23 : Spatial Distribution of the additional cooling power demand.

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4. Documentation on the Amplitude of the Urban Heat Island in Sydney and Documentation how the urban heat island affects the outdoor environment and climatic

As mentioned in the previous chapters, measurements have been performed since September 2016. However, the existing data are not sufficient to fully study the understand the characteristics of the UHI in the city. The whole analysis is performed using ten years climatic data from the six meteorological stations mentioned in the previous chapter. The results of the analysis are presented in the following sections.

Night Time Urban Heat Island Intensity and Characteristics The magnitude and the variability of the night time urban heat island has been calculated for the five considered stations for the period between 2005 and 2015. The calculated range of values is given in Figure 24. Given that the night-time ambient temperature in Western Sydney is considerably lower than in the coastal Eastern part, the average magnitude of the night UHI is negative at all stations except the Airport. The range of the average night UHI varies between 0.12 K in the airport, -1.13 K in the Olympic Village, -1.67 K in the Terrey Hills, -1.95 K in Canterbury and - 2.1 K in the Bankstown station. The corresponding maximum values vary between 5.0 K to 6.7 K, while the minimum night UHI intensity is between -9.3 K and - 10.7 K for the three Western stations, (Bankstown, Canterbury and Olympic Village), and between -6.5 K and -7.0 K for the airport and Terrey Hills. The maximum amplitude of the night oasis phenomenon is presented in most of the stations during the early morning hours (6 am) or in some rare cases at 11 pm. The cumulative frequency distribution of the night time UHI for the five stations is given in Figure 25. As shown, in the Western stations and Terrey Hills, the night UHI is negative for almost 90% to 95% of the studied period, while in the airport the UHI intensity is negative for about 50% of the time. With the exception of the Terrey Hills station, located in the proximity of a large urban greenery reserve, the frequency of negative values, as well as the absolute amplitude of the night UHI, increases with the distance from the coastline. This is because night time radiative and convective cooling processes are more significant in the Western than in the Eastern zones of the city, because of the decreased density, the reduced accumulated solar heat during the daytime, and the proximity to agricultural zones.

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Figure 24 : Variability of the night time UHI in the five selected stations.

Figure 25 : Cumulative frequency distribution of the night time UHI for the five stations

A significant correlation is observed for the three West Sydney stations, between the levels of the ambient temperature recorded in the reference station and the night time magnitude of the UHI,

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(Figure 26). It is observed that the magnitude of the oasis effect in Western Sydney is decreasing and even minimized during the warm summer period. A possible explanation is that in the Western part of the city, an important heating mechanism is established during the warm period, because of the advection of warm air from the inland, while at the same time, the Eastern Suburbs benefit from the very significant cooling mechanism of the sea breeze. A similar phenomenon is described in (Santamouris et al, 2001). In parallel, the absolute magnitude of the night oasis effect in Terrey Hills is intensified during the warm summer period, because of the important evapotranspiration cooling mechanism in the area.

Figure 26 : Correlation between the levels of the ambient temperature recorded in the reference station and the night time magnitude of the UHI for the Canterbury Station

It is well known that the UHI is better developed under low wind conditions (Erell and Williamson, 2007). Several UHI studies in European, Asian and Australian cities have demonstrated that UHI is better developed below a threshold wind speed that depends on the city’s characteristics, (Eliasson 1996, Kim and Baik, 2004, Papanikolaou et al, 2008, Mohan et al, 2012). Strong winds may modify the cooling and heating rates in both the urban and rural environment and decrease the intensity of the UHI phenomenon. A quite strong correlation is found between the wind speed and the magnitude of the UHI in the three West Sydney Stations (Figure 27). While for low wind speeds, the magnitude of the nocturnal oasis effect developed in Western Sydney is significant. This phenomenon is gradually reduced as wind speed increases and is almost minimized for wind speeds higher than 8 m/s. Higher wind speeds are associated with important advection of air masses that tend to minimize any temperature differences. In the airport station, the average

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney magnitude of the UHI is not found to be affected by the wind speed; however, its fluctuation is seriously reduced close to zero, as convective phenomena of similar magnitude become dominant both in the reference and the airport stations.

Figure 27 : Correlation between the wind speed and the magnitude of the UHI in the three West Sydney Stations

To better demonstrate the relation between the magnitude of the nocturnal oasis effect, the wind speed and the ambient temperature levels, the available data for the station in Canterbury have been classified in 11 wind speed clusters from 0 to 11 m/s. The average wind speed, ambient temperature and nocturnal UHI intensity were calculated for each cluster. Their correlation is plotted in Figure 28. As shown, the magnitude of the nocturnal oasis phenomenon decreases considerably under strong wind conditions, while low wind speeds correspond to high magnitudes of the nocturnal oasis effect and higher average ambient temperatures. Under similar average temperature conditions, the intensity of the wind speed determines almost completely the magnitude of the nocturnal oasis effect and low wind speeds help to develop a stronger oasis phenomenon.

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Figure 28 : Correlation between the average wind speed, ambient temperature, and nocturnal UHI intensity as calculated for each cluster

Day Time Urban Heat Island Intensity and Characteristics The day time (8 am – 8 pm) intensity of the urban heat island is calculated for the whole ten year period. The magnitudes of the UHI at all stations are given in Figure 29. The spatial distribution of temperature differences across the city is characterized by an important variability, which results either in the development of a strong positive or negative urban heat island. The 99% percentile of the maximum UHI intensity in the three stations of Western Sydney varies between 3.8 K in Canterbury, 5.1 K in the Olympic Village, and 5.7 K in Bankstown. In parallel, the corresponding values at the Airport and in Terrey Hills are respectively close to 3.2 K and 2.7 K. The 99% percentile of the intensity of the developed oasis phenomenon varies between -2.7 K and -5.1 K in all stations. The absolute maximum UHI intensity in Western Sydney may reach 7 K to 10 K while the absolute maximum intensity of the developed oasis phenomenon is of the same order of magnitude. Figure 30 presents the day time cumulative frequency distribution of the UHI in the five stations. As shown, UHI is positive for the 61%, 54%, 52%, 40% and 11% of the time in the stations of the Airport, Olympic Village, Bankstown, Canterbury and Terrey Hills, respectively. Given the important variability of the UHI intensity observed mainly in the Western part of the city, a detailed analysis aiming at investigating the reasons for the UHI characteristics has been performed for the Bankstown station . The station presents the highest and lowest UHI intensities

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney during the studied period and is characterized by a significant annual variability. It is also the most characteristic among all stations located in Western Sydney.

Figure 29 : Levels of the day time UHI magnitude in all stations

Figure 30 : Day time cumulative frequency distribution of the UHI in the five stations

Using fuzzy clustering techniques, all data are classified into five clusters according to the magnitude of the UHI intensity. The first cluster corresponds to high positive UHI values and is centred on UHI intensity equal to 4.9 K. This cluster includes almost 3.8% of the whole data. The second cluster, corresponds to moderate positive UHI intensities, is centred on UHI intensity equal 43 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney to 1.84 K, and includes 39% of the data. The third cluster corresponds to small positive or negative UHI intensities, is centred at 0.23 K and includes 33.4 % of the data, while the fourth cluster includes small negative UHI intensities, is centred at - 0.93 K and involves 16.5 % of the data. Finally, the last cluster is centred at -3.35 K, includes medium and high negative UHI intensities and contains 7.3 % of the data. First Cluster: High Positive UHI Intensity: The first cluster includes data for the periods when the UHI intensity varied between 11.25 K and 3.6 K. The corresponding levels of the ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction in the reference and the Bankstown stations are given in Figure 31. The ambient temperature in the reference station varied between 13.2°C and 35.5°C, with an average close to 25.7°C, while in the Bankstown station it varied between 16.9°C and 41.8°C with an average around to 30.8°C. The wind speed in both stations was quite similar and varied between 0.3 m/s and 12 m/s with an average close to 5 m/s. However, a very important difference was observed concerning the wind direction in both stations. The reference station was mainly exposed to low temperature Eastern winds coming from the Ocean direction, while in the Bankstown station, a very significant part of the wind was from Western direction (Figure 32). Westerly winds in summer are of quite high temperature and come from the inland desert area. All the observed cases with very high UHI intensities corresponded to westerly winds in the Bankstown station. When the prevailing winds in the Bankstown station were from the East, and with a very high degree of probability they corresponded to a weak penetration of the sea breeze, the UHI intensity was at the lower limits of this cluster. The combination of Eastern and South Eastern low temperature winds in the reference station together with the Westerly high temperature winds in the Blacktown station is the main reason explaining the observed very high UHI intensities.

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Figure 31 : Levels of the ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction in the reference and the Bankstown stations in the first cluster.

Figure 32 : Frequency of the wind direction in the reference and the Bankstown station for the five clusters.

Second Cluster: Moderate Positive UHI intensity. The second cluster includes climatic data where the UHI intensity was between 1.0 K and 3.6 K. The corresponding ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction conditions in both the reference and the Bankstown stations are given in Figure 33. The ambient temperature in the reference station ranged from 3.4°C to 41.6°C, with an average close to 22°C. Ambient temperature in the Bankstown station varied between 8.6°C and 44.5°C with an average close to 23.9°C. As observed, the levels of ambient temperature in this

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney second cluster are on average substantially lower than those in the first cluster. Similar to the night period, very high UHI intensities correspond to higher ambient temperatures. The wind speed in both stations was quite similar and varied between zero and 14 m/s, with an average close to 5 m/s. Wind speed conditions in this second cluster are very similar to the ones observed in the first cluster. Wind in the reference station was from Eastern, NE and SE directions, while in some cases winds from the West were observed. As already mentioned, winds of NE, SE, and Eastern orientations are from the ocean side and are of relatively low temperature. At the Bankstown station, high frequencies of Eastern winds were observed, probably corresponding to a weak penetration of the sea breeze. Under these conditions the UHI intensity was close to the lower limits of the present cluster. On the contrary, when the wind was flowing from Western orientations, the UHI intensity was close to the upper limit of the present cluster, in a similar way as in the first cluster.

Figure 33 : Levels of the ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction in the reference and the Bankstown stations in the second cluster

Third Cluster: Negligible UHI intensity. The third cluster includes climatic data corresponding to low UHI intensities ranging between -0.3 K and 1.0 K. The corresponding ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction data for the reference and the Bankstown stations is given in Figure 34. The ambient temperature in the reference station varied between 6.3°C and 43.7°C with an average close to 19.9°C, while the temperature in the Bankstown station ranged between 6.2°C and 44.1°C with an average around 20.2°C. The wind speed was very similar in both stations

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney ranging from 0.0 m/s to 14 m/s, with an average close 4.7 m/s. The wind direction did not differ significantly between the two stations and the air was mainly blowing from Southern, Eastern, and Western directions. Given that in both stations the wind speed and wind direction followed quite similar patterns, the strength of the developed UHI intensity was quite reduced and close to zero.

Figure 34 : Levels of the ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction in the reference and the Bankstown stations in the third cluster

Fourth Cluster: Moderate Negative UHI intensity. The fourth cluster includes climatic data for all cases corresponding to moderate negative UHI intensities ranging between -0.3 K to -2 K. The corresponding data for the ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction in both the stations is given in Figure 35. The ambient temperature in the reference station was between 6°C and 45°C with an average close to 18.9°C, while in the station of Bankstown the ambient temperature ranged between 4°C and 44.6°C, with an average around 18°C. The wind speed levels were quite low in both stations ranging from zero to 15 m/s, with an average close to 4 m/s. Southern and Western wind directions were predominant in both stations. Usually, Southern and Western winds had to flow over the dense part of the city before reaching the reference station, which is not the case for the Bankstown station. The above, in combination with the significantly higher anthropogenic heat generated around the reference station, resulted in a slight overheating of the reference zone and a moderate negative UHI intensity.

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Figure 35 : Levels of the ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction in the reference and the Bankstown stations in the fourth cluster

Fifth Cluster: Medium and High Negative UHI intensity. The fifth cluster includes data from all cases where the UHI intensity was negative and between -2.0 K to -6.2 K. The corresponding data of the ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction for both stations are given in Figure 36. The ambient temperature in the reference station varied between 5.4°C and 36.9°C with an average value around 16.5°C, while in the Bankstown station temperature fluctuated between 1.9°C and 31.9°C with an average close to 13.4°C. The cluster is characterized by considerably low wind speeds. The average wind speed at the reference and Bankstown stations are 3 m/s and 1.6 m/s respectively. Thus, the convective and advective phenomena, like sea breeze, were not important and the temperature difference was mainly due to the magnitude of the sensible and anthropogenic heat generated in each place. Similar phenomena are also occurring and similar explanations are valid for the other two stations located in Western Sydney (Canterbury and Olympic Village). At both stations, an important increase in the UHI intensity is observed for increasing ambient temperatures (Figure 37) because of the important advective and convective phenomena associated with the particular synoptic conditions.

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Figure 36 : Levels of the ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction in the reference and the Bankstown stations in the fifth cluster

Figure 37 : Levels of the UHI intensity for different ambient temperatures for the Olympic Village

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As it concerns the station of Terrey Hills, the UHI is positive for 13.7% of the time, while for the rest of the period the ambient temperature is lower than in the reference station. Using clustering techniques, all data have been classified in three clusters. The first cluster is centred at 0.78 K, and includes all climatic data corresponding to the positive values of the UHI intensity ranging between -0.3 and 6.4 K. An analysis of the relevant climatic data in the cluster shows that high UHI values occur during the rare periods when the wind in Terrey Hills is from the inland area, Western direction, while in the reference station the air is coming from the sea, Eastern direction. Under these synoptic conditions, warm air is advected in Terrey Hills while in parallel, low temperature air is advected in the reference station, resulting in an important UHI intensity. The second cluster is centred around an UHI intensity close to -1.3 K and includes almost 46% of the data. The UHI ranges between -0.3 and -1.9 K. Both the wind speed and direction are similar in both stations and the small negative UHI intensity is because of the additional anthropogenic heat in the reference station and the significant cooling rates caused by the evapotranspiration in Terrey Hills. Finally, the last cluster includes the climatic data corresponding to the high negative UHI intensities, up to - 4.0 K. It is found that the maximum negative values occur when the wind in the reference station is flowing from the western direction advecting warmer air to the station, while in Terrey Hills cooler air is flowing from Northern and North-eastern directions. Finally, an analysis of the UHI intensity in the airport area has been performed using the same methodology as previously. Three clusters of climatic data have been defined. The first cluster includes all data corresponding to UHI intensities between 0.9 and 5 K and it is centred at 1.6 K while it includes almost 28% of the data. High positive UHI values are observed only when the air flow in the airport is from the mainland, Western direction, while in the reference station is from the sea direction. The second cluster includes all data corresponding to low UHI intensities ranging between -0.7 K and 0.9 K. This cluster includes almost 56% of the data. The climatic conditions at both stations are quite similar and the observed temperature differences are due to the local heat effects. Finally, the third cluster includes all data corresponding to UHI intensities lower than -0.7 K and it is centred around -1.4 K. Quite important negative UHI intensities are observed only when the wind speed at the reference station is from the mainland, western direction, while at the airport it is from the sea direction. The whole analysis reveals that the development and the magnitude of the UHI in the city are mainly governed by advection processes. The sea breeze is the main cooling mechanism in the

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney city, while westerly winds from the country inland present the main heating mechanism during the warm period. During the summer, both mechanisms may co-exist resulting in high temperature differences between the Eastern and Western parts of the city. Several other synoptic conditions and combinations may occur, resulting in smaller UHI intensities. A significant oasis phenomenon is also observed, mainly during the winter period, and during the days where the strength of the sea breeze is not significant and the heat generated in the city is not removed. Spatial Distribution of the Cooling Degree Days The severity of the climate and the resulting cooling energy demand can be described in terms of cooling degree-days (CDDs). Therefore, the annual cooling degree-days were calculated with a base temperature of 23°C for different locations in the Greater Sydney based on the data of the six stations, enriched with additional data provided by the Degree Days.net online software tool (Degree Days.net, 2016). This online tool uses temperature data from Weather Underground. ArcGIS 10.3 (ArcGIS, Version 10.3, Esri, Redlands, California, USA) software was used to obtain the exact location, analyse the spatial data, and illustrate the area under specified thermal conditions. The widely used Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) interpolation technique (Watson and Philip, 1985) was implemented to generate the spatial patterns of annual CDDs on the map. This method is based on the assumption that the nearest points surrounding a selected location have more influence on the prediction than those that are farther away. The IDW interpolation technique weights the points being evaluated based on the distance from the sampled location; the weight is a function of inverse distance (Watson and Philip, 1985). For the calculation of CDDs, the period 2014-2016 was selected. It should be noted that detailed temperature readings, taken throughout each day for the six weather stations selected in this study, enables an intensive calculation process (so-called Integration Method) to increase the accuracy of the resulting degree-day data (Degree Days.net, 2016). The calculated CDDs for the selected sites and years are shown in Figure 38. The result indicates that annual cooling degree- days ranged from 89 to 215 in 2014, being higher in Bankstown with 215°C day, followed by Sydney Olympic Park (203°C day). In contrast, the lowest CDDs is calculated for Terrey Hills Reserve with 89°C day located in the hilly forest district followed by Sydney Observatory Hill (133°C day) located adjacent to Sydney Harbour in the coastal zone. In 2015, CDD values varied between 118 and 240 with a similar pattern observed in 2014. The trend of calculated CDDs in 2015-2016 is consistent with those in 2015 and 2014; however, CDDs have increased to 261°C

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney day in Bankstown and 126°C day in Terrey Hills Reserve. The obtained range of CDDs and the spatial pattern appear to be influenced by topography and water proximity.

Figure 38 : Calculated CDDs for the selected sites and years

Figures 39 to 41 illustrate CDDs maps for Sydney Observatory Hill, Sydney Airport, Canterbury Racecourse, Bankstown Airport AWS, Sydney Olympic Park AWS, and Terrey Hills Reserve in 2014 and 2015, and 2015-2016 respectively. Figures 39-41 suggest that CDDs are clearly different from station to station showing a great spatial variability. The areas located in the west and southwest, where Bankstown airport station is located, are characterized by higher annual CDDs compared to Observatory Hill in Sydney CBD and Terry Hills located in the northern suburbs. This pattern is consistent for all investigated years. However, CDDs have increased more drastically in recent years. The average annual CDD in 2016 is up to 47°C day higher than that in 2014. This implies a growing cooling energy demand throughout Sydney.

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Figure 39 : CDDs maps for Sydney Observatory Hill, Sydney Airport, Canterbury Racecourse, Bankstown Airport AWS, Sydney Olympic Park AWS, and Terrey Hills Reserve in years 2014

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Figure 40 : CDDs maps for Sydney Observatory Hill, Sydney Airport, Canterbury Racecourse, Bankstown Airport AWS, Sydney Olympic Park AWS, and Terrey Hills Reserve in years 2015.

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Figure 41 : CDDs maps for Sydney Observatory Hill, Sydney Airport, Canterbury Racecourse, Bankstown Airport AWS, Sydney Olympic Park AWS, and Terrey Hills Reserve in 2015-2016

Since CDD is an important index reflecting the climate and energy demand of buildings, the analysis is extended to calculate the cooling degree-days of a larger region and accordingly compare CDD calculations for 24 different locations across the Sydney metropolitan area. Table 6 summarises the geographical location and CDDs of the extended weather stations based on data from 2015-2016. The spatial pattern of cooling degree-days calculated for 24 sites is illustrated on the map. The results of such investigation provide the advances of a better understanding of the climate and energy consumption of buildings in different climatic conditions. It should be noted that the Degree Day.net online tool is programmed to estimate CDD to account for missing temperature data Degree Days.net, 2016.

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Table 6 : Description of the extended weather stations locations and CDD calculations based on data from 2015-2016

Weather station locations Longitude Latitude Region CDD (°E) (°S) Sydney (Observatory Hill) 151.21 33.86 On the coast 188 Sydney Airport 151.17 33.95 On the coast 227 Canterbury Racecourse 151.11 33.91 Inland 199 Bankstown Airport AWS 150.99 33.92 Inland 262 Sydney Olympic Park AWS 151.07 33.83 Inland 247 Terrey Hills Reserve 151.23 33.69 Inland 126 Gymea Bay, South of Sydney 151.08 34.05 Inland 241 Horsley Park Equestrian Centre AWS 150.86 33.85 Inland 239 Richmond Aus-Afb 150.78 33.60 Inland 294 Penrith Lakes AWS 150.68 33.72 Inland 310 Blacktown, Blacktown 150.89 33.77 Inland 443 Campbell Town (mount Annan) 150.77 34.06 Inland 232 Ross Street, Glenbrook 150.62 33.77 Inland 329 Colyton, Colyton 150.79 33.79 Inland 468 Orchard Hills, Orchard Hills 150.74 33.79 Inland 563 Kissing Point rd, Turramurra 151.13 33.74 Inland 232 Koola Avenue, Davidson 151.18 33.75 Inland 181 Merrylands West 150.97 33.84 Inland 425 Wildthorn Avenue, Dural 151.01 33.66 Inland 333 Kentwell Street, Baulkham Hills 150.99 33.76 Inland 282 Cecil Hills, Cecil Hills 150.85 33.89 Inland 422 Leppington, Leppington 150.82 33.95 Inland 343 Lusty Street, Marrickville 151.15 33.93 Inland 245 Mascot, Mascot 151.19 33.93 Inland 307

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As depicted in Table 6, the resulting cooling degree-days for the extended weather station locations vary between 126°C day and 563°C day in 2015-2016. Figure 42 shows that the spatial pattern and the magnitude of CDD changes vary from location to location. A higher CDD was shown in western Sydney suburbs with significant increasing trends in inland areas located 30-40 km west of Sydney CBD. This finding shows that during the last 12 months (2015-2016), western suburban areas in Sydney have experienced a more severe climate with up to three times higher CDDs compared to northern and central parts of Sydney. This suggests that significant cooling is required for some inland locations, especially for those located in the west of Sydney. The observed spatial variation of the CDDs is likely explained by topographic variables, urban form, and proximity to ocean, lakes, forests, and grasslands.

Figure 42 : CDD’s maps for the Sydney area considering data of 24 stations

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5 and 6. Validation of the Existing environmental conditions in the outdoor spaces and Determination of specific and targeted energy oriented mitigation techniques to be used able to decrease the energy consumption of urban buildings, improve the outdoor environmental quality and decrease local ambient temperatures.

Urban mitigation technologies deal with technological interventions aiming to reduce the strength of the sources and enhance the potential sinks of high temperature anomalies in cities. Very important research activities are carried out to develop, test, demonstrate and implement at a large scale, urban mitigation systems and techniques able to reduce the temperature of the cities. Research has mainly aimed to reduce the absorption of solar radiation by the urban fabric through the development and use of reflective materials. In parallel, important work is available on the implementation of urban greenery and its optimum integration in the city structure; the development of advanced water based evaporative systems; and finally on the development of technologies to dissipate the excess urban heat to low temperature sinks. Most of the mitigation technologies are quite mature and most of them are already implemented in large scale urban rehabilitation projects. A full analysis of the cooling potential of several mitigation technologies and combinations is given in Santamouris et al, 2017. Figure 43 presents the range of the potential maximum temperature drop of the ambient temperature, when several mitigation strategies and their combination are used, (Santamouris et al, 2017). Given the high intensity of the urban heat island in the Western Sydney, a number of mitigation scenarios has been defined and evaluated. The aim of the whole analysis was to identify the potential temperature drop in the area through the implementation of advanced mitigation technologies. Twenty one mitigation scenarios described in Table 7, are developed. The scenarios investigated the impact of cool pavements, cool roofs, global increase of the albedo, increase of the urban greenery and use of green roofs. All scenarios are evaluated using detailed simulation techniques. More information and details are given in the following chapter.

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( C ) ( ction Temperature Redu Temperature

Figure 43 : Range of the potential temperature drop of the maximum ambient temperature drop for several mitigation technologies and their combination, (Santamouris et al, 2017).

Table 7 : Description of the defined mitigation scenarios.

No Scenario Description

1 Reference Model. Global Albedo = 0,1. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

2 Global Albedo =0,2. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

3 Global Albedo =0,3. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

4 Global Albedo =0,5. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

5 Global Albedo =0,7. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

6 Albedo of Streets =0,2. Albedo of Pavements and Roofs =0,1 : Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

7 Albedo of Streets =0,3. Albedo of Pavements and Roofs =0,1. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

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8 Albedo of Streets =0,5. Albedo of Pavements and Roofs =0,1. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

9 Albedo of Streets =0,7. Albedo of Pavements and Roofs =0,1. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

10 Albedo of Pavements =0,2. Albedo of Streets and Roofs =0,1. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

11 Albedo of Pavements =0,3. Albedo of Streets and Roofs =0,1. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

12 Albedo of Pavements =0,5. Albedo of Streets and Roofs =0,1. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

13 Albedo of Pavements =0,7. Albedo of Streets and Roofs =0,1. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

14 Albedo of Roofs =0,2. Albedo of Streets and Pavements =0,1. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

15 Albedo of Roofs =0,3. Albedo of Streets and Pavements =0,1.Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

16 Albedo of Roofs =0,5. Albedo of Streets and Pavements =0,1.Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

17 Albedo of Roofs =0,7. Albedo of Streets and Pavements =0,1. Greenery = 5 % of the total pavements space

18 Global Albedo =0,1. Greenery 20 % of the total pavements space

19 Global Albedo =0,1. Greenery 40 % of the total pavements space

20 Global Albedo =0,1. Greenery 60 % of the total pavements space

21 Global Albedo =0,1. Green Roofs in all buildings

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7. Simulate the expected performance of the proposed mitigation technologies in terms of energy reduction of buildings, mitigation of urban heat island and improvement of the global indoor and outdoor environmental quality. Propose proper Adaptation Technologies.

The defined mitigation scenarios have been simulated to assess the potential temperature drop. Simulations have been carried out using the ENVIMET tool. The specific computer program is a detailed and accurate tool able to simulate the distribution of the main climatic parameters in the urban environment. The urban zone of Sydney shown in Figure 44 was selected to be the simulated case study. The area is located in the Sydney Municipality and is representative of the average density and characteristics of the city.

Figure 44 : Map of the area where the various mitigation technologies are simulated.

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Simulations are performed for a representative

warm summer day. The corresponding climatic data are taken from the Test Reference Year of Sydney. The Obtained results are shown in the following.

Reference Case- Existing Situation

The simulated distribution of the ambient temperature in the considered area of the reference scenario is given in Figure 45. The temperature at the street level of the open spaces vary between 25,5 °C to 28,5 °C. The average ambient temperature in the open spaces is close to 27,5 °C.

Increase of the Global Albedo Figure45. Reference Case : Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. The temperature distribution that corresponds to a global albedo of the area equal to 0.2, 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 are given in figures 46-49.

The calculated results indicate that for an increase of the albedo by 0,1 and 0,6, may decrease the maximum ambient temperature by 0,6 K and 3 K, respectively.

Increase of the Albedo of Pavements and Roads

The temperature distribution that corresponds to a global albedo of the area equal to 0.2, 0.3, 0.5 and

0.7 are given in figures 50-57. It is calculated that Figure 46 : Scenario 2 : Temperature distribution of the ambient the increase of the albedo by 0,1 to 0,6, can temperature in the selected area. Global Albedo =0.2 decrease the maximum ambient temperature by 0,4 K to 1,4 K.

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Figure 47 : Scenario 3 : Temperature distribution of the ambient Figure 49: Scenario 5 : Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. Global Albedo =0.3 temperature in the selected area. Global Albedo =0.7

Figure 48 : Scenario 4 : Temperature distribution of the ambient Figure 50 : Scenario 6 : Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. Global Albedo =0.5 temperature in the selected area. Pavements Albedo =0.2

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Figure 51 : Scenario 7 : Temperature distribution of the ambient Figure 53 : Scenario 9: Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. Albedo of pavements =0.3 temperature in the selected area. Albedo of Pavements = 0,7

Figure 52 : Scenario 8 : Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. Albedo of the pavements =0.5 Figure 54 : Scenario 10 : Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. Albedo of streets =0.2

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Figure 55 : Scenario 11 : Temperature distribution of the ambient Figure 57 : Scenario 13: Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. Albedo of streets =0.3 temperature in the selected area. Albedo of Streets = 0,7

Figure 56 : Scenario 12 : Temperature distribution of the ambient Figure 58 : Scenario 14 : Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. Albedo of the roads =0.5 temperature in the selected area. Albedo of Roofs =0.2

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Increase of the Albedo of Roofs

The temperature distribution that corresponds to a global albedo of the area equal to 0.2, 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 is given in figures 58-61. It is calculated that the increase of the albedo by 0,1 to 0,6, can decrease the maximum ambient temperature by 0,1 K to 0,6 K.

Increase of Urban Greenery

The temperature distribution that corresponds to an increase of the greenery to 20 %, 40 % and 60 %, are given in figures 62-64. It is calculated that

the increase of the greenery by 15 % to 55 % can Figure 59 : Scenario 15 : Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. Albedo of Roofs =0.3 decrease the peak ambient temperature by 0,3 K

to 1.4 K.

Use of Green Roofs

The temperature distribution when green roofs are installed ill roof the buildings located in the area, is given in Figure 65. As shown, the calculated drop of the peak temperature is close to 0,5 K.

Some Conclusions

The evaluation of the mitigation potential of the considered technologies, has shown that it possible to decrease the peak temperature of the ambient temperature up to 2,5 K. However, it is Figure 60 : Scenario 16 : Temperature distribution of the ambient more realistic to consider that the application of temperature in the selected area. Albedo of Roofs =0.5 the existing mitigation technologies can contribute

to decrease the peak temperature up to 1,5 K.

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Figure 63 : Scenario 19 : Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. Increase of the Greeenery Figure 61 : Scenario 17 : Temperature distribution of the ambient equal to 40 % of the space temperature in the selected area. Albedo of Roofs =0.7

Figure 62 : Scenario 18 : Temperature distribution of the ambient Figure 64 : Scenario 20 : Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the selected area. Increase of the Greeenery equal to temperature in the selected area. Increase of the Greeenery 20 % of the space equal to 60 % of the space

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Impact of Mitigation

Technologies on the Cooling Demand of Buildings

To assess the potential decrease of the cooling load of the buildings, revealed by the potential microclimatic improvements, the following procedure was followed :

a) All the defined mitigation scenarios have been evaluated for the whole duration of a typical summer Figure 65 : Scenario 21 : Temperature distribution of the ambient temperature in the day. Thus, a complete selected are when green roofs are installed in all roofs of the existing buildings. climatic file, including 24

hourly values was created. b) The developed climatic files were used as inputs to simulate the cooling load of the typical building defined in the previous chapter. Simulations were performed for a period of 10 identical days using the same daily climatic data. Calculations are carried out using the Energy Plus tool. c) The cooling load of the building, as simulated for each scenario is analysed. The results are given in Table 8.

As shown, the use of cool roofs in the area may decrease the total cooling demand of all buildings up to 19 %, while the use of green roofs may contribute to decrease the cooling needs by 6,3 %.

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Table 8 : Calculated Cooling Load of the considered typical building, under the 21 mitigation scenarios, and the corresponding energy conservation.

No Scenario Cooling Load,(kWh/m2) Energy Conservation (%)

1 2,35 2 2,28 -3,00% 3 2,21 -6,00% 4 1,94 -17,00% 5 1,89 -20,00% 6 2,34 -0,11% 7 2,34 -0,46% 8 2,32 -0,97% 9 2,31 -1,54% 10 2,34 -0,36% 11 2,34 -0,20% 12 2,31 -1,65% 13 2,29 -2,42% 14 2,3 -2,10% 15 2,24 -4,62% 16 1,9 -18,98% 17 1,9 -19,06% 18 2,34 -0,48% 19 2,32 -1,23% 20 2,29 -2,31% 21 2,2 -6,4 %

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8. Conclusions

The amplitude, the characteristics and the energy impact of the UHI in Sydney are analysed in details. In parallel, the climatic potential and the impact of several advanced urban mitigation technologies in Sydney, are assessed. Half-hourly climatic data from six meteorological stations located in the greater Sydney area are used to analyse the magnitude and the characteristics of the UHI in the city. The whole analysis is performed for the period 2005-2010. It is found that important temperature differences occur between the eastern and western parts the city. Both a strong UHI phenomenon and Oasis phenomenon are observed. The average maximum magnitude of the phenomena may reach up to 6 K. The patterns of the ambient temperature distribution in the city are found to depend highly on the synoptic climatic conditions and the strength of the advection flows. High intensities of the UHI phenomenon are associated with the existence of the sea breeze developed in the Eastern parts of the city, decreasing the temperature of the coastal zone, combined with westerly winds from the inland that heat up the western zones of the city. High intensities of the oasis phenomenon are associated with low wind speeds and a very weak development of the sea breeze in the coastal area. The important release of anthropogenic heat in the central and eastern part of the city, combined with the reduced heat absorption in the western suburbs intensifies the magnitude of the oasis phenomenon. High UHI intensities are mainly observed during the warm summer period while the oasis phenomenon is stronger during the winter and the intermediate seasons. Using data on the Cooling Degree Days calculated from 23 stations located in the major Sydney area, for the period 2014-2015, it is found that the development of the UHI in Western Sydney may have a very significant impact on the cooling energy consumption of buildings and also on indoor and outdoor comfort conditions. It is characteristic that the CDD in Western Sydney is almost three times higher than in the central and Northern parts of the city. A detailed analysis of the energy impact of UHI is performed. Using accurate simulation techniques it is found that the cooling needs of buildings in Western Sydney are about 72 % higher than that of buildings located in the Eastern part of the city. In parallel, it is found that it is almost 170 % higher than the cooling needs of similar buildings located in the green zones of Northern Sydney.

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In parallel, it is found that the peak electricity demand for cooling in Western Sydney is to about 108 % higher than in the Eastern part of the city. Such a significant penalty on the electrical power demand obliges utilities to build additional power plants while it has a very significant economic impact for the households of Western Sydney. The potential of several mitigation technologies, including the use of reflective materials, additional greenery and green roofs are simulated. It is found that the use of the advanced mitigation technologies may reduce the peak ambient temperature up to 2 K. The impact of the urban mitigation technologies on the energy consumption of buildings is assessed and it is found that their use may reduce the cooling load of buildings up to 20 %. The whole analysis revealed the importance of the local climate change and UHI in coastal cities. Coastal urban zones that benefit from the development of the sea breeze are more climate resilient and are characterized by lower ambient temperatures than inland urban zones located quite far from the coast. The possible existence of an additional heating mechanism in the areas like the advection of warm air from nearby spaces may intensify the strength of the problem. Urban planning considering the extension of coastal cities towards the inland parts of the cities should take into account the possible adverse climatic conditions and employ natural mitigation technologies able to dissipate the excess urban heat.

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Scientific Articles Produced The collaboration between the two research teams has resulted in the production of the following scientific paper :

M. Santamouris,* , S.Haddad, F.Fiorito, P. Osmond, L. Ding, X.Q. Zhai, R.Z. Wang: URBAN HEAT ISLAND CHARACTERISTICS IN SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA. AN ANALYSIS OF MULTIYEAR MEASUREMENTS, submitted for publication in the Journal Sustainable Cities and Society

A second article entitled: On the Energy Impact of Urban Heat Island in Sydney. Climatic and Energy Potential of Mitigation Technologies To be submitted in the same Journal

Visits and Future Collaboration The Chinese team has visited Sydney during November 2016, and the Sydney team has visited Shangai in December 2016. During the visits , the whole scientific project was discussed in details while both teams given public lectures. It is agreed that future collaboration will include the following : A) A common proposal to the cities of Sydney and Shanghai to study, demonstrate and evaluate the potential of urban mitigation technologies in real scale projects. The proposal is discussed between the two parts B) A common research project to be financed either by ARC or the Chinese Research Authority or both, aiming to develop new advanced mitigation technologies for cities.

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Santamouris M, N. Papanikolaou, I. Livada, I. Koronakis, C. Georgakis, A. Argiriou and D. N. Αssimakopoulos :' On the Impact of Urban Climate to the Energy Consumption of Buildings' Solar Εnergy, 70,3,201-216,2001.

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Santamouris M., C. Cartalis, A. Synnefa, D. Kolokotsa : On The Impact of Urban Heat Island and Global Warming on the Power Demand and Electricity Consumption of Buildings–A Review, Energy and Buildings, Volume 98, 1 July 2015, Pages 119-124, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.09.052

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Yoshikado, H., 1994. Interaction of the sea-breeze with urban heat islands of different sizes and locations. J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. 72, 139–143. Yoshikado, H., Tsuchida, M., 1996. High levels of winter air pollution under the influence of the urban heat island along the shore of Tokyo Bay. J. Appl. Meteorol. 35, 1804–1814

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ANNEX 1

Collected Temperature Data

Date Outdoor temperature (°C) WS.3 WS.6 WS.10 WS.5 WS.2 WS.1 WS.4 WS.7 WS.8 WS.9 13/10/2016 21.3 18.6 17 16.8 19.7 17.8 15.1 15.3 18.3 15.7 13/10/2016 19.5 18 17.1 16.1 18.8 16.4 14.9 15.1 16.3 15.5 13/10/2016 18.3 18.6 19.1 16.8 18.6 19.2 15.6 14.7 15.9 14.5 13/10/2016 21.2 19.3 17.8 17.1 17.5 20.5 15.5 16.2 18.9 15.5 13/10/2016 18.5 18.7 18.3 17.8 17 20.4 15.8 14.5 16.2 15.3 13/10/2016 16.4 18.8 18 16.8 16.4 18 16.1 15.1 15.2 14.3 13/10/2016 15.6 17.8 17 16.8 15.8 15.7 15.5 15.3 15.8 14 13/10/2016 15.1 17.4 16.5 16.1 15.1 14.8 15.4 15.5 15.9 13.4 13/10/2016 14.2 17 15.8 15.2 14.5 14.2 14.9 15.2 15.5 13.7 13/10/2016 13.5 16.4 15.2 14.8 13.9 13.7 14.7 15.3 15.3 13.4 13/10/2016 12.5 15.8 14.6 14.6 13.1 13.3 14.5 14.9 15.1 13.6 13/10/2016 11.4 15.3 14.2 14.4 12.2 12.4 14.5 14.8 14.9 13.6 13/10/2016 10.6 14.9 13.5 14.1 11.3 11.5 14.3 14.8 14.8 13.8 13/10/2016 10.2 14.6 12.8 13.7 10.7 10.4 14.1 14.7 14.8 13.9 13/10/2016 9.6 14.3 11.7 13.2 10.7 9.6 13.8 14.6 14.6 13.7 13/10/2016 9.4 13.6 11.1 12.5 10.3 9 13.4 14.3 14.4 13.7 13/10/2016 9 12.8 10.9 11.9 10.2 8.6 13 14.1 14.3 13.9 13/10/2016 8.7 12.3 10.6 11.4 10.1 8.3 12.3 14.3 14.3 13.9 13/10/2016 7.8 11.9 10.2 11 9.3 7.9 11.7 13.7 14.1 13.5 13/10/2016 7.4 11.5 10 10.7 8.7 7.6 11.1 13.1 13.7 13 14/10/2016 6.8 11.3 9.6 10.4 8.1 7.2 10.6 12.5 13.3 12.6 14/10/2016 6.4 10.7 9 10.3 7.7 6.9 10.3 11.4 12.8 12.3 14/10/2016 7 10.2 8.5 9.9 7.3 6.7 10 10.8 12.4 12 14/10/2016 7.3 9.7 7.8 9.5 7.1 6.5 9.8 10.3 12 11.6 14/10/2016 7.1 9.4 7.6 9.4 6.8 6.3 9.6 10 11.5 11.4 14/10/2016 6.6 9.1 7.2 9.1 6.6 6.2 9.5 10 11.3 10.8 14/10/2016 6.8 9.1 7.1 9 6.6 6 9.3 9.6 11 10.3 14/10/2016 7 9.3 6.7 8.8 6.6 6 9.1 9.2 10.8 10.2 14/10/2016 7 8.8 6.3 8.9 6.5 6.2 9 9.2 10.7 10 14/10/2016 6.9 8.6 6 8.8 6.7 5.8 8.8 9.1 10.5 9.8 14/10/2016 6.1 8.4 5.9 8.6 6.6 5.7 8.7 9.1 10.5 10.1

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14/10/2016 5.9 8.2 5.9 8.6 7.2 5.9 8.7 9.1 10.7 9.9 14/10/2016 7.4 8.1 6.7 8.9 13.1 7.7 9.1 9 10.4 9.7 14/10/2016 10.4 8.3 6.7 9.8 17.5 10 11.2 9 10.3 9.4 14/10/2016 13.1 8.8 8.8 11 20.1 14.6 15 9.3 10.2 9.5 14/10/2016 15.4 9.9 11 12 23 18 15.6 10.3 11 10.6 14/10/2016 17.6 11.6 12.4 13.1 23 17.9 18.7 11.5 11.9 12.3 14/10/2016 20 14.9 13 14.7 23.2 19 18.5 12.8 13.6 13.9 14/10/2016 19.7 16.1 14 16.1 24.2 19 19.5 14.5 15.3 15.7 14/10/2016 19.1 16.9 15 17.1 25 20.2 19.1 15.6 17.5 17.4 14/10/2016 19.3 17.5 16.6 18.1 25.7 19.5 19.6 16 18.9 18.3 14/10/2016 20.1 18.7 17.9 18.4 26.5 18.9 19.5 16.3 19.3 18.4 14/10/2016 22.5 19.4 18.1 19 26.6 19.4 19.2 16.5 19.4 18.8 14/10/2016 24.1 19.8 18.6 19.2 25.9 19.7 19.2 16.9 19.7 19 14/10/2016 25.5 20.5 19.4 18.9 25.3 20.8 20.1 17.3 19.8 19.1 14/10/2016 26.7 20.9 19.7 19.2 25.9 21.6 19.4 17.8 20 19.4 14/10/2016 27.5 21.6 20.6 20.1 25.5 23.2 19.8 18.1 19.2 19.4 14/10/2016 26.5 21.6 20.9 19.9 25.1 22.4 20.1 18.7 20.6 19.5 14/10/2016 27.9 22 21.7 19.8 24.4 23.9 20.3 19.7 21.1 19.6 14/10/2016 28.8 21.5 22.1 20.3 22.6 25.4 20.4 20.3 21.6 19.8 14/10/2016 27.3 21.4 22.9 20.1 21.4 25 20 20.7 22.1 20 14/10/2016 27.6 21.4 23.2 20.1 20.7 26 21.1 21.1 22.8 19.8 14/10/2016 26.8 21.5 21.5 20.1 19.9 24 21.2 20.5 24 19.7 14/10/2016 23.6 21.3 20.3 20.4 19.2 22.7 18.7 20.5 20.4 19.9 14/10/2016 20.2 20.7 19.6 19.3 18.5 18.3 17.9 19.8 19 18.5 14/10/2016 18.7 20 19.2 18 17.6 16.8 17.3 19 18.2 17.8 14/10/2016 17.3 19.5 18.6 17.3 16.8 15.8 16.8 18.2 17.9 17.2 14/10/2016 16.2 18.7 17.8 16.7 16.2 15 16.5 17.4 17.5 16.8 14/10/2016 15.2 17.7 17 16.4 15.6 14.6 16.3 16.5 17.2 16.4 14/10/2016 14.5 17 16.4 16 14.8 14.1 16.1 16 16.9 16 14/10/2016 13.7 16.5 15.8 15.6 13.9 13.5 15.9 15.7 16.8 15.9 14/10/2016 13.1 16.1 14.4 15.1 13.2 13.2 15.8 15.2 16.7 15.9 14/10/2016 12.4 15.7 13.5 14.6 12.6 12.5 15.3 14.8 16.6 15.9 14/10/2016 11.9 15.2 12.9 14 12.1 11.9 14.7 14.4 16.6 15.9 14/10/2016 11.2 14.9 12.4 13.5 11.6 11.2 14.4 13.9 16.3 15.7 14/10/2016 10.6 14.6 11.9 13 11.2 10.6 14.1 13.6 16.1 15 14/10/2016 10.3 14.3 11.4 12.7 10.8 10.1 13.8 13.5 16 15 14/10/2016 9.7 13.9 10.9 12.3 10.3 9.9 13.5 13.3 15.8 15 15/10/2016 9.4 13.8 10.5 12.1 9.9 10 13.1 13.1 15.7 14.9

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

15/10/2016 8.9 13.3 10.2 11.8 9.5 10.1 12.8 12.8 15.5 14.6 15/10/2016 8.7 12.8 9.9 11.3 9.2 10 12.6 12.5 15.2 14 15/10/2016 8.3 12.6 9.7 11 8.9 10.3 12.6 12.1 15.2 13.5 15/10/2016 8 12.2 9.5 10.5 8.7 10.1 12.6 12 15 13.3 15/10/2016 7.4 11.5 9.2 10.3 8.5 10.2 12.4 12.2 14.7 13.2 15/10/2016 7 11.3 9 10.1 8.4 9.1 12.2 12 14.3 12.4 15/10/2016 6.8 11 8.8 9.9 8.3 8.4 12 11.8 14.1 11.9 15/10/2016 6.3 10.4 8.7 9.7 8.3 8.2 11.6 11.5 13.7 12 15/10/2016 6 10 8.7 9.7 7.9 8 11.4 11.2 13.5 11.4 15/10/2016 5.8 9.9 8.2 9.7 7.7 7.9 11 11 13.2 11 15/10/2016 6 9.5 7.7 9.6 8.4 8.2 11 10.9 12.9 10.7 15/10/2016 7.7 9.5 7.3 10 14.5 10 11.2 10.6 12.7 10.5 15/10/2016 10.7 9.3 7.6 11.1 18.9 11.8 13 10.9 12.9 10.5 15/10/2016 13.4 9.9 9.9 12.2 21.3 15.7 14.6 11.6 13 12 15/10/2016 16 11.4 11.9 13.3 24.1 18.4 16.2 12.4 13.3 13.3 15/10/2016 18.2 13.3 13.3 14.4 24 20.4 19.1 13.3 14 14.2 15/10/2016 21.4 16.9 13.9 16 25.8 22.1 19.3 14.2 14.7 15.1 15/10/2016 21.9 18.5 15.1 17.6 27.2 23.3 20.3 15.4 15.8 16.2 15/10/2016 21.7 19.2 16.8 18.9 27.8 24.9 21.2 16.8 17.7 17.2 15/10/2016 22.2 20.3 18.8 19.9 29.4 25 22.1 17.9 19.5 18.7 15/10/2016 23.8 21.9 20.9 21.2 30.2 24 22.7 18.9 20.6 20 15/10/2016 26.1 22.7 21.9 22.3 30.8 23.9 23 20.1 21.8 21.4 15/10/2016 27.8 24.4 22.9 22.9 30.8 24.5 23.9 21 22.5 21.3 15/10/2016 29.5 25.1 23.8 23.6 30.5 26.3 24 22.1 22.4 20.9 15/10/2016 31.4 26 24.4 24.4 30.6 28.4 23.4 22.5 22.5 21.3 15/10/2016 31.7 26 25.3 25 29.7 30.8 23.5 22.5 22.3 21.5 15/10/2016 32.6 26.2 25.7 25.6 29.6 31.7 24.1 23 23.6 22 15/10/2016 33 26.8 26.2 26.1 29.7 32.4 23.9 24 23.8 22.4 15/10/2016 33.3 26.9 27 25.9 28.5 32.5 24 24.3 24 22.8 15/10/2016 34.1 26.7 27.5 25 27.4 32 23.6 24.2 23.8 22.9 15/10/2016 34.2 27.1 28.7 24.5 26.5 31.9 23.9 24.3 24.5 22.9 15/10/2016 34.3 27 27.3 24.1 25.8 28.9 23.9 24.1 25 22.8 15/10/2016 31.5 27 26.8 24.2 24.8 28 22.1 23.4 22.3 23.1 15/10/2016 27.1 26.8 26.5 23.3 23.6 22.6 21.2 22.6 21.1 21.8 15/10/2016 25 26.5 26.3 21.8 22.5 21 20.7 22 20.7 21 15/10/2016 23.6 26.4 24.7 20.8 21.3 19.7 20 21.1 20.4 20.3 15/10/2016 21.2 24.9 23.1 19.9 20.2 18.9 19.3 20.1 19.9 19.9 15/10/2016 19.4 22.9 21.8 19.3 19.2 18.3 19 18.9 19.5 19.5

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

15/10/2016 18.4 21.8 20.8 18.8 18.6 17.7 18.7 18.5 19.2 19.1 15/10/2016 18.2 20.9 18.7 18.4 17.5 17.2 18.5 18.3 19 18.9 15/10/2016 16.7 20.3 17.1 17.9 16.3 16.8 18.4 18.1 18.8 18.6 15/10/2016 15.7 19.9 16.4 17.6 15.6 16.3 18.1 17.7 18.5 18.3 15/10/2016 15.1 19.4 16.2 17.2 15.2 16 18 17.5 18.3 18.1 15/10/2016 14.3 18.8 16.9 17.1 14.6 15.9 17.7 17.4 18.1 18 15/10/2016 13.5 18.4 15.7 16.7 14.1 15.3 17.5 16.9 17.9 17.8 15/10/2016 12.8 18 14.9 15.9 13.7 14.9 17 16.3 17.7 17.6 15/10/2016 11.9 17.9 14.5 15.2 13.3 14.4 16.7 15.9 17.4 17.4 16/10/2016 11.4 17.3 14.4 14.9 12.9 14.4 16.3 15.5 17.3 17.1 16/10/2016 10.8 16.6 14 14.7 12.5 14.1 15.9 15 17 16.5 16/10/2016 10.4 15.8 13.2 14.4 12.1 14 15.9 14.7 16.8 16.1 16/10/2016 10.2 15.3 12.8 14.2 11.8 13.8 16 14.4 17 16.1 16/10/2016 9.8 14.9 12.6 14 11.6 13.7 16.1 14.4 17.4 16.3 16/10/2016 9.3 15.4 13 13.9 11.4 13.9 16 14.7 18 15.9 16/10/2016 9.1 15.3 12.8 13.8 11.5 15.2 15.9 14.9 18.1 15.2 16/10/2016 8.7 15.4 12.8 13.5 12 15.8 16.4 14.7 17.2 14.9 16/10/2016 8.4 16 12.8 12.9 11.5 15.8 16.5 14.7 17 15 16/10/2016 8.1 16.5 12.9 12.3 11.1 15.8 16.2 14.9 17.4 15.7 16/10/2016 8.1 16.5 13.7 11.6 11.7 15.6 15.9 16 17.4 16 16/10/2016 8.4 16.5 13.4 11.4 13 16 15.7 15.2 16.9 16.2 16/10/2016 10.2 16.7 13.1 11.9 19.4 17.3 16.8 14.6 16.5 15.8 16/10/2016 13.6 16.8 14.1 13.2 24 18.6 19.2 14.4 16.7 15.6 16/10/2016 17.3 17.4 17.1 15.8 27 22.5 21 14.7 16.9 16.4 16/10/2016 19.8 18.6 19.1 19.1 29.3 24.9 22.3 15.3 17.7 17.4 16/10/2016 22.4 20.6 20.2 20.9 29.4 26.1 25.6 16.9 19 18.4 16/10/2016 25.6 23.5 21.2 22.5 30.4 27.2 24.7 19.3 20.3 19.6 16/10/2016 26 24.5 22.2 23.5 31.4 28.1 25.4 21.1 21.7 20.6 16/10/2016 25.7 25.3 23.1 24.4 31.9 29.3 26 22.2 23.4 21.7 16/10/2016 26.3 25.9 24.2 25 32.5 28.3 26 22.8 24.5 22.6 16/10/2016 27.5 26.3 25.2 25.5 33 27.7 26.2 23.4 25.1 23.2 16/10/2016 30.2 26.9 25.7 26.1 33.4 27.6 26.9 23.8 24.6 23.2 16/10/2016 32.2 27.5 26.3 26.9 33.5 28.8 27.2 24.4 24.2 24.4 16/10/2016 32.9 28.8 27.5 27.6 33.5 30.1 27.9 24.7 24.7 24.3 16/10/2016 33.1 29.4 28.2 28.3 33.5 32.1 27.9 25 24.8 24.1 16/10/2016 33.7 29.7 29.1 29 33.5 33.8 27.7 25.6 25.1 24.2 16/10/2016 34.3 30.2 29.4 29.5 33.4 34.4 28.9 26.3 26 24.4 16/10/2016 34.9 30.3 29.9 29.8 33.1 34.3 28.9 26.8 26.2 24.2

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December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

16/10/2016 34.1 30.1 29.8 30 32 34.5 27.4 26.9 25.8 24.1 16/10/2016 33.7 30.1 30.5 29.9 30.6 34.5 26.9 26.3 25.9 24.2 16/10/2016 32.4 29.9 31.7 29.9 29.8 34.2 26.6 26.1 25.9 24.2 16/10/2016 30.5 29.8 30.3 29.9 28.7 30.9 25.1 25.7 26.3 25.9 16/10/2016 28.5 29.7 29.5 28.9 27.8 28.2 23.8 24.8 24 25.3 16/10/2016 27.3 29.1 28.4 26 27.3 27 23 23.8 22.5 23.2 16/10/2016 26.5 28.4 27.6 24.7 26.5 25.9 22.6 22.6 21.8 22.6 16/10/2016 25.5 27.9 27.1 23.8 25.6 25 22.3 21.3 21.7 21.7 16/10/2016 24.7 27.2 26.5 23.2 24.8 24.2 22.1 20.9 21.7 21.3 16/10/2016 24.3 26.6 25.7 22.9 24 23.5 22 20.7 21.5 21.1 16/10/2016 24.2 25.9 25.1 22.7 23.9 23.4 22.2 20.5 21.3 21.1 16/10/2016 23.6 25.3 24.5 23.3 23.7 23.4 22.8 20.3 21.1 21.1 16/10/2016 23 24.9 24.7 23.9 23.5 23.2 22.9 20.2 21.3 21 16/10/2016 22.7 25 24.4 24.1 23.4 22.9 23.1 20.2 21.5 20.9 16/10/2016 22.3 24.5 24.2 24.1 23.2 22.8 23.1 20.5 21.7 21 16/10/2016 22.1 24.2 24 24 23 22.6 23.2 20.4 22.2 21.2 16/10/2016 21.8 24 23.8 23.8 22.9 22.3 23 20.3 22.3 21.1 16/10/2016 21.1 23.7 23.6 23.4 22.6 22.1 22.5 20.3 21.9 20.9 16/10/2016 20.4 23.7 23.5 23.3 22.3 22.1 22 20.2 21.6 20.8 17/10/2016 20.1 23.6 23.2 23.2 22.1 22.3 22 20.4 21.5 20.8 17/10/2016 19.9 23.3 23 23.4 22.2 22.3 22.1 20 21.4 20.7 17/10/2016 19.9 23.2 23 23.5 22.3 22.3 22.4 19.6 21.1 20.5 17/10/2016 20.1 23.3 23.2 23.5 22.3 22.3 22.9 19.6 20.8 20.3 17/10/2016 20 23.3 23.2 23.5 22.2 22.3 23.2 19.7 21 20 17/10/2016 20 23.2 23 23.5 22 22.3 23.2 20.2 22.2 19.7 17/10/2016 20 23.2 22.9 23.4 21.7 22.1 23.3 21.4 22.7 19.6 17/10/2016 20.6 23 22.7 23.2 21.5 22 23.3 22.1 23 19.4 17/10/2016 21.5 22.8 22.4 23 21.2 21.8 23.4 21.3 22.4 19.7 17/10/2016 21.2 22.5 22.2 23 20.9 21.6 23.1 21.7 23 19.8 17/10/2016 22.3 22.3 21.9 22.7 20.6 21.4 23 22.6 23.1 19.8 17/10/2016 22.1 22.3 21.6 22.5 21.3 21.5 22.8 22.8 23 19.9 17/10/2016 21.6 22.1 21.1 22.7 22.2 22 22.7 22.6 23 20.6 17/10/2016 21.6 22.4 21.9 23.1 22.7 22.6 22.8 21.8 22.9 21.1 17/10/2016 21.8 23.2 22.8 22.9 22.5 22.2 23.1 21.5 22.6 21.1 17/10/2016 20.6 23 22.5 22.3 22.3 21.9 22.8 22.4 22.7 21.2 17/10/2016 19.3 22.5 22.1 19.3 20.1 19.4 20.4 22.5 23 21.6 17/10/2016 19.9 22.1 21.8 18.8 19.9 18.9 19.1 22.2 22.8 21.8 17/10/2016 19.1 20.8 19.3 19.3 19.9 18.8 18.5 19.2 20.8 21.4

82 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

17/10/2016 16.9 19.8 19.2 19 19 17.8 18.5 18.8 19.7 19.8 17/10/2016 15.8 20.2 19.6 18 16.8 15.7 18 17.7 18.5 18.7 17/10/2016 16.3 19.7 18.5 16.5 16.1 15.6 16.7 17.8 18.7 18 17/10/2016 16.6 17.6 16.1 15.7 16.7 15.9 15.9 17.4 18.2 17.7 17/10/2016 16 16.1 15 15.7 16.2 15.4 15.5 16.6 17.3 17 17/10/2016 16.2 15.9 15.5 15.8 15.6 14.7 15.6 15.9 16.6 16.4 17/10/2016 16.2 16.2 15.3 15.4 15.2 14.6 15.1 15.6 16.2 15.7 17/10/2016 15.9 15.6 14.6 15.2 14.9 14.3 15 15.5 16.2 15.4 17/10/2016 16.4 15.1 14.2 14.9 14.5 13.9 14.5 15.2 15.8 14.9 17/10/2016 17 14.9 13.9 14.7 15.2 14.6 14.6 14.9 15.3 14.6 17/10/2016 19.8 14.6 13.8 15.1 15.8 15.2 14.6 14.4 15 14 17/10/2016 21 14.8 14.4 15.9 17 19.8 15.2 14.4 15 13.8 17/10/2016 21.2 15.3 14.9 17.5 16.9 18.8 17.3 14.8 15.2 13.8 17/10/2016 20.2 16.6 17.3 17.8 17.3 20.4 17.4 15.6 16 13.8 17/10/2016 19.2 17.2 17.4 19 16.9 19 17.5 17.8 18.2 15.9 17/10/2016 18.3 17.8 17.7 18.1 16.3 16.6 17.5 17.3 17.5 16.1 17/10/2016 17.3 17.8 17.4 17.9 15.8 15.7 17.4 18.5 17.8 16.3 17/10/2016 16.1 18.2 17.4 17.3 15.4 15 17.2 17.8 17.6 16 17/10/2016 14.6 17.8 16.8 16.9 14.7 14.2 16.8 17.5 17.5 15.8 17/10/2016 13.3 17.3 16.2 16.7 13.8 13.3 16.4 16.9 17.2 15.6 17/10/2016 12.8 16.6 15.4 16.5 13 12.5 16 16.8 17 15.3 17/10/2016 12.7 16.1 14.3 16.1 12.2 12.3 15.6 16.1 16.7 15.3 17/10/2016 13.5 15.4 14 15.8 11.8 12 15.5 15.7 16.4 15.4 17/10/2016 12.6 15.1 13.9 15.8 11.5 11.7 15.3 15.2 16.2 15.1 17/10/2016 11.3 14.5 13.2 15.6 11.3 11.8 15.1 14.9 16.1 14.7 17/10/2016 10.5 13.7 12.6 15.5 10.8 11.3 15 14.7 15.9 14.2 17/10/2016 10.2 13.7 12 15.2 10.3 10.9 15 14.2 15.8 13.7 17/10/2016 11.1 13.2 11.7 14.4 9.8 10.8 14.9 14.5 15.7 13.4 17/10/2016 11 12.9 11.3 14 9.6 10.7 14.5 14.6 15.5 13.4 18/10/2016 9.8 13.2 10.7 13.7 9.4 10.2 13.9 14.4 15.3 13.5 18/10/2016 8.8 12.9 10.3 13.3 9.2 10 13.5 14 15 13.5 18/10/2016 8.5 12.1 9.6 13.1 8.9 9.6 13.1 13.3 14.8 13.3 18/10/2016 8 11.5 8.9 12.4 8.8 9.8 12.5 12.9 14.6 13 18/10/2016 7.4 11.1 8.4 12.4 8.7 9.1 11.9 12.5 14.5 12.6 18/10/2016 6.9 10.7 8.1 11.8 8.4 8.5 11.6 12.4 14.2 12.2 18/10/2016 6.5 10.3 7.9 11 8.1 8.1 11.4 11.7 13.8 12 18/10/2016 6.4 9.9 7.5 10.3 7.9 8.2 11.2 11.2 13.8 11.8 18/10/2016 6.3 9.8 7.5 9.8 7.8 7.9 11.2 10.9 13.5 11.5

83 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

18/10/2016 6.2 9.7 7.2 9.7 7.7 7.9 11 10.7 13.3 11.5 18/10/2016 6 9.7 6.9 9.9 7.9 8.2 11.3 10.5 13.1 11 18/10/2016 6.3 9.6 7.3 10 9.1 9.1 11.4 10.2 13.1 10.7 18/10/2016 8.2 9.6 7.9 10.9 15.2 11.7 12.1 10.3 13.2 10.6 18/10/2016 11.1 9.8 9 12.4 18.8 13.2 14.5 10.9 13.1 11 18/10/2016 13.9 10.9 11.2 14.1 21.6 17.2 17.8 11.3 13.6 12.1 18/10/2016 16.8 12.2 13.3 15.6 24 19.5 17.7 12 14.9 13.3 18/10/2016 19.7 14.2 14.1 16.6 24.6 20.6 20.4 14.7 15.7 14.3 18/10/2016 22.5 17.1 15.1 17.5 26 21.3 19.8 16.2 16.5 15.2 18/10/2016 22.2 18.9 16.2 18.1 26.7 22.4 19.8 16.9 17.3 16.2 18/10/2016 22 19.4 17.6 18.8 27.7 23.5 20.1 17.6 18.8 17 18/10/2016 22.3 20.3 18.8 19.5 28.2 23.5 20.6 18.2 19.9 17.8 18/10/2016 23.4 21 20.4 20.1 28.2 21.9 20.9 19 20.4 18.4 18/10/2016 25.1 21.4 20.6 21 29.4 22.4 21.2 19.5 20.6 19.4 18/10/2016 26.7 22.5 21.4 21.8 29.6 23.4 22 20.2 21.1 21.5 18/10/2016 27.8 23.6 22.9 22.9 29.8 25 22.8 20.8 21.7 21.6 18/10/2016 28.4 23.5 23.6 23.5 29.4 26.8 23.9 21.7 22.5 21.7 18/10/2016 28.2 23.9 24.3 24 28.9 27.7 24.4 22.7 23.4 22.4 18/10/2016 28.3 24.2 24.6 24.9 28.5 28.6 24.7 24.2 24.8 22.8 18/10/2016 28.9 24.5 25.5 25.1 28 28.3 24.8 24.6 25.7 23.6 18/10/2016 29.6 24.5 25.3 25.1 26.9 29.1 25.4 25.5 26.3 24.4 18/10/2016 29.2 24.4 26 25 25.4 29 24.9 25.9 26.7 24.9 18/10/2016 28 24.4 26.8 24.2 23.9 29.7 25.6 25.8 27.3 25.4 18/10/2016 25.2 24.4 25.4 24.8 23.5 27.9 25.3 25.6 28.1 27.2 18/10/2016 23.5 24.3 24.1 24.8 22.9 26.1 23.9 25.4 25.7 26.8 18/10/2016 22 23.8 23.6 24 22.1 22.7 23.4 24.9 24.5 24.5 18/10/2016 21.5 23.4 23.2 22.8 21.3 21.4 23.1 24.3 23.8 23.8 18/10/2016 20.8 23.2 22.6 22 20.3 20.4 22.1 23.6 23.3 22.8 18/10/2016 20.2 22.8 21.7 21.5 19.4 19.8 21.7 22.6 22.8 22 18/10/2016 19.6 21.9 20.9 21.1 18.8 18.8 21.1 21.5 22.3 21.4 18/10/2016 17.8 21.2 20.1 20.6 18.8 18 20.8 20.7 21.9 20.8 18/10/2016 16.4 20.7 19.4 20.3 18.3 16.8 20.2 20.1 21.5 20.4 18/10/2016 15.5 20.6 20 20.1 17.5 16.9 19.6 19.9 21.1 20 18/10/2016 14.9 19.6 18.4 19.6 16.6 17 19 19.5 20.7 19.5 18/10/2016 14.4 19.1 17.6 19.1 16 16.8 18.9 19.3 20.4 19.2 18/10/2016 14.6 18.9 17.4 18.5 15.8 16.4 18.9 18.8 20.1 18.9 18/10/2016 15.5 18.9 17.8 18.2 15.9 16.2 18.7 18.2 19.8 18.6 18/10/2016 15.3 18.7 17.9 18 15.7 16.2 18.5 17.2 19.2 18.3

84 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

18/10/2016 14.6 18.3 17.9 17.9 14.9 16.1 18.2 16.7 18.8 18.1 19/10/2016 13.4 18.4 18 17.4 14.3 15.9 18 16.4 18.7 18 19/10/2016 12.5 18 17.8 16.7 13.7 15.5 17.6 16.6 18.5 17.9 19/10/2016 12.2 17.5 16.7 16.1 13.5 15 17.3 16.6 18.8 17.7 19/10/2016 13.3 16.7 15.5 16 14.3 15.1 16.8 16.6 18.7 17.3 19/10/2016 13.6 15.8 14.3 16.4 14.5 14.8 16.7 16 18.6 16.8 19/10/2016 13.1 15 13.8 16.7 14.3 14.7 16.6 16.6 18.1 16.5 19/10/2016 13 15.1 14 16.6 14.6 15.4 16.6 16.3 17.7 16.6 19/10/2016 13.3 15.6 14.1 16.4 15.1 15.3 16.6 16.5 17.7 16.6 19/10/2016 14 15.8 14.6 16.2 15.2 15.2 16.4 16.8 17.6 16.6 19/10/2016 13.9 16.6 15.7 16.1 15 15.1 16.3 16.6 17.4 16.7 19/10/2016 13.6 16.5 15.6 15.9 15 14.9 16.2 16.4 17.1 16.5 19/10/2016 13.2 16.3 15.6 15.7 14.9 15 16.1 16.3 17 16.4 19/10/2016 13.4 16.2 15.5 15.7 15.2 15.2 16.1 16.1 16.9 16.2 19/10/2016 15.5 16.1 15.3 16 16.1 16 16.4 16 16.8 16 19/10/2016 17.8 16 15.2 16.5 20 17 18.4 16.1 16.8 15.9 19/10/2016 19.8 16.1 15.5 16.9 24.1 19.5 19.6 16.5 17.1 16.1 19/10/2016 21 16.7 16.3 17.7 25.5 20.1 22.1 17.3 17.8 16.5 19/10/2016 21.6 19.2 17.8 18.4 26.8 21.3 21.5 17.5 18.3 17.6 19/10/2016 21.8 20.4 18.5 18.6 27 21.6 20.8 17.8 19.1 18.1 19/10/2016 21.8 20.3 18.9 19 27.4 22 21.1 18 19.8 18.6 19/10/2016 21 20.2 19.6 19.5 28 21.6 21.2 18.4 20.9 18.9 19/10/2016 22.8 21 20.1 19.9 26.9 22 21 18.4 21.1 19.6 19/10/2016 24 21.8 20.3 20.4 26.6 21.6 21.4 18.9 21.5 20.3 19/10/2016 24.8 21.6 20.9 20.5 26.7 21.7 21.8 19.5 21.6 22 19/10/2016 24.5 22.2 21.4 20.8 27.6 21.5 22.2 20 21.8 22 19/10/2016 27.5 22.1 21.9 20.6 26.8 23.8 22.5 19.9 22.2 21.7 19/10/2016 28.4 22 21.4 21.4 26.7 24.7 22.9 20 21.9 21.9 19/10/2016 28.8 22.2 21.3 21.3 26.8 25 23.6 21.5 23.3 21.7 19/10/2016 28.6 23.2 22.8 22.2 26.2 25.6 24 22 23.3 21.8 19/10/2016 25.9 23.3 22.1 22.5 25.1 26.3 23.2 21.9 23.5 21.8 19/10/2016 28.6 22.8 23.8 21.8 24.3 25.5 22.2 21 24.2 20.9 19/10/2016 25.9 23.1 24.7 19.9 21.5 24.4 21.5 20.9 22.8 21 19/10/2016 26.9 23 23.8 19.9 19.3 23.1 21.1 20.2 21.9 20.8 19/10/2016 25 22.7 21.7 20 18.9 21.5 19.3 19.5 19.7 21.5 19/10/2016 20.8 22.7 19.9 19.5 18.1 18 18.6 19.4 18.7 19.7 19/10/2016 18.4 20.5 19.1 17.9 17.4 17.1 18.3 18.8 18.2 19.1 19/10/2016 17.2 19.8 18.3 17.4 16.8 16.3 17.5 18.2 17.7 17.8

85 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

19/10/2016 16.3 19 17.3 16.9 16.5 15.9 17.1 18.1 17.5 17.1 19/10/2016 15.6 17.8 16.8 16.6 16.1 15.5 16.7 17 17.4 16.7 19/10/2016 15 17.2 16.5 16.4 15.8 15.2 16.5 16.6 17 16.5 19/10/2016 14.4 16.9 16.3 16.2 15.3 14.8 16.4 16.4 16.9 16.3 19/10/2016 13.8 16.5 15.8 15.8 14.4 13.9 16.3 16.2 16.7 16.1 19/10/2016 14.2 16.3 15.2 15.5 13.9 13.5 16.2 16.1 16.6 16 19/10/2016 14.4 16 14.3 15.4 14 13.4 16.3 16.1 16.6 16 19/10/2016 14.6 15.7 13.7 15.4 14.3 13.3 16.2 16.1 16.6 16 19/10/2016 14.7 15.6 13.5 15.3 14.6 13.2 15.9 16.2 16.6 16 19/10/2016 14.7 15.4 13.5 15.1 14.4 12.9 15.8 15.9 16.5 15.9 19/10/2016 14.5 15.7 13.6 14.8 14.3 12.7 15.7 15.9 16.3 15.7 20/10/2016 14.3 15.8 13.9 14.5 14.1 13 15.6 16.1 16.3 15.9 20/10/2016 14.1 15.6 13.7 14.6 14.1 13.5 15.7 16.2 16.2 15.9 20/10/2016 14 15.6 13.7 14.7 14 13.9 16.3 16 16.4 15.9 20/10/2016 13.9 15.4 13.8 15 14 13.9 16.4 16.2 16.6 16 20/10/2016 13.7 15.3 13.8 15 13.7 13.5 16.5 16.3 16.7 16.1 20/10/2016 13.4 15.1 13.7 14.8 13.4 13.2 16.5 16.2 16.7 16 20/10/2016 13.3 14.9 13.7 14.6 13.1 12.9 16.3 16.3 16.8 15.9 20/10/2016 13.1 14.5 13.4 14.3 13.1 13.1 16.3 16.3 16.8 15.9 20/10/2016 13.1 14.2 13.1 14.2 12.4 12.4 16.3 16 16.6 15.9 20/10/2016 12.9 14.1 13 14 11.6 11.8 16.1 16.1 16.6 15.9 20/10/2016 12.9 14 12.4 13.6 11.5 11.9 16.1 16.1 16.6 16 20/10/2016 13.2 13.7 11.7 13.7 12.4 12.8 16.4 15.9 16.6 15.9 20/10/2016 13.3 13.5 11.6 14.2 13.7 13.9 16.8 16.1 16.7 16.1 20/10/2016 14.3 13.7 12.4 14.7 18.2 15.2 17.3 16.5 17 16.3 20/10/2016 15.7 14.1 13.3 15.8 19.8 19.3 18.8 16.8 17.4 16.4 20/10/2016 17.2 15.1 15.3 17.3 22.2 19.1 20.9 17.1 17.6 16.6 20/10/2016 19.3 16.1 16.1 18 21.9 21.8 20 17.7 17.8 17.1 20/10/2016 19.7 18.3 17.6 19.3 20.5 22.4 21.8 18.2 18.2 17.4 20/10/2016 20.7 19.2 18 19.7 21.5 22.9 22 19.1 18.9 18 20/10/2016 21.1 19.2 18.6 20.4 23.6 24 20.3 17.5 19.4 18 20/10/2016 21 20.7 19.6 20.4 22 23.3 20.9 19.3 20.6 18.6 20/10/2016 22 21.4 20.1 20.4 22.6 23.2 20.3 19.8 20.4 19.5 20/10/2016 23.5 20.8 20.1 20.6 23.4 22.4 21.3 20.6 20.5 20.2 20/10/2016 25.2 21.5 20 20.8 24.8 21.7 21.3 20.2 20.3 20.8 20/10/2016 24.6 20.8 20.6 20.8 24.5 22.6 21.2 21 20.5 21 20/10/2016 26.3 21.9 21.1 21 24.5 23.4 21.2 20.7 21 20.7 20/10/2016 26.4 22.1 20.8 21.9 23.7 25.6 21.3 21.7 21.4 20.9

86 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

20/10/2016 27.2 21.5 21.4 22.1 23.5 26.9 20.8 21.4 21.6 20.8 20/10/2016 27.1 21.5 21.5 21.3 22.4 26.9 20.6 21.3 22.2 20.5 20/10/2016 27 21.5 21.8 20.7 22.7 26.5 21.4 21.8 23 20.7 20/10/2016 28.4 21.7 22 20.5 22.3 26.5 21.5 21.8 22.8 21 20/10/2016 25.6 21.7 22 20.9 22 26.9 21.5 22.4 21.8 21 20/10/2016 23.7 21.6 21 20.8 21.2 24.1 22.1 22.4 23 21.2 20/10/2016 22.6 21.4 21.2 21.6 20.2 23.8 20.4 21.9 21.1 22 20/10/2016 21 21.4 20.6 21 19.8 19.7 20 21.9 20.3 20.9 20/10/2016 19.8 20.8 20.1 19.7 19.1 18.5 20.2 21.3 19.8 21.1 20/10/2016 18.7 20.3 19.7 19.1 18.6 18 19 20.8 19.5 20.1 20/10/2016 18 19.7 19 18.7 18.1 17.6 18.7 19.6 19.2 19.5 20/10/2016 17.7 19.1 18.6 18.5 17.6 17.5 18.6 18.6 19 19 20/10/2016 17.3 18.7 18.3 18.4 17.6 17.3 18.6 18.2 18.8 18.7 20/10/2016 17 18.4 18.1 18.3 17.3 17 18.5 18.3 18.7 18.6 20/10/2016 16.4 18.3 17.9 18.2 17.1 16.7 18.5 18.2 18.8 18.5 20/10/2016 16.3 18 17.3 18.1 16.7 16.2 18.3 18.2 18.8 18.5 20/10/2016 16.4 17.8 16.9 18 16 15.8 18.2 18.2 18.5 18.5 20/10/2016 16.3 17.5 15.9 17.8 15.3 15.3 18.2 18 18.4 18.6 20/10/2016 15.5 17 15 17.6 14.8 14.7 18 17.8 18.3 18.3 20/10/2016 14.5 16.6 14.6 16.9 14.2 14 17.7 17.6 18.3 18.2 20/10/2016 13.8 16.1 14 16.2 13.6 13.6 17.4 17.5 18.2 18.1 21/10/2016 13.2 15.6 13.5 15.6 13 13.3 17 17.4 18.1 18 21/10/2016 12.6 15.3 13.2 15 12.7 12.9 16.6 17.1 17.9 17.9 21/10/2016 12 15.1 12.9 14.6 12.4 12.6 16.4 17 17.8 17.8 21/10/2016 11.4 15 12.5 14.3 12.3 12.4 16.4 16.7 17.6 17.6 21/10/2016 11 14.7 12.2 14.1 12.1 12 16.3 16.5 17.6 17.4 21/10/2016 10.8 14.5 12.3 14.1 11.8 12.5 15.9 16.3 17.4 17.2 21/10/2016 10.4 14 11.9 14.1 11.5 12.4 15.9 16 17.1 17.1 21/10/2016 10.2 13.5 11.4 14.2 11.3 12.4 15.9 15.6 16.9 16.9 21/10/2016 10 13.2 11.1 14.3 11.4 12.5 15.8 15.1 16.6 16.6 21/10/2016 9.8 13.1 10.8 13.8 11.4 12.3 15.7 14.9 16.5 16.4 21/10/2016 9.8 13 11 13.5 11.5 11.9 15.4 14.9 16.4 16.2 21/10/2016 10.1 12.5 11.1 13.4 12.6 12.6 15.3 15.5 16.5 16 21/10/2016 11.5 12.5 10.7 14 17.2 14.4 15.4 15.7 16.4 16 21/10/2016 14.1 12.5 11.6 15.2 20.5 15.8 17.6 15.8 16.5 16.1 21/10/2016 16.6 13.4 13.6 16.5 23.9 20.8 19.5 15.9 16.8 16.5 21/10/2016 18.5 15 15.7 18 24.7 21.7 21.4 17.2 17.2 17.2 21/10/2016 19.6 16 16.6 18.9 24.5 22 21.4 18.4 18 17.8

87 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

21/10/2016 22.7 17.5 16.5 19.5 26.6 24.4 21.9 19.6 19.3 18.6 21/10/2016 22.7 19.4 17.7 20.4 27.8 26 23.5 20.4 20.7 19.7 21/10/2016 23.4 20.8 19.4 21.7 28.9 27.1 24.2 21 21.4 20.3 21/10/2016 24.3 22.8 21.1 22.7 29.4 27.5 24.5 21.7 22.8 20.9 21/10/2016 25.2 23.7 22.9 23.6 31 27.7 25.1 22.7 23.6 21.4 21/10/2016 27 24.4 23.4 25 31.7 28.3 25.1 23.4 23.5 21.6 21/10/2016 29 26 24.8 26.1 32.3 29.4 24.5 23.1 22.6 21.8 21/10/2016 30.9 27.8 26.4 26.9 32.4 30.4 24.4 23.3 22.2 21.8 21/10/2016 33 28.4 27.3 27.6 32 31.3 24.6 22.8 22 21.8 21/10/2016 32.2 28.8 28.2 27.9 31.4 31.7 25.4 24 22.2 21.8 21/10/2016 29.8 28.9 28 27.8 30.1 29.7 25.4 24.7 23.3 22.2 21/10/2016 29.5 29.3 28.9 27.8 30.4 29.6 24.3 26 24.1 23 21/10/2016 28.8 28.5 28 28 29.7 28.9 25 23.8 23.1 23.3 21/10/2016 29.1 29 28.5 27.4 29.3 28.7 24.4 23.3 23 22.7 21/10/2016 29.3 28.5 28 26.4 29.3 31.7 23.9 23 23.3 22.8 21/10/2016 28 28.3 27.9 25.9 28.4 27.6 24.8 22.6 22.7 22.5 21/10/2016 28.7 29 28.7 25 27.9 25.7 23.2 23.1 22.6 22.2 21/10/2016 27.5 28.6 27.8 24.4 26.6 24.9 23.1 23.3 22.1 22.5 21/10/2016 26.2 28.1 27.5 23.9 25.1 23.8 23.4 22 21.6 21.9 21/10/2016 25.2 28.2 27.6 23.4 24 22.8 23.2 21.7 22 21.4 21/10/2016 24.6 27.5 25.3 23.1 23.4 22.5 22.6 21.5 22.3 21.2 21/10/2016 24.3 25.3 24 22.9 23.1 22.3 22.4 20.9 21.8 21.1 21/10/2016 23.9 24.1 23.7 22.7 23 22.3 22.4 20.6 21.4 21 21/10/2016 23.8 23.9 23.4 22.7 23 22.4 22.5 20.6 21.3 20.9 21/10/2016 22.5 24 23.7 22.7 23.2 22.3 22.4 20.7 21.1 20.9 21/10/2016 20.2 24.3 24.2 23 20.4 19.2 22.6 20.6 21 20.9 21/10/2016 20 24.4 23.9 20.5 18.7 18 20.7 20.5 20.9 20.9 21/10/2016 19.7 20.6 19.8 19.6 18.1 17.8 19.3 21.4 21.8 20.8 21/10/2016 19.2 19.2 18.3 19.3 18.1 17.9 19.3 20.1 20.5 20.3 21/10/2016 18.6 18.7 18.1 19.3 18 17.8 19.4 19.1 19.7 19.2 21/10/2016 18.2 18.6 18.1 19.3 17.8 17.8 19.3 18.6 20.5 19 22/10/2016 17.9 18.7 17.8 19.3 17.9 18 19.1 18.6 20.9 19.4 22/10/2016 17.8 18.2 17.7 19.4 17.7 17.9 19.2 19 20.6 19.5 22/10/2016 17.7 18.1 17.8 19.2 17.8 18.2 19.2 19 20.4 19.4 22/10/2016 17.6 18.1 17.9 19.2 18.1 18.3 19.1 19 19.8 19.4 22/10/2016 17.5 18.1 18 19.3 18.1 18.3 19.1 18.7 19.3 19.2 22/10/2016 17.6 18.4 18.2 19.3 18.2 18.3 19.1 18.3 18.8 18.7 22/10/2016 17.7 18.4 18.2 19.1 18.3 18.4 19 18.2 18.7 18.6

88 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

22/10/2016 17.5 18.4 18.4 19 17.9 17.9 18.9 18.2 18.7 18.6 22/10/2016 17.1 18.4 18.4 18.2 17.6 17.4 17.9 18.2 18.6 18.6 22/10/2016 16.9 18.2 17.7 17.5 17.1 17 17 18.2 18.8 18.7 22/10/2016 16.8 17.7 17.3 16.8 16.9 16.9 16.1 17.6 18.4 17.9 22/10/2016 16.8 17.2 16.9 16.3 17.1 16.6 15.8 16.5 17.5 17.6 22/10/2016 16.9 17.3 16.8 16.2 16.8 16.3 15.9 16.1 16.7 16.3 22/10/2016 17 17.1 16.8 16.2 16.7 16.3 16 15.9 16.4 16.2 22/10/2016 16.9 17.2 17 16.2 16.7 16.2 16 16.2 16.6 15.9 22/10/2016 17 17.4 16.6 16.3 16.7 16.1 16.1 16.5 16.8 16 22/10/2016 17.3 16.9 16.3 16.4 16.9 16.1 16 16.5 16.8 16 22/10/2016 17.5 16.4 16.3 16.5 17.1 16.2 16 16.4 16.7 15.9 22/10/2016 17.6 16.6 16.5 16.5 17 16.2 16.1 16.2 16.8 15.9 22/10/2016 17.9 16.8 16.6 16.2 17.2 16.2 15.9 15.7 16.6 15.8 22/10/2016 18.1 16.7 16.5 15.9 17.2 15.8 15.8 15.7 16.3 15.5 22/10/2016 18.7 16.8 16.7 15.8 16.8 15.2 15.7 15.6 16.3 15.5 22/10/2016 18.4 17 16.7 15.8 16.7 15.2 15.5 15.4 16.2 15.4 22/10/2016 20.6 17.1 16.5 15.2 15.9 15 14.7 15.5 15.9 15.2 22/10/2016 23.1 17.1 16.4 14.8 17.2 14.9 14.2 15.1 15.8 15 22/10/2016 24.1 17 16.1 16.2 19.5 16.1 15.2 14.6 15.3 14.5 22/10/2016 21 16.8 16.5 17 20.2 16.7 16.5 14.7 15.1 14.2 22/10/2016 20.7 18.3 17.1 16.5 18.9 17.3 16.4 15.7 16 14.4 22/10/2016 20.1 19 18.3 16.4 18.3 17 16.2 16.5 17.2 15.3 22/10/2016 21.5 19.6 18.1 15.6 18.8 17 15.9 16.2 17.3 15.6 22/10/2016 25.8 18.6 16.9 16.4 18 17.6 15.8 16.3 16.5 15.3 22/10/2016 25.8 17.9 18.1 16.6 17.8 18.8 17.5 15.9 16.5 15 22/10/2016 25.6 18.1 18 17 18 17.3 17 16 16.5 14.9 22/10/2016 20.3 17.6 17.1 16.8 17.2 16.4 15.8 17.2 16.9 15.3 22/10/2016 17.6 17.6 17.3 17.1 16.5 16 15.6 16.9 16.2 15.1 22/10/2016 16.2 17.8 17.4 17.1 15.6 15.3 16.6 16 15.5 15.4 22/10/2016 15.4 17.4 17.3 16.1 14.6 14.2 16 15.7 15.5 14.2 22/10/2016 14.5 17.2 16.3 15.4 14 13.9 15.1 16.8 16 13.7 22/10/2016 13.8 16.4 15.5 14.9 13.5 13.5 14.6 16.1 15.8 13.2 22/10/2016 13.3 15.7 14.9 14.4 12.8 13.1 14.1 15.5 15.3 12.9 22/10/2016 12 14.8 14.1 14 12.1 12.5 13.7 14.6 14.9 12.7 22/10/2016 11.4 14.4 13.6 13.8 12.2 12.1 13.2 14 14.5 12.5 22/10/2016 10.8 13.7 12.7 13.5 12.6 11.4 12.4 13.6 14.2 12.4 22/10/2016 11.2 13.3 12.2 13.5 12.5 11.5 12.4 13.2 13.7 12.3 22/10/2016 10.8 13 12.2 13.5 11.8 11 12.7 12.9 13.3 12

89 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

22/10/2016 10.4 13 12.5 13.2 11.2 10.7 12.8 12.7 13.4 11.8 22/10/2016 9.9 12.7 12.1 12.8 10.6 10.3 12.8 12.4 13.5 11.4 22/10/2016 9.1 12.1 11.6 12.4 9.7 9.9 12.5 12.7 13.5 11.1 23/10/2016 8.4 11.9 10.9 12.3 8.9 9.5 12.2 12.8 13.4 11 23/10/2016 7.9 11.5 10.4 11.9 8.3 9.2 12.1 12.7 13.1 10.9 23/10/2016 7.8 10.8 9.7 11.7 8.4 9 11.8 12.3 12.9 10.7 23/10/2016 7.4 10.3 9.4 11.5 9 8.5 11.4 12.1 12.9 10.6 23/10/2016 8.5 10 9.2 11.5 9 8.2 11.2 11.8 12.7 10.6 23/10/2016 9.5 10.3 8.6 11.4 9.1 9.1 11 11.6 12.4 10.4 23/10/2016 10 10.3 8 11.1 9.3 10 10.6 11.3 12.1 10.3 23/10/2016 9.4 9.8 7.8 11 9.4 10.2 10.3 11 12 10.1 23/10/2016 9.4 10.5 9.3 10.6 9.3 9.8 10.1 10.9 11.7 9.9 23/10/2016 9.8 11.1 10.8 10.2 9 9.5 9.8 11 11.3 9.8 23/10/2016 10.9 10.9 10.7 9.9 9 9.6 9.7 10.9 11 9.7 23/10/2016 10.9 10.6 10 10.2 9.6 10.2 10.2 10.8 10.8 9.6 23/10/2016 11.4 10.3 10.2 10.7 13.8 11.2 10.5 11 10.8 9.7 23/10/2016 13.3 10.4 10.3 11.5 14.1 11.9 11.9 11.1 11.1 10 23/10/2016 14.5 10.9 11.3 12.1 17 13.5 12 10.9 11.3 10.4 23/10/2016 15.7 12.3 12.4 12.7 18.4 13.8 12.7 11.4 11.8 10.4 23/10/2016 17.2 12.7 12.9 13.6 20.2 15.6 13.4 12.1 12.4 10.6 23/10/2016 18.3 14.1 13.4 14.7 22.1 16.2 14.8 12.6 13.1 11.1 23/10/2016 17.9 14.8 14.5 15.8 22.7 18 16.1 13.9 14.1 12 23/10/2016 17.6 15.3 15.6 16.4 22.4 18.1 16.5 14.4 16.1 13.2 23/10/2016 18.3 16.2 16.3 16.8 23.1 17.7 16.8 14.8 16.9 14.2 23/10/2016 19.4 16.9 17.1 17 23.7 17.4 16.8 15 17.3 14.7 23/10/2016 20.1 17.3 17.3 16.9 24.3 18.1 16.9 15.2 17.5 15.4 23/10/2016 21.3 17.9 18.1 17.1 23.5 18.3 17 15.4 17.5 16.6 23/10/2016 21.4 18.3 18.5 17.2 20.9 18.5 17.1 15.7 17.7 16.3 23/10/2016 24.1 18.2 18.4 17.2 20.9 19.3 17.1 16.1 17.6 16.2 23/10/2016 23.3 18.5 18.4 17.5 20.8 21.5 17.3 16.4 17.6 16.5 23/10/2016 23.4 19.7 17.8 17.4 20.3 20.4 17.7 17 18.2 16.4 23/10/2016 21.5 20.1 18 17.7 19.1 20.1 17.9 17.7 18.7 16.3 23/10/2016 20.8 19.5 18.2 17.3 19.1 20.4 18 17.5 19.2 16.4 23/10/2016 21.6 19.3 18.7 17 18 21.1 18.1 17.7 19.7 16.4 23/10/2016 21.1 19 20.1 17.3 17.4 22.4 18.3 17.5 19.7 16.5 23/10/2016 22.4 18.5 18.5 17.3 16.9 19.8 18.8 17.7 20.1 16.8 23/10/2016 19.1 18.4 17.8 17.6 16.1 19 16.7 17.2 18.6 18.3 23/10/2016 16.4 17.9 17.2 16.8 15.6 16.6 16.5 17.3 17.3 16.6

90 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

23/10/2016 15.5 17.6 16.4 15.8 15 14.8 17 16.9 16.6 16.5 23/10/2016 14.6 16.9 16 15.1 14.3 14.1 15.3 16.5 16.1 15.7 23/10/2016 13.7 16.5 15.2 14.7 13.8 13.8 14.8 15.8 15.7 15.1 23/10/2016 12.9 15.6 14.4 14.4 13.4 13.4 14.6 15.2 15.5 14.6 23/10/2016 11.9 14.9 14 14.2 13 13.1 14.6 14.9 15.2 14.3 23/10/2016 11.2 14.6 13.7 14.1 12.7 12.9 14.6 14.9 15.1 14.1 23/10/2016 11.4 14.3 13.3 14 12.4 13 14.5 15 15.1 14.1 23/10/2016 11.8 14.1 13.1 13.8 12.8 13.1 14.3 14.9 15.2 14.1 23/10/2016 11.7 14 12.9 13.8 12.9 12.9 14 14.9 15.3 14 23/10/2016 10.9 14 13.2 13.5 12.8 12.7 13.1 14 15 14 23/10/2016 10.4 14 13.1 13.4 12.7 12.6 12.6 13 14.6 13.6 23/10/2016 9.7 13.7 13 13.1 12.1 12.4 12.7 12.4 13.7 12.5 23/10/2016 9.4 13.5 12.8 13.1 11.7 12.6 12.8 12.1 13.2 12 24/10/2016 9 13.2 12.1 12.9 11.4 12.5 12.6 12.3 13.3 11.8 24/10/2016 8.8 12.6 11.4 12.6 10.8 11.7 12.5 12.6 13.4 11.6 24/10/2016 8.3 12.4 10.9 12.2 10.3 10.9 12.4 12.5 13.2 11.5 24/10/2016 7.6 12.2 10.5 11.8 9.7 10.1 12 12.6 13.2 11.4 24/10/2016 7.2 11.8 9.7 11.5 9.2 9.4 11.5 12.7 13.1 11.4 24/10/2016 6.9 11.4 9.1 11 9 8.9 11.1 12.3 12.9 11.5 24/10/2016 6.5 10.8 8.9 10.7 8.6 8.4 10.9 12 12.5 11.4 24/10/2016 6 10.5 8.6 10.4 8 7.9 10.5 11.5 12.3 11 24/10/2016 5.8 9.9 8.2 10.2 7.7 7.4 10.2 11.1 11.9 10.7 24/10/2016 5.7 9.7 7.9 10 7.4 7.1 10.1 10.6 11.7 10.5 24/10/2016 5.5 9.3 7.6 9.7 7.3 7 9.8 10.4 11.5 10.2 24/10/2016 5.9 9.2 7.4 9.7 8.4 7.6 9.7 10.2 11.4 9.9 24/10/2016 8.2 8.8 7 10.1 14 10.2 10.3 10 11.2 9.7 24/10/2016 11.1 8.8 8.1 10.8 17.6 10.8 12.8 9.9 11.1 9.7 24/10/2016 13.5 9.6 9.8 11.9 20.6 15.5 14.5 10.4 11.5 10 24/10/2016 15.5 11 11.5 12.8 22.5 17.1 16.1 12 12.2 10.6 24/10/2016 17.7 11.9 12 13.8 23.5 17.2 17.7 13.4 13 11.5 24/10/2016 18.8 14 13.3 14.8 24 17.5 17.6 13.9 14 12.4 24/10/2016 18.7 16.1 14.4 15.6 24 18.7 18.6 14.4 15.1 13.1 24/10/2016 18.9 16.5 15.4 16.3 24.7 19 18.1 14.7 16.8 13.9 24/10/2016 19.4 17 16 16.7 25 18.9 18 14.8 17.8 14.6 24/10/2016 20.2 17.9 16.9 17 24.9 18.6 18.1 15 18.1 15.2 24/10/2016 21.7 18.2 17.6 17.7 25.9 18.8 18.1 15.4 17.9 16 24/10/2016 22.8 18.5 18.1 18.3 25.5 20.2 18.5 16 18.1 17.2 24/10/2016 25 19.5 18.7 18.3 25.1 20.9 18.5 16.5 18.2 17.2

91 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

24/10/2016 26.3 20.1 19.7 18.4 23.6 21.6 18.7 17.1 18.7 17.1 24/10/2016 27.1 20.6 20.5 18.5 23.4 23 18.8 17.6 19.2 17.4 24/10/2016 28.3 21.2 21.1 18.8 23.5 23.6 19.6 18.2 19.6 17.3 24/10/2016 29 21.8 21.1 19 22.8 23.9 19.9 19.1 20.6 17.3 24/10/2016 28 22.2 20.7 18.8 21.9 23.9 19.7 19.6 21 17.3 24/10/2016 27.1 21.6 20.9 18.6 20.9 23.6 20 19.5 21.9 17.4 24/10/2016 25.9 21.3 22.2 18.6 19.9 23.8 20.4 19.5 21.9 17.4 24/10/2016 26.5 20.9 20.5 18.6 19 22.6 21 19.4 21.8 17.6 24/10/2016 23.3 20.7 19.8 19.2 18.3 22 18.4 18.7 19.9 19.2 24/10/2016 19.5 20.3 19.1 19.9 17.7 18.3 18.7 18.6 18.1 17.8 24/10/2016 18 19.6 18.7 18 17.2 16.8 20.2 18.6 17.9 18 24/10/2016 16.9 19 18.2 17.1 16.6 15.9 17.1 18.5 17.5 17 24/10/2016 15.9 18.6 17.3 16.6 16.1 15.3 16.4 17.4 17.2 16.3 24/10/2016 14.8 17.6 16.8 16.1 15.5 14.5 16.1 16.8 16.9 15.8 24/10/2016 13.9 16.9 16.2 15.6 14.2 13.7 16 16.5 16.7 15.5 24/10/2016 13.1 16.5 15.7 15.2 13.4 12.9 15.9 16.3 16.6 15.5 24/10/2016 12.4 16 14.8 14.7 12.8 12.4 15.6 16.2 16.5 15.4 24/10/2016 11.8 15.6 13.9 14.2 12.5 11.8 15.2 15.8 16.3 15.4 24/10/2016 11.1 15.3 13 13.8 12.2 11.6 14.8 15.4 16 15.4 24/10/2016 10.7 14.8 12.4 13.5 12 11.4 14.5 14.7 15.9 15.2 24/10/2016 10.3 14.4 12.2 13.3 11.6 11.4 14.3 14.1 15.8 14.7 24/10/2016 10 14.1 12 12.9 11.2 11.2 14.1 13.7 15.9 14.2 24/10/2016 9.7 13.7 11.7 12.6 10.8 11 13.7 13.5 15.9 14 24/10/2016 9 13.2 12.1 12.9 11.4 12.5 12.6 12.3 13.3 11.8 24/10/2016 8.8 12.6 11.4 12.6 10.8 11.7 12.5 12.6 13.4 11.6 24/10/2016 8.3 12.4 10.9 12.2 10.3 10.9 12.4 12.5 13.2 11.5 24/10/2016 7.6 12.2 10.5 11.8 9.7 10.1 12 12.6 13.2 11.4 24/10/2016 7.2 11.8 9.7 11.5 9.2 9.4 11.5 12.7 13.1 11.4 24/10/2016 6.9 11.4 9.1 11 9 8.9 11.1 12.3 12.9 11.5 24/10/2016 6.5 10.8 8.9 10.7 8.6 8.4 10.9 12 12.5 11.4 24/10/2016 6 10.5 8.6 10.4 8 7.9 10.5 11.5 12.3 11 24/10/2016 5.8 9.9 8.2 10.2 7.7 7.4 10.2 11.1 11.9 10.7 24/10/2016 5.7 9.7 7.9 10 7.4 7.1 10.1 10.6 11.7 10.5 24/10/2016 5.5 9.3 7.6 9.7 7.3 7 9.8 10.4 11.5 10.2 24/10/2016 5.9 9.2 7.4 9.7 8.4 7.6 9.7 10.2 11.4 9.9 24/10/2016 8.2 8.8 7 10.1 14 10.2 10.3 10 11.2 9.7 24/10/2016 11.1 8.8 8.1 10.8 17.6 10.8 12.8 9.9 11.1 9.7 24/10/2016 13.5 9.6 9.8 11.9 20.6 15.5 14.5 10.4 11.5 10

92 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

24/10/2016 15.5 11 11.5 12.8 22.5 17.1 16.1 12 12.2 10.6 24/10/2016 17.7 11.9 12 13.8 23.5 17.2 17.7 13.4 13 11.5 24/10/2016 18.8 14 13.3 14.8 24 17.5 17.6 13.9 14 12.4 24/10/2016 18.7 16.1 14.4 15.6 24 18.7 18.6 14.4 15.1 13.1 24/10/2016 18.9 16.5 15.4 16.3 24.7 19 18.1 14.7 16.8 13.9 24/10/2016 19.4 17 16 16.7 25 18.9 18 14.8 17.8 14.6 24/10/2016 20.2 17.9 16.9 17 24.9 18.6 18.1 15 18.1 15.2 24/10/2016 21.7 18.2 17.6 17.7 25.9 18.8 18.1 15.4 17.9 16 24/10/2016 22.8 18.5 18.1 18.3 25.5 20.2 18.5 16 18.1 17.2 24/10/2016 25 19.5 18.7 18.3 25.1 20.9 18.5 16.5 18.2 17.2 24/10/2016 26.3 20.1 19.7 18.4 23.6 21.6 18.7 17.1 18.7 17.1 24/10/2016 27.1 20.6 20.5 18.5 23.4 23 18.8 17.6 19.2 17.4 24/10/2016 28.3 21.2 21.1 18.8 23.5 23.6 19.6 18.2 19.6 17.3 24/10/2016 29 21.8 21.1 19 22.8 23.9 19.9 19.1 20.6 17.3 24/10/2016 28 22.2 20.7 18.8 21.9 23.9 19.7 19.6 21 17.3 24/10/2016 27.1 21.6 20.9 18.6 20.9 23.6 20 19.5 21.9 17.4 24/10/2016 25.9 21.3 22.2 18.6 19.9 23.8 20.4 19.5 21.9 17.4 24/10/2016 26.5 20.9 20.5 18.6 19 22.6 21 19.4 21.8 17.6 24/10/2016 23.3 20.7 19.8 19.2 18.3 22 18.4 18.7 19.9 19.2 24/10/2016 19.5 20.3 19.1 19.9 17.7 18.3 18.7 18.6 18.1 17.8 24/10/2016 18 19.6 18.7 18 17.2 16.8 20.2 18.6 17.9 18 24/10/2016 16.9 19 18.2 17.1 16.6 15.9 17.1 18.5 17.5 17 24/10/2016 15.9 18.6 17.3 16.6 16.1 15.3 16.4 17.4 17.2 16.3 24/10/2016 14.8 17.6 16.8 16.1 15.5 14.5 16.1 16.8 16.9 15.8 24/10/2016 13.9 16.9 16.2 15.6 14.2 13.7 16 16.5 16.7 15.5 24/10/2016 13.1 16.5 15.7 15.2 13.4 12.9 15.9 16.3 16.6 15.5 24/10/2016 12.4 16 14.8 14.7 12.8 12.4 15.6 16.2 16.5 15.4 24/10/2016 11.8 15.6 13.9 14.2 12.5 11.8 15.2 15.8 16.3 15.4 24/10/2016 11.1 15.3 13 13.8 12.2 11.6 14.8 15.4 16 15.4 24/10/2016 10.7 14.8 12.4 13.5 12 11.4 14.5 14.7 15.9 15.2 24/10/2016 10.3 14.4 12.2 13.3 11.6 11.4 14.3 14.1 15.8 14.7 24/10/2016 10 14.1 12 12.9 11.2 11.2 14.1 13.7 15.9 14.2 24/10/2016 9.7 13.7 11.7 12.6 10.8 11 13.7 13.5 15.9 14 25/10/2016 9.3 13.4 11.3 12.3 10.6 10.7 13.4 13.3 15.6 13.9 25/10/2016 8.9 13.2 11 12.1 10.3 10.7 13.1 13.1 15.3 13.7 25/10/2016 8.6 12.7 10.5 11.6 10 10.5 13 12.8 15 13.5 25/10/2016 8.3 12.4 10.2 11.3 9.8 10.5 12.8 12.5 14.6 13.3 25/10/2016 7.9 12.1 10 11.3 9.7 10.6 12.8 12.3 14.4 13

93 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

25/10/2016 7.5 12 9.9 10.9 9.5 10.4 12.4 12.1 14.4 12.8 25/10/2016 7.3 11.8 9.8 10.7 9.2 10.3 12.2 12 14.2 12.7 25/10/2016 7.2 11.6 9.7 10.6 9 9.9 11.8 11.8 13.9 12.7 25/10/2016 7.1 11.4 9.6 10.4 8.8 9.4 11.6 11.7 13.7 12.5 25/10/2016 6.6 11.1 9.4 10.3 8.7 9.1 11.3 11.4 13.4 12.4 25/10/2016 6.5 10.7 9.1 10 8.7 9.1 11.1 11.1 13.1 12.1 25/10/2016 6.9 10.7 9 10.2 9.8 10 11.3 10.9 13.1 11.9 25/10/2016 9.2 10.6 8.9 11.1 15.3 12.4 12.1 10.9 13.5 11.8 25/10/2016 11.9 10.6 10.1 12.4 19.2 13.3 14.5 11.2 13.9 11.9 25/10/2016 14.2 11 11.8 13.5 22.4 17.8 16.3 11.8 14.4 12.5 25/10/2016 16.5 12.4 13.4 14.3 23.4 20.2 17.8 14.2 15.2 13.5 25/10/2016 18.7 13.8 13.9 15.6 24 21.5 19.1 15.6 15.9 14.4 25/10/2016 20.9 15.6 14.5 17 24.8 22 19.7 16.3 16.6 15.5 25/10/2016 21.7 17.8 15.8 18.3 26.2 23 20.7 17.2 17.5 16.4 25/10/2016 22.2 18.6 17.1 19.2 27.4 24.2 21.1 18 19.2 17.2 25/10/2016 22.3 19.6 18.6 19.8 28.4 24.3 21.9 18.9 20.6 17.9 25/10/2016 23.1 21 20.1 20.5 29 23.8 22.4 19.5 21.2 18.4 25/10/2016 24.5 21.3 20.7 21.1 29.7 23.6 22.8 20.4 21.6 19.4 25/10/2016 26.8 22.4 21.7 21.9 29.6 25.1 23.2 21.1 21.7 20.6 25/10/2016 28.7 23.7 22.4 22.7 29.5 26.9 23.5 21.4 21.9 20.7 25/10/2016 30.1 23.7 23.3 23.6 28.9 29 23.1 22.6 22.2 20.3 25/10/2016 31 25.2 24.2 24 29.9 30.5 23 23.1 22.4 20.7 25/10/2016 32.4 25.6 25.5 24.3 30.6 31.3 23.7 23.6 22.6 20.5 25/10/2016 33.2 26.1 26.3 24.5 29.9 32.1 23.5 24.6 23.4 20.4 25/10/2016 33.8 26.2 26.8 24.4 29.3 32.4 23.8 25.3 24.1 20.4 25/10/2016 33 26.8 27.3 24.4 28.1 32.2 23.6 25.8 24.5 20.6 25/10/2016 33 26.8 29 24.5 27.2 32.5 23.6 25.1 25.2 21 25/10/2016 32.6 26.9 28.3 24.5 26.7 31.4 23.7 24.9 26.3 21.4 25/10/2016 31.1 27.2 27.6 24.8 25.5 29.6 22.7 24.4 24.1 22.7 25/10/2016 27.2 27.5 27.5 24.5 24.5 25.7 22.8 24.3 22.2 21.5 25/10/2016 25.4 27.6 27.3 23.1 23.5 22.9 24.6 23.8 21.5 22.1 25/10/2016 24 27.3 26.9 22.2 22.4 21.3 21.4 25.4 21.2 21.1 25/10/2016 22.8 26.9 25.6 21.3 21.1 20.2 20.5 21.9 20.9 20.7 25/10/2016 21.8 25.7 23.6 20.6 19.8 19.1 20.1 20.2 20.5 20.2 25/10/2016 20.8 24.7 21.5 20 19 18.2 19.7 19.5 20.1 19.9 25/10/2016 18.8 23.5 20.2 19.3 18.3 17.9 19.2 19.1 19.9 19.6 25/10/2016 16.9 22.1 19.3 18.6 17.4 17.6 18.8 18.9 19.7 19.3 25/10/2016 16.2 21.6 19.5 17.9 17 16.6 18.4 18.5 19.6 19.1

94 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

25/10/2016 15.4 21 18.4 17.2 16.1 15.7 17.8 17.8 19.1 18.8 25/10/2016 14.6 20 17.2 16.8 15.4 15 17.3 17.5 18.8 18.3 25/10/2016 14 19 16.1 16.6 14.7 14.4 17.1 16.9 18.8 17.8 25/10/2016 13.4 18.1 15.2 16.1 14.4 14.2 16.9 16.5 18.3 17.5 25/10/2016 12.9 17.3 14.6 15.6 14.1 13.7 16.6 16.3 18.3 17.3 26/10/2016 12.4 16.7 14 15.3 13.5 13.4 16.6 15.8 18.1 17 26/10/2016 12.1 16.4 14 14.9 13 13.4 16.4 15.5 17.8 16.7 26/10/2016 11.7 15.9 13.2 14.3 12.6 13.4 16 15.3 17.7 16.6 26/10/2016 11.7 15.6 12.9 14.1 12.2 13.4 15.6 15.2 17.6 16.4 26/10/2016 11 15.5 12.9 13.8 11.8 13.5 15.1 14.9 17.5 16 26/10/2016 10.2 15.3 12.7 13.5 11.5 13.4 14.8 14.6 17.2 15.7 26/10/2016 10 15 12.4 13.3 11.4 13.1 14.8 14.3 17.3 15.4 26/10/2016 9.6 14.6 12.1 13.2 11.6 12.7 14.5 14 17 15 26/10/2016 9.3 14.2 11.9 13.2 11.8 12.1 14.6 13.7 16.8 14.6 26/10/2016 9.4 13.8 12.1 13 12 12.3 14.8 13.6 16.7 14.3 26/10/2016 9.7 13.6 12.1 12.8 12.3 12.1 14.5 13.6 16.4 14.3 26/10/2016 10.7 13.4 11.6 12.9 13.5 12.8 14.5 13.7 16.1 14.3 26/10/2016 12.4 13.2 11.5 14 16.6 15.3 15.1 13.6 15.9 14.6 26/10/2016 15.1 13.6 12.6 15.7 18.1 17.2 17.6 13.9 16 14.9 26/10/2016 16.3 14.1 14.5 16.3 20 19.4 17.9 14.8 16.7 15.3 26/10/2016 18 15.1 15.7 17.4 21.6 21.2 18.7 16.7 17.8 16 26/10/2016 19.7 17.2 17.2 18.2 24.7 23.8 19.3 17.8 18.6 17 26/10/2016 22.4 18.6 18.1 19.4 25.9 24.4 21.6 18.7 19.6 17.7 26/10/2016 24.2 20.5 19.5 20.9 27.5 26.8 22.8 19.3 20 18.2 26/10/2016 24.2 21.3 20.2 22.4 27.4 26.4 23.6 20.7 21.7 18.9 26/10/2016 25 23.1 22.2 23 28.2 27.2 24 21.9 23 20 26/10/2016 26.8 23.9 23.2 23.7 30.5 28.3 24.3 23.3 24.3 21.1 26/10/2016 28 24.7 23.8 25 30.9 28.4 25.7 23.4 24.2 21.8 26/10/2016 29.6 26.3 25.7 25.5 32.1 29.4 26.4 24.2 24.6 21.6 26/10/2016 32 28 26.4 25.9 32 30.4 26.7 25.1 25.1 22 26/10/2016 34.4 28.4 27.8 26.9 32.6 31.5 27.2 25.4 25.3 22.6 26/10/2016 33.7 29.3 28.5 28.1 33 33.1 28.1 26 26 22.6 26/10/2016 30.9 29.6 29.4 28.1 32.5 31 27.8 26.3 26.8 22.8 26/10/2016 29.4 29.5 29.4 27.3 31.7 30.5 27.2 27.7 27.7 22.9 26/10/2016 29.3 29.9 29.5 26.5 30.6 29.5 25.9 28.8 28.2 23.3 26/10/2016 29.4 29.6 29.6 25.9 29.9 31.2 25.6 27.5 27.6 23.6 26/10/2016 29 29.3 29 26.2 29.2 29.9 25.7 26.1 26.4 23.3 26/10/2016 28.4 29 29.4 26.5 28.5 28.5 25.2 25.1 25.1 23

95 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

26/10/2016 31.3 29.2 28.4 25.9 27.8 27.5 24.5 25.4 25.2 23 26/10/2016 29.3 28.8 28 24.9 27.6 27.7 24 26.3 23.9 23.1 26/10/2016 27.4 28.5 27.5 24.6 26.9 25.2 26.2 24.1 23.5 23 26/10/2016 26.4 28.3 27.6 23.9 25.6 23.1 23.8 23.6 22.9 22.3 26/10/2016 25.2 28.9 27.4 23.2 23.5 21.7 22.9 23.5 23 21.9 26/10/2016 23.1 27.7 26.2 22.4 22 21.2 22.2 22 22.7 21.6 26/10/2016 20.9 26.4 24.6 21.7 21.1 20.9 21.8 21.3 22.3 21.4 26/10/2016 19.5 25.4 23.4 20.8 20.4 20.7 21.3 20.9 21.9 21.3 26/10/2016 18.6 23.8 21.8 20.1 19.4 20.6 21.2 20.2 21.6 21.1 26/10/2016 18.3 22.8 20.5 20.5 18.6 20.6 20.8 19.6 21.2 20.8 26/10/2016 17.5 22.3 19.5 20.6 18.1 20.5 20.6 19.4 21.3 20.3 26/10/2016 16.4 21.9 18.8 20.5 17.6 20.6 20.1 19.3 21.7 20.2 26/10/2016 15.8 21.8 18.4 19.9 17.5 20.7 20.3 19.7 21.9 20.1 26/10/2016 15.3 22.3 17.9 19.1 17.4 20.9 20.6 19.5 21.4 19.6 26/10/2016 14.5 22.5 18.6 18.7 17.5 21 20.5 19.6 21.5 19.1 27/10/2016 14.7 21.9 18.4 18.1 17.6 21 20.4 20 21.8 19.6 27/10/2016 14.4 20.8 17.7 17.6 17.3 20.9 20.2 20 22 19.5 27/10/2016 13.9 20.3 17.5 17 16.7 20.4 19.1 19.7 22 19.2 27/10/2016 13.4 20.7 17.3 16.3 15.9 19.9 18.4 19.5 22 19 27/10/2016 13.1 19.9 17 15.6 15.3 19.6 17.8 19.1 21.8 18.6 27/10/2016 12.8 20 16.8 15.2 14.9 19.3 17.5 18.6 21.8 18.1 27/10/2016 12.4 20.5 16.9 15.1 14.7 18.9 17.2 18.3 21.6 17.7 27/10/2016 12.1 19.5 16.8 15 15.2 18.9 17.6 17.5 21.1 17.4 27/10/2016 11.8 18.4 16.1 15.2 15.3 18.4 17.4 16.9 20.4 17.6 27/10/2016 11.4 17.7 16 15.9 15.1 17.1 18.3 17.4 19.8 17.7 27/10/2016 11.5 17.2 15.5 16.7 15.2 16.8 18.2 18.2 19.3 17.7 27/10/2016 12.5 16.8 14.6 17.4 16.6 17.7 18.2 18.4 19.2 18.3 27/10/2016 14.6 16.7 15.4 18.2 20.4 19 18.6 18.2 18.8 18.5 27/10/2016 17.3 17 17.1 18.9 22.4 19.3 20.1 18.4 18.9 18.6 27/10/2016 19.9 17.8 18.2 19.5 24 20 20.3 18.9 19.2 19 27/10/2016 21.7 19.4 19.2 20.2 23.5 21.2 20.9 19.4 19.7 19.3 27/10/2016 23 21.6 19.8 20.5 22.7 22.1 21.2 19.5 20 19.6 27/10/2016 24.1 22.2 20.4 21 24 22.3 20.7 19.8 20.7 20.1 27/10/2016 24.4 23.9 21.2 21.4 25 24.4 20.8 20.1 21.5 20.5 27/10/2016 24.8 24.5 22 21.6 24.8 24.3 21.4 20.5 21 20.4 27/10/2016 25.2 24.8 21.9 21.1 24.3 23.5 22.5 20.4 21.1 20.5 27/10/2016 25.6 24.9 22.5 21.3 25.5 23 22.3 20.7 21.4 20.3 27/10/2016 25.5 25.6 22.5 21.4 25.2 23.2 22.1 20.7 21.6 20.5

96 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

27/10/2016 25.4 25.7 22.6 21.3 24.7 23.1 21.8 20.5 21.3 20.7 27/10/2016 26.7 25.7 22.3 21.4 24.3 24.2 21.7 20.3 20.8 20.8 27/10/2016 25.2 24.6 22.5 21.5 24.6 23.1 21.3 20.1 20.5 20.6 27/10/2016 23.8 25 22.6 21.5 23.7 22.3 21.7 20.1 20.3 20.8 27/10/2016 22 24.5 22.1 21 22.2 21.8 21.4 19.8 20.3 20.5 27/10/2016 21 24.2 22.1 20.8 21.7 21.2 20.6 19.7 20.2 20.3 27/10/2016 20.2 23.5 21 20.1 20.4 20.3 20.4 19.5 19.9 20.2 27/10/2016 19.7 22.5 20.5 19.9 20 19.6 20.3 19.6 19.8 20 27/10/2016 19.3 22.2 19.9 19 19.4 18.9 19.3 19.3 19.7 19.9 27/10/2016 18.6 21 19.3 18.4 18.6 18.5 18.7 18.9 19.2 19.6 27/10/2016 17.9 20.6 19 17.7 17.8 17.6 17.5 18.6 18.9 19 27/10/2016 17 19.8 18.4 16.7 16.6 16.2 16.6 18.2 18.6 18.6 27/10/2016 16.1 19.1 17.6 16.2 15.8 15.6 16 17 17.9 18.2 27/10/2016 15.7 17.8 16.1 16.4 15.7 15.6 15.8 16.1 17 17.5 27/10/2016 15.3 16.6 15.4 15.9 15.5 15.4 15.9 16.1 16.4 17 27/10/2016 15.1 16 15.4 15.4 15.2 15.2 15.6 16.3 16.3 16.7 27/10/2016 15 16.2 15.1 15.2 14.9 14.8 15 16 16.4 16.6 27/10/2016 14.9 15.8 15.1 14.8 14.7 14.6 14.9 15.4 15.7 16.2 27/10/2016 14.7 15.8 14.7 15 14.7 14.5 14.8 15.1 15.4 15.7 27/10/2016 14.5 15.5 14.5 15.3 14.9 14.5 15.1 14.9 15.1 15.3 27/10/2016 14.4 15.1 14.4 15.5 15.1 14.4 15.3 15.3 15.1 15 27/10/2016 14.3 15 14.4 15.6 15 14.4 15.4 15.6 15.4 14.9 27/10/2016 14 15.1 14.4 15.7 14.7 14.4 15.5 15.5 15.4 15 27/10/2016 13.7 15.2 14.6 15.8 14.5 14.3 15.7 14.2 15.6 15 27/10/2016 13.6 15 14.2 15.9 14.4 14.2 15.8 13.4 15.8 15.1 28/10/2016 13.6 14.6 14 15.5 14.4 14.2 16 13.5 16 15.1 28/10/2016 13.6 14.5 14 15.3 14.4 14.2 16 13.8 16.1 15.2 28/10/2016 13.7 14.3 14 15.2 14.3 14.2 16 14.1 16.2 15.2 28/10/2016 13.6 14.3 13.8 15 14.3 14.1 16 14.2 16.2 15.3 28/10/2016 13.4 14.3 13.8 15 14.3 14 15.8 14.4 16.3 15.4 28/10/2016 13.2 14.3 13.9 15.2 14.3 13.9 15.7 14.8 16.4 15.5 28/10/2016 13.1 14.3 13.9 14.9 14.2 13.8 15.7 14.7 16.1 15.5 28/10/2016 13.2 14.3 13.8 14.8 14 13.8 15.6 14.7 16.2 15.5 28/10/2016 13.3 14 13.6 14.5 13.9 13.5 15.5 14.9 16.2 15.7 28/10/2016 13.4 13.9 13.5 14.2 13.8 13.4 15.1 15 16.2 15.7 28/10/2016 13.5 13.9 13.4 14.3 13.8 13.5 14.7 14.9 16.2 15.7 28/10/2016 13.6 14 13.4 14.4 13.9 13.6 14.7 14.6 15.9 15.8 28/10/2016 13.8 14.1 13.5 14.5 14.1 13.8 14.8 14.4 15.5 15.7

97 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

28/10/2016 14.1 14.2 13.6 14.6 14.4 13.9 14.9 14.2 15.5 15.4 28/10/2016 14.1 14.3 13.8 14.8 14.7 14.1 15 14.2 15.5 15.2 28/10/2016 14.3 14.5 14 15 15.4 14.4 15.4 14.3 15.6 15.1 28/10/2016 14.6 14.3 13.9 15.2 16.1 14.9 15.8 14.4 15.5 15 28/10/2016 15.7 14 13.9 15.4 16.2 15.2 15.9 14.7 15.7 15.1 28/10/2016 16.6 14.3 14.4 15.7 17.3 16 16.1 15 16.1 15.3 28/10/2016 17.4 14.8 14.7 16.3 19.3 17.9 17 15.3 16.4 15.6 28/10/2016 18.4 15.1 15.5 16.8 20.8 18.1 17.9 15.9 16.5 15.8 28/10/2016 19.9 16.1 16.6 17.6 20.8 18.5 18.2 16.5 17.3 16.2 28/10/2016 20.5 17.3 17.6 18.2 20.2 18.4 18.8 17.3 17.9 16.6 28/10/2016 19.5 18.1 18 18.1 20.1 18.5 18.5 17.6 18.5 17 28/10/2016 19.3 18.5 18 18.3 19.9 18.5 18.5 17.9 18.7 17.3 28/10/2016 19.3 18.2 18.1 18.5 19.8 18.9 18.3 18.1 18.9 18 28/10/2016 19.4 18.3 18 18.4 19.8 19.1 18.4 18.2 18.8 18.5 28/10/2016 19.5 18.1 18.1 18.4 19.4 18.7 18.4 18.4 19 18.4 28/10/2016 18.9 18.4 18.3 18.4 19.1 18.7 18.6 18.8 19 18.5 28/10/2016 19.2 18.8 18.4 18.4 19 18.7 18.6 18.7 19 18.8 28/10/2016 19.6 19 18.3 18.4 19.1 18.5 18.5 18.6 19.2 18.9 28/10/2016 20.1 18.8 18.2 18.5 19.4 18.5 18.5 18.4 19 18.5 28/10/2016 19.4 18.7 18.3 18.9 20.1 20.5 18.8 18.3 18.8 18.2 28/10/2016 18.8 18.9 18.6 19.7 19.6 19.5 19.1 18.2 18.9 17.9 28/10/2016 18.5 19.4 19.2 19 19 18.2 20.1 18.4 19 17.7 28/10/2016 18.2 19.5 18.7 18.5 18.8 17.5 19.3 19.4 19.1 17.9 28/10/2016 18 18.9 18.4 18.3 18.4 17.3 18.2 20.1 18.8 18.2 28/10/2016 17.9 18.6 18.1 18.2 18.2 17.2 18.1 18.4 18.3 17.8 28/10/2016 17.7 18.4 18 18.1 18.1 17.2 18 17.8 18.3 17.5 28/10/2016 17.2 18.2 17.9 18 18 17.2 18.1 17.7 18.3 17.4 28/10/2016 16.8 18.2 17.9 18 18 17.2 18 17.7 18.4 17.5 28/10/2016 16.8 18 17.8 18 17.9 17.2 17.3 17.8 18.4 17.5 28/10/2016 16.7 18 17.7 18 17.9 17.1 17 17.1 17.7 17.4 28/10/2016 16.6 18 17.7 17.8 17.7 16.6 16.9 16.8 17.5 17.3 28/10/2016 16.6 18 17.7 17.3 17.2 16.3 16.9 16.8 17.5 17.3 28/10/2016 16.4 17.9 17.4 17.1 16.8 16.2 17 16.8 17.3 17.3 28/10/2016 16.3 17.8 17.1 17.1 16.7 16.2 17 16.8 17.3 17.3 28/10/2016 16.3 17.7 16.5 16.9 16.7 16.3 17 16.9 17.2 17.3 29/10/2016 16.3 17.2 16.3 16.8 16.7 16.4 17.1 17.1 17.3 17.3 29/10/2016 16.3 16.9 16.3 16.8 16.5 16.4 17.4 17.2 17.5 17.4 29/10/2016 16.3 16.9 16.5 16.6 16.2 16.3 17.5 17.5 17.7 17.6

98 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

29/10/2016 16.2 17 16.3 16.5 16 16 17.6 17.7 17.9 17.8 29/10/2016 16.2 16.7 16 16.4 16 15.9 17.6 17.9 18.1 18 29/10/2016 16.2 16.2 15.7 16.3 15.9 15.8 17.4 18.2 18.2 18.2 29/10/2016 16.2 16 15.5 16.1 15.9 15.8 17.2 18.2 18.3 18.4 29/10/2016 16.2 15.9 15.6 16.1 15.9 15.9 17 18.1 18.3 18.1 29/10/2016 16.1 16 15.6 16.1 15.9 15.9 16.7 17.9 17.9 17.8 29/10/2016 16.1 16.1 15.6 15.9 15.9 15.9 16.4 17.6 17.5 17.8 29/10/2016 16 16.1 15.6 15.8 16 15.8 16.3 17.2 17.1 17.5 29/10/2016 15.9 16.1 15.6 15.8 16.1 15.9 16.2 16.8 16.8 17 29/10/2016 16.4 16 15.7 16.2 16.5 16.5 16.3 16.5 16.7 16.6 29/10/2016 16.9 16.1 15.8 16.9 17.8 17.1 16.8 16.4 16.6 16.5 29/10/2016 17.4 16.8 16.4 17.3 18.7 17.7 17 16.5 16.9 16.5 29/10/2016 17.9 17.2 17 17.4 19 18.5 17.6 17.7 17.5 17.1 29/10/2016 18.5 17.6 17.3 18 20.4 20.1 18.8 18.3 17.9 17.9 29/10/2016 18.9 18 18 19.2 23.6 22.4 21.1 19 18.8 18.5 29/10/2016 20.5 18.5 18.6 20.1 27.7 24.4 22.2 19.5 19.3 18.8 29/10/2016 22.5 19.5 19.8 21.4 27.7 25.2 22.6 20.3 20.7 19.1 29/10/2016 23.6 21.8 21.4 22.5 28.7 25.9 22.7 21 21.4 19.3 29/10/2016 24.9 23.2 22 22.6 28.9 26.5 23.5 21.9 22.3 19.8 29/10/2016 26.2 23.3 22.7 23.3 29.4 26.7 24 22.5 22.4 20.2 29/10/2016 25.4 23.3 23.4 24 28.6 26.6 24 22.9 22.7 21.3 29/10/2016 25 24.5 24.2 24.4 27.2 26 23.8 23.2 23.3 21.3 29/10/2016 24.9 25.1 24.9 23.4 25.7 24.1 23.4 23.5 23.6 21 29/10/2016 23.7 24.9 24.3 23 23.6 25.5 23.1 23.3 23.6 21 29/10/2016 22.8 24.7 24.2 24.1 24.7 25.9 23.9 23.5 23.6 21.1 29/10/2016 21.8 24.4 24.2 24.3 24 24.1 23 23.1 23.6 21.1 29/10/2016 20.8 23.9 23.4 24.1 23.2 22.5 23.2 23.6 23.9 21.2 29/10/2016 20.6 23.4 23.1 23.4 23 22.9 23.7 23.9 24.2 21.1 29/10/2016 21 22.5 22.4 22.5 22.9 22.2 22.5 24.2 24.9 21.1 29/10/2016 23.6 22.1 22 22.1 22.5 22 22 24.1 24.9 22.2 29/10/2016 22.3 21.2 21.4 21.9 22.4 24.6 21.8 23.2 22.6 22.9 29/10/2016 21.4 20.7 21.4 22.2 22 22.1 22.7 21.6 21.8 21.6 29/10/2016 21.1 21.6 21.9 21.4 21.8 21.2 21.6 22.1 21.7 21.1 29/10/2016 20.6 21.5 21.9 21.1 21.2 20.4 21 21.8 21.4 20.8 29/10/2016 20.4 21.3 21.4 20.8 20.6 19.8 20.7 21.1 21.1 20.6 29/10/2016 20.3 21.1 21.1 20.6 20.5 19.6 20.5 20.7 20.8 20.3 29/10/2016 20.2 20.8 20.7 20.5 20.4 19.6 20.3 20.4 20.6 20.1 29/10/2016 20 20.7 20.6 20.4 20.4 19.7 20.3 20.2 20.4 20

99 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

29/10/2016 19.9 20.5 20.5 20.4 20.3 19.5 20.4 20.1 20.4 19.9 29/10/2016 19.8 20.4 20.3 20.4 20.2 19.5 20.4 20.1 20.4 19.9 29/10/2016 19.7 20.3 20.1 20.4 20.2 19.6 20.4 19.9 20.4 19.8 29/10/2016 19.7 20.1 20.1 20.5 20.3 19.9 20.4 20 20.4 19.8 29/10/2016 19.6 20.2 20 20.5 20.3 19.9 20.5 20 20.4 19.8 29/10/2016 19.5 20.3 19.9 20.6 20.3 19.8 20.5 20 20.4 19.9 29/10/2016 19.5 20.3 19.8 20.5 20.1 19.3 20.4 20 20.4 19.9 30/10/2016 19.3 20.3 19.8 20.5 20.1 19.5 20.4 19.9 20.3 19.8 30/10/2016 19.3 20.3 20.1 20.5 20.1 19.5 20.4 19.8 20.2 19.8 30/10/2016 19.2 20.3 20.2 20.5 19.9 19.3 20.4 19.8 20.2 19.8 30/10/2016 19.1 20.3 20.4 20.4 19.6 19.1 20.4 19.9 20.3 19.9 30/10/2016 18.8 20.3 20.2 20.3 19.1 18.4 20.3 20 20.3 19.9 30/10/2016 18.4 20.3 19.9 19.9 18.8 18.1 20 19.9 20.3 20 30/10/2016 17.6 20.2 19.7 19.4 19 18.1 19.7 19.9 20.3 20 30/10/2016 17 20.2 19.7 19 19.1 17.8 19.4 19.7 20.1 19.9 30/10/2016 16.4 20.1 19.8 18.6 18.9 17.9 19.2 19.5 20.1 19.9 30/10/2016 15.9 19.9 19.7 18.3 18.6 17.8 19 19.3 19.8 19.7 30/10/2016 15.6 19.8 19.4 18.3 18 17.5 18.6 19.1 19.5 19.6 30/10/2016 16.5 19.5 18.5 18.8 19 18.5 18.8 18.7 19.3 19.3 30/10/2016 18.1 19 17.7 19.5 21.8 20 19.6 18.3 19.2 19.1 30/10/2016 19.3 19 19.3 20.1 23.6 20.5 20.8 18.4 19.3 18.9 30/10/2016 20.7 19.9 20.3 20.7 25.4 22.9 22.1 19.1 19.6 19.2 30/10/2016 22.8 20.5 20.5 21.2 27.6 25.2 23.4 19.9 20.1 19.6 30/10/2016 23.8 21.7 20.9 22.1 27.8 25.6 23.8 20.9 20.6 19.9 30/10/2016 24.3 22.4 21.8 23 27.4 25.9 24.3 21.6 21.1 20.4 30/10/2016 24.5 23.1 22.5 23.7 27.2 26.3 24.7 21.8 21.4 20.8 30/10/2016 25.3 23.7 22.9 24.5 28.7 27.6 24.5 22.2 22.2 21 30/10/2016 26.1 24.2 23.8 25.3 28.6 27.2 25.2 22.7 22.3 21.1 30/10/2016 27.2 25.1 24.7 25.5 28.7 27.8 24.9 22.5 21.8 21.3 30/10/2016 27.6 25.1 25 25.6 29.6 28.4 25.1 22.9 22.3 21.7 30/10/2016 27.9 26 25.7 26.2 30.3 29.1 25 23 22.1 21.9 30/10/2016 28 27 26.7 27.2 30.2 28.8 26.5 23 22.2 22 30/10/2016 28.8 27.6 27.5 27.4 30.4 29.9 25.8 23.4 22.7 21.8 30/10/2016 28.2 27.9 27.4 28 30.6 29.1 26 24.2 23.5 22.2 30/10/2016 27.9 28.1 28.2 28 30 29 26.4 23.6 23.3 22.5 30/10/2016 27.9 28.8 28 28 29.3 28.2 27.4 24.6 24.1 22.7 30/10/2016 27.8 28.5 28 27.9 28.6 27.5 27.4 24.5 24.3 23 30/10/2016 27.9 28.3 27.9 27.5 28 26.9 26.3 24.5 24 23.1

100 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

30/10/2016 27.6 28.2 27.8 27.2 27.6 26.6 25 23.6 23.5 22.9 30/10/2016 26.1 28 27.5 27 26.7 25.7 24.1 23 22.8 22.6 30/10/2016 24.6 27.7 27.4 26.6 24.7 24.1 23.7 22.4 22.3 22.2 30/10/2016 24.3 27 26.7 25.5 22.8 22.8 23.9 22.1 22.3 22 30/10/2016 24 25.4 24.6 23.6 21.8 22.1 23.2 21.7 22.1 21.8 30/10/2016 23.7 24.4 24.1 22.9 21.5 21.3 22.2 22.1 22.6 21.6 30/10/2016 23.2 24.2 24.1 22.6 21.3 21 21.8 22.1 22.8 21.5 30/10/2016 22.6 24.1 23.7 22.2 21.2 21 21.6 21.8 22 21 30/10/2016 22.2 23.2 22.9 22 21 20.9 21.5 21.5 21.8 20.7 30/10/2016 21.8 22.6 22.3 22 20.9 20.8 21.5 21.4 21.7 20.6 30/10/2016 21.3 22 21.8 22 20.7 20.6 21.7 21.5 21.6 20.7 30/10/2016 21 21.9 21.5 21.9 20.8 20.7 21.8 21.5 21.6 20.7 30/10/2016 20.8 21.7 21.4 22 20.5 20.6 21.8 21.7 21.8 20.9 30/10/2016 20.7 21.7 21.5 21.8 20.2 20.4 21.7 21.9 21.9 20.9 30/10/2016 20.9 21.5 21.3 21.8 20.1 20.1 21.5 21.8 21.9 21 30/10/2016 20.5 21.4 21.3 21.7 20 19.9 21.6 18.1 21.7 21 30/10/2016 20 21.4 21.3 21.4 20.1 20 21.4 18.4 21.5 21 31/10/2016 20.1 21.4 21.4 21.5 20 20.2 21.2 19.3 21.6 20.9 31/10/2016 20.4 21.4 21.4 21.5 19.9 20.1 21.4 19.8 21.6 20.7 31/10/2016 20.5 21.3 21.2 21.6 19.4 19.6 21.4 20.2 21.5 20.7 31/10/2016 20.3 21.2 21 21.4 18.9 19.7 21 20.3 21.4 20.6 31/10/2016 19.6 21 20.8 21.3 18.7 19.6 20.7 20.4 21.4 20.5 31/10/2016 18.6 20.7 20.3 21 18.2 19.1 20.3 20.3 21.3 20.3 31/10/2016 18.4 19.9 19.8 20.8 18.4 19 20 19.8 21.1 20.1 31/10/2016 17.9 19.6 18.9 19.6 17.5 17.8 19.8 19.2 20.9 19.9 31/10/2016 16.8 19.4 19.2 18.7 16.8 16.9 18.7 19.5 20.6 19.7 31/10/2016 15.8 19.2 18.2 17.5 16.2 16.4 17.5 19.2 20 19.4 31/10/2016 15.1 18.2 17.4 16.4 15.7 15.7 16.4 18 18.8 18.5 31/10/2016 15.4 17.5 16.9 15.9 15.8 15.9 15.8 16.6 17.7 17.2 31/10/2016 16.6 16.9 16.5 16 19.2 16.2 16.3 15.7 16.7 15.9 31/10/2016 17.9 16.7 16.8 16.4 21.8 16 17.3 15.4 16.3 15.2 31/10/2016 19 16.7 16.7 16.6 23.6 19.5 17.9 15.5 16.4 15 31/10/2016 19.8 17.6 17.1 16.8 24.2 19.5 18.7 15.8 16.5 15.2 31/10/2016 20.7 18.3 17.3 17.2 24.8 19.6 19.5 16.2 16.7 15.4 31/10/2016 21.8 18.2 17.4 17.9 25.2 19.6 19.3 16.4 17.2 15.7 31/10/2016 21.8 19.8 17.9 18.4 26 20.5 19.9 16.6 17.9 16 31/10/2016 21.6 19.8 18.4 18.8 26.4 21.4 20 16.8 19.3 16.8 31/10/2016 21.5 20.1 19.3 19.1 27.4 21.5 20 17.3 19.9 17.3

101 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

31/10/2016 21.7 20.3 19.9 19.4 28 20.9 20.1 17.6 20.4 17.9 31/10/2016 23 20.3 20 19.7 28.2 21 20.3 18.3 20.8 18.8 31/10/2016 24.6 20.8 20.3 20.2 27 21.9 20.8 18.6 20.9 20.7 31/10/2016 26.2 21.7 20.8 20.5 27 22.8 21.3 19.3 21.3 20.3 31/10/2016 26.7 22 21.2 20.8 26.8 23.6 21.7 19.6 21.7 19.8 31/10/2016 27.1 22.1 21.7 21.2 27.3 24.6 21.7 20 22 19.3 31/10/2016 28.3 22.4 22.2 21.6 27.2 25.3 21.5 20.2 22.4 19 31/10/2016 28.2 22.5 22.6 21.8 26.5 25.4 22.7 20.3 21.2 18.8 31/10/2016 29.2 22.8 23.2 22.3 25.5 26 23.1 21.1 21.8 18.7 31/10/2016 28.7 22.5 23.6 22.2 23.6 26.5 22.2 21.1 22.3 18.9 31/10/2016 27.7 22.6 23.8 22.4 22.5 27.4 22.5 21.7 23 19 31/10/2016 29.9 22.5 23.7 22.4 21.6 25.2 21.4 21.7 23.7 20.4 31/10/2016 26 22.3 23.9 22.5 20.7 24.4 20.3 21.7 22.8 20.5 31/10/2016 21.8 22.5 22 22.6 20 22.8 21.7 21.5 20.3 19.2 31/10/2016 19.8 21.8 22.2 21 19.2 19.9 21.3 21.2 19.4 19.4 31/10/2016 18.5 21.5 22.6 20.1 18.4 18.5 18.7 21.7 19.1 18.3 31/10/2016 17.2 21 19.9 19.2 17.4 17.5 17.7 20.7 18.7 17.3 31/10/2016 16.6 20.2 19 18.2 16.6 16.2 17.2 18.1 18.4 16.6 31/10/2016 15.8 19.4 17.7 17.4 15.9 15.3 16.9 17 18.2 16.1 31/10/2016 14.3 18.8 16.2 16.6 15.1 14.5 16.5 16.6 18 15.9 31/10/2016 13.3 18.3 15.8 15.8 14.7 14.2 16 15.8 17.8 15.4 31/10/2016 12.6 17.9 15.6 15.7 14.3 13.5 15.8 15.1 17.4 15 31/10/2016 12.4 17.5 15.1 15.5 14.1 12.7 15.9 14.4 17.1 14.7 31/10/2016 11.8 17.1 14.8 15.2 14 13.7 15.6 14.1 17 14.5 31/10/2016 11.6 16.7 14.6 15 13.7 13.9 15.2 14.2 16.8 14.4 31/10/2016 11.3 16.3 14.3 14.6 13.4 13.4 14.8 14.9 16.6 14.3 31/10/2016 11 15.9 14.5 14.1 13 13.1 14.4 14.8 16.2 14.3 1/11/2016 10.2 15.4 14.2 13.6 12.8 12.7 14 14.7 15.8 14.2 1/11/2016 9.6 14.9 14 13.1 12.7 12.1 13.6 14.1 15.4 13.9 1/11/2016 9.3 14.5 13.5 12.8 12.4 11.1 13.3 13.8 15.2 13.7 1/11/2016 9 14.2 12.4 12.4 11.9 11.2 13.4 13.7 15.1 13.6 1/11/2016 8.7 13.6 11.8 12.3 11.1 11.2 13.4 13.5 15 13.4 1/11/2016 8.6 12.8 11.6 12.2 10.7 12 13.3 13.5 15.1 13.3 1/11/2016 8.8 12.6 11.8 11.8 10.8 12.4 13.1 13.4 15 13.3 1/11/2016 8.7 12.4 11.6 11.7 11.3 12.4 12.9 13.4 14.8 13.3 1/11/2016 8.4 12.1 11.4 11.5 11.2 12.2 12.4 13.1 14.5 13.2 1/11/2016 8.2 12.1 11.5 11.3 10.9 12.1 12.2 12.7 14.2 13 1/11/2016 8.5 12.2 11.2 11.1 10.5 12.1 11.9 12.3 13.8 12.7

102 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

1/11/2016 9.3 12.1 10.6 11.3 11.4 12.9 12.1 12.1 13.6 12.4 1/11/2016 11.1 11.9 10.7 11.9 16.3 13.5 12.8 12 13.4 12.2 1/11/2016 12.8 12 11.2 12.8 20.1 13.6 15.8 12.3 13.4 12.2 1/11/2016 15.7 12.7 13.1 13.6 23.2 16.4 16.6 12.8 13.6 12.7 1/11/2016 18.5 13.8 14.3 14.7 24.6 18.1 18.4 13.3 14.2 13.3 1/11/2016 20.1 15.4 15.2 15.6 24.6 18.4 19.5 14.9 15 13.8 1/11/2016 20.5 16.3 16.2 16.8 25.5 20.2 19.8 15.7 16 14.5 1/11/2016 21.2 17.8 16.8 17.8 24.4 21.1 20.5 16.4 17.3 15.4 1/11/2016 21.6 18.6 17.9 18.7 27.4 22.6 20.1 17.2 18.4 16.6 1/11/2016 21.7 19.6 18.5 19.1 27.5 24.4 20.5 18 19.1 17.5 1/11/2016 22.4 19.9 19.2 20.1 27.8 23.5 21.1 18.6 20.2 18.5 1/11/2016 23.7 20.9 20.3 20.7 29.1 23.7 21.7 19.1 20.9 19.8 1/11/2016 25.6 21.8 21.1 21.1 29.4 25.6 22.2 20 21.4 20.8 1/11/2016 26.1 22.6 21.7 21.7 29 26.1 22.3 20.4 22.2 20.4 1/11/2016 28.4 22.7 21.9 22.3 28.6 27.7 22.8 20.8 22.5 20.2 1/11/2016 30 23.5 22.9 22.7 28.9 27.2 22.2 21.2 21.9 20.7 1/11/2016 29.6 23.9 23.4 23.5 28.6 27.6 21.6 21.9 22.6 20.8 1/11/2016 28.8 23.9 24 22.2 27.4 29 21.7 21.7 22.2 20.6 1/11/2016 30.1 24.1 25 21.8 25.8 27.8 21.7 21.9 22.8 20.4 1/11/2016 32.7 23.7 25.5 21.6 24.1 27.4 21.7 21.7 22.7 20.2 1/11/2016 30.1 24.1 25.9 21.3 23 29 21.6 21.8 23.8 19.8 1/11/2016 31.5 24.2 25 20.9 22 26.2 20.6 21.9 25.8 20.9 1/11/2016 27.6 24.2 23.9 21.4 21.4 25.2 20.3 21.4 24.7 20.9 1/11/2016 23.4 23.3 22 22.6 20.7 23.3 20.9 21.3 20.5 19.5 1/11/2016 21.2 22.5 21.9 20.7 20 19.7 20.9 21.5 19.8 20.3 1/11/2016 20.1 21.9 22.9 19.7 19.2 18.4 19.2 21.8 19.6 19.6 1/11/2016 19.4 21.6 20.5 18.9 18.6 17.5 18.4 20.6 19.3 18.8 1/11/2016 18.7 20.5 19.5 18.4 18 16.8 18 18.6 19 18.3 1/11/2016 17.9 19.7 18.4 18 17.4 16.1 17.8 17.8 18.9 17.9 1/11/2016 17.1 19 18 17.5 16.8 15.4 17.6 17.2 18.6 17.6 1/11/2016 15.8 18.5 16.6 16.9 15.8 14.7 17.5 16.6 18.5 17.3 1/11/2016 14.8 18 15.8 16.5 15 14.4 17.2 16.2 18.4 16.9 1/11/2016 14 17.6 15.3 16.3 14.3 13.9 16.9 15.8 18.1 16.5 1/11/2016 13.1 17.2 14.7 15.8 13.7 13.5 16.7 15.6 18 16.2 1/11/2016 12.8 16.8 14.2 15.2 13.1 13.1 16.4 15.4 17.8 16 1/11/2016 12.6 16.4 13.6 14.7 12.8 12.7 16 15.3 17.8 15.7 1/11/2016 11.8 15.9 13.2 14.2 12.5 12.9 15.9 14.4 17.5 15.6 2/11/2016 11.2 15.5 12.9 14 12.4 13 15.5 13.7 17.3 15.5

103 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

2/11/2016 10.7 14.9 12.9 14 12.2 12.5 15.2 13.4 17 15.8 2/11/2016 10.1 14.4 13.2 14.1 11.8 12 15 13.1 16.8 15.7 2/11/2016 9.6 14.1 12.9 13.8 11.4 11.7 14.6 12.9 16.6 15.5 2/11/2016 9.2 13.9 12.1 13.3 10.9 11.3 14.2 12.7 16.3 15.3 2/11/2016 8.7 13.5 11.4 12.8 10.6 11.3 13.9 12.5 16 14.9 2/11/2016 8.4 13.3 10.8 12.6 10.4 10.8 13.7 12.3 16 14.7 2/11/2016 8.1 13 10.3 12.6 10.2 10.2 13.4 12.1 15.8 14.4 2/11/2016 8 12.5 10 12.5 9.9 9.9 13 11.8 15.5 14.2 2/11/2016 7.9 12.1 9.8 12.1 9.7 9.9 12.9 11.6 15.1 13.9 2/11/2016 7.7 12 9.5 11.7 10.3 10.6 13 11.2 15 13.7 2/11/2016 8.5 11.8 9.3 11.8 12.2 13.1 13.4 11.1 14.9 13.5 2/11/2016 11.5 11.7 10 13.2 17.3 14.1 14.8 11 14.9 13.3 2/11/2016 15.1 11.8 12.5 14.4 21.4 14.6 18 11.6 15.1 13.5 2/11/2016 17.8 12.5 13.4 15.7 25 17.8 19 12.3 15.5 13.9 2/11/2016 20.2 13.9 14.5 16.6 26.3 20.4 19.8 13.8 16.2 14.6 2/11/2016 21.9 16.3 15.9 17.8 27.3 21.3 20.9 15.3 16.9 15.3 2/11/2016 22.4 17.8 17.3 18.9 28.2 21.6 21.5 16.7 17.7 16.1 2/11/2016 22.9 20 18.6 19.8 28.9 22.7 21.9 17.3 19 17 2/11/2016 23.3 20.3 19.7 20.6 29.1 24 22.1 18 20.3 18.1 2/11/2016 23.3 21.5 20.8 21.2 29.9 23.5 22.4 18.7 21.3 19 2/11/2016 24.1 21.5 21.6 21.4 29.9 23.2 22.6 19.3 22 19.9 2/11/2016 25.8 22.1 21.8 21.9 30.1 23.3 23.2 19.7 22.6 21.2 2/11/2016 27.9 22.6 22.7 22.5 30 25.2 23.1 19.9 23 23.2 2/11/2016 28.5 23.7 23.1 22.8 30 26.1 22.5 20.4 22.6 22.9 2/11/2016 29.5 24.3 23.8 23.4 30.5 27.8 22.5 20.9 22.5 22.2 2/11/2016 30.5 24.4 24.2 24.2 30.8 29.1 22.6 21.3 22.9 21.8 2/11/2016 32.3 25.4 25.1 24 31.2 29.5 22.9 21.7 23 21.7 2/11/2016 32.4 25.7 26.1 23.3 30.6 29.6 23.1 22.2 23.5 21.5 2/11/2016 32.4 25.7 27.3 23.1 28.6 29.6 22.9 22.4 24.8 20.9 2/11/2016 33.2 25.8 27.9 22.7 25.8 28.9 22.7 22.9 25.1 20.5 2/11/2016 32.6 26.1 28.1 22.4 24.5 30.6 22.8 22.4 24.6 20.7 2/11/2016 35.1 26.4 27.4 22.1 23.3 26.8 21.8 22.5 26.5 21.6 2/11/2016 27.9 26.3 25.4 22.3 22.5 26 21.2 22.2 25.8 21.9 2/11/2016 24.1 25.2 23.7 23.2 21.6 23.7 21.9 22.2 21.4 20.3 2/11/2016 21.9 24.2 23.3 21.1 20.7 20.3 21.4 21.4 20.9 20.8 2/11/2016 20.7 23.4 24 20 19.9 18.9 19.6 21.2 20.3 20 2/11/2016 19.4 22.4 21 19.2 19.1 18 19 20.2 19.9 19.2 2/11/2016 18.4 21.3 20.1 18.8 18.6 17.5 18.6 18.8 19.6 18.6

104 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

2/11/2016 17.5 20.3 19.4 18.4 18.1 17 18.4 18.2 19.3 18.3 2/11/2016 16.5 19.5 18.8 18.2 17.6 16.3 18.3 17.7 19.2 18 2/11/2016 15.6 18.9 17.8 17.7 16.4 15.8 18.2 17.2 19 17.9 2/11/2016 14.9 18.5 16.7 17.1 15.4 15.2 18 16.9 18.9 17.8 2/11/2016 14.4 18.2 15.9 16.5 14.8 14.6 17.8 16.5 18.8 17.6 2/11/2016 14.1 17.8 15.3 16 14.4 14.1 17.6 16.1 18.7 17.4 2/11/2016 13.7 17.6 14.7 15.6 14.1 13.6 17.3 15.9 18.4 17.1 2/11/2016 13.4 17.2 14.4 15.2 13.7 13.3 17.1 15.6 18 16.7 2/11/2016 13 16.7 14 14.9 13.3 13 17 15.2 17.9 16.3 3/11/2016 12.6 16.3 13.6 14.7 12.9 12.8 16.8 14.9 17.8 16 3/11/2016 11.8 15.8 13.2 14.5 12.6 12.5 16.4 14.7 17.8 15.8 3/11/2016 11.2 15.5 12.8 14.2 12.3 12.3 16 14.6 17.6 15.7 3/11/2016 11 15.3 12.5 13.9 12 12.2 15.5 14.4 17.6 15.5 3/11/2016 11 14.9 12.2 13.6 11.7 12 15.3 14.3 17.4 15.4 3/11/2016 10.9 14.4 11.9 13.4 11.5 11.8 15.2 14.1 17.2 15.3 3/11/2016 10.2 14.1 11.6 13.1 11.4 11.6 14.9 13.9 16.9 15.3 3/11/2016 9.6 13.6 11.4 12.9 11.1 11.4 14.5 13.9 16.7 15.2 3/11/2016 9.3 13.3 11.2 12.9 11 11 14.2 13.7 16.4 15.2 3/11/2016 9.1 12.9 10.9 12.8 10.9 10.7 14 13.6 16.1 15.1 3/11/2016 9.6 12.6 10.6 12.7 11.2 10.9 13.7 13.5 15.7 14.9 3/11/2016 10.6 12.6 10.5 13 12.8 12.8 13.9 13.3 15.6 14.8 3/11/2016 12.7 12.4 10.3 13.5 17.9 14.3 15.4 13.2 15.6 14.6 3/11/2016 15.3 12.5 12.9 14.4 21.9 15.1 17.1 13.4 15.8 14.7 3/11/2016 17.8 13.1 13.8 15.6 25.3 20.3 18.6 14.1 16 15.2 3/11/2016 20.4 14.6 14.9 17.2 26.8 21.4 20.5 15.8 16.7 16.1 3/11/2016 22.6 16.8 16.2 18.7 28.2 23 22.3 17.7 17.7 17 3/11/2016 23.6 18.5 18 20.1 28.9 23.6 23.5 19.1 19 18 3/11/2016 24.3 21.2 19.4 21 30 25.4 22.3 19.6 20.3 19.3 3/11/2016 24.6 22.1 20.5 21.6 30.6 25.9 23.3 20.1 21.5 20.7 3/11/2016 24.6 23.4 21.7 22.1 30.6 27.4 23.4 20.5 21.1 21.5 3/11/2016 25.4 24.3 22.4 22.9 31.7 26.3 23.6 21.4 21.8 21.6 3/11/2016 26.9 24.9 22.9 23.3 31.7 26.3 24.2 21.9 22.9 22 3/11/2016 29 25.4 24.2 24.1 32 27.8 24.9 22.8 23.5 23.3 3/11/2016 31.1 25.9 24.7 24.8 31.5 28.8 24.9 23.8 23.4 23.2 3/11/2016 32.4 25.9 25.5 25.5 32 30.2 24.9 24.3 23.6 22.7 3/11/2016 32.8 26.7 26.3 26.2 32.3 31 24.6 24.8 23.9 22.4 3/11/2016 34 27.1 26.4 26.7 32.9 33.4 24.7 24.8 24.5 22.2 3/11/2016 35.3 27.6 27.4 26.9 31.9 33.5 24.8 25.2 25.4 22.1

105 | University of New South Wales

December 21, 2016 Urban Heat Island in Sydney

3/11/2016 35.5 27.5 27.9 25.9 30.9 33.5 24.2 25.3 25.6 22.2 3/11/2016 37.3 27.7 29 25.4 29.5 33.9 23.9 25.5 25.6 22.2 3/11/2016 35.4 27.7 29.8 25.2 28.3 33.5 24.9 25.4 25.9 22.3 3/11/2016 36.7 28.1 29.7 25.3 27.1 30.4 23.7 25.3 26.9 23.3 3/11/2016 33.4 28.3 30.7 25.2 26.4 28.9 23.2 24.7 26 23.9 3/11/2016 28.4 28.3 28.9 25.4 24.9 26 22.9 24.2 23 22.4 3/11/2016 25.2 28.3 26.9 23.3 23.6 23.1 22.2 23.6 22.5 22.9 3/11/2016 24 27 25.2 22.2 22.5 21.9 21.5 22.9 22 22.1 3/11/2016 22.8 25.3 23.9 21.5 21.6 21 21 21.9 21.6 21.4 3/11/2016 21.6 24.3 22.8 20.9 21 20.4 20.6 21 21.2 20.8 3/11/2016 20.6 23.2 22 20.7 20.8 20.2 20.4 20.3 21.1 20.4 3/11/2016 19.8 22.4 21.4 20.5 20.4 19.8 20.4 20 20.8 20.2 3/11/2016 19.3 21.9 20.9 20.3 20 19.3 20.1 19.8 20.7 19.9 3/11/2016 18.7 21.5 20.5 20 19.4 18.9 19.9 19.6 20.6 19.8 3/11/2016 18.2 21 20.1 19.7 18.7 18.3 19.6 19.4 20.4 19.5 3/11/2016 17.6 20.7 19.5 19.1 17.9 17.5 19.3 19.1 20.2 19.3 3/11/2016 17 20.3 18.6 18.8 17.4 16.9 18.9 18.8 20 19 3/11/2016 16.4 20.3 17.9 18.3 17 16.3 18.7 17.7 19.6 18.7 3/11/2016 15.7 19.7 17.5 18 16.5 15.8 18.5 17.2 19.3 18.4 4/11/2016 15.3 18.9 17.2 17.6 16 15.6 18.3 16.8 19.1 18.1 4/11/2016 14.8 18.6 16.7 17.2 15.5 15.2 17.9 16.7 18.9 17.8 4/11/2016 14.3 18.2 16 16.8 15.2 14.8 17.6 16.8 18.6 17.6 4/11/2016 14 17.5 15.5 16.5 14.8 14.8 17.2 16.6 18.4 17.5 4/11/2016 13.5 16.9 15 16.1 14.4 14.7 16.8 16.3 18.2 17.4 4/11/2016 12.9 16.6 14.6 15.8 14.2 14.3 16.6 16.3 18.2 17.3 4/11/2016 12.4 16.2 14.4 15.7 13.9 13.9 16.3 16.1 18 17.2 4/11/2016 12.1 15.8 14 15.5 13.6 13.5 16.1 15.8 17.8 17.1 4/11/2016 11.7 15.7 13.6 15.2 13.4 13.3 15.7 15.5 17.6 16.9 4/11/2016 11.4 15.4 13.3 14.9 13.4 13.2 15.5 15.3 17.4 16.7 4/11/2016 11.4 15.2 13 14.9 13.6 13.4 15.4 15.2 17.1 16.6 4/11/2016 12 14.8 12.7 15.1 14.7 15.1 15.6 14.9 17 16.4 4/11/2016 14.4 14.7 12.9 15.6 19.5 16.4 16.8 14.7 17 16.2 4/11/2016 16.9 14.8 15.3 16.5 23.4 16.9 18.4 14.8 17 16.2 4/11/2016 19.3 15.6 16.2 17.4 26.8 22.3 19.3 15 17.4 16.6 4/11/2016 21.9 16.7 17.4 18.5 28.7 23.5 20.8 16 17.9 17.1 4/11/2016 24.4 18.7 18.7 19.7 30.1 25.7 22.7 17.3 18.6 17.7 4/11/2016 26.6 20.1 20.1 21.4 31.5 27 23.8 18.8 19.7 18.6

106 | University of New South Wales