Annual General Meeting May 17

Proposed FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL MAY 1973 60 CENTS By-laws Revisions PAGE 21 The American Foreign Service Association is now able to offer its overseas mem¬ bers the opportunity to purchase their personal property and liability insurance on a group basis with all the economic benefits and advantages of the organi¬ zation’s mass purchasing power. Not only would the same protection cost you far more if written on an individual basis but there are the additional advantages of understandable American-type coverage, premiums and losses paid in dollars, policies written in English and the counsel of an American insurance agent. We are pleased to cooperate with your organization in offering this eco¬ nomical worldwide coverage. Our exceptional facilities and extensive interna¬ tional experience are your assurance that your individual problems will be handled knowledgeably whenever and wherever they arise. Before buying or renewing your personal insurance it will pay you to consult our agent:

THE HIRSHORN COMPANY, 8333 Germantown Avenue Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19118

K: CHUBB & SON INC. Insurance Underwriters American Foreign Service Association

DAVID H. McKILLOP, President PRINCETON LYMAN, First Vice President HORACE G. DAWSON, JR., Second Vice President

Board of Directors

WILLIAM C, HARROP, Chairman THOMAS D. BOYATT, Vice Chairman BARBARA J. GOOD, Second Vice Chairman DAVID W. LOVING, Secretary-Treasurer JOHN J. TUOHEY, Assistant Secretary-Treasurer HERMAN J. COHEN JAMES L. HOLMES, JR. F. ALLEN HARRIS WILLIAM R. LENDERKING, JR. LINDA LOWENSTEIN W. A. WHITTEN

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL Staff MAY 1973: VOLUME 50, NO. 5 GERALD BUSHNELL, Executive Director CLARKE SLADE, Educational Consultant HELEN VOGEL, Committee Coordinator C. B. SANNER, Membership and Circulation

Journal Editorial Board

TERESITA C. SCHAFFER, Chairman RALPH S. SMITH, Vice Chairman FREDERICK QUINN HARRIETT S. CROWLEY Communication re: EDWARD M. COHEN JOEL M. WOLDMAN Presidents and Bureaucracy 7 G. RICHARD MONSEN ERIC GRIFFEL DEAN RUSK Journal

SHIRLEY R. NEWHALL, Editor Revisionism: An Overall View 12 MclVER ART & PUBLICATIONS, INC., Art Direction LLOYD C. GARDNER Advertising Representatives JAMES C. SASMOR, 230 Riverside Dr., New York, N.Y. 10025 Revisionism and the (212) 850-2100 The Truman Era 13 ALBERT D. SHONK CO., 681 Market St., San Francisco, Calif. LLOYD C. GARDNER 94105 (415) 392-7144 JOSHUA B. POWERS, LTD., 46 Keyes House, Dolphin Sq., London SWI 01 -834-8023/9. International Representatives.

Foreign Policy in the Eisenhower Administration 17 ©American Foreign Service Association, 1973. The Foreign BARTON J. BERNSTEIN Service Journal is published twelve times a year by the Amer¬ ican Foreign Service Association, 2101 E Street, N.W., Wash¬ ington, D. C. 20037. Telephone (202) 338-4045

Kennedy,Johnson and the Second-class postage paid at Washington, D. C. Revisionists 31 WALTER LAFEBER

The FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL is the journal of professionals in foreign affairs, published twelve times a year by the American For¬ eign Service Association, a non-profit organization. DEPARTMENTS Material appearing herein represents the opinions of the writers and is not intended to indicate the official views of the Department of State, the United States Information Agency, the Agency for International Editorials 2 Development or the United States Government as a whole. Membership in the American Foreign Service Association is open to About This Issue 11 the professionals in foreign affairs overseas or in Washington, as well as to persons having an active interest in, or close association with, foreign affairs. The Bookshelf 34 Membership dues are: Active Members—Dues range from $13 to $52 annually depending upon income. Retired Active Members—Dues are Letters to the Editor 43 $30 annually for members with incomes over $15,000; $15 annually for less than $15,000. Associate Members—Dues are $20 annually. AFSA News 44 For subscription to the JOURNAL, one year (12 issues); $6.00; two years, $10.00. For subscriptions going abroad, except Canada, add $1.00 annually for overseas postage. Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in Historical Abstracts and/or America: History and Life. Microfilm copies of current as well as of back issues of the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL are available through the University Microfilm Li¬ brary Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 under a contract signed COVER: Watering Place, Rangoon, by Mary Betts Anderson October 30, 1967. views to Congress and propose legislative remedies to P2J EDITORIAL correct this situation. In All Fairness Foreign Service Beeswax N life, art, and the Foreign Service, cross-fertilization —in our case, personal interchange among the Foreign 1 s there anyone who has not expressed genuine concern Service agencies—is widely acknowledged to be not only for the effects of rampant inflation on both the national desirable but necessary. Unfortunately, in recent years economy and individual pocketbooks? Yet most federal inter-agency exchange has dwindled to a mere tokenism, employees have received substantial pay increases during and several proposals for correcting the situation have the past few years which have largely offset the effects foundered. of rising prices. Evidence of the decline can be seen in the following However, for those employees whose salaries have figures on State-USIA interchange: been frozen at the salary ceiling of $36,000 imposed by 1967 1969 1971 1972 1973 Congress, the years of rapidly rising prices have been an USIA officers assigned unmitigated and increasing hardship. to State ~ 61 47 36 35 29 For example, Foreign Service officers, Information FSOs assigned to USIA 28 13 11 13 17 officers and Reserve officers of Class One have been Figures for AID are not known, but if one discounts denied every pay increase since July, 1969. Under the the now-defunct CORDS the level of exchange is cer¬ latest pay increase, officers of Class Two, step six and tainly lower than that between State and USIA. It is above have hit the ceiling and must therefore acquiesce also worth noting that most of the USIA officers assigned in an actual decrease in pay as both prices and salaries to State are performing USIA-type work, mostly in CU of other wage earners have risen regularly. As of Janu¬ and public affairs. On the other hand, most of the State ary, FSO-ls are receiving $5,173 per year less than what officers with USIA hold highly-regarded and often senior they would have been receiving as their fair compensa¬ posts both in Washington and overseas. tion, and FSO-2s in steps six and seven find themselves Barriers to exchange in the past have been tight per¬ shorted by varying smaller amounts. Since July, 1969, sonnel ceilings, the fear that employees who accept after which those at the ceiling received no further pay positions out of their areas of specialization will become increases, the pay of most white collar employees has less competitive, and the reluctance of State to allow risen about 30 percent. employees from other agencies to compete for scarce Unfortunately, remedies for this obvious injustice are positions at the top. not readily at hand. Under existing law, congressmen, These barriers are real, but are not insurmountable. Supreme Court Justices and top political appointees can There is sufficient first-rate talent in the three agencies not get another pay raise until 1974 at the earliest. Until to permit a program of genuine exchange which could these people get a raise, there can be none for career have a significant impact on the effectiveness with which federal workers who are now held at the same ceiling of the United States conducts its foreign affairs. We urge $36,000. Recommendations for a pay raise must come that this be given immediate high-level attention, along from the commission on executive, legislative, and ju¬ the lines of the following resolution recently passed by dicial salaries which has been requested to submit a re¬ AFSA’s Board of Directors: port on the matter to the President by June 30, 1973. WHEREAS the practice of diplomacy in the 1970s Any resultant wage increases can not come until March requires officers with the broadest possible range 1974. of experience in program direction, public and cul¬ The situation discriminates blatantly against those tural affairs, and foreign assistance as well as the employees whose ability to reach the top echelons of traditional areas of politics, economics, and nego¬ federal service has been “rewarded” with a substantial tiation; and reduction in real income. WHEREAS there is widespread agreement that Legislation to lift the current unfair ceiling of $36,000 exchanges of talented officers among the three for¬ is obviously called for. Given the current political situ¬ eign affairs agencies of State, USIA, and AID is ation, however, such legislation is not likely to be en¬ beneficial both to the agencies involved and to the acted in the immediate future. Congress could enact officers who acquire added skills and experience; legislation authorizing employees in the affected grades and to receive retirement benefits based on the pay they WHEREAS the actual number of exchanges among should be receiving, rather than the pay they actually the three agencies has followed a downward trend receive. Of course, they would also contribute to the in recent years; retirement fund on the basis of the larger amount. An¬ NOW THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the Ameri¬ other remedy is to make cost of living increases available can Foreign Service Association urges the senior to all employees regardless of income. officials of the three foreign affairs agencies to im¬ AFSA strongly supports the proposals to raise the plement a policy of expanded interchange of $36,000 ceiling, to base both retirement fund benefits and talented personnel among these agencies, and that contributions on what the affected employee should the appropriate personnel and policy officials be actually be receiving, and to provide cost of living relief directed to work out the details of this interchange to all employees equally. We will communicate these forthwith.

2 FOREIGN SERVICE .TOURNAL, May, 1973 VACATION HOME SITES AND PRIVATE CAMPING SITES

Values constantly rising on these vacation home sites. A beautiful wooded lot high in the Allegheny mountains can be yours.

A new section of permanent camp sites has been developed and choice sites adjoining Dutch Run are now available. Just 3'/2 hours from D.C. and well above the Eastern Seaboard humidity and smog, adjoining Prince Gallitzin State Park, with its six thousand acres of parkland and a 1,700 acre lake. Swimming, skiing, sailing or fishing—you can have the whole thing. Make plans now to see this hitherto undiscovered area of the Alleghenies and select your site for home leave and retirement. Central sewer and water systems assure preservation of the ecological balance.

Glendale Yearound^Flinton and Prince if Gallitzin State Park

Ashville 10 M DIRECTIONS: From Washington, Interstate 70 to Breezewood, then through Bedford and north through Altoona, From , Altoona take route 36 to Ashville, then route 53 north to Prince Bedford Gallitzin State Park. Drive along west shore of Glendale Lake to Beaver Valley Boat Launching Area and "Glendale Yearound.” Washington!

Glendale Yearound it owned and managed by members of the United States Foreign Affairs Agencies

Glendale Yearound Flinton, Penna. 16640 Please send literature about Glendale Yearound your purchase by mail plan.

Name __

Address

City State .Zip Code

Call or write Glendale Yearound, Flinton, Pennsylvania 16640 Telephone 814-687-2575 I # iP * |§ 1 AMERICA

x ON $1.17 A DAY. Vm «i

, ,w5rf f 3® ' ■JtaAfc - *

S;‘ wS^mX' : *J^W6®»tiSI^«HF•'mwL**■HWwA‘*zK*v>* *l£*i‘*9* 4v % ■»».„

Or America on $ 1.63 a day with collision. Do it now so not even a minute of your leave is wasted. That’s all it has to cost for the auto insurance you need A.I.U. claims facilities will be at your service 24 to drive through your beautiful country when you’re home hours a day and, if you should have to collect on a claim, on leave. And for the same prices, you get Canada, too. we won’t keep you waiting. Add a little more to cover shipping insurance if you’re America on $1.17 a day is based on a 60-day leave. taking your car over with you. Thirty days and the price goes up a little to $ 1.73. How little it costs is only outdone by how easy we If somehow you’ve managed to accumulate three make it to get. whole months, we give you America on $ 1.00 a day. Simply fill out the application at the bottom of the American International Underwriters, 1511 K Street, page facing this ad, send it to us with your check and we’ll N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005, U.S.A., Telephone: (202) mail you your policy. 737-6855.

AMERICAN INTERNATIONAL UNDERWRITERS AMERICA ON $1.17 A DAY.

TOURIST PREMIUMS UNITED STATES AND OR CANADA.

CHECK DESIRED TERMS IN DAYS pn| lrY TFRMS IN nAY«! AND COVERAGES DESIRED POLICY 1ERMS IN UAYs

AUTOMOBILES □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Excluding operators under 25 and/or sport cars 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180

COVERAGE A □ INJURY OR DAMAGE TO OTHERS Bodily injury liability $25,000/50,000 Property damage $5,000 Medical payments $1,000 $52.00 $59.00 $70.00 $80.00 $90.00 $101.00 $111.00 $122.00 $134.00 $145.00 S 1 55.00

B □ LOSS OR DAMAGE TO YOUR VEHICIJE including Fire and Theft- Subject to $25 Deductible except Collision subject to $100 Deductible $42.00 $46.00 $56.00 $64.00 $72.00 $82.00 $88.00 $98.00 $106.00 El 16.00 S 124.00 REFER TO COMPANY FOR PREMIUMS FOR ) AUTC 1MOBII-ES VA! .UED 114 EXCES S OF $5, )00 2) I1ENTED AUTOM OB 11 FS

CD MARINE SHIPMENT OF YOUR AUTOM OBILE ONE WAY TRIP (available only with purchase of or B.) $1.60 per $100 of value War Risk $0.05 per $100 of value Round Trip—double the rates above

D □ TRAILERS Coverage Mandatory with House Trailers (Thir d party covera ge is au omatic; illy provi ded on tilily tra lers— free of extra charge) Bodily injury $25,000/50,000 Property damage $5,000 $13.00 $15.00 $18.00 $20.00 $22.00 $26.00 $28.00 $30.00 $34.00 $36.00 $39.00 OPTIONAL DAMAGE TO ALL TYPES O FTRA ILERS E □ COMPREHENSIVE—$25 Deductible $1.00 5er $10 OOF lb1SURE D VALU E-SUBJ ECT TC ADJUS TMENT FOR HORT TERM -MINI MUM 2.5% OF 7kNNUA L PREM IUM F □ FIRE ONLY— $.50 p er $100 OF lbJSURE1 D VALU E-SUBJ ECT T(3 SHOR'r RATE TABL E OR 2 5% OF ANNlJAL PRE1MIUM G □ THEFT ONLY—$25 Deductible $. 10 p er $100 OF lb JSURE] 3 VALU E-SUB. IECT T( 3 SHOR'r RATE TABL E OR 2 5% OF ANNU AL PRE MIUM HQ COLLISIONS 100 Deductible $1.50 yer $10 OOFIb JSURE1 0 VALU E

AIU AUTOMOBILE INSURANCE APPLICATION (Completed information must be accompanied by check and/or IMPORTANT: This must be completed. FSO 53 money order for full premium (U.S. Dollars) and mailed to AIU, Investment Bldg., 151 1 K Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005) Date of Birth Occupation Name of Applicant Make and Model of Motorcar Value Overseas Address Year of Manufacture Motor-Serial No. Mail Policy to Name and address of Mortgagee, if any Effective Date of Insurance Term days Coverages: A B C D E F G (circle coverages desired)

Has any insurance company or underwriter declined to accept or refused to renew your insurance? if yes, give particulars on separate sheet. (yes or no) Have you or any other persons or members of your household who will drive your car had any accidents during the past two years? if yes, give particulars on separate sheet. (yes or no) Do you plan to travel in Canada? (yes or no) Signature of Applicant Date J The fine art of summitry has seldom been In the New York area, contact Diplomatic practiced with such authority as by the 1973 Sales, Ford Export Corporation, Ford Motor Lincoln Continental and the Ford LTD. Company, 153 Halsey Street, Newark, N.J. Each is a leader in its own realm. The 07102. Telephone: 643-1900. From New Lincoln Continental . . . the final step up York, telephone: 964-7883. around the world. The Ford LTD . . . a better idea in luxury and quiet. Both are available at exceptional savings when you exercise your diplomatic discount privileges as a member of the U.S. Foreign Service. Order now. Save now. Arrange delivery stateside or overseas. For full information: 1973 Ford LTD Brougham

In the Washington area, contact FORD • TORINO • THUNDERBIRD • MUSTANG • MAVERICK Diplomatic Sales, Ford Motor Company, 9th • PINTO • MERCURY • MARQUIS • MONTEREY • MONTEGO • COUGAR • COMET • LINCOLN CONTINENTAL Floor, 815 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., • CONTINENTAL MARK IV Washington, D.C. 20006. Telephone: 298-7419.

All 1973 cars must meet Federal Emission Standards before sale. See your Ford Dealer for details. “War is a continuation of policy by other means.” —Karl von Clausewitz

“The world has never been in want of theories about how wars may be avoided, and no doubt the human race could do very much better in this respect than it has done.” —Bernard Brodie

JUST PUBLISHED COMMUNICATION A New Book by the Dean of American Civilian RE: Strategists

PRESIDENTS WAR and AND BUREAUCRATS POLITICS By Bernard Brodie I WAS much interested in the editorial in the January 1973 issue of the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL on “Presi¬ An outstanding political scientist and civilian dents and Bureaucrats.” Since I have had some experi¬ strategist explains his thesis on the role of the mili¬ ence with this matter at various levels of the Department, tary in modem statecraft, taking a very dim view of I am tempted to offer a few brief observations which you those policy makers—whether civilian or military— solicited in your editorial. who exemplify “militarist” styles of thought and Both Presidents and Foreign Service officers should action. Professor Brodie succinctly analyzes relation¬ accept with understanding and a reasonable amount of ships between strategy and politics since World War good humor the primary reason why the Department of I, supporting his contentions with a wealth of fasci¬ State is unlikely to be widely acclaimed as a popular in¬ stitution. The simple fact is that the Department deals nating historical and analytical documentation. with that part of the public business which we ourselves 1973 400 pages $8.95 cannot control. Federal, state and local governments and our people themselves can pretty well decide what we do Complete the following order form and return it to: about our domestic affairs. But when we cross our na¬ Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. tional frontier we find ourselves in a world of some 140 111A Brown Street, Riverside, New Jersey 08075 governments, each with its own traditions, political sys¬ tem, problems, urgent needs, hopes, and aspirations. No Please send me copies of WAR AND POLITICS two governments will look at the globe in quite the same by Bernard Brodie at $8,951. Order Code 31505 way. No other government simply salutes and obeys My check is enclosed (Macmillan pays postage and when we speak. It is a world of negotiation, compromise, handling.) cooperation, occasional confrontation, and on rare occa¬ sions violence. A President learns that the State Depart¬ Residents of New York, New Jersey, and California, please ment must tell him on frequent occasions that he cannot add applicable sales tax. have what he wants because strange foreigners just won’t act as he would like them to do. From the point of view Name of the Oval Room, the Department of State is often the Department of Bad News. A certain amount of frustra¬ Address tion and disappointment is inevitable in our foreign rela¬ tions and these must be balanced by patience, persistence, City State Zip and a wholesome regard for other and often conflicting IC 614 points of view. Further, most foreign policy decisions are about the MACMILLAN PUBLISHING CO. INC. future—trying to shape the course of events in one direc¬ 111A Brown Street tion rather than another. Providence has not given us Riverside, New Jersey 08075

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 7 the capacity to probe the fog of the future with certainty. who are properly politically responsible. Even so, those It is almost impossible to know everything which one who rise to the top of the Foreign Service are those who needs to know to make a wholly satisfactory foreign earn respect for their willingness to be candid and forth¬ policy decision because of complexity, the rapidly ac¬ right rather than those who practice the art of keeping celerating pace of events, the accidents of personality their heads down. Our political system does not permit among all the parties involved, and the fact that certain us to protect our career men from occasional lumps and kinds of critically important information are not know- bruises as well as is done by our British friends but to able. One cannot know what a foreign leader will do acknowledge the problem helps to develop a measure of before he knows it himself. tolerance on all sides. In your editorial you spoke about the “loyalty prob¬ President Truman was reported to have said to the lem” and the “apolitical” aspect of the Foreign Service. Department in his day: “I don’t want to have foreign I once had a brief visit with the head of the British Civil policy recommendations from the Department of State Service and, in the course of our conversation, I compli¬ based upon domestic political considerations. In the first mented him on the way in which their Civil Service stays place, good policy is good politics and I want your views away from party politics. He said, “Oh no, you have it about good policy. Second, you fellows in the Depart¬ wrong. The British Civil Service supports one political ment don’t know a damned thing about domestic poli¬ party at a time.” Our political system is much more tics—that’s my business.” My own view is that a Foreign complicated than the British system insofar as career Service officer below the rank of a Presidential appointee service is concerned. Frequently, we have one party in should concern himself with foreign policy considerations the White House and another party with a majority in but that Presidential appointees must try to see the prob¬ Congress. Career officers are expected to be available to lem as a whole as the President must look at it—and committees and subcommittees of the Congress to discuss this must include domestic considerations. Such a rough matters which have a high political content. Orders come rule of thumb is undoubtedly oversimplified, but I have from the President, but funds come from the Congress not seen a better one thus far. and appointments and promotions depend upon the Sen¬ Ambassador Charles Yost, in his letter published in ate. Those of us who have tried to insulate career officers the March issue, drew a crucial distinction between the from the political turmoil find resistance both in the White role of a Foreign Service officer before a policy decision House and in the Congress. A President wants and ex¬ is made and his duty after one is made. Any Administra¬ pects support and the political opposition does not always tion suffers if it fails to welcome and stimulate the widest respect the difference between career officers and those range of discussion in the formation of policy and all Asense of security, once you've arrived. Security has been helping government families make their way around the world since 1890. The move immortalized here was from Washington to Shanghai in 1948. A more recent tradition is insured security once you’ve arrived. Our Government Service Policy covers household and personal effects against fire, theft, mysterious disappearance, windstorms, floods and breakage during your stay anywhere in the world. (When the Ambassador to Haiti’s home burned in Port-au-Prince several decades ago, our check for his entire valuation was in the mail be¬ fore the smoke cleared.) The annual premium is the same, whether you’re in Madagascar or Madrid. Worldly goods valued at $10,000 would be covered at a rate of $130 per year (and lower to AFSA members.) The policy can cover insurance in transit and a separate all¬ risk auto transit policy is also available. For specific rate information, please contact our Insurance Department. #miFit|i jftorag' (jompann of Washington MAIN OFFICE: 1701 Florida Ave. N.W., Wash., D.C. 20009 PHONE: (202) 234-5600 / MARYLAND: Bethesda - Chevy Chase,Marlow Heights,White Oak/VIRGINIA: Alexandria McLean/PHILIP LARNER GORE, President.

8 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 1973 TRAVEL PROGRAM For State-USIA Recreation Association-Members and Their Immediate Families Featuring Charter Flights to London and Frankfurt Plus Package Tours All Around the World

DEPART RETURN FARE MAY 1 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO LONDON MAY 30 $205 (4 WEEKS) MAY 29 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO LONDON JUNE 27 $205 (4 WEEKS) JUNE 13 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO LONDON JUNE 27 $225 (2 WEEKS) AUGUST 8 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO LONDON AUGUST 23 $225 (2 WEEKS) SEPTEMBER 19 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO LONDON OCTOBER 4 $205 (2 WEEKS) JUNE 13 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO FRANKFURT JUNE 27 $225 (2 WEEKS) JUNE 27 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO FRANKFURT JULY 26 $225 (4 WEEKS) JULY 11 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO FRANKFURT AUGUST 23 $225 (6 WEEKS) JULY 25 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO FRANKFURT AUGUST 9 $225 (2 WEEKS) AUGUST 8 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO FRANKFURT SEPTEMBER 20 $225 (6 WEEKS) AUGUST 22 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO FRANKFURT SEPTEMBER 6 $225 (2 WEEKS) SEPTEMBER 19 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO FRANKFURT OCTOBER 4 $205 (2 WEEKS) OCTOBER 17 WASHINGTON, D.C. TO FRANKFURT NOVEMBER 1 $185 (2 WEEKS) For charter flight reservations or information call 632-9633

WORLD WIDE PACKAGE TOURS wravaumB aMflg ROMAN HOLIDAY WONDERFUL, WONDERFUL COPENHAGEN! Rome (August 20-28)—$399 per person, for roundtrip airfare, Copenhagen (July 11-19)—$299 -f 10% taxes and service charge. hotel accommodations, 2 meals daily, sightseeing, and trans¬ Tour includes roundtrip airfare, hotel accommodations, break¬ fers. fast daily, sightseeing, admission to Tivoli, and Danish Smor¬ gasbord.

THE ORIENT A LA CARTE Tokyo, Hongkong, Bangkok (August 31-Sept. 16). $795 per per¬ MAJORCAN ADVENTURE son for roundtrip airfare, hotel accommodations, city orienta¬ tion tours. And many optional tours! Majorca (October 5-13)—$299 + 13% taxes and service charge, including airfare, hotel accommodations, and 2 meals daily. MOROCCO 8. KENYA SAFARI October 6-22; $1499, including airfare, ground transportation, meals, safari equipment, accommodations, and much more. (Note: A camera is a must for this tour!) A RUSSIAN TREAT—WITH A PEEK AT HELSINKI Helsinki, Leningrad, & Moscow (Nov. 12-21)—$289 + 10% taxes Athens (October 20-28)—$349 + 10% taxes and service charge & service charge, including airfare, hotel accommodations, per person. Tour includes airfare, hotel accommodations, 2 breakfast daily in the Soviet Union, sightseeing, and much meals daily, and sightseeing. more.

DOMESTIC TOURS Domestic tours available to Atlantic City, Niagara Falls, Pennsylvania Dutch Country, Montreal and Quebec and the Maritime Provinces, Call or write for complete information. Package tour reservations and information can be obtained by calling 632-1610. Do not hesitate to make your travel desires known —new tours are continually being added to our schedule.

Jet Equipment-Hot Meals-Beverages-Experienced Hostesses For your convenience, a DSRA representative will meet all flights All Recreation Association members and their immediate families are eligible to use our charter flights. Local employees of the U. S. Government are eligible for membership in the DSRA which entitles them to all benefits of the Association, including the charter flight program.

Taxes: Above rates exclusive of taxes. West Germany Arrival Tax—$1.37 per Transfers: A $10 service charge per seat with a maximum of $20 per family per person. U.S. Departure Tax—$3.00 per person. will be assessed for each change in flight date requested by a member. Travel Requirements: Each individual must make personal arrangements for Pro rata share is subject to increase or decrease depending on number of immunizations and passports as required. participants. Regulations require a minimum group of 40 persons. Maximum capocity of the aircraft is 252. A flight member may cancel a seat reserva¬ Baggage: Maximum free luggage allowance is 44 pounds. This weight in¬ tion up to 30 days prior to scheduled departure subject to a service charqe cludes cabin luggage, exclusive of a lady's purse, binoculars or camera. of $10. Flight members may not cancel reservations less than 30 days prior to scheduled departure, without an eligible replacement. Important: Reservations must be reconfirmed within 72 hours prior to each flight. For information, send your name and address to State-USIA Recrea¬ GENERAL INFORMATION tion Association, Room 2928, State Department, Washington, D. C. 20520 or Children under 2 years of age travel at no extra charge provided they do call 632-9633. In Frankfurt: D-6000 Frankfurt M/1. AM Salzhaus, 4. or call not occupy a separate seat. (0611) 28 52 13. Administrations have sometimes erred on that point. But it is the President who is elected by the people to deter¬ mine policy for the Executive branch of the Government. The democratic process fails if the career services, wheth¬ er in uniforms or civilian clothes, reject or undermine the decision made by the President under the Constitution. All risks If a decision is made which is intolerable to a career officer, his proper course is to resign and oppose it as a private citizen. Relations between the Department of State and the insurance President can turn on a number of lesser matters. For example, since 1945 the Department has not been able to provide finished drafts for Presidents to use for mes¬ sages, speeches, toasts and similar purposes. It is in¬ credibly difficult to write for someone else—particularly if he has staff around him who have a built-in resistance $1.50 per to drafts which they consider it their business to furnish. I myself was able to use only a half dozen of more than two hundred toasts prepared for me in a routine fashion for the black books which are put together for the visit $100 per annum of a foreign dignitary. My improvised toasts may not have been as good, but at least they were mine. I once asked the Inspection Corps to keep their eyes and ears open for a highly articulate officer who could assist us in providing better service to the President, but I suspect WORLDWIDE that this is still unfinished business. Another example of a very small point. During my tour on the seventh floor, I wrestled pretty hard with two (including USA] Presidents to ensure that qualified Foreign Service officers were given a full chance at ambassadorial posts. Two outgoing Foreign Service ambassadors made their fare¬ NO DEDUCTIBLE well call on President Kennedy wearing slave bracelets. I heard about that for at least three months. “Know thy¬ self” is pretty good advice, but “Know thy President” is Underwritten at not a bad idea. Finally, each President will work out the management of his awesome responsibilities in a way which makes him Lloyds comfortable—and this will vary from President to Presi¬ dent. Given the burdens of the office, this tendency can perhaps be understood. It does not strengthen the De¬ For very many years U.S.O.I.B. Ltd. have insured partment or the Foreign Service to have the gossips of members of the Foreign Service. First class service Washington talking about the “morale” of the Depart¬ and claims settlements. ment. My early experience in the Department was under Secretary Marshall who said that “An enlisted man is en¬ Complete and return coupon for full details. titled to a morale problem but an officer is not.” It never occurred to us to go into his office and cry on his shoulder. The Department is not staffed with cry babies. To: United Services Officers' Insurance Brokers Ltd. The Foreign Service is made up of talented, highly in¬ Clanville Lodge, Andover, Hampshire, England. telligent and courageous men and women and gallantry in posts of danger is regularly demonstrated. The fine Please airmail details of your special policy for qualities of the Foreign Service should not be concealed serving members of the Foreign Service. from the public or from Presidents by reports of whining Name and petulance. I happen to believe that the professional Address diplomatic service of the United States is the best in the world and that Presidents—each in his own way—come to the same conclusion. This has been much too long; the subject deserves a book—which I shall not write. r\

10 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 ABOUT THIS ISSUE An International Address In London

REVISIONISM in recent historical Rodney House writing on the Post-World War II FIRST TOUR IN DOLPHIN SQUARE period in American foreign relations WASHINGTON is the subject of this issue of the ... OR RETIRING Westminster JOURNAL. NEARBY? “Revisionism” is a difficult word On the River Thames in Pimlico, a few minutes walk from the Tate to define. Yet, so many new works We can help you find a comfortable home. New Gallery. Adjacent to Victoria and on the history of foreign affairs are Chelsea; only a few minutes drive being written, by so many authors . . . resale ... or a lovely recreational community. from Trafalgar Sq., or Piccadilly; and on so many subjects, and rep¬ (Ask about our leisure nearby buses and underground. resenting such a variety of view¬ living developments with¬ Furnished, self-contained apartments, points, that they defy easy classifi¬ in one hour of Washing¬ each wilh lounge, one or two bedrooms, cation. In one sense, any new gen¬ ton.) 10 offices to serve kitchen and bathroom, television, radio, you: refrigerator. With a full service restaurant, eration of historians can be consid¬ two bars, swimming pool, sauna, squash ered revisionist if the writers use VIRGINIA: courts, complete shopping arcade, bank¬ 6510 Arlington Blvd., Falls Church ing facilities, travel agency and garage all new evidence, including state papers 9001 Braddock Rd., Springfield 1984 Chain Bridge Rd., McLean under one roof. and memoirs, not available in an 310 Pelham St., Fredericksburg earlier period, and adopt perspec¬ Oddfellows Bldg., Marshall Plus one of the most charming en¬ MARYLAND: closed private gardens in London. tives different from those used by 2600 University Blvd., Wheaton 11125 Rockville Pike, Rockville historians of a previous generation. 6480 New Hampshire Ave., Takoma Park For all its amenities, you will find WASHINGTON, D. C.: Dolphin Square remarkably reason¬ Considered in such a light, the work 5034 Wisconsin Ave., N.W. of such an establishmentarian figure 3300 Pennsylvania Ave., S.E. able in price. as R. R. Palmer would be clearly FREE-Complete relocation kit! Write any office or call For information and reservations write revisionist in describing the interre¬ (202) 659-7155. to : lationship of the American and Letting Office French revolutions which a gener¬ SHANNON • & • LUCHS Dolphin Square ation of previous scholars treated as London, SW1V 3LX England separate and largely unrelated top¬ ESTABLISHED 1906 ics. Tel. No.: 01-834 3800 Ext. 67 “Revisionism,” in its most re¬ stricted usage, is often applied as an ideological term. Its characteristics are presumed to include a rigidly Marxist perspective, an attempt to blame most international crises of recent history on the United States, and a highly ideological distortion of evidence to fit political ends. To approach this topic, we have asked three distinguished contem¬ porary historians to present their views on what constitutes revision¬ ism, what some of the relevant au¬ thors and issues are for the period fl neuj hotel under discussion, and how they per¬ sonally see the problem. open/ It/door/ to Wa/hington, The opening article, an introduc¬ tion to the question called “Revi¬ the notion and the world. sionism and the Cold War” and Inaugurating a new style of elegance in the nation’s capital. “The Cold War in the Truman Spacious rooms and suites with all the civilized luxuries and amenities. Dazzling restaurants and cocktail lounges. Resplendent settings for the most Era,” is by , Chair¬ exclusive business meetings and diplomatic functions. Ideally situated in man of the History Department at the L'Enfant Plaza complex, the capital’s magnificent, new cosmopolitan Rutgers University, and author of center, appropriately named for Pierre Charles L'Enfant, who designed the the recently published “Architects master plan of Washington, D.C. of Illusion, Men and Ideas in Amer¬ Opening May 31st ican Foreign Policy, 1941-49,” a volume which one critic has called “the most important contribution to 480 L'Enfant Plaza East, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024 • Tel: (202) 484-1000 the continuing debate on the .” For reservations, see your travel agent or call Loews Reservations in your area toll-free. Continued on page 37

FOREIUN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 11 Revisionism— An Overall View

LLOYD C. GARDNER D I m EVISIONISM is nothing new. It from doubt as to whether they It is wrong, however, to write off only seems so when it intrudes should have been.” Few could stand Cold War revisionism as an over¬ upon the happy realm of conven¬ up to Acheson’s brilliant wit, or get reaction to Vietnam, an emotional tional wisdom where objectivity and back to the main subject after such purging of the spirit by men anxious orthodoxy are still at peace. Reac¬ a put down. What is most note¬ to make amends for their errors. The tions to this unwelcome disturbance worthy today, however, is the varia¬ first serious questioning of American vary. Some prefer to ignore it, and tion of this argument which blames policy by a non-communist writer to go on doing so for just as long as Cold War revisionism on the Viet¬ came from P.M.S. Blackett in “Mili¬ possible. Others attack it vigorously, nam “re-examinists.” tary and Political Consequences of appropriating the term revisionist as Vietnam may indeed have been a Atomic Energy,” published in 1948. a pejorative epithet to denounce ghastly mistake, it is now argued—a The most respected American revi¬ whatever they find disagreeable. quagmire we stumbled into along sionist, Professor William Appleman Discussion of the origins and nature the way—‘but one should not read Williams, published “American- of the Cold War has proved no back current attitudes and assump¬ Russian Relations, 1781-1947,” at exception, and it may be a long tions about the world situation to the height of the in time before emotions cool off the struggle with Stalinist totalitari¬ 1952. By the time Vietnam had enough to permit a totally dispas¬ anism and expansionism. It is obvi¬ become a national political issue, an sionate evaluation of the evidence. ous that the speeded entire library shelf of what would be A revisionist interpretation of up the historical process, and the called revisionist books had been Stalin’s role in World War II and writing of Cold War history. But the published. the early Cold War years has al¬ war in Southeast Asia was not re¬ The books which appeared in the ready appeared in the Soviet Union, sponsible for the appearance or de¬ ’20s and ’30s challenging official perhaps the least likely place for the velopment of historical reinter¬ interpretations of American en¬ historical process to work its chan¬ pretation. It was already there. trance into World War I, and those ges. Yet each generation of political What the war did was to increase which appeared in the ’50s raising leaders sooner or later finds need public interest in questions about questions about World War II, fo¬ for a “usable” past, to justify new the American past, not just since the cused narrowly on presidential deci¬ departures or to reinforce old pre¬ Cold War, but all the way back to sion-making and supposed high- mises. In 1966 Arthur M. Schles- the beginning. level conspiracy. These books may inger, Jr., said that it was time to Once commonplace remarks took actually have retarded serious in¬ blow the whistle on revisionist non¬ on new meaning for serious writers. quiry into other forces which im¬ sense before it got out of hand. When, for example, General Paul pelled American foreign policy in Exactly one year later, Schlesinger D. Harkins remarked upon return¬ those critical periods. Cold War re¬ wrote: “revisionism is an essential ing from Vietnam, “I am reminded visionists, on the whole, have part of the process by which history, of our own Revolution,” no one got avoided this pitfall. This is not to through the posing of new problems very excited. It was 1964. Nor did say that they will have the last and the investigation of new possi¬ anyone think much of his next sen¬ word. Historians are forever having bilities, enlarges its perspectives and tence: “It took eight years to get one last word on a subject, whether enriches its insights.” through our Revolution, and then it be the nature of French feudalism Without doubt the Vietnam War we ran into some of the toughest or the causes of the American Civil had a very great deal to do with the guerrillas that we ever want to run admission of revisionism to polite into any place—the American Indi¬ War. Anyone who takes the past society. The late Dean Acheson ans.” But when David Halberstam seriously, however, can no longer once labeled his principal antagonist quoted Harkins’ words in his best avoid confronting Cold War histori¬ on Capitol Hill, Ohio’s Robert A. selling, “The Best and the ans who take issue with the ac¬ Taft, a “re-examinist.” This new Brightest,” they had taken on a very cepted versions of the origin and species of isolationist, said the then different connotation — one pro¬ nature of that conflict. Indeed, the Secretary of State, “was distinctive foundly embarrassing to liberals time may come when revisionists for pulling up its crops every morn¬ who had defended the war during cease to be revisionists, and become ing to see what had been planted or the Johnson years. instead the dominant view.

12 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 REVISIONISM AND THE COLD WAR

Actually, there were two speeches . . . THE COLD WAR IN THE TRUMAN ERA

LLOYD C. GARDNER

*A *T Roosevelt’s death American action vis-a-vis the Soviets by Prime he asked, “Is there anything I can do policymakers faced an awesome Minister Churchill, who could al¬ for you?” Eleanor Roosevelt re¬ challenge. World War II was not ways be counted on to seize any plied, “Is there anything we can do yet over, but it seemed entirely pos¬ chance to advance the empire’s in¬ for you? For you are the one in sible that the future peace could be terests at someone’s else’s expense. trouble now.” lost in the next few weeks. Ameri¬ It was an uncertain and dangerous The next day Truman received can postwar planning had begun, time. his formal introduction to those informally at least, even before Despite Roosevelt’s obvious fail¬ troubles. The State Department’s Pearl Harbor. The guiding principle ing health, the possibility of a Tru¬ first report to the President minced in Washington during those days man presidency had never really no words: “Since the Yalta Confer¬ was a simple determination to avoid been considered. Or if it had, the ence the Soviet Government has Wilson’s mistakes at Versailles. President’s close advisers had dis¬ taken a firm and uncompromising Thus while there had been no time missed the thought out of loyalty— position on nearly every question to work out the details, the March and maybe fear. FDR had to rep¬ that has arisen in our relations.” Of 1941 Lend-Lease Act was regarded resent the United States at the all these questions, said the report, by Secretary of State Cordell Hull peacetable. None of the key issues Poland’s future was the “most com¬ and his aides as an opportunity not for the peace had been decided; plex and urgent.” Ambassador Har- only to prevent another war debts only Roosevelt knew the back¬ riman’s recent cables from Moscow tangle, but also to set the founda¬ ground and relationship of each had detailed the evidence of tions for a rational postwar econom¬ question. And only he knew how to growing Russian intransigence ic order. obtain cooperation from Stalin and throughout Eastern Europe, and in¬ Then, on August 14, 1941, FDR Churchill. Without their wartime formed Washington of the diversion and Prime Minister Winston S. leader at the helm, American poli¬ of wartime Lend-Lease supplies to Churchill signed a joint declaration cymakers would become increasing¬ Soviet political purposes in the of war aims known as the Atlantic ly apprehensive with each passing area: the establishment and support Charter. These promises of national day that a fatal slippage was taking of “friendly regimes.” Former Ger¬ self-determination and equal eco¬ place, a slippage between Roose¬ man satellites were becoming Rus¬ nomic opportunity for all peoples velt’s knowledge and Truman’s sian puppets. Harriman suggested were incorporated into the United grasp of the world situation, be¬ the obvious remedy; the United Nations Declaration of January 1, tween FDR’s immense prestige and States must select “one or two cases 1942, and reaffirmed once again by HST’s command of the tangible le¬ where their actions are intolerable the Big Three as part of the Yalta vers of American power. and make them realize that they Protocol concluded on February 11, About five o’clock in the after¬ cannot continue their present atti¬ 1945. With Roosevelt dead, what noon of Thursday, April 12, 1945, tude except at great cost to them¬ would happen to the Grand Al¬ Vice President Harry Truman was selves.” liance—and to American war aims? asked to come to the White House. Harriman arrived at the oval Ambassador Averell Harriman He did not know why. He imagined office of the White House on the rushed home from Moscow, so he that FDR wanted to go over some morning of April 21 to explain how recounted later, feeling that it was matters with him before returning to he thought the Russians could be desperately important for him to Warm Springs, Georgia, to complete made to understand just what it put his views about Russia’s inten¬ his vacation. Inside the White would cost to continue their present tions before Roosevelt’s successor. House, Truman was taken instead attitude toward the Yalta agreement Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, to Mrs. Roosevelt’s second floor on Poland. Somewhat to his sur¬ on the other hand, was about equal¬ study. “Harry,” she said quietly, prise, Roosevelt’s adviser on Rus¬ ly concerned that the new President “the President is dead.” When sian affairs found Truman fully in¬ might be goaded into some unwise Truman recovered from the shock, formed on the situation and con-

FOREION SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 13 vinced he could get “85 per cent” of tation, but felt that a showdown nist influence. the American interpretation. The “would have a beneficial effect upon As Isaac Deutscher first pointed sticking point was Stalin’s determi¬ the Soviet outlook.” His attitude out in his biography of Stalin so nation to retain majority status for best typified what was going through many years ago (“Stalin: A Politi¬ his chosen men, the so-called Lub¬ the minds of the late President’s cal Biography,” Oxford University lin government. Majority in this in¬ close advisers. The reorganization Press, 1949), this situation was per¬ stance was not a matter of numbers, of the Polish government was not fectly acceptable to the Soviet dicta¬ said Harriman. The inclusion of the central issue nor the deciding tor: “any real democratic leader . . . factor. What was then? The need to Stalin, “the man without illu¬ would serve as a rallying point for call Stalin to task before he went sions,” reckoned with the inter¬ 80 or 90 per cent of the Polish too far. vention of each of the Big Three people against the Luiblin Commu¬ Proof came later when Harriman in the domestic affairs of their nists.” himself accepted less on behalf of spheres as with a certainty, inter¬ The Russians had the impres¬ the United States than Truman had vention that was in part dictated sion, continued the Ambassador, demanded of Molotov at their first by military necessity and in part that we needed them not only to interview. A temporary resolution exploited military necessity as an win the war in the Pacific but to of the Polish question was achieved excuse. absorb the nation’s capitalist sur¬ in late June, when the Soviet Union Deutscher elaborated on this pluses. Marxist ideology had agreed to the inclusion of several point several times. In 1965 he ar¬ misled them into believing that non-Lublin figures in a reorganized gued: fear of a postwar depression gave provisional government. In the He [Stalin] had committed him¬ them a powerful hold over Ameri¬ meantime, however, Harriman had self to respect the predomi¬ can policymakers. When Molotov continued to sound the warning nance of the bourgeois order in asked for a $6 billion credit, for about Russian policy in Eastern Eu¬ postwar western Europe and he example, the Russian Foreign Min¬ rope. Whatever their motives, the carried out his obligations. Long ister had made a gratuitous, and, Russians were extending their pow¬ before the Truman Doctrine was Harriman felt, insolent offer to save er westward first in one tier of proclaimed, Stalin had very effec¬ capitalism from itself by taking sur¬ states, then in the next, and so on. tively saved Western Europe for plus goods from the United States. Truman sent him to San Francisco capitalism; he had saved west¬ “There were some quarters in Mos¬ to talk with the American delega¬ ern Europe from communism. cow,” the Ambassador told Tru¬ tion at the United Nations confer¬ (“Myths of the Cold War,” in man, “that believed it was a matter ence. “While we cannot go to war David Horowitz, ed., “Contain¬ of life and death to American busi¬ with Russia,” he said to a surprised ment and Revolution,” Beacon ness to increase our exportss to meeting of the delegation, “we must Press, 1967.) Russia.” do everything we can to maintain Gabriel Kolko’s two massive vol¬ When Molotov himself came to our position as strongly as possible umes (“The Politics of War,” Ran¬ the President’s office two days later, in Eastern Europe.” Privately, he dom House, 1968; and, with his Truman was ready to lay it on the assured Stimson that a strong policy wife Joyce, “The Limits of Power,” line. Unless the Soviet government risked little. “Russia is really afraid Harper & Row, 1972) constitute the changed its attitude about Poland, of our power or at least respects it,” most serious effort to provide a de¬ he would find it difficult to persuade he told the Secretary of War. And tailed documentation for this inter¬ Congress to act on “economic meas¬ though the Soviets might “try to ride pretation of Stalinist foreign policy. ures in the foreign field.” The best roughshod” over their neighbors, But other writers, by no means “re¬ way to disabuse the Russians of any Russia “really [is] afraid of us.” visionist” in outlook, have come to lingering notions about American Nevertheless, Truman continued pretty much the same conclusion. A economic problems, it seemed, was his efforts to convince Stalin that former Special Assistant to Secre¬ to take the initiative. Truman’s oth¬ Russia’s best interests were in Big tary of State Dean Acheson, Profes¬ er advisers did not all agree that Three cooperation to establish sor Marshall D. Shulman, took a Poland was the best place to test “democratic” regimes in Eastern second look at Russian foreign poli¬ Soviet intentions. Secretary Stimson Europe. Yet the word itself posed cy under Stalin and concluded that and General George C. Marshall, difficulties for both sides. In the first it was responsive to outside events, for example, thought there was place, with the exception of and not the product of revolution¬ much in the argument that the Yal¬ Czechoslovakia, none of the area’s ary fervor mixed with the “psycho¬ ta accord was ambiguous, and that prewar governments fit into any pathology of Soviet Leaders.” Stalin was being realistic about Rus¬ definition of democracy, whatever These efforts [to consolidate sian security requirements. After they called themselves. Second, the Russian control as far west as all, Poland had provided the Ger¬ retreating Germans had destroyed possible] may have acquired a mans with a staging area for two or removed their satellites’ economic certain legitimacy in Soviet eyes invasions of Russia within 25 years. foundations, leaving them open to by an assumed political extension Admiral William D. Leahy, who whatever influence got there first, of the wartime agreements re¬ had accompanied Roosevelt to Yal¬ and built new structures. And third, garding spheres of military oper¬ ta, agreed that the Big Three deci¬ British policy in Greece and Anglo- ations. To those in the West who sion on Poland at that conference American policy in Italy seemed did not share this perception of was open to more than one interpre- clearly designed to exclude commu¬ inevitable conflict or the same

14 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 approach to a “sphere of inter¬ the newest lever available to Ameri¬ fined to immediate problems. Since est” disposition of other people, can policymakers—the atomic Roosevelt’s death he had been look¬ Soviet actions were baldly expan¬ bomb. In fact, contends Alperovitz, ing for “a hammer on those boys” sionist. (“Stalin’s Foreign Policy the date of the Postdam Conference —all of them, the Russians, the Reappraised,” Harvard Universi¬ was set back so as to ensure the British, the French, and the Japa¬ ty Press, 1963) bomb would have been tested be¬ nese. What FDR might have Shulman suggests here what fore the Big Three settled upon an achieved through diplomacy and would become a “realist” interpreta¬ agenda. prestige, Truman could secure only tion of the origins of the Cold War, “If it explodes,” Alperovitz quotes by firmly establishing himself at the the problem of missed signals and a conversation Truman had with head of the Big Three by some mixed perceptions. To Kolko, how¬ an associate, “as I think it will, I’ll other means. ever, the very term Cold War is a certainly have a hammer on those Margaret Truman has written re¬ misnomer which “burdens one’s boys!” There can be little doubt but cently that the news of the success¬ comprehension of the postwar era that the President was, as Stimson ful test had a liberating effect on her with oversimplifications and evokes confided to his diary, “tremendously father. “Now, it was obvious that the wrong questions.” At best, “that pepped up” by the news the Secre¬ we no longer needed Russia to end unfortunate phrase describes United tary of War brought him on July the Pacific war. This freed my fa¬ States-Soviet diplomacy in the nar¬ 16, the second day of the confer¬ ther to negotiate with far more rowest context, as if the relationship ence. The bomb test had been boldness and bluntness.” (“Harry S. subsumes most that is critical in the successful, beyond expectations. Truman,” William Morrow & Co., history of our times.” Truman then said that “it gave him 1973). This may be an answer to What was critical in the early an entirely new feeling of confi¬ Alperovitz, but it opens other ques¬ days of the Cold War was the desire dence.” It is quite a different thing, tions of an even more fundamental of the United States to reconstruct a however, to say that the President nature. world order compatible, first, with and his advisers had worked out the Truman had come to Potsdam its own expanding political and diplomatic implications of the bomb with a series of tests in mind for economic interests, and, second, for Eastern Europe. Or that they determining Soviet intentions. One with those of world capitalism. would have pursued a different poli¬ of these he pursued with unusual These were not really separate cy had the test been unsuccessful. boldness and bluntness was a pro¬ questions, since whatever affected Churchill did have a vision at posal for international control and one deeply influenced the other. Potsdam. He foresaw that the bomb regulation of major European wat- Obviously also, therefore, anything terways. In his “Memoirs” Tru¬ which hindered this plan, be it a man stated that he offered the pro¬ Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern posal as a solution also for the Europe, communist activity in problem of the Turkish straits, the Western Europe, or revolutionary Suez Canal, and the Panama Canal. nationalism in the Far East, had to They should all “be made free be resisted—or, in Cold War par¬ waterways for the passage of freight lance, “contained.” There were, ac¬ and passengers of all countries.” cording to this interpretation, no The papers and minutes of the missed signals or mixed perceptions, reveal no such and certainly no illusions on the sweeping proposal by Truman or his American side. It was Washington advisers. Instead, the American which took the initiative. And the proposal was for the creation of Big expansion of American power oc¬ Four navigation agencies to oversee curred so rapidly, and spread so far, traffic on the Danube and Rhine. that when events did go awry, it When Stalin and Foreign Minister only seemed that the United States Molotov pointed this out, Churchill was responding to a Russian probe. specifically excluded Suez. Molotov Harry Truman’s behavior at the then asked, “If it was such a good Potsdam Conference during July would completely alter the diplo¬ rule why not apply it to the Suez?” and August (the last summit meet¬ matic equilibrium, adrift since Ger¬ The conversation had begun with ing of his presidency) has been many’s defeat. Lord Alanbrooke, Stalin’s demand for the right to made the subject of a special study Chief of the Imperial General Staff, fortify the Turkish Straits. But by Gar Alperovitz (“Atomic Diplo¬ noted that the Prime Minister was Truman’s reaction was unequivocal: macy: Hiroshima and Potsdam,” Si¬ carried away with this thought. The persistent way in which mon and Schuster, 1964), who ar¬ “Now we had a new value which Stalin blocked one of the war- gues that the new President deliber¬ redressed our position (pushing out preventative measures I had pro¬ ately reversed FDR’s policy of co¬ his chin and scowling); now we posed showed ljow his mind operation with the Soviet Union, could say, ‘If you insist on doing worked and what he was after. I and set out single-mindedly to re¬ this or that, well . . .’ And then had proposed the internationali¬ move the Russians from Eastern where are the Russians!” Truman’s zation of all the principal water¬ Europe. When economic threats and behavior was not quite the same. ways. Stalin did not want this. blandishments failed, he turned to It was more general, and less con¬ What Stalin wanted was control

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 15 of the Black Sea Straits and the trouble. Between Potsdam and the money. A preliminary meeting with Danube. The Russians were Truman Doctrine speech of mid- Congressional leaders in the White planning world conquest. March 1947, the British had been House did not go well until Under Ever after in his presidency, unable to restore order (at least one Secretary of State Dean Acheson Truman would come back to to their liking) in Greece. Stalin’s took the floor and delivered a Potsdam for confirmation of this willingness and ability to aid the sweeping rendition of Russian ex¬ view, and the further conclusion Greek rebels has long been a matter pansionism befitting the beginning that there was no difference be¬ of dispute, with most historians now of a crusade. Warned that he must tween Nazi Germany and Stalinist concluding that his aid was largely repeat the threat in words like Russia. Perhaps there was one. “It in the form of moral support. He Acheson’s, Truman went before [Russia] is a Frankenstein dictator¬ could not very well abandon the Congress on March 12, 1947, to ship worse than any of the others, Greek communists entirely without declare that “it must be the policy Hitler included.” Even if one grants giving offense to Tito and his allies, of the United States to support free Stalin’s ambition to control those who had their own reasons for op¬ peoples who are resisting attempted areas, it is a far leap from that point posing the Athens regime, or with¬ subjugation by armed minorities or to the conclusion that the Russians out giving the Yugoslavs free rein by outside pressures.” were planning to conquer the world. throughout the Balkan area. Actually there were two Truman The German devastation and loss of Washington had available full re¬ Doctrine speeches. At Baylor Uni¬ life was alone enough to cast doubt ports on the corruption and ineffi¬ versity a week earlier, the President on Russia’s ability to mount a mili¬ ciency of the royalist government, delivered a speech on economic for¬ tary offensive, especially without and Administration officials private¬ eign policy which went over the continuing American Lend-Lease ly acknowledged Greek responsibili¬ world situation and concluded that aid. Only a month before Potsdam, ty for its external difficulties with governments everywhere were being Truman was counting on Russian other Balkan countries. A British forced to choose between free enter¬ economic weaknesses to aid him in withdrawal from the Mediterrane¬ prise and state control. “If this trend achieving his diplomatic goals. an, however, enlarged the issue be¬ is not reversed, the United States Moreover, from a Russian view¬ yond the confines of Greece itself. will be under pressure, sooner or point (which on this issue stretched The winter of 1946-47 was espe¬ later, to use these same devices for back centuries), the American plan cially harsh in Europe, exacerbating markets and for raw materials . . . amounted to a very unequal bar¬ recovery problems not only in Eng¬ This is precisely what we have been gain, if not outright denial of any land but in Western Europe as trying to get away from, as rapidly sphere of influence. Russia was sup¬ well. Political conditions in France as possible, ever since the war. It is posed to turn over the Danube to an and Italy were discouraging, to say not the American way . . .” the least, and a leftist victory in international authority and accept Truman purged the official Doc¬ an arms-free arrangement for the Greece under these conditions trine speech of all references to Turkish Straits, while its two allies might trigger a reaction elsewhere: economic interests or strategic re¬ who could say where it would end? did as they pleased elsewhere at quirements in the Middle East in Suez and Panama. Once the thin line between civil order to sustain the ideological puri¬ Stalin kept control of the strife and civil war, already ty of its anti-Communist message, Danube, but he never did gain a breached in Greece, gave way in but the historical record abounds foothold in the Turkish Straits. At some other country—anything could with policy statements, both public the end of World War II, Russian happen. And did anyone suppose and private, attesting to American influence in the Middle East was that Stalin could resist the tempta¬ concern about world capitalism. easily contained. Within two years it tion to add the final push, by what¬ Perhaps these were intended only to was actually receding. Russian ever means became available? Al¬ sell the Truman Doctrine to the efforts to cash in on a wartime ready some policymakers were say¬ business elite, or to convince a Re¬ promise that Moscow would be “eli¬ ing that Russian delays in settling publican Congress of the Adminis¬ gible” for a trusteeship over one of the German peace treaty issue and tration’s economic orthodoxy. The Italy’s African colonies had been related matters were part of such a formula would then seem to be (a) flatly rejected, its demand on Yugo¬ strategy. Stalin, according to this anti-Communism for the masses; slavia’s behalf for the Dodecanese notion, was perfectly willing to sit (b) good business for skeptics. Islands had been voluntarily aban¬ back until the political uncertainty The evidence can be read that doned, the Red Army had with¬ and economic chaos created by the way. It was Dean Acheson, howev¬ drawn from northern Iran after a division of Germany and Europe er, who remarked that the military, public debate in the United Na¬ forced the West to meet him on his political, and economic aspects of a tions, and, finally, Russia’s post- terms. problem could not “be separated in Potsdam efforts to negotiate a All these things went through the the intellectual equivalent of a stronger position for itself in the minds of American policymakers cream separator.” A recent study by Turkish straits area had been com¬ when the British declared their ina¬ Richard M. Freeland (“The Truman pletely thwarted by Anglo-American bility to continue financial support Doctrine and the Origins of McCar- diplomatic support for Ankara’s un¬ for Greece and Turkey in late Feb¬ thyism,” Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), compromising stand. ruary. Truman’s problem was to suggests yet another linkage be- Only in Greece was there some convince Congress to give him the Continued on page 40

16 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 A long look which leads to a changed estimate on the part of most of the Ike-watchers

FOREIGN POLICY IN THE EISENHOWER ADMINISTRATION

BARTON J. BERNSTEIN

^^URING his years in the White ism and legalism as the basic stand¬ ity. House probably no other 20th cen¬ ards in formulating foreign policy. Important parts of this analysis tury President received greater ad¬ Lurking curiously as an occasional have been challenged from three miration and more vigorous popular strand, albeit a contradictory different revisionist positions during support than Dwight D. Eisenhow¬ strand, in this massive indictment the past twelve years—one radical, er. Yet, few administrations have was another theme: the administra¬ another left-liberal, and the third been a greater target for the criticism tion had also missed opportunities to “tactical.” The radical analysis, of intellectuals. Almost from his en¬ ease the Cold War. which is usually theoretical and still try into office they found his admin¬ Many of these critics faulted not very detailed on the Eisenhower istration wanting. Summarizing the Eisenhower for his Whig conception years, stresses America’s responsi¬ indictment in domestic affairs, of the Presidency, his unwillingness bility for the continuing Cold War William Shannon assessed the ad¬ to lead Congress in foreign and do¬ under Eisenhower. The most promi¬ ministration in terms of the “great mestic policy, his refusal to educate nent practitioners are William Ap- postponement”: Eisenhower consol¬ the people from “the illusion of om¬ pleman Williams, “The Tragedy of idated the New Deal but failed to nipotence,” and his reliance upon American Diplomacy” (1959, 2nd define a new consensus. “No nation¬ men of limited or erroneous vision. rev. ed., 1972); Gabriel and Joyce al problem, whether it be education, In this analysis, Kolko, “The Limits of Power” housing, urban revitalization, agri¬ and George Humphrey were usually (1972) and Gabriel Kolko, “The culture, or inflation, will have been the major culprits who manipulated Roots of American Foreign Policy” advanced importantly toward solu¬ a good-natured, trusting, poorly in¬ (1969); and Harry Magdoff, “The tion nor its dimensions significantly formed President. These views are Age of Imperialism” (1969). In altered.” fn foreign policy, the in¬ still part of the orthodoxy. Secretary each case their volumes focus upon dictment was more severe: Eisen¬ Humphrey, ever vigilant guardian larger spans than the Eisenhower hower squandered American pres¬ of the Treasury and leading advo¬ period, stress the basic continuity in tige, sacrificed American power, cate of fiscal orthodoxy, placed the postwar foreign policy, and blame lost ground to the Communists, balanced budget before defense and the Cold War on the United States. overextended American commit¬ left the nation unprepared for both The left-liberal analysis, while gen¬ ments, and failed to maintain an a hot war and economic competi¬ erally eschewing or minimizing the¬ adequate military establishment. tion. Dulles, a rigid moralist, failed ory, also stresses American respon¬ The basic problem, according to understand power and relied in¬ sibility for the continuing Cold War to many critics, was that the ad¬ stead upon legal and religious prin¬ but usually focuses at greater length ministration failed to understand ciples for guidance. According to upon events. The leading examples and act upon a firm conception of most critics, he was the architect of are D. F. Fleming, “The Cold War the national interest: the adminis¬ foreign policy, blocking negotia¬ and Its Origins” (1961); and David tration did not understand power tions, thwarting Eisenhower’s benign Horowitz, “The Free World Colos¬ and mistakenly relied upon moral- impulses, and maintaining inflexibil¬ sus” (1965), which, despite a spas-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 17 tic overlay of radical theory, ends of democracy abroad. The result nant class puts over its conception up very close to Fleming. The radi¬ has been the effort to establish an in¬ of foreign policy. The Williams for¬ cal and left-liberal positions, defined ternational liberal capitalist order— mulation, while not explicitly con¬ by their differences on imperialism a system without colonialism, totali¬ sidering particular cases in the and class or elite domination, share tarianism, revolution, autarchy, or Eisenhower years, does deal with a common perspective: both are state trading. Policy-makers be¬ the general problem: the relation¬ sharply critical of American Cold lieved sincerely that American trade ship of class interest to the popular War policy. The third type of revi¬ and investment would also benefit acceptance of foreign policy. Ac¬ sionism—which I have termed “tac¬ other peoples directly (as recipi¬ cording to Williams, the ideology of tical”—is logically independent of, ents) or indirectly (by expanding expanding the economy and de¬ but compatible with, radical or left- world trade). Unlike Magdoff and mocracy abroad has been widely liberal positions. “Tactical” revi¬ Kolko, Williams contends that poli¬ shared since the late 19th century. sionism focuses not on responsibility cy-makers did not view American The ideology originated with agrari¬ for the continuing Cold War but on economic expansion as exploitation. ans, was slowly accepted by indus¬ reevaluating and raising the esti¬ Yet, the result of American expan¬ trialists and financiers, and was also mates of Eisenhower’s tactics and sion, according to Williams, has endorsed by labor. It became a sel¬ skills as a president and leader. The been an “Open Door” empire—what dom-challenged consensus. That “founder” of this movement is Mur¬ is called informal empire. Williams consensus restricts debates over for¬ ray Kempton, “The Underestima¬ maintains that “when an advanced eign policy to tactics: how best to tion of Dwight D. Eisenhower” industrial nation plays, or tries to expand the American system. In the (1967), and it includes Garry play, a controlling or one-sided role two decades after Pearl Harbor, ac¬ Wills, “Nixon Agonistes” (1970); in the development of a weaker cording to Williams, the only promi¬ Richard Rhodes, “Ike: An Artist in economy, then the policy of the nent dissenters from this consensus Iron” (1970); Herbert Parmet, more industrial country can . . . only were some of the so-called isolation¬ “Eisenhower and the American be described as imperial.” ists, especially Robert Taft. While Crusades” (1972); and myself. It is For Williams, the Open Door pol¬ sharing anti-Communism, Taft and possible to be a “tactical” revisionist icy is not a tactic but an integral many of his cohorts challenged fun¬ and radical (myself), or a left- part of this ideology. For Magdoff damental conceptions: the Ameri¬ liberal, or quite orthodox on the and Kolko, however, who note car¬ can mission abroad, the need for Cold War (Parmet). In turn, it is tel agreements, subsidies of exports, expanding trade, and the necessity also possible and even likely that and other departures from liberal of spreading democracy. As a re¬ most radicals and left-liberals dis¬ trade, the Open Door is just one sult, they opposed economic multi¬ agree with “tactical” revisionism tactic for achieving economic ex¬ lateralism and often resisted the and share the older view of Eisen¬ pansion—the preeminent purpose programs of foreign economic mili¬ hower as weak, even manipulated. of American foreign policy. Unlike tary aid. Let us look more closely at the Magdoff and Kolko, Williams also The Williams-Kolko-Magdoff in¬ three categories of revisionism, be¬ implies that the American system terpretation of class domination and ginning with the radicals. They have does not require economic expan¬ imperialism has been challenged by concluded that the Eisenhower ad¬ sion abroad and that policy-makers many non-radicals and some radi¬ ministration (like Truman’s) was have actually operated under a fun¬ cals. The most prominent radical not innocent of ideology nor lacking damental misconception: that the dissenter was the late C. Wright a sense of national interest, but United States requires a liberal in¬ Mills, who rejected theories of class rather had the wrong conception of ternational capitalist order. Ac¬ dominance, substituted a concept of the national interest. Williams, cording to Williams, there has been a power elite, and ignored issues of Kolko, and Magdoff stress the class no actual need to block left-wing imperialism. In “The Power Elite” domination of American foreign pol¬ revolutions or to extend the Ameri¬ (1956) he contended that postwar icy, view the military as the serv¬ can system. For Kolko and Mag¬ American foreign policy was domi¬ ants of the dominant capitalist doff, in contrast, economic expan¬ nated by a coalition of business, the class, and interpret modern Ameri¬ sion is essential to the American sys¬ Executive, and the military with the can policy as imperialistic. Beyond tem: the rhetoric of spreading dec- “military in the ascendant.” The this consensus there is disagreement mocracy is usually a ruse, policy¬ men in these “command posts” were on some important issues: whether makers recognize that capitalist ex¬ from different classes, and in the the capitalist system needs expan¬ pansion (including foreign aid) usu¬ last two cases (military and Execu¬ sion; whether policy-makers are sin¬ ally entails exploitation, and de¬ tive) membership in the elite de¬ cerely interested in extending dem¬ struction or of left pended upon office, not wealth or ocracy abroad; whether the Open revolutions and Communism is vital property. The ascendancy of the Door policy (equal access to mar¬ to preserving the American system. military marked the triumph of the kets and materials) is a tactic for The “” for Kolko and “military metaphysic”—the accept¬ expansion or a part of the ideology. Magdoff, unlike Williams, is often a ance of the military definition of For Williams, American imperial¬ correct analysis of the threat to reality. The result: “crackpot real¬ ism springs from an ideology (Wel¬ American hegemony. ists,” who had “constructed a tanschauung) : America’s freedom The Magdoff-Kolko formulation paranoid reality all their own,” and prosperity depend upon both does not deal in any significant way managed foreign policy. Eschewing economic expansion and the spread with the problem of how the domi¬ Marxism, Mills also avoided theo-

18 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 197s ries of imperialism and argued that sumes that Roosevelt was following sharply reverses these judgments. the Cold War was primarily the different policies, and has trouble He deems Eisenhower “the Pres¬ result of an American arms build¬ explaining in depth the reasons for ident most superbly equipped for up. It served the interests of the the continuing enmity to the Soviet truly consequential decision we may “warlords,” the “political director¬ Union under Eisenhower. For Flem¬ ever have had, a mind neither rash ate,” and the “corporate chieftains.” ing, was it simply an inheritance nor hesitant, free of the slightest The Cold War justified the growth that Eisenhower could not disavow? concern for how things might look, and power of the military. The Cold Or a method of justifying policies indifferent to any sentiment, as calm War also justified expenditures that devised for other purposes? Or when he was demonstrating the wis¬ the economy needed in order to maybe just self-deception? He never dom of leaving a bad situation alone avoid a depression and that the adequately confronts the problem. as when he was moving to meet it powerful corporations required in Nor does Horowitz provide a full on those occasions when he abso¬ order to maintain their prosperity. answer. He does not tie his notions lutely had to.” Far less theoretical than the of a counter-revolutionary policy to What is the basis for this judg¬ studies by Williams, Kolko, Mag- Soviet-American relations during ment? Undoubtedly the painful Vi¬ doff, or Mills are the “left-liberal” the Eisenhower years. There are etnam War, especially when con¬ revisionist books by D. F. Fleming theories or arguments that might trasted with Eisenhower’s ability to and David Horowitz, who relies establish the linkage—as Horowitz keep America out of war, has con¬ heavily upon Fleming while lean¬ stressed later in “Empire and Revo¬ tributed to a reassessment of earlier ing toward radicalism. Fleming’s lution” (1969)—but neither he nor liberal notions about the criteria of sprawling work “The Cold War and Fleming seemed deeply interested in a “great” Presidency. Employing Its Origins,” whose second volume some new standards for evaluating concentrates largely on the Eisen¬ Presidents, the reassessment of hower administration, is still the Eisenhower is also based heavily most detailed left-revisionist study "The President most superbly upon a particular reading of pub¬ of the period. He notes America’s equipped for truly consequential lished sources that became available postwar counter-revolutionary activ¬ decision we may ever have had, a in the past decade—memoirs and ities, laments the departure from the mind neither rash nor hesitant, appraisals by some members of the Wilsonian tradition of international¬ free of the slightest concern for administration, notably Sherman ism and the League, ignores how things might look," Adams, Richard Nixon, and Arthur Williams’s analysis until the end of Larson, and particularly Eisenhow¬ the book, and then curiously ends er’s own two-volume memoirs and by endorsing Williams. Fleming’s his very revealing “At Ease: Stories book is strangely eclectic, even con¬ such basic issues of “why” in the I Tell My Friends” (1967). These tradictory, for it does not under¬ early ’60s. Instead, they wanted pri¬ sources, according to Kempton and stand Williams’s central theme: that marily to establish that American others, provide the key to under¬ the Wilsonian tradition of seeking to policy toward Russia had been mis¬ standing Eisenhower: he wore many establish a liberal capitalist world is guided, often provocative, and dan¬ masks, played many roles, often the source of the tragedy of Ameri¬ gerous. At length, they criticized concealed his purposes and emo¬ can foreign policy. the Eisenhower administration for tions. He was shrewd and clever. Horowitz’s “The Free World maintaining hostility toward Russia Larson, for example, notes that Colossus,” which devotes little at¬ and China, for not pursuing negoti¬ Eisenhower was an able speech- tention to theory, asserts that Amer¬ ations to settle the Cold War, and writer and fine editor, and that he ica is “counter-revolutionary rather for resisting Soviet attempts at dis¬ purposely sought the simple, color¬ than counter-expansionary and that armament and arms control—themes less prose that filled his addresses. the rhetoric of opposition to [Com¬ that the radicals also note. He was aiming to please the com¬ munist] aggression was a mere cov¬ In addition to these radical and mon man, not (as with Stevenson) er for containing internal change.” left-liberal analyses of postwar to delight the intellectuals. Even Postwar America was (to use foreign policy, there has also been a Eisenhower's tangled syntax, Larson Toynbee’s words that Horowitz move recently to reassess the tactics contends, was not a fault of mind quotes) the “Leader of a world-wide and skills of Eisenhower as Pres¬ but a devious stratagem. For exam¬ anti-revolutionary movement in de¬ ident. The leader and source of the ple, during one of the Quemoy- fense of vested interests”—which most enthusiastic judgments is Mur¬ Matsu crises, when press secretary seems often to mean business for ray Kempton, a former New Deal- James Hagerty warned the Pres¬ Horowitz. He explains American Fair Deal columnist. In the ’50s he ident that it might be best to refuse policy toward Vietnam, Iran, Gua- contributed to the liberal criticism to answer reporter’s questions on tamala, and Cuba in terms of this of Eisenhower for his failures. Like the subject, Eisenhower replied, effort to defend “vested interests.” many others, Kempton then found “Don’t worry, Jim ... If that ques¬ Aside from this radical overlay and Ike weak and spineless, unenlight¬ tion comes up, I’ll just confuse the greater emphasis on interven¬ ened and inept: a man of mangled them.” This technique, Kempton tion, the two books are quite simi¬ syntax who thought in platitudes contends, was part of the mask of lar. and preferred westerns and golf to the man, part of his “protective Each blames the early Cold War the exercise of national power. In coloration of being amiable and in¬ on the Truman administration, as¬ his recent reassessment, Kempton nocent.”

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 19 Eisenhower could exploit subor¬ “tactical” revisionists with a self- It also indicates how the radical and dinates, encourage them to stake created mandate to praise and ad¬ “tactical” analyses can be wedded. out advance positions, and then cut mire skills which advance America's Some radicals would contend that himself free with impunity when counter-revolutionary policies. The America’s efforts to keep South politics demanded. He was so cun¬ “tactical” approach could lead to Vietnam non-communist was not ning that few recognized his capaci¬ celebration, not criticism, to com¬ primarily to secure American ac¬ ty for ruthlessness. Despite his mendation, not comprehension. cess to raw materials or markets maneuvers, he maintained his image Let’s look at how members of this in Indochina but to retain them for of the loyal, friendly, uncritical, “tactical” group interpret some of Japan, which was deemed essential straightforward, good-natured man. the key crises in the administration to the international capitalist sys¬ “He told Nixon and others,” Sher¬ —say, Korea, Indochina, Quemoy- tem. As Eisenhower said in April man Adams recalls, “that somebody Matsu, Lebanon. Take Korea. A 1954: has to do the hard-hitting infighting few weeks after the election, Eisen¬ . . . when you come to the [read: dirty work] and he had no hower went to Korea, concluded possible sequence of events, the objections to it as long as no one that a “frontal attack would present loss of Indochina, of Burma, of expected him to do it.” No inno¬ great difficulties,” resolved to end Thailand, of the Peninsula, and cent, no victim of other men’s the war, and later rejected Dulles’s Indonesia following, now you be¬ manipulations, Ike was a shrewd advice to demonstrate “our clear gin to talk about areas that not administrator, a man skilled in di¬ superiority . . . before all Asia . . . only multiply the disadvantages recting men and organizations while by giving the Chinese one hell of a that you would suffer through loss quietly maintaining his dominance licking.” Eisenhower briefly modi¬ of materials, sources of materials, and authority. Dulles “knows more fied the Truman administration’s but you are now talking really about foreign affairs than anyone I position on forced repatriation about millions and millions and know,” Eisenhower told Larson, but of prisoners (which had held millions of people. quickly added, “there’s only one up the truce), proposed an ex¬ Finally the geographic position man I know who . . . knows more change of all wounded and ill achieved thereby does many ...—and that’s me.” “The mythical prisoners, obliquely threatened the things. It turns the so-called is¬ Eisenhower, who left decision¬ Chinese with nuclear war, and even land defensive chain of Japan, making to subordinates, whose mind bombed vital North Korean dikes Formosa, of the Philippines and was ‘lazy’ and/or not very bright,” when negotiations seemed to falter. to the southward; it moves in to did not exist, concluded Gordon Few would approve the callousness threaten Australia and New Gray, who had served both Truman of his tactics in bombing the dikes, Zealand. and Eisenhower. He was confident, but most historians (including radi¬ It takes away, in its economic circumspect, and cautious. He un¬ cals and left-liberals) have failed to aspects, that region that Japan derstood the limits of national pow¬ note or appreciate his shrewdness. must have as a trading area or er and had no need to brandish his He always kept control of the op¬ Japan, in turn, will have only one abilities or dramatically to exercise tions and never publicly committed place to go—that is, toward the his authority—as the liberal concep¬ his government to any particular Communist areas in order to live. tion of the presidency demanded. tactics. At any time he could back So, the possible consequences His guide could have been Robert away without any loss of credibility of the loss are just incalculable to Frost’s words: “The strong are say¬ domestically or internationally. The the free world. ing nothing until they see.” nuclear threat, delivered by Dulles Yet, despite this analysis of falling This is the basic outline of the through Nehru, was never public dominoes, Eisenhower did not inter¬ view of Eisenhower that Kempton, and hence did not commit Eisen¬ vene with American troops in Indo¬ Wills, Parmet (with some ambiva¬ hower. (There is strong suggestive china. Why not? lence), and I (with reservations) evidence that he would not have Some years ago, in seeking to have advanced. It is theoretically actually moved to nuclear war—a refute Mills’s theory of the power compatible with radical, left-liberal, judgment on which most radicals elite, Richard Rovere focused on and non-radical interpretations. and left-liberals probably disagree.) Tndochina, which Mills had cited. Kempton, who seems to be moving Tn bombing the dikes he escalated Rovere contended that the decision near the radical camp, can com¬ the still-limited war and implied was not made by a power elite: the fortably share this interpretation that he was prepared to destroy all masses were sovereign. Popular with I. F. Stone, the left-liberal the dikes and thereby create a fam¬ opinion kept the United States out journalist, with Wills, who is no ine. By retaining the options and of this war. Rovere’s contention is radical, and with Parmet and maintaining flexibility, Eisenhower dubious, certainly too simple. William O’Neill, two liberal histori¬ used controlled escalation of actions Kempton and I, as well as Robert ans. It is a view that only a few and warnings (threats) to achieve Randle, a nonradical, and Parmet, historians, and a few more journal¬ his ends—precisely the tactics that who relies on Randle’s “Geneva, ists, have endorsed so far. The chief Kennedy and his advisers claimed 1954” (1969), conclude, with dif¬ danger, some radical and left-liberal to establish and charged the Eisen¬ ferent emphases, that Eisenhower critics will undoubtedly note, is that hower administration with failing to was reluctant to go to war. (Randle an emphasis on tactics, if not linked use or understand. and Parmet contend that Dulles was to larger questions of purpose and a Tndochina in 1954 represents an¬ also reluctant.) Why else did the left framework, may provide some other example of Eisenhower’s skill President not even meet with Con- Continued on page 29 20 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 PROPOSED NEW BYLAWS FOR THE AMERICAN FOREIGN SERVICE ASSOCIATION

PROPOSED BYLAWS PRESENT BYLAWS AND COMMENTS ON CHANGES

ARTICLE II

CORPORATE SEAL The corporate seal of this Association shall have inscribed thereon the name of the Association, the year of its creation, and the words “District of Columbia.” An impression thereof shall be affixed to these By-Laws. ARTICLE deleted, as has been transferred to Certificate of Incorporation. ARTICLE III ARTICLE I PURPOSES AND OBJECTIVES Purposes and Objectives In addition to the general purposes and objectives of this Associa¬ In addition to the general purposes and objectives of this tion as set forth in the Certificate of Incorporation the following are declared to be the primary purposes and objectives of this Associa¬ Association as set forth in the Constitution, the following tion: are declared to be the primary purposes and objectives of 1. To further the interests and well being of the members of the this Association: Association and to work closely with the Department of State and other agencies toward the goal of improving the foreign affairs com¬ 1. To further the interests and well being of the Members munity. of the Association and to work closely with the Foreign 2. To take over the property, assets, obligations, and contracts of Affairs Agencies, other interested institutions and individuals the voluntary unincorporated Association heretofore in existence and to strengthen the ability of the foreign affairs community to known as the AMERICAN FOREIGN SERVICE ASSOCIATION, and to contribute to effective foreign policies. continue under the name of the present Association the purposes, objectives, and affairs of that predecessor Association; 2. To accept and receive gifts, grants, devises, bequests, 3. To acquire real and personal property by purchase or lease, and funds from such other voluntary associations as may be whether in whole or in part, to be used for this Association and its created by Foreign Service personnel or to accept and receive members; gifts, grants, devises, bequests, and funds as otherwise 4. To accept and receive gifts, grants, devises, bequests, and funds donated to this Association by any person or persons, group from such other voluntary associations as may be created by Foreign Service personnel, or to accept and receive gifts, grants, devises, or groups, and to utilize or dispose of the same for the bequests, and funds as otherwise donated to this Association by any purposes of this Association, or, as directed by said other person or persons, group or groups, and to utilize or dispose of the associations or said other donors. same for the purposes of this Association, or, as directed by said other 3. To publish the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL and AFSA associations or said other donors; 5. To the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL NEWS as NEWS as the official organs of the Association. publish and AFSA the official organ of this Association in order to disseminate informa¬ 4. To maintain and operate a Scholarship Fund or Funds tion respecting the work of the agencies principally engaged in foreign or such other funds as are commensurate with the purposes affairs and Foreign Service among interested persons, including busi¬ and objectives of this Association. ness and professional men and others in the United States and abroad, 5. To carry on such other activities as the Association and persons who may be considering the American Foreign Service as may deem practicable in order to serve the interests of the a career; to serve as a medium of exchange for personal and other news and for unofficial information respecting the agencies principally Association and its Members. engaged in foreign affairs and the Foreign Service and their personnel; and to keep them in touch with developments which are of interest or concern to them; 6. To create, maintain and operate a Scholarship Fund or Funds or such other funds for such purposes as are commensurate with the purposes and objectives of this Association described in the Certificate of Incorporation or in these By-Laws; 7. To sponsor, through the American Foreign Service Protective Association, Inc., a group insurance plan for payment of life, sick, and accident benefits to members of this Association entitled thereto under the Certificate of Incorporation and By-Laws of the said American Foreign Service Protective Association, Inc., as are now written or as hereafter may be written; 8. To carry on such other activities as the Association may deem practicable in pursuance of the purposes and objectives set forth in the Certificate of Incorporation of this Association and in these By-Laws, in order to serve the interests of the Association and its members.

The Purposes and Objectives ARTICLE has been amended to reflect present activities of the Association. Specifically, reference to the American Foreign Service Pro¬ tective Association and the unincorporated American Foreign Service Association, which are no longer applicable, have been deleted. ARTICLE II ARTICLE VIII

Membership MEMBERSHIP 1. Persons eligible for Membership are those American 1. The Association shall be composed of Active Members, Associ¬ citizens, wherever serving, appointed in or assigned to a ate Members, Honorary Members, and Fellows in Diplomacy. Foreign Affairs Agency under authority of the Foreign Serv¬ 2. Persons eligible for Active Membership are those American ice Act of 1946, as Amended; the Foreign Assistance Act citizens serving under the authority of the Foreign Service Act of 1946, as amended, or Public Law 90-494, and any amendments of 1961, as Amended; Public Law 90-494, or successor thereto, or who have retired from service under these laws. Those legislation to these Acts or persons who have retired or been eligible shall be admitted to Active Membership without any formali¬ terminated from the Foreign Service. ty other than application, acceptance, and the payment of annual 2. Any person eligible for membership may be so ad¬ dues. Only Active Members shall have voting rights in the conduct of mitted upon application and payment of dues, and shall be the affairs of the Association. Any Active Member or person eligible for Active Membership shall be admitted to Active Membership for permitted to maintain membership so long as he or she life upon request, acceptance and payment of the prescribed dues. remains eligible and maintains current dues payment; only 3. Persons eligible for Associate Membership are those American Members shall have voting and other rights regarding the citizens who are: (a) employees of the Department of State, AID, or conduct of the affairs of the Association. USIA who hold officer level positions; (b) employees of other 3. The Board shall establish terms and conditions for Departments and Agencies of the Government who hold career status and who are serving or have served abroad in connection therewith; affiliation with the Association, other than membership, for (c) in the opinion of the Board of Directors, closely associated with persons not eligible for membership. American citizens or actively interested in the foreign affairs of the United States. closely associated with or interested in the foreign affairs Associate Members shall be admitted to membership without any of the United States may become Associates upon the formality other than application, acceptance, and the payment of annual dues. acceptance of their applications by the Board and the pay¬ 4. The Board of Directors may invite to become Honorary ment of dues. Members for specified periods such representative American citizens 4. The Board may invite to become Honorary Members as they deem proper. Honorary Officers of the Association shall be for specified periods such representative American citizens Honorary Members during the time they hold office. Honorary as they deem proper. Honorary Members shall be exempt Members shall be exempt from the payment of dues. 5. The Board of Directors is authorized to elect each year not more from the payments of dues. than five distinguished American citizens as Fellows in Diplomacy. 5. The rates of dues shall be set by the Governing Board Those elected should have made outstanding contributions to the field provided that dues shall not be increased, or an assessment of international relations and at the time of their election should not levied, except after approval by a majority of those Members be officials of the Government of the United States. Fellows in voting in a secret ballot referendum. Diplomacy shall be exempt from the payment of dues, and election shall be for life. 6. Members may be expelled or otherwise disciplined by 6. The Board of Directors may expel a member from the Associa¬ the Association for engaging in conduct which discredits or tion for cause after notice to and due hearing of the member con¬ brings into disrepute the Association or the Foreign Service; cerned. or taking court or Administrative Agency action against The membership provisions have been simplified. The the Association without exhausting internal administrative Associate Membership category has been dropped. There procedures which the Board shall establish. However, no are now Members who have voting and other rights, and Member may be disciplined by the Association unless such Associates. Membership is open to anyone who is serving Member has been served with written specific charges, given or has served in a Foreign Affairs Agency who has not a reasonable time to prepare a defense, and afforded a full been separated for cause. and fair hearing. The Board shall establish procedures for such disciplinary actions. ARTICLE IX DUES 1. The dues of Members shall be specified by the Board of Directors. The yearly dues include a payment of $5.00 for a sub¬ scription to the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL and AFSA NEWS.

The dues provision conforms with Department of Labor standards of conduct. The present expulsion provision is not enforceable due to vagueness. The new provision provides for disciplinary actions other than expulsion, and provides for detailed pro¬ cedures.

ARTICLE III Rights of Members Every Member shall have equal rights and privileges A new ARTICLE which incorporates by reference the within the Association, freedom of speech and assembly, protections guaranteed to Members due to the Association’s and all other rights guaranteed by law, Executive Order, status as exclusive employee representative under Executive and regulation. Order 11636. ARTICLE IV ARTICLE IV SECTION A The Governing Board of the Association BOARD OF DIRECTORS 1. The property and affairs of this Association shall be 1. The property and affairs of this Association shall be managed by a Board of Directors of eleven members, who shall be elected every managed by a Governing Board composed of officers and two years in the manner and for the term provided in ARTICLE VI. Representatives who shall be elected biennially for terms 2. No person shall be elected as a Director unless such person is an of two years in the manner prescribed in Article tX from Active Member of this Association and is either on duty in Washing¬ among the Association’s Members. Each Board Member ton, D. C. or is residing in the metropolitan area of Washington, shall have one vote. D. C. The term of duty of each Director shall be two years; however, a Director may be reelected as provided for in ARTICLE VI. 2. Vacancies occurring during the term of the Board 3. If a vacancy should occur in the membership of the Board of shall be filled by the Board by appointment from the Mem¬ Directors, or in the office of President, First Vice President, or bership, provided that Representatives shall be chosen from Second Vice President, not covered by ARTICLE V, Section B, the the constituency of the vacancy as defined in Article Vf(l). Board, in its discretion, may appoint an Active Member to fill such vacancy.

A major reform. An elected Governing Board replaces the present executive organization of appointed Officers and elected Directors. The new Board is composed of Officers, who are elected at large, and Representatives, who are elected by and from a particular constituency. The con¬ stituencies are: State, AID, USIA, and Retired. This change insures representation on the Board from each major membership group in the Association. Each Board Member, whether an Officer or a Representative, has one vote. ARTICLE V SECTION A ARTICLE V OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION Officers of the Association and Their Duties 1. The Association shall have as Officers a President, a First Vice President and a Second Vice President, who shall be elected as 1. The Association shall have as Officers: a President, a provided for in ARTICLE VI. The Association shall also have as Vice President, a Second Vice President, a Secretary, and Officers a Chairman of the Board, a Vice Chairman of the Board, a a Treasurer. Secretary-Treasurer and an Assistant Secretary-Treasurer, all of whom 2. Officers shall be elected by the entire Membership shall be appointed by the Board of Directors. pursuant to Article IX as a slate or as individuals. 2. The Association may also have Honorary Officers who shall be 3. The President shall function as the Chief Executive appointed by the Board of Directors. Officer of the Association and shall exercise supervision of SECTION B the affairs of the Association, subject to approval by the POWERS OF OFFICERS Governing Board. The President shall preside at meetings 1. The President shall preside at all general meetings of the of the Membership and of the Governing Board, shall be Association. In his absence, the First Vice President, the Second Vice the principal Representative of the Association, and shall President or the Chairman of the Board of Directors, in that order, shall preside. The President shall be a non-voting member of the’ have such other powers and duties as the Board may delegate. Board of Directors. He may call upon the Board of Directors for 4. The Vice Presidents, in the order of precedence, shall information and data relating to the affairs of the Association. He assist the President in the performance of his or her duties, shall have such other powers and duties and discretions as may be act as President in his or her temporary absence, and shall delegated to him, subject to his acceptance, by the Board of Directors have such other powers and duties as the Board may dele¬ of the Association. 2. The First Vice President shall be vested with all of the powers gate to them. and shall perform all the duties of the President during the absence of 5. The Secretary shall supervise the Association’s and the latter, and in case of a vacancy arising in the office of the the Board’s correspondence, and meet its filing obligations, President, he shall succeed to that office for the remainder of the other than financial, under applicable law or regulations, President’s unexpired term and, in turn, the Second Vice President and shall have such other powers and duties as the Board shall become the First Vice President for the remainder of the First Vice President’s unexpired term. The First Vice President and the may delegate. Second Vice President shall be non-voting members of the Board of 6. The Treasurer, under the general direction of the Directors. Board, shall have charge of the Association’s moneys, funds 3. Under the general responsibility of the Board of Directors, the and assets, meet its financial filing obligations under ap¬ Secretary-Treasurer, or in his absence, the Assistant Secretary- plicable law or regulation, draft a budget for the Board, Treasurer or the General Manager shall have charge of all the and render a statement of accounts and balance sheet of moneys, funds, and assets of the Association, of the FOREIGN the books at each annual meeting of the Association, and SERVICE JOURNAL and of the Scholarship and other Funds; shall be responsible for the maintenance of the accounts, collection of dues, at other times when requested by the Board. With the receipt of contributions and any other funds which may be due from approval of the Board, he or she may make a limited dele¬ the members; collect and receive any moneys and other personal gation of powers and duties to the Executive Director. All property to which the Association may be entitled whether because of extraordinary expenses and investments shall be made by gift, grant, bequest or otherwise; make payments out of any moneys the Treasurer only upon recommendation to and approval and assets in his charge for ordinary operating expenses. All such moneys and funds shall be placed upon deposit in recognized banking of the Board or by the Membership, if necessary to conform institutions or, in the case of surplus funds, invested with the to the Constitution. authorization of the Board of Directors as authorized in Article IV, Section B(2) (f). With the approval of the Board of Directors, he may delegate to the General Manager responsibility for maintaining accounts and payment of ordinary expenses within a monthly total amount as may be fixed by the Board of Directors from time to time. All extraordinary expenses and investments shall be made by the Secretary-Treasurer or his assistant upon recommendation to and approval by the Board of Directors within the limitations of Article IV, Section B(2) (g). The Secretary-Treasurer, or in his absence the Assistant Secretary- Treasurer, shall render a statement of accounts and a balance sheet of his books at each annual meeting of the Association and at such other times as a statement and balance sheet may be requested in writing by the Chairman of the Board of Directors. The duties of Officers parallel those in the old Bylaws. ARTICLE VI Representatives of the Association and Their Duties 1. Representatives shall be elected as a slate or as in¬ dividuals by and from the Membership employed in each Representatives are elected from and by the Association of the Foreign Alfairs Agencies (State Department, USIA Members employed in State, USIA, AID, and from the and AID or successor Agencies), and from the retired Retired Members as a group. On the basis of current mem¬ Members as groups. One Representative shall be elected by bership, the number of Representatives would be: State-4, each of the above groups for each 1,000 Members or fraction USIA-1, AID-1, Retired-2. AID needs only 30 more Mem¬ thereof. bers to qualify for another Representative. USIA needs 300. 2. In addition to their duties on the Board, Representa¬ tives shall have special responsibility for the interests of the Members from whom they were elected with respect to any matters which affect only that particular group.

ARTICLE VII SECTION B Powers and Duties of the Governing Board POWERS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS 1. The powers of the Board shall be those vested in the 1. The powers of the Board of Directors shall be those vested in the Board by the Constitution, by these Bylaws, by powers given Board by the Certificate of Incorporation, by these By-Laws, by them pursuant to the laws of the District of Columbia, and powers given them pursuant to the laws of the District of Columbia, and, by the general powers normally vested in the Board of Directors by the general powers normally vested in a Board by virtue by virtue of their office. of their office. 2. In addition, the following specific powers are hereby expressly 2. The Board, in general, shall have the power to per¬ conferred upon the Board of Directors: form or authorize the performance of whatever is necessary a. To appoint a Chairman and a Vice Chairman from among the to carry out the purposes and objectives of this Association members of the Board of Directors; b. To appoint a Secretary-Treasurer and an Assistant Secretary- and to respond to the views of the Membership. Treasurer of the Association; 3. The Board shall determine the Association’s policy in c. To appoint members of the JOURNAL Editorial Board, who shall all matters affecting the interests of its Members. serve at the pleasure of the Board of Directors, and who, under the 4. In addition, the following specific powers are hereby general direction of the Board of Directors, shall be specifically expressly conferred upon the Board: responsible for the publication of the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL; a. To establish policies and programs to achieve the pur¬ d. To appoint, upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors of the American Foreign Service Protective Association, Inc., and poses of the Association; subject to the By-Laws of said Association, the Directors of that b. To create and abolish Committees of the Association; Association who shall serve until replaced in accordance with the to appoint the Chairmen and Committee Members of such; provisions of the By-Laws of the American Foreign Service Protective to direct the work of all Committees; and otherwise organize Association, Inc.; the internal structure of the Association; e. To authorize and approve the employment, compensation; conditions of employment and the duties of the General Manager and c. To ensure the observance of the standards of conduct other salaried employees of the Association, as may, in the consider¬ required of the Association by law and regulation; ation of the Board of Directors, be necessary; d. To manage the assets and investments of the Associa¬ f. To invest any surplus funds of this Association in recognized tion; to approve an annual financial plan; to authorize the banking institutions, securities, real property, building and loan disbursement of funds; provided, however, that no disburse¬ associations, and in the State Department Federal Credit Union; g. To authorize disbursements of Association funds to carry out ment exceeding one-third of the Association’s general funds the purposes and objectives of this Association as set forth in the shall be made for a specific purpose unless authorized by a Certificate of Incorporation and these By-Laws; provided, however, majority present at a meeting held in accordance with Article that no disbursement exceeding one-third of the Association’s general XI of these Bylaws; to provide for an annual independent funds shall be made for a specific purpose unless authorized by a majority present at a general business meeting held in accordance audit of the Association accounts; and to report annually with the provisions of ARTICLE X of these By-Laws; to the Membership on the financial position of the Asso¬ h. To select such person or persons, firm or firms as desired from ciation. without the membership of this Association to audit and examine the e. To authorize and approve the employment, compensa¬ accounts of this Association annually, or more often if deemed tion, conditions of employment, and duties of an Executive necessary by the Board of Directors, and to authorize the payment of Director and such other salaried employees of the Associa¬ fees and expenses in connection therewith; tion, the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, and the Foreign Serv- ice Club, as may in the consideration of the Board of Direc¬ i. To perform, or authorize the performance of, whatever is tors be necessary; necessary to carry out the purposes and objectives of this Association f. To keep the Membership currently informed of im¬ as set forth in the Certificate of Incorporation and in these By-Laws 3. Any 25 active members or any overseas AFSA Chapter may at portant matters affecting the interests of the Membership any time, and by written request, require the Board to discuss in a and the Association, including developments in foreign af¬ regular Board meeting an issue they deem important. The Board will fairs which are of concern to them as professionals. The report its conclusions to those submitting the request and to the mem¬ Board shall also facilitate communications to the Member¬ bership at large. ship from Members or a group of Members, on matters of 4. It is incumbent upon the Board to seek the advice of the active membership at large as frequently as practicable on major issues be¬ Association business; provided, that the costs are borne by fore the Association. Therefore, whenever the Board believes an issue those initiating the communication. to be of sufficient importance—and other considerations of time and g. The Board shall seek the advice of the Membership subject matter permit—the advice of the active membership shall be whenever practicable before adopting policies which will sought by written ballot, by communication with Chapter heads or have major impact on the Membership of the Association. by other expeditious means. h. To make regulations implementing the Constitution This ARTICLE has been updated. and these Bylaws; and to interpret the Constitution, the Bylaws; and any regulations issued. Except as otherwise pro¬ vided in Article IX, the interpretations of the Constitution, these Bylaws and the regulations of the Association made by the Board shall be determinative; ARTICLE VII i. To appoint the Chairman and members of the JOURNAL Editorial Board, who shall serve at the pleasure of the COMMITTEES Board, and who, under the general direction of the Board, The Board of Directors may create such Committees as it deems shall be specifically responsible for the publication of the necessary. The chairmen and members of Committees shall be appointed by the Board of Directors. The number on each Committee FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. The yearly dues shall include shall be within the discretion of the Board of Directors. a payment of at least $5.00 for a subscription to the FOR¬ EIGN SERVICE JOURNAL.

ARTICLE VIII SECTION C Meetings of the Board MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS 1. The Board shall meet at least once each month at a 1. The Board of Directors shall meet at least once each month on a time and place determined by the President, and at such date determined by the Chairman, and at such other times as the Chairman may determine. other times and places as the President shall determine. 2. The Board also shall meet at the written request of five Direc¬ The Board shall meet to consider a particular subject at the tors made to the Chairman of the Board at least five days prior to the written request, submitted at least five working days prior date of the meeting, or by notice in writing mailed by the Chairman to the proposed date of the meeting to the President, of of the Board or by the President of the Association to each member one-third of the Members of the Board, 25 Members, or of the Board at least 5 days before the date on which the meeting is to be held. one overseas Chapter. 3. A meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held only with a 2. A meeting shall be held only with a quorum present. quorum present. Six members of the Board of Directors shall con¬ A quorum shall consist of more than one-half of the Mem¬ stitute a quorum. bers of the Board. Decisions taken at meetings of the Board 4. Decisions taken at meetings of the Board of Directors shall be shall be by a majority of the quorum present at the meeting. by a majority of the quorum present at the meeting. 3. Regular meetings shall be announced and shall be 5. The President, and the Vice Presidents are privileged to attend all meetings of the Board. The Chairman of the Board at his open to Members. The Board shall maintain minutes of all discretion may invite others to attend meetings of the Board of meetings, including a record of any votes, which shall be Directors. available to Members and Associates. The Board shall 6. All regular meetings of the Board of Directors shall be open publish in a timely manner all important decisions. to all members. Accurate minutes of all meetings, including a record of any votes by the Directors, shall be available to members. A sum¬ 4. Executive Sessions of the Board in addition to regular mary of such minutes shall be published on a timely basis in the meetings may be held upon the call of the President. Foreign Service Journal. This ARTICLE makes Board consideration of a proposal submitted by either one-third of the Board, 25 Members, or one overseas Chapter, mandatory. This ensures con¬ sideration of any matter of concern to a minority of the Board or the Membership. ARTICLE IX ARTICLE VI

Elections ELECTIONS 1. The Board shall appoint an Elections Committee on 1. On or before August 1 of each election year, i.e., every or about February 15 of each odd-numbered year consisting even-numbered fiscal year (July 1-June 30), the Board of Directors of of not less than five Members, including at least one Member the Association shall appoint an Elections Committee of at least five individuals from among Active Members of the Association residing from each Foreign Affairs Agency and one retired Member. in the metropolitan area of Washington, D.C. Members of the Board The Elections Committee will administer the elections, in¬ of Directors or Officers of the Association shall not be members of terpret those sections of the Bylaws relating to elections and the Elections Committee. resolve election issues and disputes. Elections Committee 2. On or before September 1 of the election year, the Elections Members may not be candidates, nor may they be members Committee shall issue an election call by general mailing to all Active Members. The election call shall solicit candidates for election to of the Board, nor may they accept appointment to the the eleven positions constituting the Board of Directors of the Asso¬ Board or a Committee Chairmanship in the Association ciation. Nominations must be received by the Elections Committee on during the year in which the election is held. or before October 15 of each election year. Candidates may be pre¬ 2. The Elections Committee shall issue an election call sented either individually or as members of slates. 3. The Elections Committee shall ascertain whether each candidate to all Members in the March FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL on October 15 fulfills eligibility requirements, i.e., current residence in and/or AFSA NEWS, prescribing the terms and conditions the metropolitan area of Washington, D.C., Active Membership, of the election and soliciting candidates. current in dues payment. Members of the Elections Committee shall 3. Candidates must make known their candidacies not not themselves be eligible as candidates nor may they accept later than 25 days following the date of the election call appointment as Officers of the Association or Members of the 3oard of Directors at any time during the election year. Incumbent for Officer or Representative positions. Candidates may file Officers of the Association or Members of the Board of Directors, if individually or in slates. Candidacies must be accompanied otherwise qualified, may be candidates. by evidence of eligibility as of June 30 of the year of the 4. After eligibility of all candidates has been determined, the elections, a statement that the candidate will be in the Elections Committee shall ascertain whether there are at least 22 Washington area during the term of office, and a small candidates. If fewer than 22 candidates have qualified, the Elections Committee shall select qualified candidates, with their consent, in filing fee, to be determined by the Elections Committee, to sufficient number to assure at least 22 candidates. In selecting such help defray election costs. additional candidates, the Elections Committee should bear in mind 4. The Elections Committee shall verify the eligibility of the desirability of reflecting the structure of the Active Membership candidates for each position, and announce publicly the of the Association. 5. The Elections Committee shall announce publicly the names of names of the candidates on or about April 1. all candidates no later than October 15. The period October 15- 5. Candidates may submit campaign statements according November 15 shall be designated the campaign period. The Commit¬ to regulations to be established by the Elections Committee. tee shall organize and publicize at least three meetings at which the The Elections Committee shall have published in the FOREIGN candidates can present their positions. The meetings shall be well publicized and held at times and places calculated to ensure the larg¬ SERVICE JOURNAL, and/or AFSA NEWS, and/or elsewhere at est possible attendance by the members. In order to facilitate in¬ Association expense, the platform statements of the candidates formed voting, the Elections Committee shall accept and distribute and/or slates during the beginning of a campaign period of platform statements from candidates to the membership at the begin¬ not less than 30 days. The Elections Committee during this ning of the campaign period. The Association shall bear the attendant cost of reproduction of statements, which shall be of reasonable period shall organize and publicize campaign meetings. length, the addressing of envelopes, and postage. To help defray Should candidates wish to mail supplementary statements election costs, each candidate shall make a nominal contribution, to the membership, the Association will make available to e.g. SI0.00 to be set by the Elections Committee. them on request the membership mailing list or address 6. The official ballot bearing only the names of all qualified candi¬ dates shall be mailed to the Active membership no later than Novem¬ labels. In such cases candidates will reimburse the Associa¬ ber 15. The Elections Committee shall instruct the Active Members tion for all related expenses. to vote for not more than eleven candidates as Members of the Board 6. The official ballot bearing only the names of all quali¬ of Directors. These eleven names may be voted from among those fied candidates, slate identifications when applicable, and appearing as individuals or as members of any slate. Slates may be voted as units, in which case each person on the slate will be recorded voting instructions shall be mailed to each Member on or as having received one vote. Votes may be cast for write-in candi¬ about May 15. dates, provided they fulfill the eligibility requirements on December 7. Each Member may cast one vote for each Officer 31 of the election year. Votes must be received by the Elections Com¬ position and, in addition, may cast a number of votes not mittee no later than December 31 of the election year. exceeding the number of Representative positions available 7. Within five working days from January 1 in the election year, the Elections Committee shall tally the election results. The eleven in the Members’s constituency. Members may vote for candi¬ candidates receiving the greatest number of votes shall be declared as dates as individuals or as a slate, or may write in the name(s) elected to the Board of Directors; the Elections Committee, by of any Member(s) who fulfills the eligibility requirements as majority vote, shall decide ties. of June 30 of the election year. 8. The new Board of Directors shall take office on January 15 and 8. The secrecy of each Member’s vote shall be guaranteed. shall itself elect the President, the First Vice President, and the Second Vice President of the Association. The Board of Directors 9. The Elections Committee shall count on or about shall elect from its number a Chairman, a Vice Chairman, a July 10 all ballots received at the Association as of the close Secretary-Treasurer, and an Assistant Secretary-Treasurer. of business the last working day of June. Candidates or their representatives may be present at the counting and challenge the validity of any vote or the eligibility of any voter. This Article provides that elections will be held in the 10. The Elections Committee shall decide all questions of spring, instead of the fall. The Board will take office in eligibility and declare elected the candidates receiving the July instead of January. The change is made to minimize greatest number of votes for each position. the number of vacancies on the Board which must be filled 11. The new Officers and Representatives shall take office by appointment. The Board’s term will conform to the on July 15. normal Foreign Service transfer cycle. ARTICLE X RECALL 1. Fifty members, or a two-thirds majority of the Board, may recommend the recall of a Board Member for behavior A new ARTICLE providing recall provisions for serious in contravention of the Association’s Constitution or Bylaws; misconduct of a Board Member. committing fraud, embezzlement, or malfeasance in the management of Association funds or other such serious mis¬ conduct. 2. A Special Meeting of the Membership shall consider the proposal and may reject it, take other action short of recall, or endorse the recommendation. If endorsed, the Board shall appoint a Committee to organize a recall elec¬ tion under the applicable election provisions of Article IX. A majority of the Members casting valid votes in such elec¬ tion may recall a Board Member. ARTICLE XI ARTICLE I

MEETINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION OFFICE AND PLACE OF BUSINESS 1. The Board shall call an Annual Business Meeting in The principal office and place of business of this Association shall metropolitan Washington, where the Association’s principal be in the City of Washington, District of Columbia. office is located, on or about March 1 each year, at which it shall give an account of its management of the Associa¬ tion’s affairs, and present its proposed financial program for the succeeding fiscal year. 2. The Board may also call Special Meetings in Washing¬ ton at its own initiative for any specific purpose, and must call such a meeting at the written initiative of one-third ARTICLE X of the Board or of 50 Members. MEETINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION 3. At least 10 days prior to the Annual Business Meeting 1. A general business meeting of the Active Members of the or a Special Meeting, the Secretary shall mail to each Mem¬ Association shall be held in Washington, D.C., in the spring of each ber in the metropolitan Washington area a notice of the fiscal year and shall also be held whenever requested by 50 or more of Meeting, including the time, place, agenda, proposals to be the Active Members of the Association who are within the metropoli¬ considered, and other relevant material, or shall have the tan area of Washington, D.C. General business meetings also may be held at the request of the President or the Chairman of the Board of same published in the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL or AFSA Directors. The Board of Directors shall have a notice of the hour and NEWS. place of any general business meeting sent to each Active Member who is within the metropolitan area of Washington, D.C. 2. A majority of Active Members present and voting is required for the transaction of business at a general business meeting, except in the case of amendments of the Certificate of Incorporation or of these BY-Laws, where ARTICLE XI applies. Procedure in meetings shall be in accordance with Robert’s Rules of Order, except for quorum re¬ 4. A majority of Members present and voting at a meet¬ quirements, and provided also that these By-Laws shall take prece¬ ing may, after a vote by count of hands, recommend a deci¬ dence over Robert’s Rules of Order in the event of conflict. sion or course of action to the Board provided that the item This ARTICLE provides for initiatives to be instituted by in question appeared on the agenda of the meeting and is one-third of the Board or 50 Members. Provision is made within the authority of the Board. for recommendatory action to be taken at these Special 5. Procedure in Association meetings shall be in accord¬ Meetings. ance with Robert’s Rules of Order except for quorum re¬ quirements; provided, that the Constitution or Bylaws shall take precedence over Robert’s Rules of Order in the event of conflict. ARTICLE XII REFERENDUM 1. One-third of the Board or 100 Members by written request may propose a referendum on any matter within the A major innovation. Permits one-third of the Board, or Board’s authority, which shall be promptly circulated to the 100 Members, to initiate a referendum on any matter within Membership. the Board’s authority. 2. A Special Meeting of the Association shall be called within 60 days to consider such referendum proposal, and may reject, amend, and/or approve it. If approved at the Special Meeting, the Board may elect either to implement the proposal or to organize a ballot of the membership on the proposal. A majority of Members casting valid ballots shall determine the Association’s final position on the proposal. ARTICLE XIII ARTICLE XI

AMENDMENTS AMENDMENTS 1. The Board or 50 Members may propose in writing an Amendment(s) to these Bylaws. The Board will promptly 1. Ten or more Active Members may submit a proposal to amend the Certificate of Incorporation or these By-Laws. A proposed amend¬ circulate the proposed Amendment(s) to the Membership. ment shall be reviewed by the next general business meeting, provided 2. A Special Meeting shall be called within 60 days of the it is submitted to the Board of Directors at least 20 days before the filing of the Amendment(s) with the Secretary to consider next general business meeting. The Board shall send the text of each the proposed Amendment(s), and may, by a majority of proposed amendment to each Active Member of the Association in the metropolitan area of Washington, D.C., at least ten days prior to Members present and voting, reject, amend, and/or approve the general business meeting. it. 2. The general business meeting may by majority vote modify the 3. If the Meeting approves the proposed or amended proposal, but only to clarify it, or to compromise between the existing Amendment(s), the Board shall appoint an Amendments document and the proposal, and, if the proposal is voted, may bring other portions of the existing document into conformity with the Committee which shall, within 45 days, submit a ballot on proposal. A proposed amendment shall be referred to the entire the Amendment(s), with short statements by its proponents Active Membership for ratification if it is approved by majority vote and opponents, to the entire Membership. Should members at a business meeting. However, if a proposed amendment was wish to distribute, at their own expense, supplementary state¬ submitted by 100 Active Members, the proposal without modification shall be referred to the entire Active Membership for ratification ments regarding proposed amendments, the Association will regardless of the result of the business meeting’s vote, which shall make available to them on request the membership mailing only be advisory. list or address labels. In such cases candidates will reimburse 3. An Amendments Committee, appointed by the Board of Direc¬ the Association for all related expenses. tors, shall submit any amendment qualifying for referral pursuant to 4. The adoption of the proposed Amendment(s) shall paragraph 2 to the entire Active Membership for ratification by mail between 30 and 45 days after it was voted on by the business meeting. require the affirmative votes of not less than two-thirds of all In order to facilitate informed voting by the Membership, the valid votes received. Amendments Committee shall encourage and accept a brief statement by proponents of an amendment and a statement of approximately equal length by its opponents, and shall include a copy of each such statement with each ballot. The Association shall also address envelopes provided by proponents or opponents who wish to send additional statements to the Active Membership at their own expense. Forty-five days after submitting an amendment to the membership for ratification, the Amendments Committee shall tally the votes. If two-thirds of the members voting approve a proposed amendment, it shall take effect.

Proposals to amend the Bylaws under this ARTICLE ARTICLE XIV require 50 instead of the present 10 signatures. CHAPTER ORGANIZATION Short statements in support of and in opposition to pro¬ Members at overseas posts are encouraged to organize posed Amendments will be sent at the Association’s expense Chapters to carry out the purposes of the Association. Chap¬ along with the Amendments ballot. However, any additional ters shall adopt Bylaws, subject to the approval of the Board. material sent to the Membership shall be completely at the The Board shall delegate such authority to such Chapters sender’s expense. as it deems necessary. New ARTICLE. AFSA Chapters shall be delegated au¬ ARTICLE XV thority to effectively represent Foreign Service members on TRANSITION issues of local concern. 1. These Bylaws become effective after they have been acted upon favorably, as provided in Article XI of the Bylaws being superceded. 2. When these Bylaws come into effect, the Bylaws being superceded are automatically repealed; provided, the activi¬ ties specifically authorized and actually being conducted under such Bylaws shall not thereby lose their validity as Association activities. 3. The Directors and Officers who took office for two- year terms on January 16, 1972, may serve out their terms. 4. New Officers and Representatives to take office on January 15, 1974, shall be elected as provided in Article IX for a term to expire on July 15, 1975, except that the follow¬ ing substitutions shall be made in Article IX: “January” for “July”; “December” for “June”; “November” for “May”; “October” for “April”; “September” for “March” and “Feb¬ ruary” for “August.” 5. This Article shall be automatically repealed on July 16, 1975, unless these Bylaws fail to be acted upon favorably in whole or in part by the Membership, in which event the present Bylaws will continue in effect. FOREIGN POLICY from page 20 and protected their government, I anon were intended as warnings to gressional leaders on the matter and felt, we were backing up a gov¬ others in the Middle East and else¬ instead let Dulles, who clearly had ernment with so little popular where. In Iran, the results also less prestige, meet with leaders? support that we probably should yielded an added bonus: a large Why did Eisenhower stipulate con¬ not be there. share for American oil firms in the ditions which he already had good Do other interventions support new consortium established after reason to believe the British and the “tactical” reassessment? Most Mossadegh’s removal. Once again, French would not accept? For ex¬ analysts—revisionists or not—would the themes of “tactical” revisionism ample, he wanted the French to acknowledge that the Eisenhower can be integrated with left analyses. continue the war, to continue losing administration acted skillfully to The Eisenhower administration’s soldiers, but also to promise to end overthrow Mossadegh in Iran in response to Castro has been a fa¬ colonialism in Indochina—precisely 1953 and Arbenz in Guatemala in vorite subject for the left. A num¬ what the French were fighing to 1954. But questions of purpose and ber of radicals and left-liberals, most preserve. While Eisenhower refused strategy linger. What is one to make notably Horowitz, Williams (“The to commit American troops to save of the administration’s statements United States, Cuba, and Castro” Indochina, he was not pacific or that Iran was a communist govern¬ [1962].), and Robert Scheer and passive. He sought to “save” Viet¬ ment and that Guatemala rep¬ Maurice Zeitlin (“Cuba: Tragedy nam by other means: by installing a resented a “threat” to this hemi¬ in our Hemisphere” [1963]), have puppet government, providing mas¬ sphere? The Iranian government was sharply criticized the administra¬ sive economic and military aid, and not communist. The administration tion’s treatment of Castro and con¬ helping to block elections that prob¬ distorted the situation in Guatemala clude that American enmity pushed ably would have unified the divided and exaggerated the importance of him into the Soviet camp. Despite nation under . the communists. And the Lebanese differences in detail, they maintain In the case of the administration’s rebels were not communist-inspired, that the administration opposed intervention in Lebanon in 1958, despite Eisenhower’s claims. Was Castro even before he came to pow¬ also, Kempton, Walter LaFeber, Eisenhower simply misinformed in er, tried to forestall him by making generally lumped with Williams, these cases? Or did he use the buga¬ a deal with Batista on his successor, and a few others have stressed boo of communism to justify policies sought to use economic power to Eisenhower’s cautious tactics. Inter¬ conceived for other purposes? block social reform, and vigorously vening only after an assessment that In Guatemala, the government resisted nationalization and social the Soviets would protest and ac¬ had nationalized property and re¬ revolution. They contend that Cas¬ quiesce (which proved correct), the ceived support from the commu¬ tro was initially hostile to the Com¬ President carefully restricted the nists. The overthrow eliminated an munists and that the party had op¬ role of the American marines, who unpalatable situation and offered a posed him, and they imply that the easily outnumbered the Lebanese pointed warning: the United States dynamics of the revolution would troops. As Eisenhower explained in would not tolerate nationalization of not have pushed him to Communism his memoirs: property owned by its citizens nor if there had not been American The basic mission of United the existence of governments in Lat¬ hostility. They disagree on precisely States forces in Lebanon was not in America that depended upon why the United States was counter¬ primarily to fight. Every effort communists. (Horowitz suggests revolutionary. The pressure of par¬ was made to have our landing be that Dulles’s stockholdings in United ticular American interests? Or as much of a garrison move as Fruit, whose properties were seized, maintaining conditions for Ameri¬ possible. In my address I had adds a personal economic motive.) can hegemony? To stress America’s been careful to use the term ‘sta¬ The other interventions can be simi¬ counter-revolutionary commitment, tioned in’ Lebanon ... If it had larly interpreted. Mossadegh’s na¬ they also focus on the invasion at been prudent, I would have pre¬ tionalization of oil, if not punished, the Bay of Pigs. The invasion dram¬ ferred that the first battalion might have encouraged others to try atizes the left-liberal and radical ashore disembark at a dock that strategy to move toward a so¬ analysis. But the failure of the inva¬ rather than across the beaches. cial revolution. Perhaps, as Barnet sion poses a troubling problem for However,the attitude of the Leb¬ has suggested, the overthrow of most of the “tactical” revisionists anese army was at that moment Mossadegh and intervention in Leb¬ who have so far avoided confronting unknown, and it was obviously the speculative, but useful, ques¬ wise to disembark in deployed tion: Would it have been a failure formation ready for any emer¬ under Eisenhower? Clearly the in¬ gency. telligence briefings (Cuba would He went on to append a revealing rebel against Castro) were wrong note of explanation: and the military planning was faul¬ The decision to occupy only the ty. Would Eisenhower have discov¬ airfield and capital was a political ered the errors? Or would he have one which I adhered to over the committed enough American re¬ recommendations of some of the sources (including troops) to have military. If the Lebanese army made the Bay of Pigs a success? were unable to subdue the rebels (Curiously, perhaps, Williams con¬ when we had secured the capital cludes that Eisenhower would not

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 29 have authorized the invasion for he continued vigorously to resist the Kolko-Fleming-Horowitz interpreta¬ had a “deep disinclination to in¬ advocates of great military expendi¬ tion on these subjects. Unfortunate¬ volve the United States in acts that tures even when charges of bomber ly, aside from Parmet’s book, the violated what he considered to be gaps and missile gaps cost him some newer view is still a sketch or out¬ America’s moral integrity.”) popularity in the late ’50s. Wisely line and does not usually draw di¬ A less troubling area for the new he avoided escalating the rect issue with older interpretations “tactical” revisionism is Eisenhow¬ by revealing publicly what Soviet by examining some of the same er’s military policy and strategy— leaders already knew: American U- cases: say, Eisenhower’s April 16, though most disregarded the sub¬ 2 flights over the Soviet Union dis¬ 1953 speech (in which he called for ject. Since Dulles’s declaration in closed that there was no gap. To sincere “deeds” by the Soviets), the January 1954 of “massive retalia¬ justify his own caution, he offered Geneva conference, and disarma¬ tion,” most critics have judged the (but never adequately explained) a ment and arms control. Yet, on the Eisenhower administration’s strateg¬ relatively new theory of nuclear basis of my own work and Parmet’s, ic posture and policy as unduly dan¬ strategy: limited deterrence. The it is possible to indicate how the gerous. Some deemed the cutback in United States, according to this the¬ “tactical” revisionists could analyze conventional forces as foolish, and ory, did not need nuclear superiority these problems and the larger issues in the late ’50s they also regretted or even parity, but only enough of the Cold War and the policies of that the administration was un¬ weapons to be able to withstand a Dulles and Eisenhower. willing to develop a capability for Soviet first strike and still retain a Eisenhower sought to ease the counterinsurgency. If faced with ag¬ second-strike capability. That po¬ Cold War, to relax tensions, but not gression in other parts of the world, tential capability, not superiority, to reach any significant settlement. the administration, according to its would be a sufficient deterrent. Dulles, while more skeptical of the critics, was limited to only two Again, it was Kennedy, not Eisen¬ Soviets and given publicly to ex¬ choices: acquiescence or holocaust. hower, who escalated the arms race, treme rhetoric, was not the domi¬ That criticism was unfair, for the greatly expanded production of mis¬ nant force. In some measure he was administration’s strategy was in fact siles and aimed for great nuclear used by the President to stake out more subtle and complex. It had a superiority. more extreme positions, to issue concept of limited war, including While Eisenhower rebuffed the warnings, and to court the right- limited nuclear war, but also sought efforts of (primarily) Democrats to wing with bellicose rhetoric—not to avoid involvement in the large- increase greatly spending for arma¬ action. Eisenhower, while wishing scale limited war that Korea rep¬ ments, he was also unwilling to to avoid a more costly arms race, resented. Eisenhower was going to accept Soviet proposals for disarm¬ did not believe that a formal Soviet- avoid Truman’s error. Another ament or arms control. When in American detente was possible. In Korean-style venture, Eisenhower 1955 the Soviets accepted the long¬ early 1955, he was even dubious understood, could drain America’s standing American plan for nuclear about holding the Geneva confer¬ resources, injure her international disarmament and large-scale troop ence. Throughout his years in the prestige, split the NATO alliance, reductions (with inspections, the White House he knew that he and impair his own popularity at administration abruptly rejected its would not offer the terms required home. Given the administration’s own plan and managed successfully for a settlement. In Europe, for cutback of conventional forces, an¬ to seize a propaganda victory with example, he would not countenance other Korea was tactically unlikely, the “Open Skies” plan. It was in¬ disengagement. Nor would he if not impossible. Belligerent rhetor¬ sincere. As Eisenhower later ad¬ officially back away from the prom¬ ic was often employed as a substi¬ mitted, he and his advisers knew the ise of an ultimately unified Germa¬ tute for military capability. The ad¬ Soviets would reject it. ny. But he did not expect a resolu¬ ministration’s lack of preparedness tion of the German problem. As a for such wars constituted an impor¬ These issues of military strategy guiding principle of his foreign poli¬ tant added restraint on the Eisen¬ and policy, and of arms control and cy, he wanted to avoid direct So¬ hower government—a theme over¬ disarmament, are central to the viet American confrontations that looked until recently by most radi¬ larger issue of the President’s han¬ might leave the Great Powers a cals and left-liberals. America, put dling of Soviet-American affairs and choice only of (humiliating) retreat simply, was militarily unprepared related to questions about the Dul- or holocaust. under Eisenhower to fight in Viet¬ les-Eisenhower partnership. For nam. Kennedy changed that. most historians, including most radi¬ Better than many of his critics in Most radicals and left-liberals cal and left-liberal revisionists, the ’50s. he understood the limits of condemned Eisenhower for main¬ Secretary Dulles, not Eisenhower, presidential and national power. He taining the arms race. Eisenhower, was the architect of foreign rela¬ sought to conserve both — as a “tactical” revisionists might note, tions. According to this view, the man with conservative inclinations actually sought to slow the arms Secretary undermined Eisenhower’s would. But like most Americans in race. Acting partly for economic occasional initiatives for a rapproche¬ the ’50s, he had neither the desire reasons, and because of his fear ment with the Soviets. The new¬ nor the flexibility to break free of of the “garrison state,” he initial¬ er view of Eisenhower as a skilled the premises of the Cold War. Like ly cut back Truman’s arms budg¬ tactician and master of his adminis¬ most, he was willing to use deceit as et. Under minor pressure in his tration obviously runs contrary to a stratagem in the Cold War—even first term to expand the military, he orthodox analyses as well as the Continued on page 38

30 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 An evaluation and reevaluation of recent history by radical and not-so-radical writers KENNEDY, JOHNSON

1960s began with the Ken¬ nedy Inaugural and, on a less ex¬ AND THE alted level, Daniel Bell’s procla¬ mation of an “End of Ideology.” REVISIONISTS (That the first flatly contradicted the second would unfortunately not be noted until too late.) The Pres¬ WALTER LAFEBER ident’s statement asked commitment to a 15-year-old cold war, and Bell's writing assured Washington that the commitment could rest on a nation¬ World.” Geyelin’s traditional liber¬ lead only to continual national al consensus dedicated to an im¬ alism, gentleness and easy style did disasters. Kennedy’s personal style proving New Deal at home and not hide a searching analysis lead¬ and academic apologists, Wills ar¬ fighting Communism abroad. As ing to the conclusion that because gued, had temporarily hidden liber¬ late as the mid-1960s these sup¬ “Vietnam was becoming less and alism’s bankruptcy, but behind the posed virtues were starkly reaffirmed less susceptible to cure by consen¬ charisma had been “the liberal hot- in Lyndon Johnson’s 1964 election sus,” Johnson and his countrymen cold warrior, Catholic secularist, triumph and in the widely-read bi¬ were swamping themselves in a McCarthyite civil-libertarian, who ographies of Kennedy written by conflict that could destroy any possi¬ changed flags often and deftly.” Arthur Schlesinger Jr., and Theo¬ bility of building a Great Society at Preaching the cold war as a dore Sorensen, two former Kennedy home. For the remainder of his crusade, “Kennedy, with his call for aides. term the President was fair game to escape from the Eisenhower nar¬ Sorensen’s eulogy appeared in critics of less consistency and under¬ colepsy, had to reduce everything to 1965, at the same time that Pres¬ standing than Geyelin. Foremost a contest with Khrushchev.” Ameri¬ ident Johnson committed ground was the old Kennedy entourage, in¬ can liberalism could no longer offer combat troups to Vietnam while the cluding Schlesinger, Sorensen, Rich¬ anything more substantial. Wills’s transparent skin of consensus was ard Goodwin and Kenneth O’Don¬ account undermined the Kennedy being punctured by campus rioters, nell, who blasted Johnson by com¬ myth, and the publication of “The teach-ins and civil rights demonstra¬ paring him with the supposedly Pentagon Papers” in 1971 demol¬ tors. Revisionists who had deeply more astute and certainly, when ished it for all who cared enough to questioned the thrust of American measured by the standards of Palm read the evidence. policy during the AOs and ’50s sud¬ Beach, more sophisticated John The most notable product of denly became more popular with Kennedy. When the Kennedy bar¬ the reaction was British journalist students and publishers. William rage lifted, however, the only ap¬ Henry Fairlie’s best-selling “The Appleman Williams, Lloyd Gard¬ parent differences between the two Kennedy Promise; The Politics of ner, David Horowitz, Richard J. sides seemed to be those of style Expectation” (1972). The subtitle Barnet, Gar Alperovitz and Robert and the unprovable (and improba¬ was the theme, for Fairlie argued Freeman Smith (all of whom pub¬ ble) notion that Kennedy’s sense of that such politics led “to the politics lished important work between balance would not have led him as of confrontation” abroad and at 1960 and 1966) had been among far into the Vietnam morass. home by promising more than could the first to question American reli¬ Then in 1969 came Garry Wills’s be delivered. Based on an “elite ance upon economic pressure, mili¬ “Nixon Agonistes,” a historically- consensus” only, not mass support, tary intervention and unresponsible rooted, scathingly-written analysis Kennedy tried to mobilize a plural¬ presidential power in extending the of American liberalism since istic society with a mere call-to- American overseas empire. Woodrow Wilson. Kennedy ap¬ action and not through political in¬ In 1966 an unlikely revisionism peared as only another link in a sight or programs; his politics were emerged from the diplomatic corre¬ now invalid liberalism that was pre¬ simply not equal to his ambition. spondent of THE WALL STREET mised on beliefs, such as market¬ The results included unneeded crises JOURNAL, Philip Geyelin, who pub¬ place competition, which were no in Berlin and Cuba; the weakening lished “Lyndon B. Johnson and the longer true and which indeed could of the State Department bureaucra-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 31 cy, whose oaution was not wel¬ ogy established by Henry Luce’s democratic politics by relieving high comed on the vigorous New Fron¬ American Century utopia of 1941 officials of responsibility,” and con¬ tier; and, worst of all to Fairlie, a and the United States military struc¬ cludes that “for both the missile quest for utopia which when it inev¬ ture which survived, then expand¬ crisis and Vietnam, it was the ‘bag¬ itably hit dead-ends resulted not in ed, after 1945. Steel is nevertheless gage’ of culture and values, not bu¬ a scaling down of the search but in eclectic, for he likes Kennedy’s reaucratic position, which deter¬ a rebellion against American politi¬ toughness on Berlin and during the mined the aims of high officials.” cal institutions. In Fairlie’s hands, , but condemns Allison’s account of the missile the Kennedy years emerged as an Vietnam policies since they resulted crisis is hardly revisionist, yet his aberration in the otherwise hopeful “from a euphoria of power generat¬ model of bureaucratic decision¬ development of restrained cold war ed in part by our success in the making can be, for when applied to foreign policies. Cuban missile crisis. . . . The liber¬ policy failures it can carry the Bar¬ This is revisionism, but quite dif¬ als wanted to prove that guerrilla net-Steel thesis of misguided liberal ferent from the Kolko-Williams- wars were not the wave of the fu¬ National Security Managers to a Gardner analyses of policy in the ture.” Steel provides less a funda¬ more complex level. Abraham F. ’40s and ’50s. The differences can mental analysis than apparent ap¬ Lowenthal’s “The Dominican Inter¬ be indicated by noting that in 1965 proval of policies that worked and vention” (1972), for example, de¬ stroys the government’s explanation Fairlie wrote an article in the NEW disapproval of those that did not. YORK TIMES MAGAZINE of July 11, Nor does he, while condemning the for landing the troops in 1965, an¬ 1965 entitled “A Cheer for Ameri¬ liberal ideology, explain the politi¬ alyzes the decision-making process, can Imperialism,” an understated cal economy out of which the ideol¬ and concludes that the policy title given the essay’s contents; and ogy emerged. Steel and Barnet nev¬ emerged from “the natural conse¬ by further recording that in Febru¬ ertheless raise crucial questions quences of the attitudes and as¬ ary 1973 President Nixon enthusi¬ about that ideology and its shaping sumptions with which American astically recommended Fairlie’s of policy-makers. officials generally had approached book to . There has A variant of the Barnet-Steel ap¬ the Dominican Republic for some been no news that the President proach, and an argument that has time.” The most radical revisionist ever recommended the work of gained wide attention in academic would not change that epitaph, but William Appleman Williams or and governmental strategy sessions, he or she would go considerably Garry Wills to anyone. has emerged from a group of an¬ farther than Lowenthal in de¬ alysts at Harvard’s Center for Inter¬ lineating the political economy and The most important and systematic national Affairs and more recently corporate structure which shaped of the moderate revisionists is Rich¬ the Kennedy Institute of Politics at these decisions. The Allison model ard J. Barnet, whose “Roots of War’’ Harvard. Organized and led by could be of value to revisionists (1972) argues that war-making un¬ Richard Neustadt and Graham Al¬ studying the ’60s when used with der Kennedy and Johnson must be an¬ lison, this group argues that such moderation and an understanding alyzed multi-dimensionally through decisions as the Skybolt affair of that outside the walls of Foggy Bot¬ the National Security Managers’ bu¬ 1962 (which Neustadt studied), tom and the Ivy League exists the reaucracy, the political economy of and the Cuban missile crisis (an¬ more important world of, for exam¬ expansionism, and the failures of alyzed by Allison), must be viewed ple, expanding multinationals. the electoral process to control for¬ in the context of organization theory Indeed many radical revisionists eign policy. Barnet’s argument is rather than ideology. Allison, for condemn the Kennedy-Johnson more complex and convincing than example, rejects the “rational actor years by presenting a mirror-image his work of 1968, “Intervention and model” (that is, that governments of Kennedy’s consensus society. Revolution,” although he continues act in a unified manner resembling Their criticism harkens back to C. to place great emphasis on the bu¬ a rational individual), and opts for Wright Mills’s Power Elite concept, reaucracy’s role. He believes both the view that decisions emanate and softens, if not neglects, the plur¬ Kennedy and Johnson were overly from divided bureaucracies which alisms of both the society and the influenced by the “deliberate infla¬ bargain “along regularized circuits decision-makers. Daniel Horowitz’s tion and distortion of issues in the among players positioned hierarchi¬ “Imperialism and Revolution” advocacy process” of the bureaucra¬ cally within the government.” Deci¬ (1969) is valuable in that it re¬ cy. Barnet plants his account well sions are made, in other words, by stores an international context which historically, demonstrating how struggles between various bureau¬ many of the above-mentioned re¬ Franklin D. Roosevelt’s manipula¬ crats rather than by personal ideolo¬ visionists overlook; in Horowitz’s tion of the political economy and gy. Allison’s account has been blis¬ hands this context is constructed presidential power were vital prece¬ tered by Stephen D. Krasner’s “Are through a radical class analysis. He dents for the ’60s. Bureaucracies Important? (Or Al¬ believes that American policy must This use of history is essential for lison Wonderland)” in FOREIGN be carried out within “the class any important revisionist work, and POLICY, Summer, 1972. Krasner framework of international politics it similarly informs Ronald Steel’s demonstrates some historical errors the reality of imperialist expansion “Pax Americana” and his essays in in Allison’s account and then argues and revolutionary resistance, the “Imperialists and Other Heroes” that the bureaucratic emphasis “ob¬ polarization of world social forces (1971). Steel views the tragedies of scures the power of the President,” over the control of production and the ’60s as evolving out of the ideol- “undermines the assumptions of natural resources and the distribu-

32 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May. 1973 tion of material wealth.” That kind progress and the power of American Kennedy led [the world] to ex¬ of world gives the American elite technology. This is not enough, and pect.” And the President, in suc¬ little maneuvering room except for unfortunately there is not a chapter cumbing to military pressures, was arguments over which kind of mili¬ in the book on the dynamics in largely responsible. tary force will be used in response. American society comparable to the Unlike Fairlie and Walton, mod¬ Other radical revisionists differ several on the Vietnamese. erate revisionists such as Barnet and from Fairlie and Halberstam in em¬ That Vietnam ranks with the Steel are not as concerned with phasizing that the fault lies less in Civil War as the greatest tragedy in the unfulfilled “Kennedy Promise.” the Eastern Establishment than in American history is a judgment not Steel even praises the missile crisis the corporate political economy and limited, of course, to revisionists, for helping to “bring an end to an its larger elite class which has de¬ but noted even in the orthodox writ¬ adventurous phase in Russian for¬ veloped a historical rationale for its ings of Schlesinger and Sorensen, eign policy.” What it did to corrupt own existence. In “Some Presidents, although they tend to start the story American policy is not as clear, from Wilson to Nixon” (1972), in 1964 rather than 1961. The Cu¬ although he does note the link be¬ William Appleman Williams deals ban missile crisis, however, presents tween the crisis and the deepening harshly with Kennedy but explains a contrast. Not only do the orthodox Vietnam involvement. Barnet is Johnson’s failures with such phrases argue with revisionists over this more critical, but his emphasis is as “He is a child of his age” and affair, but revisionists differ among upon the 1963 detente resulting “he was . . . miseducated with mas¬ themselves as to its causes and from the crisis. Unlike Walton, he terful efficiency by the white meaning. The arguments have wide- praises the detente, asserting that it northern elite that had dominated ranging significance, for not only did was made possible in part because the conduct of foreign affairs since the crisis itself bring the world to Kennedy overrode the Crisis Man¬ 1865.” Williams, however, also the edge of annihilation, but most agers in the bureaucracy who had differs from Barnet, Allison, Lowen- historians do agree that Kennedy’s vested interests in maintaining the thal and Steel in stressing that the supposed success encouraged both cold war. Bay of Pigs, the Skybolt fiasco, Vi¬ him and Johnson to think they Among the radical revisionists, etnam and Santo Domingo resulted could similarly face down the insur¬ Horowitz believes the missile crisis not from bureaucratic infighting or gents in that “raggedy-ass country,” to be less interesting than the larger the misuse of power, but from an as Johnson termed it, of Vietnam. problem of why detente failed and American system which required an Fairlie is scathing: “. . . the con¬ the Cold War accelerated. His an¬ open, global marketplace even if duct of John Kennedy [in the mis¬ swer is his thesis: American policy bayonets had to be used to keep it sile crisis] was an irresponsible ex¬ was aimed not simply at stopping open. But he would also differ from ercise of great power, from the con¬ the expansion of other nation-states; Horowitz in believing that Amer¬ sequences of which he was saved hence Soviet expansion could be ican society is sufficiently pluralistic only by what Dean Acheson called halted, but the internal upheavals to change its foreign policies peace¬ ‘plain dumb luck.’ ” In order to in Cuba and Vietnam churned on, fully by restoring “the integrity of deliver on the overblown promises prompting continual American in¬ our own [voting] franchise.” A sim¬ of 1960-1961, Fairlie believes, tervention. Williams similarly gives ilar radical revisionist critique is Kennedy had to use “crises as an short attention to the crisis itself, Robert Freeman Smith’s writing on instrument of policy” since he was viewing it as the result of more than the Alliance for Progress. That ap¬ politically incapable of devising oth¬ a half-century of American open- proach failed, Smith argues, not be¬ er means. Richard Walton’s account door imperialism which failed to cause of improper execution or the similarly focuses on the Kennedy come to terms with radical move¬ Latin American response, but be¬ world-view, but does so more sys¬ ments in Mexico, Rusia, China or cause it contained a contradiction: tematically. Better than anyone Cuba. Unlike Horowitz, Williams “The vocabulary was that of social else, he raises the possible role hopes for a less-than-apocalyptic revolution, but the concepts were a which the upcoming congressional remedy, and so he can conclude that elections might have played in mixture of US-oriented capitalism the crisis “may have been the most Kennedy’s brinksmanship. But tak¬ and New Deal economics.” Smith important, if limited, learning ex¬ does not stress a class-determined en even on the President’s own perience” for Kennedy. But, Wil¬ terms, Walton argues, the missile warfare, however, and he conse¬ liams adds, if in the American Uni¬ quently is much closer to Williams crisis was avoidable, for in the end versity speech of 1963 the President than to Horowitz. Kennedy had to give in to a de¬ “publicly unzipped the Truman mand from Russia and Cuba that A fourth radical revisionist might Doctrine as it affected direct con¬ they had issued before the crisis: be Frances Fitzgerald, whose “Fire frontations between nuclear powers, in the Lake” (1972) is the best the United States was to promise he had not learned the other lesson not to try to invade Cuba again. explanation available for the central from Cuba: a social movement can Walton demonstrates that contrary tragedy of the ’60s. She is brilliant unzip a nuclear empire.” in comparing the American and Vi¬ to the orthodox accounts, the nu¬ etnamese worlds, but when analyz¬ clear test ban which supposedly is¬ The ideological distance from ing specific policy motivations she sued from the detente following the Fairlie to Horowitz and Williams is only records that Kennedy and missile crisis was badly misleading: great, but they are united by more Johnson shared the American “na¬ “the treaty caused an increase in than a determination to revise or- tional myth” of belief in historical testing, not the decrease that . . . Continued on page 39

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 197s 33 P5JBODKSHELF Austrian Emperor. Soon thereafter he was appointed foreign minister and later Chancellor, in which posts The Negotiations of Princes he was to exercise a dominant role in European politics for the next 40 HENRY KISSINGER’S indebtedness to years. the foreign policy principles of Met- Metternich handled the final al¬ ternich is so well-known that we are liance against Napoleon, and the in- fortunate in having a new biography —the first in English in 35 years— to provide us with an insight into A Boarding School For Girls their mysteries (“Metternich,” by In Maryland Horse Country Alan Palmer. Harper & Row, $12.50). The more recent appear¬ ance of a brilliantly written life of Talleyrand—one of the best biogra¬ phies in a decade—will enable the reader of both to judge the careers of each statesman against the back¬

All leading foreign cars, U.S. Fords, campers, drop of the other’s life (“Talley¬ cycles delivered stateside or in Europe at special factory prices. We arrange every detail. For rand,” by J. F. Bernard. Putnam, complete information send for our free 60 page Master Catalog. Please indicate whether you $12.95). A fulfilling academic experience require delivery in U.S. or in Europe. Clemens Wenzel Lothar, Prince without pressure for development Name of versatile Young Women. Accred¬ Metternich, has until recently re¬ ited college prep. & alternative pro¬ Social Security ~ ceived a uniformly bad press from grams individually tailored for stu¬ Address dents in grades 7-12. 70 Acre cam¬ historians. As the architect of a pus with riding, dance, music, fine Place of Delivery European system unabashedly dedi¬ arts. 5 or 7 day boarding. Founded 1832. Episcopal. All faiths welcome. Date of Rotation. cated to anti-liberalism and resist¬ NEMET AUTO INTERNATIONAL. FSJ 5-3 ance to change he has usually been Inquire: Admissions Office 153-03 Hillside Ave.,Jamaica,N>.11432 Hannah More Academy Tel: (212) 523-5858 presented as the veritable apostle of Reisterstown, Md. 21136 reaction, an image to be expected in (301) 833-0500 an era that exalted nationalism and self-determination for linguistic mi¬ AUTHORIZED EXPORTER norities. Tall, handsome, rich and elegant, GENERAL ELECTRIC Metternich was the pampered scion Liquor of a wealthy Rhineland family which before the incursions of the French Discounts Revolution owned 75 square miles FOREIGN SERVICE MEMBERS Refrigerators • Freezers • Ranges of farms and vineyards around Cob- Washers • Dryers • Air Conditioners lentz. At the age of 21 his doting 10% OFF parents secured him an appointment Dishwashers • Radios • Phonos in the Austrian diplomatic service on estate bottling wines and while still in his 20s he became Small Appliances Minister respectively to the courts 5% OFF Available for All Electric Currents of Saxony and Prussia. In 1806 Met¬ ternich made a brilliant entry onto on our regular low prices Local Warehousing for Immediate a larger stage when he was appointed on liquor Shipment Austrian ambassador to the court of Napoleon. There he impressed the "Try Us, You'll Like Us" Emperor by self-assurance, and daz¬ zled Paris with his lavish hospitality, General Electronics, Inc. only to suffer the inconvenience of expulsion under escort when in 1808 Riverside SHOWROOM: 4513 Wisconsin Ave., Napoleon broke with the Habsburgs Washington, D. C. 20016 EMerson 2- and embarked on the campaign that Liquors 8300 was to culminate in the victory of 2123 E St., N.W. 338-4882 Wagram. Back in Vienna in the vic¬ (conveniently located across from WRITE FOR CATALOG. Our catalog is the State Department on E Street, tor’s train, Metternich swiftly re¬ next to Peoples Drug Store) sent to administrative officers of em¬ established himself at the center of Our 40th Year bassies and consulates throughout events by helping to arrange the the world. marriage between Napoleon and We loan glasses for parties Marie-Luise, the daughter of the NO CHARGE

34 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 credibly complex peace negotiations of spies and police agents to report tism and insufferable complacency. that followed, with considerable skill. on subversive activities; he was also “At this decisive moment,” he wrote His object was to keep the Czar a firm believer in censorship (“To¬ of events of 1813, “I saw myself as committed to the alliance against day the greatest evil ... is the the representative of the whole so¬ Napoleon without letting the Rus¬ press.”). So great was Metternich’s ciety of Europe. Shall I say it? Na¬ sians too deep into Europe—to re¬ influence from the Congress of Vi¬ poleon seemed small to me.” And store the pre-revolutionary system enna until his resignation and exile on intellectuals: “I wish for the good of sovereign monarchies, and at the in the revolution of 1848 that he of humanity there could be learning same time to build a structure of gave his name to an era and made but no learned men.” transnational cooperation that would it synonymous with reaction. In contrast to the smooth path throttle revolutionary nationalism. trod by this lofty grandee, the career To achieve these purposes, Metter- of the far more talented Talleyrand nich made pursuit of the balance of The French people are civilized, was checkered with so many vicis- power and submergence of dynastic but their sovereign is not. The citudes and near-disasters converted ambitions in the interests of Europe sovereign of Russia is civilized into triumphs that it reads like an his guiding principles. but his people are not. adventure novel—but one that de¬ After the exile of Napoleon, Met- Marriage is such a beautiful in¬ fies all standards of plausibility. ternich created the Holy Alliance stitution that one should spend The eldest son of one of the great and henceforth devoted himself to one's whole life contemplating it. families of France, Charles-Maurice the preservation of “public order” de Talleyrand-Perigord was deliber¬ at home and abroad. He became an ately raised in impoverished and incessant traveler to conferences in Metternich was widely criticized lonely isolation, and then disinher¬ other capitals-—the coachman of in his younger years for his indo¬ ited from the succession, because of Europe, as he called himself. “I lence and frivolity—he thought a foot deformity. He was forced into came to Frankfurt like a Messiah nothing of holding up important the Church at an early age and soon saving sinners. The Diet took on a business to make arrangements for became a bishop—one of the least new appearance as soon as I began parties and balls—but became in¬ celibate in history—but with the on¬ to busy myself with its affairs.” creasingly diligent and distressingly set of the French Revolution be¬ His personal fastidiousness and pompous as he grew older. His vol¬ came one of the leaders of the mod¬ distaste for coercion did not prevent uminous correspondence gives us an erate wing and drafted the decrees him from relying on a vast network idea both of his haughty conserva¬ that nationalized the Church. How- £|§P How to order wines you can serve with i.W J pride and confidence. If you buy for Embassies or other American fine varietal wines are always available for delegations abroad, you will want a copy your needs from this noted Napa Valley of our specially prepared “Export Guide” to vintner. We offer complete service any- The Christian Brothers Premium California where in the world. Wines. A superb selection of California’s

CHARLES J. CANDIANO, DEPT. F.S. FROMM AND SICHEL, INC. 1255 POST STREET The ChristianBrothers SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. 94109 Please send me a copy of your “Export Guide” to The Christian Brothers premium California Wines for foreign service buyers.

NAME

TITLE

ADDRESS

WorldwideYIUllUWlUc UlbUIUUlUlb.Distributors: Fromm and Sicbel, Inc., San Francisco,J, Calif.uam.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 35 ever, as the Terror approached, Tal¬ gotiated a peace settlement that re¬ Like Metternich, Talleyrand was leyrand became increasingly disaf¬ stored France’s natural frontiers, an aristocrat who lived on a lavish fected and finally exiled himself un¬ ended foreign military occupation, scale. The source of his income, der official auspices to England and and left the country with a trivial however, was tainted with corrup¬ America, where for two years he indemnity. At the Congress of Vi¬ tion of such magnitude that histori¬ lived in straitened circumstances. enna he capped this feat by raising ans estimate that in the course of his With the fall of Robespierre, Tal¬ France from the status of a van¬ career he received the equivalent of leyrand arranged for his own recall quished aggressor to a guarantor of $30 million in bribes. What he gave and installation as Foreign Minister the European order. All this after in return is not clear, for there is by the Directory—which he soon French armies had been devastating not the slightest evidence that Tal¬ abandoned to hitch his career to the the territories of Europe for twenty leyrand ever sacrificed one iota of star of Bonaparte. Once again For¬ years. France’s interests in the process of eign Minister, Talleyrand remained enriching himself. Indeed, his repu¬ in office through the Consulate and tation for probity in the business of Empire until he broke with Napo¬ "These cynical practition¬ diplomacy won him the accolade leon over the Spanish adventure. ers of old-fashioned diplo¬ of that paragon of rectitude, the Convinced that Napoleon would Duke of Wellington. Talleyrand was never abandon his reckless career macy built an order that a man of transcendent charm and of military conquest until he had lasted for a hundred years." his wit and wisdom became pro¬ ruined France, the apostate ex¬ verbial: bishop and former revolutionary “The French people are civilized, now worked behind the scenes for a Talleyrand fell out with Louis but their sovereign is not. The sov¬ Bourbon restoration and re-emerged XVIII and spent years in retirement ereign of Russia (i.e., Czar Alexan¬ as the Foreign Minister of Louis without, however, losing his hand der I) is civilized, but his people XVIII after Napoleon’s exile to for intrigue. Convinced that the are not”. . . . “The Rhine, the Alps, Elba. Bourbons were too reactionary to and the Pyrenees are acquisitions The period of 1814-15, when unify France and avert another revo¬ of France, the rest are acquisitions France was defeated and occupied lutionary bloodbath, he connived at of the Emperor. France has no wish by the coalition of great powers, the succession of Louis Philippe and to keep them. . . .” was the climax of Talleyrand’s ca¬ ended his career, when almost eighty, On the appointment of an incom¬ reer. Virtually singlehanded he ne¬ as French Ambassador in London. petent successor: “What a perfect WRITE YOUR OWN DEAL 100% of cost But tl) Jtin 48 months repayment 8% annual percentage rate HOTEL and MOTOR INN 1075 THOMAS JEFFERSON ST., N. W„ WASHINGTON, D. C. 20007

• Luxurious one or two bed¬ room suites throughout, com¬ pletely equipped with kit., auto, dishwasher, individual heater, air cond., color TV, and much more • Restaurant, Lounge, Valet Parking • Perfect location for families CAR LOANS or couples • No additional charge for children under 15 • Just minutes away from State Department • Anywhere in the World Secluded, quiet, dignified atmosphere. SGL. $24.00 DBL. $26.00 2 BDRM. $40.00 YOUR

For reservations or information call 202-337-0900 State Department IN THE HEART OF HISTORIC GEORGETOWN

i/2 BLOCK TO C&0 CANAL Federal Credit Union

36 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 choice. He knows the Crimea better its civilized tone. Both men detested 1950s is to sub-divide it into radi¬ than any man in France.” And on extremes. Their policies were based cal, new left, and “tactical" revi¬ marriage: “Marriage is such a beau¬ on a principle of moderation that sionist schools, whose perspectives tiful institution that one should assumed a commonality of interest range from America-as-the-bastion- spend one’s whole life contemplat¬ on the part of friend and foe alike of-imperialism to interpretations of ing it.” in the preservation of the European the “shrewd old Ike knew what he It is hopeless to translate the per¬ system. The reason they broke with was doing” variety. sonalities of Metternich and Talley¬ Napoleon and treated him as an out¬ Our third essay, “Kennedy, John¬ rand into modern terms. Both seem law was not that he occasionally son, and the Revisionists" is by to have spent as much time in bou¬ made war, but that he was so vio¬ Walter LaFeber, Professor of His¬ doirs—not their wives’, needless to lent and uncontrollable that there tory at . In it say—as in their offices. Metternich was no dealing with him on a civil¬ LaFeber, whose published works in¬ intermingled statecraft and love af¬ ized basis. These cynical practition¬ clude “America, Russia, and the fairs to the point where it was diffi¬ ers of old-fashioned diplomacy built Cold War, 1945-1966,” lists some cult to say where one left off and an order that lasted for a hundred of the main works of revisionist the other began, while Talleyrand years. literature of recent years and their was surrounded with titled ladies —CHARLES MAECHLING, JR. arguments. all his life. Both were lazy to the Taken together, the pieces rep¬ point of laxity in the conduct of resent a survey of revisionist histori¬ routine business; it was their fixed ABOUT THIS ISSUE ography for the post-1945 period and ineluctable maxim never to lift from page 11 and a presentation of some of the a finger in any task capable of being Barton J. Bernstein, Associate main revisionist positions. A few executed by others. But perhaps the Professor of History at Stanford readers may be exasperated that old chief difference between them and University, discusses historical writ¬ truths and truisms are irreverently their modern equivalents was their ing on the Eisenhower years. Bern¬ challenged; others may welcome the independence of judgment, disdain stein, who edited a widely-used an¬ opportunity to consider the work of of popular opinion, and refusal to thology, “Towards a New Past" has an entire new generation of scholars be imprisoned by precedents or in¬ written extensively on the period that has come to dominate the writ¬ structions. and is at work on a book on the ing and teaching of modern diplo¬ The most attractive feature of the atom bomb and diplomacy. His ap¬ matic history. statecraft of these two giants was proach to historical literature on the FREDERICK QUINN

Fine Stationers and Engravers Members of the Foreign Service of the United States of America can depend on Copenhaver for quality, service and cor¬ rect counseling on questions of protocol for their calling cards, informals and invita¬ tions, etc. Urgent requests filled promptly ADams 2-1200 1518 CONNECTICUT AVE.

cZ7ulirJuZ'r WASHINGTON, D. C. 20036

UNIQUE AUTOMOBILE INSURANCE Worldwide for all U.S. Government employees in Latin America Common Market “THE EMBASSY PLAIT • Broad Coverage • Low Price If you don't have time to shop the world for out-of- this-world gift ideas, shop your embassy's W. Bell & & COMPANY Company catalog. An exciting selection of more than 7,000 domestic and imported items is at your fingertips, stateside and in 56 countries overseas. Shop from A unique automob on a 30-day Home home away from home. Make your choice at icy providing for as little as coverages with U. considerable savings and we’ll ship it anywhere on the Premium is based with no extra PLAN, designed especially globe. W. Bell & Company is the Latin countries, the BROADEST and the LOWEST tion, to comply with on the world market and world’s most uncommon market¬ laws while in the U. S. Government employ- place, serving the diplomatic corps Bodily Injury/Property Damage free brochure and Uninsured Motorists — example: premium at home and abroad. WeB Packaged group medical plans — personal property floaters — mutual funds 12401 Twinbrook Parkway s (22 years of insurance service) Rockville. Maryland 20852 Co. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 37 FOREIGN POLICY IN THE Usually it is tucked away in essays pect, is less known. While probably EISENHOWER ADMINISTRATION or in parts of books devoted to treated as a curiosity, this revision¬ from page 30 larger stretches of history. Partly for ism does not directly threaten if it involved deceiving the Ameri¬ these reasons, it has provoked nei¬ deeply held ideological positions. It can people for “their own good.” ther the interest nor the passion only challenges older views (a Like many, he was also willing to unleased by the revisionism on the familiar process in historical dia¬ champion shibboleths—for exam¬ origins of the Cold War or on logue) and contributes to a reap¬ ple, “liberation”—that promised the Truman's ability as a Chief Execu¬ praisal of what Vietnam has already impossible but maintained useful tive. There are also other reasons: compelled: a reassessment of liberal support for the administration with¬ one set for the radical and left- standards for a “great” presidency. in the nation. He subscribed to the liberal and another for the “tacti¬ The “tactical” view also has a subtle outlines of the Truman-Acheson cal.” Because the Eisenhower ad¬ advantage: it does not seem nega¬ framework of containment, used ministration was sharply criticized tive but positive; it does not tear more belligerent rhetoric, but usual¬ by liberals and (most liberal) histo¬ down the American past or Eisen¬ ly followed more cautious strategies. rians in the ’50s, the radical and hower, but seems to contribute to a Even the extension of anti-Com- left-liberal analyses are less trou¬ greater appreciation of each. To munist alliances throughout much bling than those of the early Cold many scholars, who have recently of the world led not to war or War—policies that liberal citizens felt embattled in their universities armed confrontation but to peace endorsed. Many historians, mostly and in their profession, the “tacti¬ and the conservative use of Ameri¬ pro-New Deal-Fair Deal in orienta¬ cal” revisionism seems quite moder¬ can resources. It is a measure of his tion and commitment, are unwilling ate, certainly not unpleasant: it ap¬ political skill that his administration to countenance left analyses of Roo¬ pears calm, generous, friendly, even could ease the tensions of the Cold sevelt or Truman but consider left non-ideological. For these reasons War and yet maintain the allegiance analyses less threatening when ap¬ the new assessments and analyses of of many potential (right-wing) crit¬ plied to Eisenhower. He never had the Eisenhower administration are ics while undercutting their policies. their support or affection and many likely to be greeted with more open Most of the revisionism—radical, were repelled by the strident moral- curiosity and receptive ness, and less left-liberal, and “tactical”—of the ism and fierce anti-communism of ire, than those of the Roosevelt, Eisenhower administration is quite Eisenhower’s administration. The Truman, or Kennedy administra¬ recent and often still fragmentary. newer “tactical” revisionism, I sus¬ tions. ■

Are you looking for a RETIRING? Think About La Jolla, Calif. We have assisted many better High School? Foreign Service Officers WASATCH ACADEMY . . . High Wasatch Academy school years in beautiful moun¬ BUY NOW! We manage your tain country! Accredited college Dept. X-13 property 'til you occupy! preparation. Small classes. Co¬ Mt. Pleasant, Utah 84647 ed, boarding 9-12. Worldwide Write Miss Allen, Realtor student body. Fine music, art facilities. Competitive sports, Parent's name skiing, camping, mountaineer¬ ing. Summer school—the arts, creative writing, wilderness ex¬ Address ploration. Spanish course with two weeks in Mexico. Prices City. compare favorably. For more State. information call: (801) 462-2411 or write for a catalog. Child's Age Grade

LARGE HOME REAL ESTATE EASY Specialists in ACCESS TO GEORGETOWN TOWN HOUSES CAPITOL HILL DULLES CAPITOL HILL • GEORGETOWN NATIONAL FOGGY BOTTOM • MT. PLEASANT Call 202-546-2676 Oxman Stewart 471-1212 ( 703) RHEA RADIN.Inc. REALTOR 220 SEVENTH ST., S.E.

38 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, Uay, 1973 KENNEDY, JOHNSON AND war, a bureaucracy’s war, or even through Reinhold Niebuhr sup¬ THE REVISIONISTS as Kennedy’s or Johnson’s war, but posedly rested on a belief in the from page 33 as “a liberal’s war,” for it was “the value of competing pluralistic units, thodox views of the ’60s. All of liberal formula—an all-powerful but they discarded the theory, or these revisionists agree on one cen¬ central bureaucracy, an unhindered what remained of it, and seized the tral proposition: American liberal¬ President, military interventionism—- first alternative. The best analysis of ism, as it developed from Theodore [that] have been tried and found this post-1956 process is not revi¬ Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson wanting.” sionist, but from Walt Whitman through the ’50s, was not only tried The ’60s began with an apparent Rostow, particularly his “The Dif¬ and found wanting in the ’60s, but consensus and now another quite fusion of Power, 1957-1972” failed so ignominiously that the different consensus is forming (1972). His command of this peri¬ Kennedy-Johnson years must mark among scholars of various ideologi¬ od is as yet unmatched, and his the end of a long era. Fairlie be¬ cal persuasions about the meaning work deserves close study despite lieves that liberalism’s promises be¬ of that decade. But irony does not his inability to see that out of his came ultimately corrupted because end there. It could be that the con¬ analysis emerged an alternative to the Kennedyites asserted “the ca¬ tradictions within the Kennedy- the policies of the ’60s. pacity of American positivism to Johnson liberalism became dramati¬ The work of Rostow and the re¬ fulfill the prophecy of American cally apparent between 1956 and visionists will be developed so that puritanism: that the city of man can 1959 when the , the we can learn, hopefully, from the be built in the image of the City of Common Market, Castro, and the nightmare decade. That the revi¬ God on this earth.” On a more race of African colonies towards na¬ sionists who wrote between 1960 secular level, Williams has provided tionhood transformed a bipolar and 1966 on the New Deal, Tru¬ the best historical analysis of how world into a pluralistic community. man and Eisenhower years were the “roots” and “contours” of the Americans had two alternatives: correct in the warnings about Amer¬ American liberal tradition shaped adjust to the diverse nationalisms, ican diplomacy is now of little com¬ the bitter fruits of the ’60s. Con¬ or continue to view the world as fort, even to the revisionists. Hope¬ demnation of liberalism might be divided simply between Communists fully their more fundamental work expected from conservatives and ra¬ and the “free,” using military means on Kennedy and Johnson will be dicals, but it is as harshly treated by to maintain the division as neatly as more closely studied, less easily dis¬ the moderate revisionists. Steel con¬ possible. American liberals’ political missed, and consequently become a demns Vietnam as not a general’s theory from Andrew Jackson history now that will teach. ■ WashiRoton Area Housing Guide STUART & MAURA, Inc. Free comprehensive information kit containing local tax and sal¬ REALTORS ary scales, a financing guide, school, recreation and health facilities, history and everything else you need to Sales • Rentals • Insurance know about living or buying in Northern Virginia, county by county. Also, what to do in Washington D.C.. moving hints and Specializing in Residential Properties details of our complete relocation services, rental housing and property ountry Northwest Washington management. PROPERTIES INC Write or call collect (Area Code 703) REALTORS Montgomery County, Maryland 3807 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, 836-8915 Member: Multiple Listing Service 4701 Old Dominion Dr., Arlington, Va 525-6900 4205 Evergreen La., Annandale, Va 256-9100 5010 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W. 1384 Chain Bridge Road, McLean, Va 356-1323 6556 Blacklick Road, Springfield, Va 451-0111 Washington, D. C.. 20016 9637 Lee Highway, Fairfax, Va. 591-7000 Telephone: (202) 244-1000 1805 Belle View Blvd., Fort Hunt, Alexandria 768-5100 13414 Occoquan Road, Woodbridge, Va 494-7101 Let lIs Knoic You Saic Our Ad In The Journal 309 Maple Ave., W., Vienna, Va 938-5800

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 39 REVISIONISM key. At the same time, of course, critiques of the Administration’s AND THE COLD WAR the dramatic and unexpected dec¬ plan to aid Greece and Turkey did from page 16 laration of a drive against com¬ come from conservatives on the tween foreign and domestic issues. munists at home, shortly after the Senate Foreign Relations Commit¬ Faced with a hostile Congress after Truman Doctrine speech, height¬ tee, Georgia’s Walter F. George and the mid-term elections of 1946, and ened the sense of crisis in which Alexander Wiley from Wisconsin. the need to initiate a bold new the matter of Greco-Turkish aid George’s comments after hearing foreign policy with global implica¬ was debated by bringing the com¬ Acheson explain the Administra¬ tions, Truman combined his anti- munist danger directly and imme¬ tion’s reasons for ignoring the Communisms, foreign and domestic, diately to the American door¬ United Nations in executive session to outflank the Republicans and step. In sum, the Administration evoke an eerie sense of biblical conservative “isolationists” of both seemed to have decided that if it prophecy in post-Vietnam America: parties: could not avoid the internal secu¬ I do not know that we will have The pairing of major anti¬ rity issue, it might as well make to go anywhere else in this world, communist initiatives in the for¬ the most of it. and I do not say that at the eign and domestic fields could be Freeland’s book poses several moment. I do not see how we are particularly helpful in winning questions, not all of which he is able going to escape going into Man¬ support for Cold War foreign to resolve inside its pages. Never¬ churia, North China, and Korea policy in the broad areas of the theless, it seems clear that he has and doing things in that area of Midwest, where the fear of do¬ demonstrated the connections and the world. But at the same time mestic communism tended to be consequences of the international an¬ that is another question, and we combined with resistance to an ti-communist crusade for domestic have got the right to exercise aggressive international policy. politics, and proved that they were common-sense. But I know that The Administration seemed to never separate issues. Once set when we make a policy of this recognize this consideration, for it loose, there was no way to control kind we are irrevocably commit¬ was Attorney General Clark and these powerful forces even when ting ourselves to a course of ac¬ not a representative of the foreign they threatened to destroy the tion, and there is no way to get policy bureaucracy who was sent Truman Administration in the days out of it next week or next year. into the Midwest to speak in sup¬ of Joseph McCarthy. You go down to the end of the port of aid to Greece and Tur¬ Ironically, the most thoughtful road. (Hearings Held in Execu- DON'T DESTINATION WASHINGTON? buy, sell or rent property in northern Virginia Our PICTURE GALLERY OF FINE HOMES and DESTINA¬ TION WASHINGTON with compUt* information on BEFORE you talk to PAUL PRENTICE financing, taxes, insurance, schools, etc., plus the do's —former foreign service officer and don'ts of buying or renting, sent free for the asking. Our 75 full-time associates can provide real -—twelve-year resident—alexandria service to your family. Offices in Alexandria, Arling¬ ton, Fairfax and McLean. KEY YOUR TRANSACTION TO YOUR ETA/ETD for consultation — no obligation — call or write:

2160 N. GLEBE Rd. PAUL PRENTICE agent for Arlington, Va. 22207 Phone (703) 524-3131 JAMES DUNCAN, REAL ESTATE 122 NORTH ALFRED STREET, ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA 22314 OFFICE (703) 548-8400 HOME (703) 549-3232

RETURNING TO WASHINGTON? Calvert BEING TRANSFERRED ABROAD? The school that comes to your child Complete home-study course for elementary-level students. Kindergarten Let me know your requirements and I will send you an up-to-date through 8th grade. An American education anywhere in the world. realty analysis without obligation. I believe my Departmental and Ideal for enrichment. Home is the classroom, you are the teacher with Calvert's approved instruction guide. Start any time, transfer to Foreign Sen/ice experience in administration has given me unique other schools. 125,000 kindergarten-through-8th graders have used the qualifications to help you with your transition. Calvert system since 1904. Non-profit. Phone: 301-243-6030 or write for catalog. SALES—RENTALS—PROPERTY MANAGEMENT ROBERT E. PECK Calvert School representing BOX F5-3, Tuscany Rd. Baltimore, Md. 21210 Routh Robbins Parent’s name f Realtors Address 1359 Chain Bridge Road, City State Zip McLean, Virginia 22101 Child’s Age Grade Office: 703-356-700 Home: 703-356-3864

40 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1978 five Session Before the Commit¬ from wisdom but from disaster,” Containment. The Truman Doctrine tee on Foreign Relations: Legis¬ writes Senator J. William Fulbright. was containment, so was the Mar¬ lative Origins of the Truman “It cannot be said that the assump¬ shall Plan. So was Korea. And so Doctrine, made public on Janu¬ tions underlying the Truman Doc¬ was Vietnam. ary 12, 1973.) trine were wholly false, especially President Harry S. Truman is not Tom Connally of Texas was wor¬ for their time and place, but there is the villain of the Cold War. Neither ried about the implications of the a powerful, presumptive case against were American policy makers sim¬ Truman Doctrine, too, but con¬ their subsequent universal appli¬ ply responding to an aggressive cluded, “I do not see how we can do cation: the case deriving from the Russian foreign policy, which anything else except to go along disaster of our policy in Asia.” sought to extend communist power [with the President] or to forget the (“The Crippled Giant: American into every “nook and cranny avail¬ whole business, and that would put Foreign Policy and Its Domestic able to it in the basin of world us in a ridiculous attitude before the Consequences,” Vintage Books, power.” The President’s advisers world. We would then be regarded 1972.) encouraged him to take the initia¬ as having been bluffed out of it by Yet Fulbright himself recognizes tive after Roosevelt’s death, not to Russia, and we had better never elsewhere in his narrative that the tell the Russians to “go to hell,” but have started.” Time and again in Truman Doctrine could not work in for far more serious reasons. The the Cold War, the Senate Foreign its “time and place” without a pow¬ United States picked up Britain’s Relations Committee and Congress erful statement of its “universal ap¬ lapsed responsibilities in the Middle in general would find itself con¬ plication.” The same is true of East, not to satisfy an abstract urge fronted by presidential actions and George F. Kennan’s recent explana¬ to power, but to secure the flanks of statements which it could not effec¬ tion of the way in which his famous European capitalism. The post- tively challenge without repudiating “X” article, “The Sources of Soviet World War II era came to an end in the premises of the Cold War. Conduct” was distorted into the the ’60s. Cold War premises were It began with the Truman Doc¬ Containment Doctrine. He was, he no longer sufficient to sustain Amer¬ trine, continued through the Korean asserts in his “Memoirs,” speaking ican foreign policy in the new era, War and the Eisenhower years, and of a political threat, to be contained so they were abandoned. It now reached a climax in the ’60s with by political means—and only at cer¬ seems they are not sufficient to sus¬ the Cuban missile crisis and the war tain key strategic points. In practice, tain a historical interpretation of in Vietnam. “Change has come not there proved to be no way to limit the Cold War either. ■

RENTAL HOUSES GO/A/G HOME ? Chevy Chase-Bethesda Massachusetts Avenue Extended

EXPERTS IN SALES AND RENTALS A. C. Houghton & Son, Inc. OFFICES in ALEXANDRIA,ARLINGTON and McLEAN An Accredited Management Organization /or /ree Sroc/tures ore/AtnocecC Tnfbrmoitbn 4000 Albemarle St., N.W., Washington, D. C. 20016 — 686-0203 Wst'/e to ur at: 6400 Goldsboro Road, Bethesda, Md. 20034 — 229-5750 3706 Mt. Vernon Ave, Alexandria, Va. 22305 703*5+3*3111 Washington Real Estate Since 1907

The Nicest Small Hotel In Washington COMING or GOING Francis Scott Key Hotel You can count on 600 - 20th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006 • 628-5425 Mrs. G. L. Warner, Manager PERSONALIZED SERVICE 1 Why Foreign Service Personnel Prefer the from Francis Scott Key Hotel • It is only two blocks from the State Department W. CLAND JL. 1ST. MILLER • Offers family accommodations • One room, kitchen, dinette and bath DEVELOPMENT CO. • Completely furnished efficiency suites • Completely air-conditioned • Restaurant with excellent food at moderate prices A Complete Real Estate Service Since 1912 ROOMS NEW HOUSE SALES • BROKERAGE SALES One Person $12.00—Two Persons $15.00 RENTALS • PROPERTY MANAGEMENT Efficiency Suites—Double Beds or Twin Beds One Person $13.00 & Up—Two Persons $16.00 & Up 4701 Sangamore Road, Washington, D. C. 20016 Additional Persons $1.50 each Phone 229-4000 Phone 229-4016 20% discount for weekly occupancy

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 41 only three FSIOs (or their prior longed confrontation with the very LETTERS TO | equivalents) have, to my knowledge, fundamental problems posed by ter¬ been appointed Chiefs of Mission: rorist tactics. We recognize there one in Khartoum (since retired), may well be a further cost in human Discrimination one in Tegucigalpa and one in La¬ anguish to be paid in adhering to ■ In connection with the Associa¬ gos. I know of only two DCM as¬ this policy. Nonetheless, we strongly tion’s efforts to stamp out discrim¬ signments. This, I believe, is ample believe that the position set forth ination and to air grievances, I proof that FSIOs are not getting by the President is the only accept¬ should like to focus on an area of equal consideration with FSOs for able one our Government can follow discrimination in the Foreign Service ambassadorial or DCM appoint¬ if we are ever to overcome this which, to my mind', has not been ments. sinister impediment to the peaceful sufficiently publicized and discussed: Since the AFSA is supposed to diplomatic process. the discrimination against the FSIO represent both FSOs and FSIOs FRANK V. ORTIZ vis-a-vis the FSO when it comes to equally—without discrimination to Montevideo ambassadorial and DCM appoint¬ either—I would like the organization ments. to take a more active interest than Is Anyone Listening? It seems that by definition, by it has heretofore in overcoming this ■ For those who may wish to pur¬ training, and by experience the FSIO obvious example of discrimination sue further afield our history of is as qualified as the FSO to be a against one “minority” in the For¬ policy makers who “do not listen,” chief or deputy chief of mission. eign Service. a phenomenon so eloquently related While the FSO may have a political, HANS N. TUCH by Barbara Tuchman and John an economic, an administrative or a Brasilia Service at the AFSA luncheon for consular specialty, the FSIO usually “Old China Hands,” Volume V of Dollar Devaluation has an informational or cultural the recently published 1947 Foreign specialty (or—a combination of the ■ Enclosed is a clipping from the Relations provides chilling testi¬ two—a PAO specialty). What is Department of State NEWSLETTER mony on the Middle East. more, the PAO (as well as the IO for March concerning the effect of This area, too, had its experts and and the CAO) often has had to the dollar devaluation on Foreign specialists in Loy Henderson, George demonstrate—even at a compara¬ Service allowances. In the last para¬ Wadsworth, Ray Hare and others tively early stage of his career—ex¬ graph, the statement is made that in less senior positions at the time pertise as an executive by virtue of “Local employees are not affected who, with perception and courage, the fact that he has had to run by the devaluation because they are tried valiantly to bring some sense operations of an informational and paid in local currencies.” As far as into White House handling of the cultural nature involving large staffs, it goes, this is correct. However, I Palestine issue. facilities, equipment and budgets. would like to draw the Department’s If anyone is inclined to wonder Nowadays the Chief of Mission attention—and AFSA’s—to the fact what has happened to the US posi¬ is primarily an executive running a that retired local employees receive tion in the Middle East since World complex foreign affairs establish¬ their retirement pay in fixed dollar War II, as most recently exemplified ment. Obviously he should be knowl¬ amounts; and the dollar has depre¬ by the Khartoum tragedy, and why, edgeable of political, economic, ad¬ ciated between 15 and 30% in the a reading of Henderson’s Top Secret ministrative, consular, cultural and past two years. The Department Memorandum of September 22 and information work and have the abil¬ seems unaware of the problem. November 24, 1947, will give the ity to conduct the special aspects of AFSA does not represent local em¬ answer. his responsibilities, be they repre¬ ployees. Surely there must be some¬ DAVID G. NES sentation, negotiation or reporting. one in the Department able to come Owings Mills, Md. It would of course be advantageous up with some redress for these re¬ to every career Chief of Mission to tired local employees. Plea for Arabists have had personal experience in as Here is an example of the kind H Would you open the pages of the many of these functional areas as of problems that a bureaucracy tends JOURNAL to some special pleading possible. This is, however, a matter to ignore and that a union can throw on behalf of Arabic language and of relativity, depending upon the on the table—but who is there to area training? previous assignments and prefer¬ represent the locals? This is a type of career specializa¬ ences of each candidate for the THERESA A. HEALY tion which offers uncommon attrac¬ highest office in the career Foreign USEC, Brussels tions and opportunities for all of¬ Service. ficers, not excepting those of junior My point is that, first, I believe Terrorism and middle grades. Recently, how¬ FSIOs are equally qualified to be ■ On March 2 and March 6 Presi¬ ever, in correspondence with Per¬ considered for this office; and sec¬ dent Nixon, in the wake of the trag¬ sonnel over a new Political Chief ond, FSIOs are being discriminated edy at Khartoum, reiterated our for Jidda, I became aware of an im¬ against in consideration for this Government’s policy of not giving balance in our “mix” of Arabists office. in to terrorist blackmail or extor¬ today: the Foreign Service has on There are approximately 50 tion. The President’s words have a its rolls quite a number of Arabists FSIO-Is and Career Ministers (Infor¬ special relevance to members of this now too senior for Jidda’s position, mation). During the last seven years, Mission in view of our own pro¬ and since 1967 younger officers have

42 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAI., May, 1973 not been volunteering for Arabic tain a sense of freshness and nov¬ a Consular Officer may find that training in numbers sufficient to deal elty about each new posting than even if he had an M.A. degree in with our present needs. for practitioners of some other hard economics, history, or business ad¬ The causes of such a problem I languages. ministration when he came in, his believe are three: first, the 1967 war In a personal sense, I feel my credentials are nearly worthless after caused many of our embassies in Arabist colleagues have also found a few years of consular “experi¬ the area to close, and made an Arab the satisfactions of their specialty to ence.” So, if Mr. Kennedy’s letter specialty appear to some officers have grown over the years. Those succeeded in scaring off any new unwise and untimely; second, our with ten to fifteen years’ experience consular fledglings, (which I realize deepening involvement in Vietnam in the field and on Washington desks was not his intention), then let them diverted growing numbers of FSOs foresee a time when—in their mid- get out now while their qualifica¬ to that country after a year’s area 40s or early 50s—they will be as in tions are still marketable. and hard language training. (These command of a discipline as are JAMES W. CARTER officers were often just the type of other professional men such as doc¬ Rangoon activists and problem-seekers who tors, lawyers and engineers. in previous years had been drawn Among my colleagues I perceive to the Arab world because of the that this sense of achievement—a The Last Shall Be First stimulation that it offered.) Finally, feeling that one is approaching a ■ I have been reading with much the young FSO, with his FSO-5 substantive mastery of a field— interest the many articles on the up¬ threshold before him, may fear a could be a valuable complement to grading program for the Staff Corps loss of career acceleration if he the satisfactions that the Arab spe¬ —mainly secretaries. The programs chooses prolonged language study cialist, like the generalist, can de¬ for secretaries such as the Secretary while his classmates are already at rive from a steady increase in his of the Year Award, language train¬ work in one of the traditional Serv¬ diplomatic expertise. ing, area training, staff officer rank, ice disciplines. There are further satisfactions the “Bill of Rights” are all steps in Vietnam is ending, however, new that Arabic offers, and which it posts are being established in the shares with other hard language spe¬ the right direction. Middle East, and old ones are be¬ cialties as well: that of working over I would like to point out, how¬ ing reopened. The threshold is still the years at a common task with of¬ ever, that there are a few other Staff with us, but there are many good ficers whom one comes to know Corps members who are not secre¬ reasons why ambitious younger of¬ well, to like and to respect; that of taries, mainly communicators, tech¬ ficers—who may have given a pass¬ the literary and cultural perspec¬ nicians and couriers. It is hoped that ing thought to Arabic—should now tives afforded by a deepening study this group has not been overlooked consider this possibility at greater of a non-Western civilization; this in the upgrading program. All too length. last satisfaction, in fact, can some¬ often we are the first to be called The majority of my colleagues times become the basis for a scholar¬ to perform our duties but the last to who are Arabists did not choose this ly and rewarding career upon retire¬ be recognized. specialty out of any early or un¬ ment from the Foreign Service. We are a small group but don’t wavering attraction to the area. This should be to look well be¬ get us lost in the shuffle. We are a What attracted us was rather the yond the horizons of most younger pretty dedicated bunch—even if we prospects this specialty offered for officers; but I hope—for other rea¬ are a bit surly at times. challenging and interesting work in sons mentioned—that many of them EDWARD T. NOSKO a part of the world where major is¬ will choose the Middle East and C&R Officer sues of strategy, energy and politics find in it as much satisfaction as a Kampala would be at stake. In addition, we quarter of my own A-100 class did. noted that the posts were small HUME A. HORAN enough so that a younger, or mid¬ Jidda Clarifying “Table B” dle-level FSO—by virtue of his A Caveat for Consular Appointees language skills and area expertise— ■ In regard to “Communication re: could demand and receive a satisfy¬ ■ Charles Kennedy in his “Open The Cone System” in the April FSJ, ing share of the action. Arabists Letter to Consular Appointees” some readers may be confused as to were aware that no other hard (February) failed to warn the new the meaning of Table B on page 30. language could promote its gradu¬ ranks of consular officers that should The omitted description reads: “The ates to the head of the line for they want to, or have to get out of ‘pinch’ in the political cone, then, is scores of jobs at all levels in ap¬ the Foreign Service after five, seven not one generated by discriminatory proximately 30 posts and 20 coun¬ and one half, or fifteen years, they treatment. Rather, it is a function tries. The traditions, politics and may find themselves singularly un¬ of: 1) the substantially reduced rate geography of these countries, more¬ qualified for any other type of civil¬ of overall promotion (see Table B); over, are sufficiently varied to pro¬ ian or Government work. Economic, 2) the assumption that the basis of vide constant change and stimulus Commercial, Administrative, and promotion should be the inherent within the Arabist’s specialty. No Information Officers all have civilian theoretical requirement of a vacancy assignment, of course, is like its counterpart jobs which they can fall at a higher grade.” predecessor; I feel it may be easier back on. Even Political Officers have STEPHEN HAYDEN nevertheless for an Arabist to re¬ some qualifications for teaching. But Washington

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 43 of money an employee would nor¬ MEMBERS’ INTERESTS mally spend on rent if stationed in USIfl NEWS the United States. Since a hous¬ Quartile Rankings ing allowance is provided abroad, $ $ $ The Association is very pleased Devaluation And Allowances the employee is therefore consid¬ ered able to bank that amount in that USIA has accepted a recom¬ As this issue of the Journal was dollars in the US. If the employee mendation made by both AFSA going to press, previous optimism actually spends that extra money and the 1973 Selection Boards not regarding the hoped-for retroac¬ on the local economy, that's his to automatically inform each offi¬ tive readjustment of overseas al¬ tough luck. The fact that employ¬ cer ranked in the 4th quartile. lowances to reflect the dollar de¬ ees have unusual expenses over¬ AFSA called USIA management’s valuation of February 14 was turn¬ seas such as kindergarten, over¬ attention to the frailties of this ing to gloom. seas travel for children in college, practice last year in one particular An information blackout has unreimbursed representation out¬ case in which a shocked officer been clamped on while the man¬ lays, out-of-pocket rental costs, received notification that he was darins in the Office of Manage¬ key money, deductibles for emer¬ ranked in the 4th quartile the very ment and Budget debate our gency visitation, and many others, same week that his superior rec¬ standard of living. From what we is probably also tough luck. ommended that the employee re¬ ceive a merit step increase! can piece together, the new cost We hope our worst fears, ad¬ of living indexes resulting from mittedly based on our not having Victory—At Last the dollar devaluation of February all the facts due to the informa¬ AFSA was certified as the ex¬ 14 would cost the Defense Depart¬ tion blackout, turn out to be un¬ clusive representative for Foreign ment several hundred million dol¬ founded. If there is substance to Service employees in USIA on lars in new and increased over¬ these rumors, AFSA will fight hard April 18. The certification came seas allowances if implemented through management and Con¬ after 77 previously challenged bal¬ in accordance with present cri¬ gress to forestall an injustice. lots were opened. AFSA received teria. In order to avoid this tre¬ a sufficient number of these votes mendous new budgetary burden, to reach the required majority. the OMB is examining the basis AFSA has now won certification for calculating the “Post Allow¬ as exclusive representative in ance” (cost-of-living) in an effort SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENT State, AID and USIA and is nego¬ to pare down this allowance. One AFSA’s annual General Busi¬ tiating with the managements of possibility is to change the per¬ ness Meeting will be held these agencies on a broad range centage of salary calculated as Thursday, May 17, 1973 at noon of Foreign Service concerns. “spendable income,” which is an¬ in the East Auditorium, Depart¬ other way of saying the amount of ment of State. money actually spent on the local The agenda: economy as opposed to purchases 1. Chairman’s Report —Wil¬ INDEX in dollars in the US, in third coun¬ liam C. Harrop Members’ Interests 44 tries, or dollar outlets like PX’s 2. Treasurer’s Report—David and commissaries. If the “spend¬ W. Loving USIA News 44 able income” base can be low¬ 3. Consideration and vote ered, then the allowance goes upon proposed amend¬ Foreign Service News 45 down even if the cost-of-living ments to the By-Laws as AFSA Activities 45 goes up at your post compared to published in this, the May the cost-of-living in Washington. issue of the “Foreign Serv¬ State Dept. News 46 One way of reducing the “spend¬ ice Journal.” AAFSW News 46 able income” base under consid¬ 4. Other business eration is to subtract the amount Foreign Service People 48

44 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 eign Service families stationed FOREIGN SERVICE NEWS abroad, to bring the foreign affairs AFSA ACTIVITIES agencies in line with the practice CHAPTER NEWS AFSA Chairman of the Board of the Department of Defense. The Bill Harrop testified before the final item dealt with the cost of AFSA London has recently com¬ Senate Foreign Relations Commit¬ transfers between assignments pleted its annual election of its tee in early April on the Depart¬ within the US and to and from Board of Directors and the Board ment of State Appropriations Au¬ overseas posts, to bring the For¬ in turn has elected its officers for thorization Act of 1973 (S. 1248). eign Service practice in line with 1973. They are: Bill Mills, chair¬ After remarking on the tragic the Civil Service. man; Dirk Gleysteen, vice chair¬ events of Khartoum and the need Annuity Loophole man; Bill Edgar, secretary; Alan for increased security for Foreign Gise, Judith Jamison, Arthur Crow¬ Service personnel, AFSA proposed AFSA’s Members’ Interests Com¬ foot and Paul Sadler, members. legislation to compensate the mittee is investigating the devel¬ The Board subsequently elected families of Foreign Service vic¬ opment of an insurance program George Lambrakis as member at tims. Such draft legislation was to insure Foreign Service person¬ large. submitted with the statement. nel in the event that both the For¬ AFSA members in Karachi met AFSA reaffirmed its stand on in¬ eign Service employee and his in February and voted formally to cluding AID Foreign Service per¬ spouse die simultaneously or be¬ establish an AFSA Chapter. Ed¬ sonnel under the Foreign Service fore their children have finished ward Bryant was elected Acting annuity system and offered a pro¬ their education. A major defect Chairman of the Chapter, pending posed amendment to the Foreign exists in the Foreign Service Re¬ adoption of Chapter Bylaws and a Service Act of 1946 to effect this. tirement and Disability System, in formal election of a full slate of that when both the employee and An additional amendment to the officers. Act was proposed to remove any spouse die, the yearly annuity AFSA/Bangkok recently reorga¬ possible ambiguities from the which will be paid to any surviving wording providing for the Foreign child will be $1,400, with a maxi¬ nized its Chapter’s Board of Di¬ Service merit promotion system, mum of $4,100 to the family! rectors to replace Jim Krause, and to authorize promotions as a For example, if a Foreign Serv¬ Mary Jane Timmons, Jackie Cahill, result of grievance and discrimi¬ ice employee dies in a plane acci¬ Bill Weinhold, and Hal Colebaugh. nation board recommendations. dent leaving a wife and four chil¬ The new Board is: Dave Krecke, AFSA also proposed that volun¬ dren, his family will receive an Chairman; Dwight Cramer, Vice tary retirement after 20 years of annuity depending on his salary Chairman; Herb Roberts, Vice service be provided for regardless and the number of years of his Chairman; Harlan Lee, Treasurer; of age. To reduce overcrowding in service plus an allowance for the Lee Caughill, Secretary; Tom the senior classes of the FSO children. This provides a mini¬ Ward, Membership; Jules Bacha, Corps, the Association urged that mum income for the family. How¬ Staff Corps Interests; Lee Bigelow, the Act be amended to provide for ever, if the employee and the em¬ Newsletter; B. Ellen Matthews; the mandatory retirement of Ca¬ ployee’s spouse are killed in the Mike Brown; Bob Sellers; Ed Corr. reer Ministers at age 60. This same accident or a few years AFSA/Bangkok held meetings would not, of course abridge the apart, the four children would re¬ on employee-management rela¬ President’s right to appoint Career ceive a total of $4,100 each year, Ministers to Chief of Mission posi¬ or just over $1,000 per child. tions under the Executive Order tions beyond that age. The Department is preparing an with a member of the Inspector General’s Office, and on labor re¬ The statement continued with a amendment to the Foreign Service report on the status of grievance Retirement and Disability Program lations in the Israeli Foreign Serv¬ procedures for the Foreign Serv¬ to remedy this serious loophole. ice. ice, now a subject of negotiation between the Association and the A recent survey of the Chiefs of Mission during 6 of the last 12 years Department of State. reveals the following statistics: In conclusion the statement Jan. April drew attention to the unusual 1961 1964 1965 1969 1972 1973 financial problems of Foreign Non Career 20 38 30 45 31 29 32 Service families, citing several ex¬ CA 3 5 5 3 1 1 amples and proposing legislative CM 40 35 38 31 30 29 23 remedies. On the devaluation FSO-1 20 24 31 34 46 46 43 problem, it was proposed that an FSO-2 3 2 1 4 4 4 additional item be added to the FSR-1 1 1 1 1 2 Authorization Act calling for an FSIO-CM 1 1 2 1 economic adjustments allowance. FSIO-1 2 The Committee was urged to pro¬ Total 83 105 106 115 115 113 107 vide for education allowances for Percentage of kindergarten aged children of For¬ Career Officers 76% 64% 72% 61% 73% 74% 70%

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, Man, 1973 45 ROSTER OF AFSA COMMITTEE CHAIRMEN STATE DEPARTMENT AID Advisory, Edwin L. Martin, Keyman Coordinator, Robert H. AFR/DS, Rm. 4746, NS, x29872 Pelletreau, AF/N, 4511, 21194 NEWS Amendments, Michael R. Gannett, Legal, Marian L. Nash, L, 6422, Dispute on Selection Out INR/RSG, 8733, 20236 22628 Review Board

Awards, Howard B. Schaffer, CA/ Members’ Interests, Herman J. Negotiations between AFSA and FS/NEA, 2908, 22121 Cohen, AF/C, 4238, 22080 the administrative management of the Department of State on Pre¬ Club, Samuel R. President, CU/ Memorial Plaque, Harrison Sym- cepts for the 1973 Special Review EX/BM, 4807, 23149 mes, S/IG, 7806, 28842 Panel on selection out having bogged down, AFSA filed the first DACOR, (2), Wm. 0. Boswell, 5712 Openness, David E. Biltchik, Car¬ Appeal to the Board of the Foreign Warwick Place, Chevy Chase, Md. negie Endowment, 1717 Mass. Ave., Service. zip 20015, tel. 654-7385; Robt. Suite 503, D.C. 20036, tel. 332-6929 There are three issues: Cleveland, 2911 Garfield, NW, 1. a. Should officers being con¬ 20008, 332-1217 Policy Process, Wm. C. Harrop, S/PC, 7312, 28986. sidered for selection out Education, Mrs. Sam. Thornburg, be permitted to appear 7510 Milway Lane, Alexandria, Staff Corps Adv., (2), Barbara J. personally before the Virginia 22306, tel. 768-3877 Good, IO/UCS, Rm. 500, SA-2, Special Review Panel to 22780; James L. Holmes, OC/EX, speak to their record; and E.O. Election, Thomas D. Boyatt, 2130, 21584 b. If so, should they be per¬ NEA/CYP, 5248, 20279 mitted to be accompanied State Negotiations, Thomas D. by a person of their Executive Order, Richard H. Mel¬ Boyatt, NEA/CYP, 5248, 20279 choosing, if the Special ton, ARA/IG, 6909, 22399 Review Panel so decides. USIA Advisory, (2), John J. Tuohey, Finance, David W. Loving, EUR/ 2. Should AFSA, as exclusive WE, 5230, 23063 employee representative, be US I A, I EE, 804, 1750 Pa. Ave., notified of the final determi¬ 25133; Wm. R. Lenderking, USIA, Grievance, Alan Hardy, AF/E, 5238, nation by the Secretary, or IOP/P, 507, 1750 Pa. Ave., 25209 20857 his designee, as to whether an officer is or is not to be Journal Board, Teresita C. Schaf¬ Committee Coordinator—Helen selected out. fer, E/IFD/ODF, 2833, 20686 Vogel, AFSA, 29672 3. Should administrative man¬ agement alone decide who is to serve on the 1973 Special Review Panel; or should administrative management prepare candidates who would then be jointly agreed on by administrative man¬ agement and AFSA. The Association, of course, is arguing the affirmative in ques¬ tions 1 and 3, and for mutual agreement with respect to ap¬ pointments to the Special Review Panel on issue 3. flflFSW NEWS

The May activities of the AAFSW include a visit for members to the Chinese Art Collection of Senator and Mrs. Hugh Scott on Wednes¬ day May 16, at 10:30, and a final meeting on May 22, at which Am¬ bassador William Porter will ad¬ Dr. John A. Hannah, AID Administrator, Tom Boyatt, Vice Chairman, AFSA, dress the membership. This meet¬ “Whit" Whitten and Linda Lowenstein, AFSA Board members, and Edwin L. ing will also feature the election Martin, chairman of the AID Advisory Committee, on the occasion of AFSA’s of officers. certification as exclusive representative for AID’s foreign service personnel. Summaries of the panel on the

46 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 changing role of the Foreign Serv¬ belongings in storage under a Volunteers Wanted ice wife are still available by send¬ USG contract. He discovered The City Hall Complaint Center ing a stamped, self-addressed en¬ some ambiguity in the language velope to Mrs. R. B. Finn, AAFSW, of the insurance policy which in¬ created, managed and staffed by P. 0. Box 4931, D.C. 20008. dicated that loss or damage must volunteers is located in the Dis¬ be reported to the company within trict Building. The Center has en¬ Book Fair 90 days of the occurrence. He tered its fifth year of operation and The AAFSW requests assistance inquired and was informed “the continues to do everything it can for the annual Book Fair. Proceeds 90 day rule begins at the time the for citizens of the District of Co¬ are used to support the Scholar¬ certificate holder becomes aware lumbia who call 393-3333 between ship/Education Fund. of any loss or damage, and this the hours of 10 A.M. and 2 P.M. Early donations of the following normally occurs when the house¬ five days a week. It is serving as items would be particularly ap¬ hold effects are taken out of stor¬ ombudsman in the very real sense preciated, in order to facilitate age. The twelve-month limitation of the word. mounting and framing: for filing suit begins on the date The job entails a once-a-week engravings and old prints of discovery of loss or damage.” art calendars and catalogues commitmentto the city year ’round needlework and embroidery. when possible. It is a marvelous Please call Leila Wilson, 333-5805, JOURNAL NEWS way to learn first-hand what prob¬ or Carol Sutherland, 530-8821. For lems concern and frustrate city donations of books and stamps, dwellers. The hours are 9:30 to please call the coordinator at 942- 2:30 and more hours can be given 2960, or 362-3895, District, 893-7175, in various ways as the volunteer Virginia, 493-9192, Maryland. becomes familiar with the city and its many problems. Please MEMBERS’ INTERESTS write to Mrs. Malan S. Strong, care of City Hall Complaint Center, Dis¬ Overseas Leave Balances: Foreign trict Building Room 7, Washington, Service employees serving over¬ D.C. 20004 or contact the office at seas for all agencies are reminded that they can accumulate up to a 347-6017 for further information. maximum of 360 hours of annual Previous Foreign Service wives have proved to be excellent vol¬ leave while in overseas locations. Eric Griffel, the Journal’s new¬ Personnel serving in the United est Board member, was born in unteers. The need is NOW. States can accumulate only a Krakow on July 15, 1930. His fam¬ maximum of 240 hours. If you are ily moved to England, anticipat¬ Scholarships contemplating a transfer from ing WWII in 1938, and he lived in Miss Hall’s School: An anony¬ overseas to a US location and England and went to school there mous donor has made available have a leave balance between 240 through high school. four scholarships each year, the and 360 hours, that amount be¬ After emigrating to the US in value of each being 25 percent comes your leave ceiling for the 1946, first to New York and then of tuition charged, to daughters time you are serving in the US. Los Angeles, Eric attended UCLA, of FSOs. The school enrolls ap¬ If you wish to maintain a leave 1948-1951 and again 1953-57, where balance of 360 hours during your he majored in Political Science. proximately 160 students in grades assignment to the US, you must He served in the US Army in 9-12. Address inquiries to: The make sure that you depart from France, 1951-53 as a French trans¬ Headmaster, Miss Hall’s School, your overseas location with that lator at the exalted rank of PFC Pittsfield, Mass. 01201. many hours accumulated. You and became a US citizen in 1953. cannot go below 360 hours, return He worked in the City Manager’s Moore Memorial to the US, and accumulate up to Office of Los Angeles, then joined A recent report from Ross N. 360 hours again while serving in AID under one of its previous the US. People we know have Berkes, Director, School of In¬ names in 1957, and served in ternational Relations at the Uni¬ been unaware of this situation Washington and , then versity of Southern California, and have returned to Washington as Assistant Program Officer to states that the scholarship fund for eventual retirement or separa¬ Rabat and as Program Officer to established in memory of George tion only to discover they had per¬ Guinea. Eric also opened and manently lost up to 120 hours for closed AID’S office in Elisabeth- Curtis Moore is growing rapidly. which they might have received ville in 1963 and has since served More funds are needed and con¬ lump sum payments. in Nepal, Washington, and Dacca tributions can be sent to Dr. Insurance Claims as Deputy Provincial Director and Berkes at USC, Los Angeles, Cali¬ An AFSA member took out in¬ Director, during the time of the fornia 90007. Checks should be surance on his stored household Civil War, now Asia Coordinator in made out to the University of effects with one of the Washing¬ AID’s Bureau for Program and Southern California and marked ton area companies that had his Policy Coordinator. “Moore Memorial Scholarship.”

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 47 Noel Memorial Fund of Chicago from 1937 to 1945 dur¬ man is survived by his wife, Ga¬ lena, of P. O. Box 102, Pilot Grove, The administrator of the fund in ing which time he bought the En¬ cyclopaedia Britannica, arranging Mo. and four daughters. Contribu¬ memory of Ambassador Cleo A. Noel, tions in his memory may be made Jr. at Moberly Junior College, in¬ for the profits to go to the Uni¬ to the American Cancer Society. formed us just before the deadline versity. Senator Benton served as Assistant Secretary of State for for this issue that several thousand Longyear. Robert Dudley Long¬ public affairs from 1945 to 1949 dollars have been received for the year, FSO-retired, died on August and as Senator from Connecticut fund, mostly from childhood friends 2, 1972 at his home in Suffolk, from 1949 to 1952. He is survived of Ambassador Noel. Taking into ac¬ England. He entered the Foreign by his wife, Helen, of Southport, count funds promised but not yet Service in 1921 and served at Connecticut, four children and received it is believed that the fund Port-au-Prince, Geneva, Lucerne, eight grandchildren. Senator Ben¬ can be used to provide scholarships Munich, Marseilles, and Malaga ton had been an honorary mem¬ from its annual proceeds. A com¬ before his retirement. He is sur¬ ber of AFSA since 1948—an ap¬ mittee representing the college, the vived by his wife, 8 Rue de L’Hotel preciation of his interest in and city of Moberly and the family will de Ville, Geneva, Switzerland. concern for the foreign affairs select recipients. Contributions to community. A scholarship has McKee. Ruth E. McKee, FSO-re¬ the Ambassador Cleo A. Noel, Jr., been established in his memory tired, died on December 20. Mrs. Memorial Fund may be sent to Mr. in perpetuity. McKee entered on duty with the Will Ben Sims, Moberly City Bank & Department of State in 1950 and Trust Company, Moberly, Missouri Beach. Arthur E. Beach, FSO-re- joined the Foreign Service in 1955. 65270. tired, died on February 2. Mr. She served at Tokyo before her re¬ Beach entered the State Depart¬ tirement in 1963. She is survived ment in 1927 and joined the For¬ by a sister, Margery McKee, 733 eign Service in 1954. He served at North Wilton PL, Los Angeles, Calif. FweianStPiiicelJl Khartoum and Johannesburg be¬ fore his retirement in 1960. He is Meloy. Francis E. Meloy, retired MARRIAGES survived by two daughters, Mrs. government employee, died on Schnoor-Myles. Margaret Schnoor Harry A. Breher, 4908 Kingston February 23 in Santo Domingo, was married to FSO Stanley T. Dr., Annandale, Va. and Barbara where his son Francis E. Meloy, Myles on March 3 in Curacao. J. Beach, 2400 S. Glebe Rd., Ar¬ Jr., has been the Ambassador Timberlake-Lillis. Frances Timber- lington, Va. since 1969. Mr. Meloy worked for lake, daughter of Ambassador and the War Department and the De¬ Mrs. Clare H. Timberlake, was Fuller. George Gregg Fuller, FSO- partment of Agriculture for 44 married to J. Patrick Lillis on retired, died on March 12 in Wash¬ years before his retirement in March 5, at the Dahlgren Chapel, ington. Mr. Fuller entered the For- 1942. He is survived by another Georgetown University. eigh Service in 1920 and served son, Daniel, of New York City. at Christiania, Trondhjem, Malmo, BIRTHS Reval, Jerusalem, Bushire, Teher¬ Stearns. Byron O. Stearns, AID- retired, died on August 18. He is an, Berlin, Niagara Falls, Kingston, Dean. A son, Clayton McCoy, born survived by his wife of 6582 Wey- Winnipeg, St. John, Antwerp, and to FSO and Mrs. James Clayton anoke Court, Alexandria, Va. Dean on February 26 in Washing¬ as Consul General at Tunis before ton. his retirement in 1949. He served Stotts. Maida F. Stotts, FSO-re¬ on the founding committee of tired, died on January 9 in Cali¬ DEATHS DACOR and as its first managing fornia. Miss Stotts entered the Anderson. Erthel H. Anderson, director. Mr. Fuller also taught at Foreign Service in 1945 and served AID-retired, died on February 17 the School of Foreign Service, at Chungking, Shanghai, Naples, in Dallas, Texas. Mr. Anderson Georgetown University and was Kobe and Toronto before her re¬ entered on duty with AID in 1958 on the staff of American Univer¬ tirement in 1967. She is survived and served in Afghanistan, Yemen sity. He is survived by two sons, by her sister, Mrs. Earl R. Weston, and the Sudan before his retire¬ the Rev. George Tucket Have- 816 Walnut Ave., Long Beach, ment in 1968. He is survived by meyer Fuller, Edmonton, Alb., and Calif. his wife, Frances, 616 W. Colorado Gregory Alson Williams Fuller, Urist. Harold E. Urist, FSR-re- Blvd., Dallas, Tex., a brother and Gaithersburg, and a daughter, tired, died on February 22 in two sisters. Therese Lamb, 11028 Waycroft Bonita, California. Mr. Urist joined Way, Rockville, Md., a sister and Benton. William B. Benton died USIA in 1950 and served at Guate¬ seven grandchildren. on March 18 in New York. Senator mala City, Montevideo and Mex¬ Benton’s life spanned careers in Hartman. Wayman C. “Tony” Hart¬ ico City before his retirement in advertising, education, politics, man, AID-retired, died on Febru¬ 1970. He also directed the Com- publishing and public service. He ary 4 in Columbia, Mo. Mr. Hart¬ munications-USA Exhibit in Mos¬ established his own advertising man joined AID in 1965 and cow in 1964. He is survived by his agency, Benton and Bowles with served in Laos until 1972. He re¬ wife, Margaret, 4095 Bonita Rd., Chester Bowles in 1929, served as ceived two Meritorious Honor Bonita, Calif, a son and a daugh¬ vice president of the University Awards from the agency. Mr. Hart¬ ter.

48 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, May, 1973 Designed for people who get around.

Overseas, TRAVEL- dozens of other occur¬ PAK is a necessary insur¬ rences. And the coverage COMPREHENSIVE INTERNATIONAL PERSONAL LIABILITY INSURANCE ance package for people never changes, no matter • Bodily injury liability like you. People who get where you are or what • Property damage liability around. you’re doing. • Employer's liability • Tenant’s liability • Fire legal liability Because you never Remember, too, • Sports liability • Pet’s liability know when your belong¬ claims are settled fast and "ALL-RISK” PERSONAL ings may be damaged in fair—through the world¬ EFFECTS INSURANCE wide facilities of the Insur¬ • Breakage • Fire • Theft • Shipping transit—when your house losses (marine, air, rail, etc.) • Flood may be burglarized—when ance Company of North • General average and salvage you may be sued for per¬ America (INA). contributions • War Risks (while in transit by sea or air) • Marring, denting, sonal injury. So, if you get around chipping and scratching • Hurricane TRAVEL-PAK pro¬ —do it with confidence. • Earthquake • Typoon • Pilferage • Lightning • Explosion • Vandalism vides coverage outside the With TRAVEL-PAK. • Windstorm • Disappearance • And United States to protect Write us directly for a free other perils • Storage coverage you against these and brochure and application.

James W. Barrett Company, Inc. Insurance Brokers 1140 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 Telephone 202-296-6440

UNDERWRITERS SERVICE, INC. UNDERWRITERS SERVICE, INC. USI OF THE PACIFIC BARRY, POWELL & BARRETT, INC. One Embarcadero Center 300 Lakeside Drive P.O. Box 3589 300 Park Avenue San Francisco, California 94111 Oakland, California 94604 Honolulu, Hawaii 96811 New York, N.Y. 10012 415-986-1122 415-271-5171 808-523-1357 212-759-1113 Dart Custom Four-Door Sedan

Fury III Four-Door Sedan

Newport Custom 2-Door Hardtop

Foreign Service personnel can qualify for special prices on Chrysler products! Every Chrysler product —from the Export Sales, Chrysler Corporation prestigious Imperial to a casual Dodge 9th floor, 1100 Connecticut Ave. N.W. Sportsman wagon to a low-priced Washington, D. C. 20036 compact —can be purchased through Send information on your Diplomatic Sales Chrysler Export’s Diplomatic Sales Program, and these Chrysler products: Program. DODGE □ CHRYSLER PLYMOUTH All Foreign Service personnel □ Dart □ CHRYSLER □ Fury □ Challenger IMPERIAL □ Satellite can qualify! □ Coronet/Charger □ Barracuda And we’ll arrange fast delivery here □ Polara/Monaco □ Valiant/Duster or in other countries, through our local Name Washington, D. C. office. Return the coupon for full details. Address. Or telephone: (202) 296-3500. City State Zip.

EXPORT DIVISION CHRYSLER CORPORATION