Foreword

Why ? What defines geospatial intelligence as a discipline? Simply put, geospatial intelligence is about the integration of NIMA’s existing imagery and geospatial analysis capabilities for the digital information environment of the twenty-first century. The convergence of our imagery and geospatial tradecrafts and the emergence of our new, integrated discipline of geospatial intelligence represent the fulfillment of the vision of NIMA’s founders. By unifying our unique ability to precisely model the environment and to remotely monitor dynamic world events, we are transforming into a powerful new discipline that is truly greater than the sum of its parts.

Our transformation has altered the conceptual framework of our discipline and the way it relates to the larger context of the profession of intelligence. At the same time that technology has enabled the integration of our tradecraft and tools, the world environment has changed dramatically. The September 11 terrorist attacks have caused our nation to rethink our tenets of national security and reevaluate our approach to the collection, analysis, and dissemination of intelligence.

With these changes in our conceptual framework, it is essential that we understand what is changing, what remains the same, and why. As the functional manager for geospatial intelligence, I have launched an effort to develop a formal body of National Geospatial Intelligence Doctrine. This body of doctrine will provide the conceptual link between our national security strategy and the plans and procedures that guide our actions. Our doctrine will reflect a community of shared beliefs, a stable set of truths that, while enduring, remains flexible enough to embrace new concepts.

With Geospatial Intelligence, our capstone concept, we take our first step toward a formal doctrine of geospatial intelligence. Geospatial Intelligence speaks of our heritage, defines our core values, and provides the intellectual foundation for our ongoing transformation. It outlines our enduring characteristics and our evolving and emerging capabilities.

Although this capstone concept introduces geospatial intelligence as a new term in the intelligence lexicon, our mission remains the same. While our concepts, methods, technology, and terminology evolve, the essential qualities demanded of NIMA remain unchanged—satisfy our customers’ geospatial intelligence needs at any moment, for any purpose.

Know the Earth … Show the way!

JAMES R. CLAPPER, JR. Lieutenant General, USAF (Ret.) Director

CHAPTER GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONC Introduction

This capstone concept publication introduces the term geospatial intelligence to the lexicon of national security. It describes the common framework of shared beliefs as they apply to imagery, , and geospatial information, hereafter referred to collectively as geospatial intelligence.

Geospatial Intelligence Strategic Intent for the U.S. encompassing the entire outlines the capstone concept Intelligence Community. range of sources from for the National Imagery and It draws heavily upon the reconnaissance satellites to Mapping Agency (NIMA). enduring principles we have airborne platforms and While this document primarily inherited from joint and commercial providers; addresses NIMA, the principles service doctrine, the it outlines are generally transformational principles * explains the power of applicable for geospatial described in the NIMA geospatial intelligence intelligence practitioners Commission Report, and the as a medium for throughout the National lessons we have learned in multi-disciplinary System for Geospatial recent operations from Bosnia intelligence collaboration Intelligence (NSGI). and Kosovo to the Global War and visualization. on Terrorism. This capstone concept This capstone concept describes our highest enduring This document: begins a dialog about the principles, providing the nature of our evolving conceptual link between * describes the nature of a discipline. It is the first word our national strategy and the new intelligence discipline; on geospatial intelligence, but plans, procedures, and not the last. While it answers methods that geospatial * explains the radical shifts several important questions, intelligence professionals in the geopolitical land- many others remain to be develop and apply in their scape and the advancing answered. Geospatial work every day. It responds technologies that are Intelligence builds upon the to the direction set in the transforming the imagery legacy of established joint and National Security Strategy, and geospatial tradecrafts; service doctrine, and sets the the National Strategy for stage for our development of Homeland Security, the * outlines our evolving and a formal doctrine of geospatial Quadrennial Defense Review, emerging processing and intelligence for NIMA and Joint Vision 2020, and the remote sensing capabilities, the NSGI.

2 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP Intelligence—and how we use it—is our first line of defense against terrorists and the threat posed by hostile states. Designed around the priority of gathering enormous information about a massive fixed object—the Soviet Bloc—the intelligence community is coping with the challenge of following a far more complex and elusive set of targets. National Security Strategy

NIMA Arrives The establishment of NIMA in 1996 began the process of integrating the The end of the Cold War Geospatial and Imagery and the dawn of a new era Analysis tradecrafts under a in the global security arena single discipline manager, brought about a time of the Director of NIMA. Over tumultuous change in the U.S. the past six years, the Intelligence Community. The agency has worked to collapse of the Soviet Union understand the nature and and the U.S. military experience parameters of this new in the Gulf War were followed discipline and to test new by a virtual explosion of concepts and develop an intelligence requirements integrated architecture for resulting in the need for a national geospatial profound transformation of our intelligence. nation’s imagery and geospatial The Director of NIMA is the steward of the discipline of capabilities. The nation geospatial intelligence. He exercises broad authority on behalf responded with an ambitious of the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) and the Secretary of effort to strengthen these Defense to manage imagery and geospatial information capabilities, uniting the imagery production and the tasking of national imagery collection and geospatial communities in systems, as well as lead the geospatial intelligence community 1996 within a new agency, the as the functional manager for the National System of Geospatial National Imagery and Mapping Intelligence (NSGI). As the guardian of the geospatial Agency (NIMA), and beginning intelligence future, he oversees research and development of a long process of converging geospatial intelligence technologies, development of doctrine the two fields into a single, and future concepts, imagery and geospatial data standards, and integrated discipline—the new training and development of geospatial intelligence discipline of geospatial professionals throughout the Intelligence Community. intelligence.

Most who have tried to reconstruct the logic that put the National Photographic Interpretation Center and Defense Mapping Agency together into the National Imagery and Mapping Agency have concluded that it was the potential, profitable convergence of imagery and geospatial processes and products.

Report of the Independent Commission on NIMA

CHAPTER I GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONC inevitable result of powerful Superior, timely knowledge of forces of change in our the environment and adversary strategic environment. The is the key enabler that gives major catalysts for this change American government officials have been a radical shift in the and military forces the threat environment, the home field advantage even evolving nature of conflict, and in distant foreign lands. the revolutionary technologies of the digital age. Working together, these forces have provided both the impetus and trafficking, failing states, and the means for the convergence a growing number of states of the imagery analysis and and non-state actors with geospatial tradecrafts into the access to weapons of mass single, integrated discipline of destruction. Today, with the geospatial intelligence. emergence of global terrorist networks, our nation Uncertain Threat confronts an elusive new Environment threat, operating not only in Though uncertainty has rogue and failing states, but always characterized the also within our own international security arena, the borders. world order that has emerged September 11, 2001 in the twenty-first century has This complex environment made knowledge of foreign places high demands upon our lands more important and nation’s imagery and challenging than ever before. geospatial capabilities. Evolving Nature of Conflict Rather than facing a stable, Intelligence targets have The technology-enabled dominant peer competitor, the multiplied dramatically since shift from attrition warfare to United States is confronted by the days of the Cold War. It is effects-based warfare has regional conflicts, transnational now more difficult than ever dramatically increased the crime, terrorism, drug to predict precisely where (and when) American power emphasis on—and the will next be needed to protect demands upon—intelligence our national interests, and in military operations. In Joint where the Intelligence Vision 2010 and Joint Vision Community must focus 2020, the Joint Chiefs of Staff America’s eyes and ears to articulated a view of warfare provide the information that places unprecedented advantage to decision-makers value on the role of and warfighters. This information. The central demanding environment has operational concepts of driven us to evolve our precision engagement, tradecraft through digital dominant maneuver, focused processes and collaborative logistics, and full-dimensional models to ensure that we have protection require warfighters a ready base of global to possess an unparalleled knowledge and can provide degree of information responsive, focused support superiority—with in a crisis. comprehensive and detailed knowledge of the battlespace and the adversary. Kabul, Afganistan

4 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP information age warfare changes in the battlespace The union of three technological have turned the Cold War more quickly than adversary achievements: precision model of national intelligence forces, require us to further geopositioning, advanced upside down. In the reduce cycle times. The imagery and sensor technologies, centralized model of the Cold timeliness required for rapid, and low cost ubiquitous digital War era, intelligence reports precision engagement data processing, has made written by tactical units were demands closer integration possible the convergence of sifted and analyzed by national of the tools and processes agencies for the benefit of of the imagery specialists who geospatial and imagery analysis national decision makers. detect and characterize targets into the integrated discipline of In today’s more distributed and the geospatial specialists geospatial intelligence. model, the national who characterize and measure intelligence collection systems the battlespace. orthorectified imagery to and subject-matter expertise update outdated maps Advancing rapidly. Similarly, digital Technology Geospatial Intelligence is imagery “chips” may be inset The convergence of the primarily about obtaining on a digital map to provide imagery and geospatial additional detail of highly knowledge of the physical and tradecrafts has been enabled localized events or recent cultural aspects of the global by revolutionary developments changes. With the advent security environment and the in three key technology areas: of Geographic Information capabilities and intentions of advanced remote sensing, Systems (GIS), digital potential adversaries. precision geopositioning, databases, rather than and digital information venerable paper maps and once dedicated to supporting a processing. charts, are becoming the select group of national key medium for recording, decision makers now support a These advanced organizing, and visualizing vastly expanded base of technologies are increasingly geospatially referenced theater and tactical users as allowing data to be moved information, whether derived well. Interoperability has and manipulated from imagery or other become essential in these interchangeably between source data. These digital distributed worldwide imagery products and maps technologies provide the networks of intelligence and charts, blurring the common currency that makes producers and consumers, distinctions between the two possible the convergence of where finished intelligence product categories. Geospatial imagery and geospatial often ends up in the guidance vector data sets, showing such processes and tool sets within system of a tactical missile. things as roads and the discipline of geospatial jurisdictional borders, can be intelligence. ❏ This growing demand for superimposed over tactical support has been a key factor in the emergence of geospatial intelligence as a new discipline. The rapid pace of the targeting cycle and the massive volume of targets has placed tremendous stress on intelligence production processes. Emerging network- centric concepts of operations, which rely on the ability of friendly forces to detect, Precision Targeting

CHAPTER I GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONC Geospatial Intelligence—The exploitation and analysis of imagery and geospatial information to describe, assess, and visually depict physical features and geographically referenced activities on the Earth.

Unifying the strengths of by three qualities: its character trusted knowledge. It imagery analysis and mapping, as an intelligence discipline, its examines new information in charting, and geodesy, unique analytic tradecraft, and the context of our existing geospatial intelligence has its fundamental spatial and knowledge base and emerged as a new discipline, temporal nature. information obtained from separate and distinct from its other sources to arrive upon predecessors. To understand An Intelligence Discipline valid conclusions about the the nature of this new Geospatial intelligence security situation. Geospatial discipline, it is important to is first an intelligence intelligence responds to examine its enduring elements. discipline, and therefore shares specific requirements, either to A set of defining characteristics the general qualities and support policy decisions outlines the essential qualities attributes of the broader field or the planning and common to both the imagery of intelligence. It primarily execution of military or civil and the geospatial specialties. aims to understand the national security operations. An integrated body of capabilities and intentions of Because collection and tradecraft draws upon each potential adversaries and the production assets are limited of our specialties to bring physical and cultural aspects and time is an important capabilities that far surpass of the global security factor, geospatial intelligence what any could accomplish environment. Geospatial must focus on meeting alone. The human analyst, intelligence confronts the highest priority needs endowed with a unique set non-cooperative targets that of national security of traits, plays a central and may be trying to conceal their decision-makers according to timeless role in our trade. activities from the United finite timetables. Finally, geospatial intelligence States and our allies. Our can be used for a wide range nation therefore requires the of applications that are vital to use of clandestine means to Geospatial intelligence aims to our nation’s security. collect information about them reduce uncertainty, providing and sensitive analytical a knowledge advantage in time Defining techniques to understand the meaning of this information. for a decision to be made or an Characteristics Like other intelligence action to be taken to advance or As a discipline, geospatial disciplines, geospatial protect national interests. intelligence is defined primarily intelligence aims to produce

6 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE:II CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP Geospatial intelligence Collection Disciplines Analytical Disciplines is an analytical discipline, defined by its analytic Imagery Intelligence tradecraft—the complementary Geospatial Intelligence and related skill sets of geospatial specialists and Human Intelligence Cryptology imagery analysts—rather than Open Source Measurement & by a particular source of data. Intelligence Signatures Intelligence Geospatial intelligence relies upon data from multiple Foreign Materiel Acquisition Scientific & Technical collection sources, including Acoustic Intelligence Intelligence remote sensing, open sources, Radar Intelligence and human sources. In this General Military Electro-optical Intelligence respect, it differs from the Intelligence Nuclear Intelligence traditional collection disciplines, which are defined Unintentional Radiation Economic Intelligence Intelligence by the skills associated with a single collection source. Laser Intelligence Its focus is not on its source, Material Sampling but rather on its ultimate Intelligence Disciplines product—an integrated, digital, visual picture of the global intelligence from all other preserving the distinctiveness security situation. intelligence fields. and unique value of each specialty. It is the increased Fundamental Spatial and This spatial and temporal interaction between specialists, Temporal Nature aspect makes geospatial not their homogenization, Geospatial intelligence intelligence a powerful, visual which provides value. This is also characterized by its medium. Information from convergence brings a closer fundamental spatial and many sources can be integrated integration of the detailed, temporal nature. It is focused in a spatial framework to reveal dynamic information derived primarily on examining spatial relationships not from imagery with the tangible, physical things. immediately evident. Through geospatial framework and Geospatial intelligence visualization, geospatial precise modeling techniques observes and measures the intelligence permits both rapid, of the geospatial specialties. physical world, drawing intuitive understanding of the conclusions based on the physical environment and spatial relationships among evaluation of potential The convergence of our objects as they change over adversary courses of action in geospatial and imagery time. It uses both qualitative the three spatial dimensions analysis tradecrafts makes and quantitative methods, and through time. possible an integrated analyzing geometric attributes understanding of the global like shape, size, dimension, An Integrated Body of security situation. While our distance, movement, pattern, Geospatial Intelligence geospatial tradecraft provides elevation, and location to Tradecraft the environmental context, our characterize geographic areas Geospatial intelligence imagery tradecraft provides and reach conclusions about unites the complementary intelligence issues. It is this strengths of our imagery and the perishable, dynamic elemental spatial and temporal geospatial tradecrafts in a context. nature that unites our powerful, integrated constituent tradecrafts and discipline, while at the same distinguishes geospatial time recognizing and

CHAPTER II GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONC have developed methods of the dynamic, detailed content The integration of the imagery measuring and modeling the to our overall picture of the and geospatial tradecrafts physical environment with security environment. Imagery bring new analytic tools to bear unprecedented precision. analysts detect important upon many traditional These methods enable the world events in near-real time, intelligence problems. precise geolocation and updating decision-makers on measurement of objects and rapidly changing situations overhead imagery has been features on imagery, helping with a high degree of unmatched for rapidly us to better quantify our confidence and detail. At the recording large amounts characterization of intelligence same time, imagery serves as of spatial data. Imagery targets. This ability to an important basis for long- collection management precisely quantify knowledge term historical research and has historically played an gained from imagery adds trend analysis. Imagery important role in the tremendous value for analysis is a powerful means integration of our discipline, geospatial intelligence for detecting and measuring balancing the requirements consumers. It enables us to changes, whether rapid or for collecting source data to produce intelligence that is gradual, in the global satisfy both intelligence and highly actionable, especially in security situation. geospatial production tactical applications such as requirements. Digital imagery targeting and navigation, and Imagery has long been vital has opened new avenues for brings more confidence to as a source for geospatial integrating our tradecrafts, policy decisions. applications such as mapping, enabling the development charting, and geodesy as well of increasingly integrated Using Geographic as . Since products, such as imagery Information Systems (GIS), the development of aerial maps, three-dimensional fly geospatial specialists bring (and later, satellite) through scenes, and other new analytic tools to bear on photoreconnaissance, tailored geospatial intelligence. many traditional intelligence problems. These tools allow data to be organized and visualized in a geospatial context, enabling a better integration of environmental factors in intelligence problem solving. By allowing a more interactive approach to the analysis of environmental effects and adversary observables, GIS capabilities provide potential to improve the collection, as well as analysis, of intelligence, enabling scarce collection assets to be focused on areas where targets of interest are most likely to be found.

Geospatial Intelligence: An Integrated View

8 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP As we progress in the Critical integration of our tools, thinking is processes, and products, therefore the imagery and geospatial most essential specialists will discover new element of ways to leverage this body our tradecraft. of tradecraft to produce True analysis intelligence that is more goes beyond intuitively understandable, the mere more predictive, and more extraction and actionable for national repetition of security decision-makers. intelligence facts from a collection Conducting Mobility Analysis source. The geospatial The ability to communicate intelligence analyst Geospatial Intelligence geospatial intelligence understands methods of Specialties information clearly, quickly, acquiring data, evaluating and effectively using multiple its quality, and Aeronautical Analysts media in multiple dimensions systematically examining Cartographers is a key skill of the geospatial it in light of existing Collection Managers intelligence analyst. knowledge to reach a Geodesists Visualization is our preferred meaningful conclusion Geophysicists medium for communicating about the environment or Geographers geospatial intelligence. the adversary. The Geospatial Analysts Knowledge is most rapidly geospatial intelligence Hydrographers absorbed by the minds of our analyst performs three Imagery Analysts consumers when it transmitted basic functions: an Imagery Performance Officers by visual media—whether as a extraction function, using Imagery Interpreters hardcopy map, a digital image, specialized skills and Imagery Scientists or a three-dimensional knowledge to recognize Marine Analysts simulation. However, mastery information of intelligence Oceanographers of the basic skills of clear interest, a filtering Regional Analysts writing and effective briefing function, shielding the Target Analysts will always be essential. It is consumer from Terrain Anaylsts up to the analyst to choose information overload, and Topographic Analysts the best available means to a synthesis function, objectively and authoritatively logically assembling communicate the intelligence The Geospatial relevant facts that reasonably facts, his or her analytical Intelligence Analyst lead to a significant conclusion. judgments, and any remaining The human analyst is our knowledge gaps. most important geospatial intelligence . While the technologies of our The computer has also had its dramatic impact on analysis . . . But discipline offer valuable tools, whatever the new wrinkles, the eternal verities remain . . . there is no vastly improving our ability to substitute for the intellectually competent human—the person who was produce intelligence, their born with the makings of critical sense and who has developed them to primary value is in improving their full potential. the performance of the human Sherman Kent analyst. Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy 1965

CHAPTER II GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONC analyst's chief commodity is a set of proven models and methods—a tradecraft— that can be applied to an intelligence problem. It is the tradecraft of geospatial 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis intelligence that allows the analyst to reduce ambiguous The applications of Informing Statecraft or contradictory data to a few geospatial intelligence include Geospatial intelligence useful conclusions that the most important functions provides knowledge national increase the potential for of our national government. leaders need to make victory on a battlefield or Geospatial intelligence informed decisions on matters reduce uncertainty in a policy supports the development of of national security and decision. These methods are national policy, the planning foreign affairs. It plays a both quantitative and and execution of military central role in identifying qualitative, and constitute both operations, the protection of strategic threats, providing the art and science of homeland security and other warnings of war, predicting geospatial intelligence. civil operations, and the humanitarian crises, and collaborative efforts of analysts verifying international throughout the Intelligence treaty compliance. It enables Applications Community. It is an essential national decision-makers to of Geospatial tool for national security policy monitor crisis situations as Intelligence and operations, providing they develop and measure or Geospatial intelligence the knowledge basis for forecast the effects of foreign provides unique knowledge decision, planning, and action. policy decisions. Geospatial not available by other means intelligence provides that is critical for informed information useful in the national security decisions. negotiation of international It provides objective, agreements and in the precisely measurable protection of U.S. diplomatic information about the facilities overseas. environment and Geospatial intelligence potential adversaries, increases confidence in especially in remote policy decisions by or inaccessible reducing uncertainty, regions. risk, and surprise.

Overlapping Applications of Geospatial Intelligence

10 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP give every Component Commander and every combatant a shared view of the battlespace. This common picture enables dissimilar forces distributed throughout the area of operations to provide mutual support, navigation and massing effects in time and targeting systems, it space in unified action to provides U.S. air, land, decisively defeat an adversary. and naval forces Homeland Security and important tactical Supporting Civil Support advantages. Precise Military Geospatial intelligence knowledge of the Operations plays a critical role supporting battlespace in a Geospatial protection of the homeland common frame of intelligence and other civil missions. In reference enables the provides the supporting homeland security, synchronization of vital knowledge geospatial intelligence is widely dispersed maneuver foundation for modern joint valuable both for reducing the forces to achieve a common warfare, serving as the basis probability of terrorist attacks objective. Geospatial for decision superiority, and for managing the intelligence gives warfighters a dominant maneuver, and consequences of attacks. precision engagement for the Geospatial intelligence joint, interoperable force. With its common spatial and can provide the means to temporal frame of reference, Geospatial intelligence conduct detailed assessments geospatial intelligence is offers the visual picture of the to identify vulnerabilities in battlespace and the situational essential for interoperability critical national infrastructure understanding that is essential in joint and combined warfare. where the for operational decision probabilities of successful terrorist making throughout the critical understanding of an attack are highest. spectrum of conflict and at all adversary's strategic levels of warfare. It is a major infrastructure and source of content for the vulnerabilities, permitting Common Operational precision strikes against Picture (COP) and the strategic and tactical targets in primary means of visualizing all weather conditions. When it. Geospatial intelligence strike missions are modeling capabilities are complete, geospatial powerful predictive tools for intelligence is the Intelligence Preparation of the primary means of Battlespace, giving Joint Force battle damage and Component Commanders assessment, enabling unparalleled decision commanders to superiority. assess the results and order re-strikes if Geospatial intelligence is necessary. the critical ingredient that enables dominant maneuver and precision engagement. In Homeland Security and conjunction with advanced Civil Support

CHAPTER II GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCE intelligence provides data and including drug interdiction, Country Studies and Military products on selected urban humanitarian relief and as Capabilities Studies. It is a areas of interest, land and permitted by law, support to major source of economic maritime entry and exit points, law enforcement. intelligence information, identification and assessment providing useful insights into of foreign threats, and extent Intelligence Collaboration foreign agricultural and and scope of natural and man- Geospatial intelligence industrial production. made damage. In cases of supports Intelligence Geospatial intelligence is terrorist attack or natural Community analysts, also used to support the disaster, geospatial intelligence providing imagery, imagery development of Defense can rapidly give federal intelligence, geospatial Intelligence Assessments agencies and first responders a information, and geospatial and National Intelligence comprehensive and detailed intelligence analysis skills Estimates, which represent the view of the scene, helping and techniques to support consensus position of the them to make the best the centralized analysis of Intelligence Community on possible decisions in all-source intelligence. matters of critical strategic preparation, response, and Geospatial intelligence is an importance to national recovery actions. Geospatial important source for policymakers and planners. ❏ intelligence also plays an scientific and technical essential role in a wide range intelligence and basic

NIMA, The Geospatial Intelligence Functional Manager

As functional manager for the National System for Geospatial Intelligence (NSGI), NIMA exercises stewardship of our nation’s geospatial intelligence capability from the national to the tactical level. Through this functional management responsibility, NIMA:

• Acts to identify and advocate NSGI community requirements and to manage the nation’s geospatial intelligence investments to ensure interoperability and collaboration among our partners and consumers; • Develops and manages the NSGI technical architecture and guides the community’s research and development efforts; • Promotes common standards for imagery and geospatial information systems and provides training in the tradecraft of geospatial intelligence; • Develops policy to promote interoperability and protect sensitive geospatial intelligence sources and analytical techniques; and • Leads the NSGI in the development of doctrine to guide the employment of geospatial intelligence capabilities and of innovative future concepts to ensure we remain the world leader in geospatial intelligence.

12 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP The discipline of geospatial multiple echelons of manipulate, mensurate, intelligence unites a broad government. These digital annotate, and enhance images range of evolving and emerging processing capabilities provide and compare them against on- data processing and remote the potential for NIMA and the line libraries of imagery sensing capabilities. By National System for Geospatial signatures. Automated change bringing together the (NSGI) to detection and other imagery- capabilities traditionally dramatically improve derived Measurement and associated with imagery interoperability, collapse Signatures Intelligence intelligence with those more production timelines, and (MASINT) capabilities enhance typically used for acquiring broaden the accessibility of the analyst’s perception by and manipulating geodetic, geospatial intelligence as we detecting minute changes in gravimetric, geomagnetic, and develop and deploy new imagery of intelligence targets hydrographic survey data, we capabilities throughout the that are difficult to detect with are developing an expanded NSGI. the unaided eye. Geographic tool set for solving intelligence Information Systems (GIS) problems. Rapidly advancing Enhanced Analytic offer powerful tools for digital processing capabilities Perception synthesis, enabling analysts to are revolutionizing our ability Desktop data processing integrate information about to respond to the needs of systems provide powerful related targets to better our customers in the emerging automated analytic aids for understand how they function network-centric environment, improving the confidence and as elements within national or while the incorporation of an sensitivity of geospatial regional infrastructures. expanded range of data sources intelligence. Using modern and sensors is enabling us to imagery analysis workstations, provide new dimensions of analysts can electronically knowledge to national security decision-makers.

Advanced Data Processing in an All-Digital Environment The rapid spread of desktop computers with enhanced processing performance and the increasing use of digital sensor technologies have made digital processing ubiquitous throughout the intelligence cycle and at

Future Integrated Analysis

CHAPTER III GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCE Analytic Assets operations throughout the and Actionable Advanced processing community of intelligence As we modernize our capabilities improve the producers and consumers. systems, digital data efficiency of geospatial These tools are enabling processing technology is intelligence operations by collection managers at all enabling NIMA and the NSGI automating simple, manual, or echelons to support analysts to provide geospatial repetitive production tasks and through their understanding of intelligence that is more allowing human analysts to evolving and emerging remote usable and relevant than ever focus on more complex sensing capabilities, brokering before. Geospatial geospatial intelligence analyst’s collection intelligence is the key to problems. Capabilities such as requirements to the best interoperability, serving as the automated feature extraction, available sources or collection foundation for the Common pattern recognition, automated systems. Operational Picture (COP) and change detection, and providing users in the military automated search and retrieval Worldwide Collaboration services, civil agencies, and have proven useful in and Value-Adding allied forces a common maximizing the use of valuable Digital data is the common geospatial framework for human analysts. These currency of information in conducting joint, interagency, advanced capabilities offer the all-digital environment of and coalition operations. great potential to enable the the twenty-first century. Digital geospatial intelligence limited analytic assets of NIMA The NSGI digital information can be accessed by our and the NSGI to better manage infrastructure provides consumers in a wide range of the enormous volume of data connectivity among NIMA and forms according to their needs collected by our worldwide its collaborative partners and and can be tailored by the intelligence collection system. accessibility to geospatial analyst to meet their unique intelligence consumers from operational requirements. Managing Complex the national to the tactical Used in conjunction with Collection Strategies level. Digital geospatial Global Positioning System Networked, distributed intelligence products can be (GPS) navigation and data processing and digital rapidly shared and guidance technology, our visualization capabilities manipulated by others in a digital products are provide new tools for virtual collaborative increasingly actionable, managing complex imagery environment, with various allowing rapid sensor-to- and multidisciplinary players adding value by shooter dissemination and collection strategies. Using digitally overlaying thematic integration. Digital advanced tasking and information from multiple information technology collection management tools sources. provides the flexibility to to dynamically simulate produce potential collection scenarios, geospatial collection managers can more intelligence in a effectively leverage the wide range of expanding range of available forms, improving data sources, to include its utility to emerging remote sensing intelligence platforms and sensors as well consumers. as the growing capabilities of commercial data providers. Collaborative networks convey information about collection postures and about

Advanced Collection Management Tools

14 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP Remote Sensing capabilities provide our nation Capabilities an unprecedented ability to understand the global security The discipline of geospatial situation through remote intelligence unites a broad sensing. range of evolving and emerging remote sensing Reconnaissance Satellites capabilities, including The clandestine traditional imagery systems; reconnaissance satellites sources associated with operated by the National geodetic, gravimetric, Reconnaissance Office (NRO) geomagnetic, and hydrographic provide the most advanced surveying; and imagery-derived imagery collection capability in MASINT systems. Our ability the world. With a range of Commercial Imagery classified capabilities, these The commercial imagery Based on a common geospatial systems provide near-real-time industry is an important and temporal reference frame, medium- to high-resolution emerging data source for geospatial intelligence is a key imagery to support analysis of geospatial intelligence producers. With growing to interoperability. area and point targets and digital geospatial production. capacity in both satellite and Reconnaissance satellites airborne imagery collection, to effectively leverage these provide the regular imagery of commercial providers are able capabilities is growing denied areas that is essential to produce a greater share of appreciably as they are for our most demanding the data needed to support integrated more fully into the national security requirements. non-time-dominant low and NSGI architecture, allowing The next generation of imagery medium-resolution imagery more integrated collection satellites, the Future Imagery needs for applications such as management and data analysis. Architecture (FIA), is now in geospatial production. The A growing range of collection development and will offer high-resolution commercial platforms and sources is evolutionary improvements in imagery now available improving our access to targets our coverage and sensor provides an important and increasing our ability to capabilities as it is deployed. advantage in multinational conduct persistent , coalition operations, as it can to obtain broad area coverage, Airborne Platforms be shared with allies without and to more effectively employ Airborne imagery collection compromising the capabilities national collection capabilities. platforms, including Unmanned and operating characteristics of The NSGI leverages all Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), provide U.S. reconnaissance systems. available sources, whether persistent and responsive government or commercial; coverage of high-interest target space-based, airborne, areas and offer a variety of seagoing, or ground-based. sensor capabilities. Emerging Sensor advances are expanding high-endurance UAVs are our use of the electromagnetic dramatically improving our spectrum and other physical ability to conduct persistent phenomena, improving our surveillance of high-interest ability to counter denial and targets and support time-critical deception measures, to strike operations. A wide range conduct surveillance and track of airborne platforms is moving targets, to precisely operated by strategic, ARQ-1 Global Hawk UAV measure terrain features, and operational, and tactical to remotely characterize commands as well as by civil materials and substances. agencies.

CHAPTER III GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCE in defeating camouflage, imagery from an endurance characterizing foliage, platform, analysts can monitor assessing crop yields, high-interest activities in the and analyzing coastal mission space, to include tracking moving, fleeting, and emerging targets and observance of rapidly developing events as they occur. Motion imagery provides increased resolution in the time domain, offering combatant commanders and civil authorities a level of situational understanding of hydrography. dynamic events that far Emerging surpasses what is possible with hyperspectral single-frame imagery. and ultraspectral Active Sensing imagery capabilities Technologies provide new tools, A growing range of active allowing analysts to sensing capabilities that characterize substances includes Synthetic Aperture in effluent flows and Radar (SAR) and laser imaging smoke plumes, distinguish between real Imagery- aircraft and inflatable decoys, Derived identify material properties of MASINT new weapons systems, and detect vehicles based on their Spectral Imagery unique paint signatures. Expanding our use of the electromagnetic spectrum, we Motion Imagery are dramatically increasing our The emergence of motion ability to defeat denial and imagery sensors, such as the deception and understand real-time video capability of developments in the national the Predator UAV system, security situation. has provided a valuable Panchromatic imagery, new tool for persistent both electro-optical and LIDAR Image of World Trade Cente film-based, has been Debris Field the mainstay for Imagery Intelligence systems serves as a powerful (IMINT) for years and complement to spectral imagery. continues to be our SAR is useful in countering denial most important source. and deception and essential for Infrared imagery imaging in weather and lighting enables analysts to conditions that prohibit optical detect and identify collection. SAR can also be used activity based on to provide a Moving Target thermal signatures. Indicator capability for the Multispectral imagery UAV Motion Imagery detection and tracking of mobile

16 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP technologies like Light Advances in geodetic and to be precisely positioned Detection and Ranging geophysical remote sensing anywhere on the globe. These (LIDAR) and Interferometric are enabling analysts to geophysical sensing SAR (IFSAR), integrated into characterize the Earth in capabilities provide new airborne or space-based unique ways. Gravimetric dimensions of knowledge platforms, enable us to sensors residing on airborne about the mission space, characterize the Earth's surface platforms, satellite systems, enabling production of tailored elevation and hydrography and survey ships measure geospatial intelligence to give with unprecedented speed changes in the Earth’s gravity U.S. policymakers, warfighters, and precision. Airborne field for a variety of and civil agencies a unique LIDAR is increasingly applications, from long- information advantage. ❏ supplanting the Navy's wavelength global mapping oceangoing research vessels, to detailed analysis of increasing by orders of underground features. magnitude our ability to collect New satellite systems are precise hydrographic survey collecting precise geomagnetic data over large areas. LIDAR data for developing and IFSAR systems have made world magnetic possible the production of models. GPS high-resolution digital technologies have elevation data on a large scale. revolutionized Such data can be used to the collection generate highly detailed, of geophysical accurate three-dimensional and geodetic models of structures and survey data by terrain for detailed operational allowing a wide planning and mission range of sensors, rehearsal. including radar,

CHAPTER III GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCE With respect to collaboration and fusion of the various collection disciplines, or INTs, the Commission believes that NIMA should hold a premier place because it ‘owns’ the geospatial construct. NIMA provides the logical context for fusion of Signals Intelligence (SIGINT), especially Electronic Intelligence (ELINT), with imagery. Report of the Independent Commission on NIMA

Breaking the superiority for an expanded long-established precedent of Stovepipes base of operational users maps and charts as a basis for The emergence of against adversaries who are intelligence fusion, geospatial geospatial intelligence as a growing increasingly intelligence provides new cohesive, integrated discipline sophisticated in their own approaches for multidisciplinary has fundamentally altered the intelligence and denial and collaboration, both in the way imagery and geospatial deception capabilities. collection and distribution of specialists contribute to the Overcoming this challenge intelligence source data and in overall mission of the requires us to break some the analysis and production of Intelligence Community. of the barriers to information fused, finished intelligence. The series of consolidations sharing—the stovepipes—that that ultimately resulted in limit interoperability and Collaborative Source the establishment of NIMA in cooperation among the Data Collection and 1996 provided the community intelligence disciplines. It Distribution a center of excellence for the means more closely integrating A key concept for rapid, imagery and geospatial multiple data streams, multi-source integration is tradecrafts and an environment leveraging all of our collection to conduct collaboration conducive to the development and production capabilities, and information sharing among intelligence producers of innovative new concepts. while simultaneously as far upstream in the Geospatial intelligence is accelerating cycle times for intelligence cycle as possible. emerging as a better, stronger producing usable, finished Collaboration in the collection partner among the intelligence intelligence. and distribution of source data disciplines, speaking with one shortens the collection voice and equipped to play a Geospatial intelligence stovepipes, allowing early more substantial role in offers great promise to facilitate information sharing and solving the problems facing unprecedented collaboration concurrent processing and the Intelligence Community. and rapid fusion of information analysis of data by intelligence producers in multiple from multiple intelligence disciplines and at multiple The major challenge for sources and producers in the echelons. the Intelligence Community emerging all-digital today is to provide information environment. Building on the

18 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP purposes and according to their own timelines. A Collaborative Medium for Intelligence Fusion The use of a geospatial construct as the foundation for fusing intelligence from many sources is nothing new. Maps and charts have always provided the foundation for visualizing and understanding the adversary and the Multi-Sensor Collection Strategy environment. Historically, analysts Multidisciplinary cooperative collection methods have used overlays Collection Strategies leverage the full range of superimposed on paper maps Cooperation among intelligence sources, whether and charts to display and track Imagery Intelligence (IMINT), space-based, airborne, or friendly and enemy orders of SIGINT, Human Intelligence ground-based and at all battle, analyze military aspects (HUMINT), and Measurement echelons, national, theater, of terrain, and project possible and Signals Intelligence and tactical. adversary courses of action. (MASINT) collection Sand-table models of requirements managers has Source Data Posting for battlefields have long been become increasingly important Concurrent Exploitation used for visualizing and as our adversaries seek to use An emerging geospatial rehearsing combat operations. mobility, denial, and deception intelligence business model This fundamental role of to conceal their activities. expedites distribution of newly geospatial information is a key Cooperative, multidisciplinary collected imagery and other principle of Intelligence collection strategies play an geospatial intelligence source Preparation of the Battlespace important role in time-sensitive data to analysts throughout the (IPB) methodology. targeting and defeating denial Intelligence Community, A geospatial foundation is and deception. Tipoffs by a enabling concurrent simply the most useful particular type of sensor or exploitation at multiple medium for integrating source are increasingly used to echelons. In a shift from the intelligence information from cue collection by other means, traditional business model of multiple sources. with SIGINT sensors triggering task-process-exploit dynamic IMINT retasking and disseminate (TPED) to a new model of task-post- vice-versa. Developments in The geospatial intelligence technical architectures are process-use (TPPU), all newly construct is the best medium improving our capabilities to collected data is posted conduct simultaneous same- immediately to shared for visualization of many target collection by multiple databases rather than delaying intelligence problems, collectors and sensors. This distribution until the data has regardless of the source of synchronization in the tasking been exploited. With the information. phase allows concurrent, immediate posting, imagery rather than serial, collection, and other source data from processing, and exploitation of collectors at any echelon can multi-source data, accelerating be made available to be overall production timelines simultaneously exploited for multidisciplinary by national agency, unified intelligence. These command, and tactical unit

CHAPTER IV GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCE Digital technologies have intelligence information on a Emerging Approaches dramatically increased the common geospatial to Intelligence Fusion collaborative power of framework. Precisely geo- geospatial intelligence in two referenced and time stamped Geospatial intelligence important ways. First, they data from multiple sources can producers and their partners in have restored the geospatial be accurately plotted on a two other intelligence disciplines specialist as a collaborative or three-dimensional visual are increasingly turning to partner in multidisciplinary representation of the mission alternative models for the intelligence production. space. As new data is fusion of multi-source and Because maps and charts have collected and analyzed, it can multidisciplinary intelligence historically been produced in be added to the picture, information that better meet mass quantities as finished automatically referenced to the the demanding requirements goods, the role of the common geospatial and of operational users. In mapmakers and chart makers temporal framework. The use addition to the traditional in the overall intelligence of digital geospatial all-source analysis model, effort has been easily information as the common where an all-source analyst overlooked. Near-real-time framework means that the integrates single-source digital remote sensing and work of these far-flung intelligence products from networked data processing collaborators can be easily, many producers into finished systems are changing that, rapidly, and precisely intelligence, the community is enabling geospatial specialists integrated into a single picture, employing more collaborative to be fully engaged as with each analyst or collector approaches to multi-source collaborative partners in the providing and updating a fusion. fusion process. separate layer of information as new data becomes Multidisciplinary Analyst Teams Second, these technologies available. Increasingly, we are relying have enabled the emergence upon multidisciplinary teams of digital geospatial of intelligence analysts to solve information as a powerful hard intelligence problems, collaborative medium. The defeat , evolution from paper maps and track and fix mobile and intelligence reports to targets. Multidisciplinary cells networked digital of imagery analysts and information systems cryptologists, for example, makes it possible have been particularly for intelligence successful, and partnerships analysts and among other disciplines are collectors in growing. By bringing geographically together specialists from dispersed multiple disciplines, along locations to with their unique tradecrafts collaborate in and toolsets, in an interactive virtual environment, we are better networks, able to apply the full range of overlaying our intelligence capabilities. multiple Multidisciplinary intelligence layers of teams have made great

Fusion in Four Dimensions

20 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP progress in reducing the tremendous value to our own Leveraging our common intelligence production cycle source data when fused in the geospatial and temporal times typically associated with digital, visual medium of framework as a collaborative the traditional, serial all-source geospatial intelligence. medium, engaging our analysis model by working Geospatial intelligence partners interactively, and concurrently to produce an tradecraft and tools have taking advantage of digital integrated product from proven valuable in the analysis networks and tools, we are the start. of information obtained from making tremendous progress these collateral sources, in accelerating the speed of Fused Geospatial providing unique insight into multi-disciplinary intelligence. Intelligence spatial aspects of the data. Multidisciplinary intelligence Information from multiple When fused into finished collaboration brings to bear sources can also be integrated geospatial intelligence, these the full capability of the into fused, finished geospatial sources add important Intelligence Community to intelligence products. While dimensions to analysis of the reduce uncertainty, compress IMINT has traditionally been mission space, resulting in a our intelligence cycle our primary data source, other more complete picture for timelines, and provide collection disciplines provide intelligence consumers. unprecedented knowledge essential information about the of the global security mission space not otherwise Through these environment. ❏ available. Information collaborative multidisciplinary obtained from HUMINT approaches, geospatial sources, such as architectural intelligence producers are drawings, or SIGINT sources, playing a much more such as the location of radar or significant role in the communications emitters, adds Intelligence Community.

CHAPTER IV GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCE We must transform our intelligence capabilities and build new ones to keep pace with the nature of the threats. Intelligence must be appropriately integrated with our defense and law enforcement systems and coordinated with our allies and friends. We need to protect the capabilities we have so that we do not arm our enemies with the knowledge of how best to surprise us. National Security Strategy

As we move forward and beyond this time of dramatic change, geospatial intelligence will continue to face new challenges and new opportunities. The National Security Strategy, Joint Vision 2010, Joint Vision 2020, and the Strategic Intent for the U.S. Intelligence Community outline a vision for our national security in this new era that requires significant geospatial intelligence capabilities that do not to American interests both at yet exist. home and abroad, NIMA and the National System for The evolving threat Geospatial Intelligence (NSGI) environment confronts us with will adapt to support this new challenges. Our mission changing mission. in the Global War on Terrorism requires us to be engaged in Advances in technology for customers of geospatial new ways and with new will continue to provide us intelligence to access and customers. As our nation opportunities to incorporate visualize our collective base of responds to the terrorist threat new sources of data, new trusted knowledge. Our capabilities for processing and national security in this integrating data, and new ways information age requires from us the capacity to be flexible and adaptable in employing these new technologies, supporting a growing base of customers against current and emerging threats.

22 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP Geospatial Intelligence Environment. We will most timely, relevant, and Online migrate our processes, accurate online content systems, and tools to an possible. We will provide Fully realizing the vision of all-digital, data-centric customers what they need NIMA’s founders—a seamless environment, beginning when they need it, integration of our imagery and with significant anticipating their future geospatial capabilities from the improvements to our information needs. national to the tactical levels— infrastructure. Our requires us to complete the networks, systems, • Ubiquitous Knowledge transformation that began with applications, and databases Map. We will provide the NIMA’s creation. must be integrated so that ubiquitous knowledge the needed content can map, the foundation of This transformation is be quickly retrieved and the Common Operational comprehensive, affecting every delivered electronically. Picture (COP), on which aspect of NIMA and the NSGI. Migration to this integrated other forms of information Its objective is a future state digital environment will be can be overlaid. This that will enable us to the key to future comprehensive, guarantee information collaboration and geospatially referenced superiority for our national interoperability, providing database links our base of security in the digital age. In accessibility to users and intelligence knowledge to that state, we will be partners worldwide, a precise, digital model of increasingly interoperable and facilitating dynamic the Earth, enabling the adaptable, responding more updates to our knowledge COP to serve as a rapidly to changing world base, and accelerating powerful, intuitive medium conditions. We will make our processes. through which we can capabilities that today seem collaborate with our exotic more widely available, • A Seamless, partners and our customers less expensive, and more Comprehensive can better visualize the timely. This future state is E-Business Strategy. mission space. defined by four characteristics: We will embrace comprehensive e-business • Geospatial Intelligence Analysis. We will fully integrate the processes, products, and tools of imagery analysts and geospatial specialists, while maintaining the advanced capabilities of each specialty. The complete integration of our discipline will enable us to apply our tradecraft to provide more predictive analysis and place more emphasis on decision support intelligence.

Geospatial Intelligence: The Future Foundation of the COP

CHAPTER V GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCE of understanding. collaboration in this new all- The convergence of our digital environment. As a nation’s imagery and Our integrated discipline robust partner to our geospatial capabilities is an unites a broad range of counterparts in the community, imperative of the current evolving and emerging we are working to break the era, made necessary by the information processing and stovepipes that limit challenges of the changing remote sensing capabilities, collaboration and information national security environment providing a comprehensive set sharing, both among the and the emerging concepts of of tools for characterizing the disciplines and across multiple warfare, and made possible by security situation. This echelons. Geospatial the revolution in information convergence enables us to intelligence revitalizes the long technology. The demands leverage an expanded set of history of maps and charts as of the current global powerful analytical tools, the critical tools of the environment require a robust bringing together capabilities intelligence trade, providing a ability to provide a growing such as the power of powerful medium that enables set of intelligence consumers a Geographic Information faster, more responsive fully integrated visual picture Systems for organizing and processes for multidisciplinary of the security situation. accessing information and the intelligence fusion. enhanced perception made Geospatial intelligence is a possible by Measurement and We will continue to work to unique intelligence discipline, Signals Intelligence processing fulfill the vision of NIMA’s defined by its analytical techniques. We are able to founders as we build the future methods and its fundamental integrate a growing range of National System for Geospatial spatial and temporal nature. data sources, including Intelligence architecture, It unifies our imagery and national, theater, tactical, and translating concepts into geospatial tradecrafts, commercial data providers, capabilities. Our goal is a capitalizing on our abilities expanding both our access to future state that provides both to precisely model the targets and our use of the geospatial intelligence online, Earth and to obtain detailed electromagnetic spectrum and taking advantage of the full and dynamic understanding other physical phenomena to potential of our geospatial of world events through provide new dimensions of intelligence tradecrafts, remote sensing. Through knowledge about the national leveraging an all-digital greater interaction between the security situation. infrastructure, harnessing the imagery and geospatial best practices of e-business, specialties, enabled by The emergence of and using the visual power of increasingly common geospatial intelligence has the evolving COP to provide processes and tools and a new given new significance to the our customers the knowledge emphasis on integrated teams, role of our discipline in the advantage for decision, ❏ we are expanding our Intelligence Community, planning, and action. tradecraft beyond old offering promise as the boundaries to help our foundation for

24 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP CHAPTER GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCE Official References

National Security Strategy of the United States of America, 2002

National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2002

Quadrennial Defense Review Report, 2001

Director of Central Intelligence Strategic Intent for the United States Intelligence Community, March 1999

Joint Vision 2010

Joint Vision 2020, June 2000

Joint Publication 2-0, Doctrine for Intelligence Support to Joint Operations, March 2000

Joint Publication 2-01, Joint Intelligence Support to Military Operations, November 1996

Joint Publication 2-01.1, JTTP for Intelligence Support to Targeting, April 2002

Joint Publication 2-01.3, JTTP for Joint Intelligence Preparation of the Battlespace, March 2000

Joint Publication 2-02, National Intelligence Support to Joint Operations, September 1998

Joint Publication 2-03, JTTP for Geospatial Information and Services Support to Joint Operations

Joint Publication 6-0, Doctrine for Command, Control, Computer, and Communications Support to Joint Operations, May 1995

United States Imagery and Geospatial Information Service (USIGS) Glossary

NIMA Statement of Strategic Intent, January 2002

The Information Edge: Imagery Intelligence and Geospatial Information in an Evolving National Security Environment, Report of the Independent Commission on the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, December 2000

Transforming NIMA Through People, Process and Technology, NETIPT Final Report, September 2002

United States Imagery and Geospatial Information Service (USIGS) CONOPS, December 2000

Multi-INT CONOPS (Draft)

USIGS Geospatial Transformation Plan, August 2001

Unofficial References

Best Truth: Intelligence in the Information Age, Bruce D. Berkowitz and Allan E. Goodman, 2000

The Craft of Intelligence, Allen Dulles, 1963

Strategic Intelligence for American World Policy, Sherman Kent, 1965

26 | GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CAPSTONE CONCEPT CHAP